Notes-in-research.docx

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH (Res 1) I.

Nature and Scope of Educational Research 1.1.

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Research is a scientific investigation of phenomenon which includes collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of facts that links man’s speculation with reality (Calderon & Gonzales). A purposive, scientific investigation of a systematic process of gathering, presenting & interpreting data for the solution of a problem, for prediction, for invention, for the discovery of truth, or for the verification of existing knowledge, all for the preservation of human life (Calmorin). Research is but one way to obtain knowledge but there are other ways: Sensory Experience, Agreement with Others, Expert Opinion, Logic, Scientific Method, 1.2.

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Definition of Research

Goals, Purposes, Importance and Characteristics of Research

The goal of research is to preserve and improve the quality of human life. Likewise, its purpose is to serve man. Specific Purposes and Goals of Research 1. To discover new facts about known phenomenon. (Alcohol is a known phenomenon and research may turn it into a kind of fuel equal in quality with gasoline) 2. To find answer to problems which are only partially solved by existing methods and information. (Cancer is a serious disease which is only partially cured by present methods but due to intensive and continuous research, the disease may be eradicated later on) 3. Improve existing techniques and develop new instruments or products. 4. To provide basis for decision- making in business, industry, education, government, and in other undertakings. 5. To promote health and prolong life.

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Importance of Research (Calmorin) a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

To provide information Improves the quality of life Improves instruction Improves student’s achievement Satisfies man’s needs Reduces the burden of work Deep –seated psychological aspects

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Characteristics of Research 1. Empirical. It is based on direct experience or observation, the collection of data relies on practical experience without benefit of scientific knowledge or theory. 2. Logical. It is based on valid procedures and principles. Scientific investigation is done in an orderly manner. 3. Cyclical. It starts with a problem and ends with a problem. In the recommendation many problem will crop up as other subjects for study, hence the cycle is repeated. 4. Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering data. 5. Replicability. It’s designs and procedures are replicated to enable the researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results. The more replications of researches , the more valid and conclusive the results would be. 6. Critical. Exhibits careful and precise judgment. A higher level of confidence must be established , i.e. at 1.0 percent or 5.0 percent.

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Characteristics of Research by Best and Kann(1989) as cited by Ardales (2001) 1. 2.

Research is directed toward the solution of a problem Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will be helpful in predicting future occurrence. 3. Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence. 4. Research demands accurate observation and description. 5. Research involves gathering new data from primary or firsthand sources using existing data for a new purpose. 6. Although research activity may at times somewhat random or unsystematic, it is more often characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous analysis. 7. Research requires expertise. 8. Research tries to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the procedures employed, the data collected and the conclusions reached. 9. Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems. 10. Research is characterized by patience and unhurried activity. 11. Research is carefully recorded and reported. 12. Research requires courage. 1.3.

Research and Problem Solving

Research 1. There may not be a problem only interest in answering a question or query. 2. A research problem is more rigorous and broader in scope

Problem-solving 1. There is always a problem to be solved.

3. The research problem is not necessarily defined specifically. 4. All research is intended to solve some kind of problem, but this is not the primary aim. 5. Research is conducted not primarily to solve a problem but to make a contribution to general knowledge. 6. Research is concerned with broad problems, recurrent phenomena, and wide application through generalization.

3. The problem to be solved has to be defined specifically and identified definitely. 4. Problem-solving does not always involve research.

2. A problem to be solved is less rigorous and less broad.

5. Problem-solving is always intended to solve a problem. 6. Problem-solving is concerned with a specific problem and once the problem is solved that is the end of it.

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1.4. Research Classification General Classification of Research a. Pure Research - “basic research”, fundamental research, theoretical research - discover basic truth or principles - add to the body of scientific knowledge - knowledge without any particular thought as to immediate practical utility. - Ex. Newton’s Law, Boyle’s Law etc. b. Applied Research - involves seeking new application of scientific knowledge to the solution of a problem. ex. Products of genetic engineering, biotechnology, discovery of Lactobacillus plantarum food drink. c. Action Research - decision oriented research involving the application of the steps of scientific method in response to an immediate need to improve existing practices. - Ex. Use of traditional method in teaching could be improved by using cooperative learning. By Calmorin pp.11-12 Kinds and classification of Research a. According to Purpose 1. predictive or prognostic - has the purpose of determining the future operation of the variables under investigation. 2. directive research - done based on the findings to remedy unsatisfactory condition if there is any. 3. illuminative research b. According to Goal 1. basic or pure research 2. applied research c. According to Level of Investigation 1. exploratory research - studies the variables pertinent to a specific situation 2. descriptive - studies the relationships of the variables. 3. experimental - studies the effects of the variables on each other d. According to the Type of Analysis 1. analytic approach– the researcher attempts to identify and isolate the components of the research situation 2. holistic approach e. According to Scope 1. action f. According to Choice of Answers to Problems 1. evaluative 2. developmental g. According to Statistical Content a. quantitative or statistical – which inferential statistics are utilized to determine the results of the study b. non – quantitative – descriptive data are gathered rather than quantitative data h. According to Time Element (Calderon pp. 11-13) a. Historical – describes what was b. Descriptive – describes what is c. Experimental – describes what will be  are the major research method according to area of field activity i. According to place of study

a. Library research – done in the library where answers to the specific questions or problems of the study are available. Historical research makes use of the library as well as archeological findings. b. Field research –conducted in a natural setting . No changes are made in the environment. It is applicable to descriptive survey and experimental method c. Laboratory research – is conducted in artificial or controlled conditions by isolating the study in a rigorously specified and operationalized area.

1.5.

Hindrances to Research

a. Tradition. This is accepting that customs, beliefs, practices, and superstitious are true and are parts of the daily lives of men. b. Authority. This is accepting without question, an opinion about a certain subject which is given by someone who is considered an authority on the subject. c. Inaccurate observation. This is describing wrongly what is actually observed. d. Overgeneralization. This is establishing a pattern out of a few instances. e. Selective observation. This is persisting to believe an observed pattern from an overgeneralization and ignoring other pertinent patterns. f. Made-up information. This making up information explains away confusion. g. Illogical reasoning. This is attributing to some thing to another without any logical basis. h. Ego-involvement in understanding. This is giving an explanation when one finds himself in an unfavorable situation. i. Mystification. This attributing to supernatural power, the phenomenon that cannot be understood. j. To err is human. This is an attitude that admits the fallibility of man. k. Dogmatism. This is an unwritten policy of certain institutions and government prohibiting the study of topics that are believed to run counter to the established doctrines of such institutions or governments. 1.6. 

The Researcher

Qualities Needed by a Researcher a. b. c. d.

Intellectual Curiosity Prudence Healthy Criticism Intellectual Honesty Acronym-

RESEARCHER

R-Research Oriented E- Effective S- Scientific E- Efficient A- Active R- Religious C- Creative H- Honest E- Economical R- Resourceful By

Calmorin pp.1-2

II. The Research Problem 

Research Problem and Its Attendant Qualifications a. Characteristics of a good research problem 1. It must be relevant.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

It must be within the researcher’s interest and capabilities. It must be clear, specific & attainable within a given period of time. Information should be available. Should not be harmful to the people and society New Provide information for planning , development and legislation by Bhagwani p. 7 SMART - specific, measurable, achievable, realistic & time-bounded by Calmorin p. 25

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Sources of a Research Problem 1. When there is a dissatisfaction of services and information 2. Problems maybe encountered in the classroom or at work. 3. Breakthroughs in science and technology may present unexpected problem 4. Research thrusts and priorities of certain organization. 5. Misconceptions on culture. By Bhagwani p.7 6. Man’s major problems. 7. His specialization. 8. Methods of teaching 9. Existing and past researches 10. Theses, dissertations, research journals by Calmorin pp. 25-26

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Criteria of a Good Research Problem 1. Interesting 2. Relevant to the needs of the people 3. Innovative 4. Cost effective - The 4m’s - man, money, material , machinery 5. Measurable and time bounded By Calmorin pp. 26-27

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Guidelines in the Selection of a Research Problem or Topic 1. Must be chosen by the researcher himself. 2. Must be within the interest of the researcher. 3. Must be specialization of the researcher. 4. Must be the competence of the researcher to tackle. 5. Must be the ability of the researcher to finance, otherwise he must be able to find funding for his research. 6. Must be researchable and manageable , that is, Data are available and accessible; a. Data must meet the standards of accuracy, objectivity and verifiability; b. Answers to the specific questions can be found; c. The hypotheses formulated are testable, that is, they can be accepted or rejected; and d. Equipment and instruments for research are available and can give valid and reliable results. 7. It can be completed within a reasonable period of time . 8. It is significant, important, and relevant to the present time and situation, timely, and current interest. 9. Results are practical and implement able 10. It requires original, critical, and reflective thinking so to solve it. 11. It must be delimited to suit the resources of the researcher but big or large enough to be able to give significant, valid, and reliable results an generalizations. 12. It must contribute to the national development goals for the improvement of the quality of human life. 13. It must contribute to the fund of human knowledge 14. It must show solutions of the problem.

15. It must not undermine the moral and spiritual values of the people 16. It must not advocate any change in the present order of things by means of violence but by peaceful means. 17. There must be a return of some kind to the researcher, either one or all of the following, if the research report is completed: a. Monetary, either increase n salary or publication of the results in which there is some kind of loyalty. b. Advancement in position or promotion. c. Improved specialization, competence, and skill in professional work especially if the research subject is related to the profession. By Calderon pp.22 -26 

Elements of a Research Problem 1. Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation. Answer the question “why?” Why is there an investigation, inquiry or study 2. The subject matter or topic to be investigated. Answer the question what?” What is to be investigated? 3. The place or locale where the researcher is to be conducted. Answer the question “Where?” Where is the study to be conducted? 4. The period or time of the study during which the data are to be gathered. This answer the question “When?” When is the study to be carried out? 5. Population or universe from whom the data are to be collected. This answers the question “Who?” or “From Whom?” Who are the respondents? From whom are the data to be gathered?

Example

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: To determine the status of teaching Mathematics in the high schools of BISU campuses during the school year 2012-2013 Aim or purpose : To determine the status of Subject matter or topic: The teaching of Mathematics Environment : In the high schools of BISU Campuses Period of time : During the school year 2012-2013 Population : The respondents are implied to be either the teachers or the students or both Guidelines in Writing the Statement of the Problem 1.

The problem of the study should be stated both in general and specific terms. The general statement of the problem is usually a reiteration of the title of the study. Briefly pointing out the objectives, the subject and the coverage as well as the time frame Example : This study aims to investigate the academic status of BISU-CTE students during the School Year 2012-2013 as perceived by the teachers.

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The problem must always in an interrogatory form, hence it must ask questions. However if the study is experimental, it is advisable to state it in the declarative form. Sub-problems must follow the main problem and includes the possible components.

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The problem should be stated in the infinitive to(action words in research) such as examine, analyze, determine, measure, ascertain, assess, evaluate, recommend, find out, among others; setting 4-5 research objectives is ideal for a research problem. Specific questions should be stated using the following question words: “How,” “Will,” “What,” “Is there,”.. The statement of the problem must be brief, clear, specific and relevant.

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Example of Sub-problems Level 1. These questions are usually used in descriptive researches. They usually start with “what” and are exploratory in nature. Example: What are some of the problems encountered by state universities and colleges of Region 7 in the implementation of production? Level 2. Level 2 questions ask relationships or differences between independent and dependent variables. Examples: 1. Is there a significant correlation between the level of students’ math anxiety and academic achievement in Algebra? 2. Is there a significant difference between the groups of respondents on their extent of involvement in the implementation of the Mathematics extension activity? Level 3. Level 3 research questions are usually stated in “why” and “how” questions. Examples: 1. How effective is the use of multimedia in teaching Geometry in BISU-Candijay Campus? 2. To what extent do teachers manifest the degree of seriousness of problems encountered in the use of instructional materials in teaching Mathematics? 3. As perceived by peers, superior, and students, how effective are the methods and strategies used by the respondents in teaching Mathematics as to degree of: 2.1. Appropriateness; 2.2. Difficulty; and, 2.3. Recentness?

Here are some research questions. Which ones (if any) do you think are researchable? Or non researchable? 1. Is God good? 2. Are children happier when taught by a teacher of the same gender? 3. Is there allocated budget for the operation of the program as perceived by the respondents? 4. Does high school achievement influence the academic achievement of university students? 5. What is the best way to teach grammar? 6. What would schools be like today if World War II had not occurred? 7. How many microscopes are present in the laboratory as perceived by the respondents? THE PROBLEM State of the Problem This study aimed to determine the effect of the mastery learning model on the success level of the students who were exposed to peer tutoring, collaborative learning and personalized teaching of the students of the College of Teacher Education of the Bohol Island State University during the second semester of the academic year 2011-2012. Specifically, this study sought to answer the following questions: 1. What is the profile of the respondents in terms of: 1.1. School Ability Test Scores 1.1.1. Otis-Linon Standardized Aptitude Test, 1.2. Academic achievement in Mathematics 1.2.1. before the experimental period; 1.2.2. after the experimental period, 1.3. Affective outcomes in Mathematics 1.3.1. Before the experimental period; 1.3.2. After the experimental period, 1.4. Math teacher during the semester? 2. Is there a significant difference between the mean score of the control and experimental group before the experimental period? 3. Is the mean score of the experimental group significantly higher than the mean score of the control group after the experimental period? THE PROBLEM Statement of the Problem The main purpose of the study was to determine the students’ attitude and anxiety towards mathematics in relation to their academic achievement of Tambongan High School during the school year 2012-2013. Specifically, it aims to answer the following queries: 1. What is the profile of the respondents in terms of: 1.1 age; 1.2 gender; 1.3 students’ attitude towards mathematics; 1.4 level of anxiety; and 1.5 academic performance? 2. Is there a significant degree of relationship between the students’ attitude towards mathematics and their performance of the subject? 3. Is there a significant degree of relationship between the level of math anxiety of the students and their academic achievement in mathematics? III.

Ethics and Research  Intellectual Property

R.A. 8293 or the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines. In the Philippines, this is an act prescribing the intellectual property code and establishing the intellectual property office, providing for its powers and functions, and for other purposes. This protects and secures the exclusive rights of scientists, inventors, artists and other gifted citizens to their intellectual property and creations, particularly when beneficial to the people (Part 1, section 2). Intellectual Property- property from original thought protected by law: original creative work manifested in a tangible form that can be legally protected, e.g. by a patent, trademark, or copyright (Encarta Dictionaries). Copyright Infringement- a crime committed by copying, owning or using an intellectual property product for personal benefits or any purposes without permission from the author. By virtue of R.A. 8293, Section 155. Remedies; Infringement. — Any person who shall, without the consent of the owner of the registered mark: 155.1. Use in commerce any reproduction, counterfeit, copy, or colorable imitation of a registered mark or the same container or a dominant feature thereof in connection with the sale, offering for sale, distribution, advertising of any goods or services including other preparatory steps necessary to carry out the sale of any goods or services on or in connection with which such use is likely to cause confusion, or to cause mistake, or to deceive; or 155.2. Reproduce, counterfeit, copy or colorably imitate a registered mark or a dominant feature thereof and apply such reproduction, counterfeit, copy or colorable imitation to labels, signs, prints, packages, wrappers, receptacles or advertisements intended to be used in commerce upon or in connection with the sale, offering for sale, distribution, or advertising of goods or services on or in connection with which such use is likely to cause confusion, or to cause mistake, or to deceive, shall be liable in a civil action for infringement by the registrant for the remedies hereinafter set forth: Provided, That the infringement takes place at the moment any of the acts stated in Subsection 155.1 or this subsection are committed regardless of whether there is actual sale of goods or services using the infringing material. (Sec. 22, R.A. No 166a) By virtue of R.A. 8293, Section 170. Penalties. — Independent of the civil and administrative sanctions imposed by law, a criminal penalty of imprisonment from two (2) years to five (5) years and a fine ranging from Fifty thousand pesos (P50,000) to Two hundred thousand pesos (P200,000), shall be imposed on any person who is found guilty of committing any of the acts mentioned in Section 155, Section 168 and Subsection 169.1. (Arts. 188 and 189, Revised Penal Code) Plagiarism- the process of copying another person’s idea or written work and claiming it as original (Encarta Dictionaries). - a lower form of copyright infringement. According to Meriam-Webster Online Dictionary, to “plagiarize” means  to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one’s own  to use (another’s production) without crediting the source  to commit literary theft  to present as new and original an idea or a product derived from an existing source Source: http://www.plagiarism.org/ In what way does a researcher or anybody commit plagiarism? 1. Print/Photocopy. Printing or photocopying Images/Statistics/Tables/Timelines from a source and pasting them to a project board. 2. Verbatim Plagiarism. Looking at the screen or at a book and copying the words directly into a presentation or report without even recognizing the author.

3. Using presentations. Using multimedia presentations for lecture purposes without prior permission from the author or speaker. Ex. of Intellectual Property Products: movies, software, music, computer games, books, articles, brand-names, trademarks, patented medicines, etc. How to avoid “plagiarism?” 1. Write only the idea expressed in the article by paraphrasing it. 2. Always recognize the author or source if the article is cited. 3. If possible, ask permission from the author to use his/her work. IV- Thesis Writing  Selecting and Constructing the Research Title 1. Generally, the title is formulated before the start of the research work. It may be revised and refined later if there is a need. 2. The title may contain the subject matter of the study, the locale o the study, the population involved, and the period when the data were gathered or will be gathered. 3. It must be broad enough to include all aspects of the subject matter studied or to be studied. Hence, the title indicates what is expected to be found inside the thesis report. 4. It must be as brief and concise as possible. It must comprise only twelve words. 5. Avoid using the terms “An analysis of,” “A Study of,” “An Investigation of,” and the like. All these things are understood to have been done or to be done when a research is conducted. 6. If the title contains more than one line, it must be written like an inverted pyramid, all words in capital letters and bold. 

Variables A quantity or a characteristic that has two or more mutually exclusive values of properties of object or people that can be classified, measured, or labeled in different ways. Numerical values or categories represent these quantities or characteristics. Types of Variables a. Independent variable - this is the stimulus variable which is chosen by the researcher to determine its relationship to an observed phenomena. - a variable that is manipulated to examine its impact on a dependent variable. - represent the treatments or the conditions that the researcher control to test their effects on some outcomes. - Also known as the treatment variable b. Dependent variable. - This is the response variable which is observed and measured to determine the effect of the independent variable c. Moderator variable. - This is a secondary or special type of independent variable chosen by the researcher to ascertain if it alters or modifies the relationships between the independent and dependent variables. d. Control variable - This is a variable controlled by the researcher in which the effects can be neutralized by eliminating or removing the variable. e. Intervening variable - This is a variable which interferes with the independent and dependent variables, but its effect can either strengthen or weaken the independent and dependent variable. f. Organismic variable - A variable which is pre-existing characteristics of the individuals understudy. It is not a variable that can be randomly assigned to individuals. The gender and the intelligence are examples of this.

g. Extraneous variable - A variable that is related to the dependent or independent variable that is not part of the experiments. - are independent variable that have not been controlled. By Calmorin pp. 14-16 Literature Background - has 4 parts: 1. Theoretical Background – theories which supports the research problem. Ex: Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural learning theory, Thorndike’s Connectionism, Skinner’s Operant Conditioning, etc. 2. Related Literature - any written materials such as book, journal, magazine, novel, poetry, yearbook, encyclopedia are considered as literature. 3. Related Studies - published and unpublished research studies are sources of materials that are included in this section. 4. Legal Bases - major sources: laws, department directives, such as circulars, orders, memoranda, serve as legal bases for the study, sources are arranged in a chronological order from past to present. 

Types of Sources 1. General references - indexes : w/c list the author, titles, places of publication of articles and other materials on education abstracts: give brief summary of various publications. 2. Primary sources - are publication in which individuals who do research report the results of their studies Ex. Journals 3. Secondary sources - are publications in which author describes the work of others. Ex. Textbooks, educational encyclopedia, research reviews, and yearbooks Why write Literature Background? 1.

Literature Background provides the researcher knowledge and background on the subject under study. 2. The background will enable the researcher to avoid duplicating what has been studied already. 3. If a study on the same topic has been conducted before, the review provides the researcher information about the aspects of the problem which have not been investigated before. 4. The researcher will be helped in developing various parts of his study such as definition of problem and terms, research design, sampling, and data gathering techniques. 5. Provides the researcher information of the weaknesses and problems of previous studies and some ideas on how to handle or avoid them in his own study. 6. Provides the researcher ideas on how to proceed with his own investigation. 7. In relational and exploratory study, provides the researcher bases in determining what variables are related with each other, the types of their relationship, and how to analyze and measure these relationships. 8. Provides findings and conclusions of past studies which the researcher may relate to his own findings and conclusions. 9. Studies reviewed will provide the researcher motivation and impetus that will provide the researcher motivation and impetus that will ensure a good progress toward the goal of completing his study. 10. A summary of the writings of recognized authorities and of previous researches provides evidence that the researcher is familiar with what is already known and what is still interested. 

The Research Methodology  Research Design Two Types: a. Qualitative Research Design: 1. Historical; 2. Ethnographic Study; 3. Case Study b. Quantitative Research Design: 1. Descriptive Research; 2. Correlational Research; 3. Experimental Research 

Types of Qualitative Research Design

1. Historical Design - History, involves a critical inquiry of the past. It aims to provide critical knowledge of past events that will help an individual to picture the whole truth. Knowledge of the past is the basis of the present and the future. Present and future conditions are accounted for or influenced by past occurrences. - It therefore, attempts to broaden our knowledge because it systematically collects, evaluates, describes and explains activities occurring in the past. However, events are often improperly recorded, evaluated and interpreted due to insufficiency of information and limitation of the investigator. - Historical research does not manipulate or control variables like experimental research does. 2. The Relevance of Historical Research to Education 1. To preserve information. 2. To document the rationale of existing conditions or situations. 3. Serve as means to promote understanding. People become more open to change if they are well informed. 4. It preserves the cultural heritage. 5. It is a basis of reform. 6. Helps individuals understand present educational practices and policies more fully. 7. It is a source of policies generated for the benefit of the majority. 3. Ethnographic Research Design - Ethnographic study is qualitative in nature. It aims to provide a holistic view of the problem. The instrument used in data-gathering is usually observation, interview and participation. The researcher utilizing this design must be skillful in evaluating information. He knows how to deal with people and adapts to the social atmosphere where the data can be found. Careful analyses should be made to come up with a comprehensive perspective of the problem. - Opinions should be validated to avoid suspicions that such a result is the product of the researcher’s wild imagination. Skills Needed by Ethnographic Researchers 1. Have a positive outlook in life. 2. Be aware of psychological, sociological, anthropological and historical research data. 3. Be flexible in dealing with people, especially with different ethnographic groups. 4. Interpret observations objectively. 4. Case Study Design It is closer to an ethnographic study because it uses the past and present to describe the future of the problem. It utilizes observations, interviews and examinations like the IQ or diagnostic test to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the problem. This serves as baseline data for the identification of treatment. Guidance counselors, psychologists, social workers, businessmen and psychiatrists to understand their students or clients in a particular situation commonly use this design. Calmorin and Calmorin (1998) state that a case study is not only limited to conditions of maladjustment. It also applies to well-adjusted individuals in well-organized communities. 5. Descriptive Designs The most commonly – used method of investigation in educational research because it is easier to conduct as compared to other designs. Sanchez (1998) explained that descriptive research includes all studies that purport to present facts concerning the nature and status of anything – a group of persons, a number of objects, a set of conditions, a class of events, a system of thought or any other kind of phenomena which one may wish to study. a. Descriptive- survey research design Results of a survey serve as a basis for establishing status, inferences, factors associated with data, and comparison of data with norms. The information obtained through the survey method

provides a reference point for analysis classification and evaluation. Almost all types of descriptive studies use the survey method. b. Descriptive-documentary The documentary method is used when data cannot be obtained through questionnaires or observation. For example, this is best demonstrated when researcher attempts to determine the relationship between the extent of socialization and academic performances of indigent students. The names and academic performances of indigent students can be obtained at the registrar’s office and the extent of socialization can therefore be determined through a descriptive survey with the use of questionnaires. 6. Correlational Research Designs Correlational research is sometimes known as associational research because it measures the extent or magnitude of association between two variables. This is another form of descriptive research because it only measures the existing relationships of variables. The difference however is when the major purpose of the study is to compare two important variables. 7. Causal- Comparative - involves selecting two or more groups that differ in a particular variable of interests and comparing them on another variable or variables. Attempts to determine the cause or consequences of differences that already exist between or among groups of individual 8. Experimental Design In experimental design, the researcher needs to explore the nature, characteristics, relationships and differences of one or more variables. The term “experiment” requires manipulation of variables to observe effects or results. This design describes what will be. It means that a researcher has to determine the effects of variables being manipulated together with the main objectives of the study. The main objectives of these are the dependent variables or output of the study. The factors that influence dependent variables are the independent variables. Is considered as the most powerful educational research because a researcher manipulates changes or alters the inputs or independent variables to see the effects on the dependent variables. It is the most commonly-used method to advance scientific knowledge. (Bhagwani, pp. 37-49) Experimental designs Experimental design is different from other research designs in relation to processing of data because a researchers needs to explore the nature, characteristics, relationships and differences of one or more variables to observe effects or results. This design describes what will be. It means that a researcher has to determine the effect of variables being manipulated together with the main objectives of the study. The main objectives of the study are the dependent variables or the output of the study. The factors that influence dependent variables are the independent variables. Experimental design is considered as the most powerful educational research because a researcher manipulates, changes or alters the inputs or independent variables to see the effect on the dependent variables. Travers (1978) believes that the experimental method has become the most commonly-used method to advance scientific knowledge. When a researcher looks into the effectiveness of the integrative approach to teaching mathematics, he divides the class into groups. Let’s say two groups. The first group will be exposed to the integrative approach in teaching which is the experimental group and the other group will be exposed to the usual or conventional approach. The conventional method is the control variable. In this process the researcher identifies the method of teaching is better in teaching mathematics. The achievement test results will be the deciding factor. In this example, the method of teaching is the treatment or independent variable while the achievement score of the students are the dependent variables. Thus, the achievement score of the students are attributable to the method of teaching used by the researcher. The process of eliciting information as to the

effective teaching method to be used in mathematics as called experimentation. Thus, it utilizes the experimental design. The validity and reliability of the output are dependent on the types of experimental design used by the researcher. There are two general types of experimental designs: the week and true experimental designs. The weak experimental design is subdivided into three, namely: one-shot case study, one-group pretest and posttest design, and static-group pretest-posttest design (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1994). These designs were considered week due to their inability to control other threats or factors that could influence the dependent variables. True experimental designs however, are more complex and rigid because they attempt to include or treat other factors that might influence dependent variables. In our example, the time, manner of grouping and venue of learning are factors that effects the achievements scores of respondents. Therefore, these are treated accordingly under the true experimental design to ensure greater validity and reliability of the output of the study. The commonly-used true-experimental design in research are classified into: a) Randomize posttest only, b) Randomized pretest-posttest control group, and, c) the Randomize Solomon four group designs. The Weak Experimental Designs 1. The One-Shot Case Study This design involves one group. The researcher employs the treatment and administers the posttest after the treatment. Let’s say in the mathematics class: The teacher researcher uses the cooperative learning strategy. After the employment of the treatment, the posttest is given. The scores of the students will be the basis for determining the magnitude of effectiveness of the cooperative learning strategy in teaching mathematics. 2. The One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design This design is similar to the one-shot case study; however the researcher administers the pretest before the treatment and the posttest after the treatment. 3. The Static-Group Pretest-Posttest Design This design involves two groups-the experimental and control groups. This design is better than the one-shot case study and one-group pretest and posttest design. Both groups receive separate treatments. Let’s say the experimental group will be exposed to the cooperative learning strategy the control group to the conventional lecture method. Both groups will be subjected to the pretest and posttest. The illustration is as follows:

O1 O3

X1 X2

O2 O4

Where: X1 = Experimental Group Treatment X2 = Control Group Treatment O1 = Pretest of the Experimental Group O2 = Posttest of the Experimental Group O3 = Pretest of the Control Group O4 = Posttest of the Control Group (not randomly formed)

Ex.: The cooperative learning strategy is a new approach to teaching. The absence of randomization done to the groups of respondents is the limitation of this design. The age, year level, grade point averages are among the possible factors that affect performance. True Experimental Designs 1. Randomized Posttest-Only Control Group Design This design nearly controls the reliability or consistency of the output. There are also two groups, similar to the static group pretest-posttest design. However the presence of randomization and the absence of the pretest make the difference. The absence of pretest is the limitation of the study. The pretest result will

describe if the two groups are equated or not. The randomization alone as the process of selecting participants is not enough to tell if the two groups are equal. R R

X1 X2

O1 O2

Where: X1 = Experimental Group Treatment X2 = Control Group Treatment 01 = Posttest of the Experimental 02 = Posttest of the Control Group R = Random Assignment

The absence of pretest is the limitation of the study. The pretest result will describe if the two groups are equated or not. The randomization alone as the process of selecting participants is not enough to tell if the two groups are equal. 2.

Randomized Pretest- Posttest Control Group Design The randomized Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design is similar to the Randomized posttest-Only Control Group Design when it comes to application. The only difference is the presence of a pretest before the employment of treatment. Pre-test results will tell if the two groups are equated. If the two groups are not equal, there is a tendency to come up with predictive results that reveal a significant difference between the performances of students exposed to two separate methods of teaching. Thus, the objective of identifying which method of teaching is more effective will not be realized. R R

O1 O3

X1 X2

O2 O4

Where: X1 = Experimental Group Treatment X2 = Control Group Treatment O1 = Pretest of the Experimental Group O2 = Posttest of the Experimental Group O3 = Pretest of the Control Group O4 = Posttest of the Control Group R = Random Assignment

3.

The Randomized Solomon Four-Group Design

This design is the most powerful among the other experimental designs. It involves four groups of respondents; two experimental groups and two control groups. Let’s say the researcher looks into the effectiveness of cooperative learning strategy in teaching mathematics: the researcher divides 100 students into four groups (1) Group A1; (2) Group A2; (3) Group B1; and (4) Group B2. Experimental group A1 will be subjected to pretest and posttest; experimental Group A2 will be having the posttest only. Control group B1 uses the conventional lecture method with pretest and posttest while control group B2 has the posttest only. Differences between the achievement scores of the four groups of respondents will be the major basis for identifying which method of teaching is best suited to teaching mathematics. The illustration of this design is as follows: and Counterbalanced Design. No randomization is done. Experimental Group Control Group Experimental Control Group

A1 B1 A2 B2

O1 x O3 x

Where: O1 = Experimental Group A1 pretest O2 = Experimental Group A1 Posttest O3 = Control Group B1 Pretest O4 = Control Group B1 Posttest O5 = Experimental Group A2 Posttest O6 = Control Group B2 Posttest X = Treatment

O2 O4 O5 O6

The Quasi-Experimental Designs Quasi-experimental designs include: the Time-Series Experimental Design; Matching-Only Pretestposttest Design and counterbalanced Design. No randomization is done among the designs; instead, the employment of several techniques is the basis for controlling possible threats. 1. The Time-Series Experimental Design This design is the elaboration of the One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design. The difference is in the mode of application. It involves repeated measurements or observations over a period of time both before and after the treatment. The illustration of this design follows: O 1 O2 O3 O4 O5

X O6 O7 O8 O9 O10

Where: O 1 – O5 = Pretests O6 – O10 = Posttests X = Treatment In the time–series experimental design, the validity of results is due to repeated pretests and posttests. When the results are equal to one another in the first, second third administrations, the pretest is valid as well as in the posttest after the treatment. 2. The Matching-Only Design Matching is the process of pairing two variables with equal values. The two groups have the same characteristics before the treatment is given. When they are equated, the treatment will serve as the indicator to determine which group performed better after its administration. 3. Counterbalanced Design In this Design, each group is exposed to all treatments, no matter how many there are, but in a different order. It illustrates that all treatments are given to the three groups of respondents. The difference is the order of employment. Comparison of the results in the first, second and third analysis will be the basis for identifying validity or which treatment is more effective. If no significant difference exists, we can say that all treatments are effective or vice versa. Factors to be Considered in Equating Groups 1. 2. 3.

Randomization Matching or Pairing. Match or pair students with equal characteristics like their Grade Point Average Statistical matching

Quantitative Methodologies

Qualitative Methodologies

Preference for precise hypothesis stated at the outset

Preference for hypothesis that emerge as study develops

Preference for precise definitions stated at the outset

Preference for definitions in context or study progresses

Data reduce to numerical scores

Preferences for narrative descriptions

Much attention to assessing and improving reliability of scores obtained from instruments

Preferences for assuming that reliability of inferences in adequate

Assessment of validity through variety of procedures with reliance on statistical indices

Assessment of validity through checking sources of information (triangulation)

Preference for random techniques for obtaining meaningful samples

Preferences for expert informant(purposive ) samples

Preference for precise description of procedures

Preferences for narrative /literary description of procedures

Preference design or statistical control of extraneous variables

Preferences for logical in controlling or accounting for extraneous variables

Preference for specific design control procedural bias

Primary reliance for researcher to deal with procedural bias

Preference for statistical summary of results

Preference for narrative summary of results

Preference for breaking down of complex phenomena into specific parts for analysis

Preference for holistic description of complex phenomena

Willingness to manipulate aspects, situations, or conditions in studying complex phenomena

Unwillingness to tamper with naturally occurring phenomena

Major Characteristics of Qualitative Research 1.Naturalistic Inquiry 2.Inductive analysis 3. Holistic perspective 4. Qualitative data 5. Personal contact & insight 6. Dynamic systems 7. Unique case orientation 8. Contextsensitivity 9.Emphatic neurality 10. Design flexibility

- Studying real world situations as they unfold naturally, non manipulative, unobtrusive, & noncontrolling; openness to whatever emerges- lack of predetermined constraints on outcome - Immersion in the details and specifics of the data to discover important categories, dimensions & interrelationships; begin by exploring genuinely open questions rather than testing theoretically derived (deductive) hypothesis The phenomenon under study is understood as a complex system that is more than the sum of its parts; focus on complex interdependencies not meaningfully reduced to a few discrete variables and linear cause-effect relationships Detailed, thick description, inquiry in depth, direct quotations capturing people’s personal perspectives & experiences The researcher has direct contact with and gets close to the people, situation, & phenomenon under study; researcher’s personal experiences and insights are an important part of the inquiry and critical to understanding the phenomenon Attention to process; assumes change is constant and ongoing whether the focus is on the individual or an entire culture Assumes each case is special and unique ; the first level of inquiry is being studied, cross-case analysis follows from and depends on the equality of individual case studies Places findings in social, historical, and temporal context dubious of the possibility or meaningless of generalizations across time and space Complete objectivity is impossible, pure subjectivity undermines credibility; the researcher includes personal experience and emphatic insight as part of the relevant data, while taking a neutral nonjudgmental stance toward whatever content may emerge Open to adopting inquiry as understanding deepens and for situations change; avoids getting locked into rigid designs that eliminate responsiveness; pursues new paths of discovery as they emerge

Differences Between Qualitative and Quantitative Research Design Methodological Characteristics 1. Approach

2. Researcher’s role 3. Instrument 4.Setting 5.Insight 6.Style

Quantitative Experimental or Correlational Design

- in numerical numbers -precise description of procedure

Qualitative Ethnographic- behavior of people -documenting or portraying the everyday experience Of individual - in words - narrative description, could be done by interviewing

Detached to avoid bias Paper and pencil, Physical devices Laboratory Pre-ordinate Stable, fix

Immersed in the phenomenon of interest Inquirer (human)-data gathering instrument Natural(locale) Emergent – coming out naturally Variable

7.Focus of Analysis

Variability/Differences -Prefer statistical control of extraneous variables

-depends on the result Pattern - Common practices - prefer logical analysis

Sampling Designs Sampling Population

- the method of getting a representative portion of a population - the aggregate or total of objects, persons, families, species or orders of plants or of animals.

Advantages of sampling: 1. It saves time, money and effort. 2. It is more effective. 3. It is faster and cheaper. 4. It is more accurate. 5. It gives more comprehensive information. Sampling Designs Scientific sampling 1. Restricted random sampling. It involves certain restrictions intended to improve the validity of the sample. 2. Unrestricted random sampling. It is the best random sampling because no restriction is imposed. Every member in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample. 3. Stratified random sampling. This design divides first the population into two or more strata. For each stratum, the sample items are drawn at random. 4. Systematic sampling. It is a design in which all individuals in the population are arranged in a methodological manner, i.e., alphabetical or chronological, and the _nth name may be selected in the construction of the sample. 5. Multistage sampling. This design is done in several stages. The population individuals are grouped into a hierarchy of units and sampling is done consecutively. 6. Cluster sampling. The population is grouped into smaller units or clusters for instance, districts, municipalities or cities composed of population individuals and are selected by random sampling or systematic sampling. Nonscientific Sampling 1. Purposive sampling. It is based on choosing individuals as samples according to the purpose of the researcher as his controls. An individual is chosen as part of the sample because of good evidence that he is a representative of the total population. 2. Incidental sampling. It is applied to those samples which are taken because they are the most available. The researcher simply takes the nearest individuals as subjects of the study till the sample reaches the desired size. 3. Quota sampling. This design is popular in the field of opinion research because it is done by merely looking for individuals with the requisite characteristics. 

Data gathering Instruments

1. Research Instrument. It is a devise designed or adopted by the researcher for data-gathering. Therefore to arrive at accurate findings and conclusions, the instruments used by a researcher should be valid and reliable to objectively answer the purpose of the study as discussed in the statement of the problem. These instruments depend on the nature of the problem and the research design. Descriptive studies usually employ questionnaires, interviews and observations while historical research uses documents and observations. Experimental studies may or may not use questionnaires but manipulate variables, observations and documentation. Classification of data-gathering instruments:

a. Researcher Instruments The researcher obtains information or data himself with little or no direct involvement of other people. b. Subject Instruments The data is collected by directly involving the respondents. Ex. Data maybe collected by asking for a copy of the available science facilities and equipment, indicating actual numbers, from the list, the researcher may determine extent of availability and adequacy. c. Informant Instrument The data collected from those knowledgeable or aware of the subject. The researcher may ask school administrators, science teachers and students to evaluate extent of availability and adequacy of science facilities and equipment of the SUCs in Region 1. Commonly-Used Research Instruments 1. Questionnaire Is a written or printed form containing the objectives of the study. This is administered on the respondents to elicit the required data based on procedures made by the researcher. It is the most convenient and also the easiest way to gather data. The researcher may or may not personally administer the questionnaire provided all instructions are clearly specified. There are two types of questionnaires, the open-ended and close – ended. Open-ended (Divergent) questionnaire Profile of the Mathematics Instructors of BISU Name Age Seminars Attended Subjects Taught Organizations/Affiliations

: __________ : __________ : __________ : __________ : __________

Marriage Practices of Indigenous People in the Hinterland Municipalities of Ilocos Sur 1. What tribe do you belong to? _____________________________________________________ 2. Briefly describe the marriage practices of your tribe.___________________________________ 3. What animal/s and how many are to be butchered for the wedding? _______________________ Closed-ended (Convergent) questionnaire 1. Sex: Male____ Female_____ 2. Civil Status: _____Single_____Married____ Widow________ 3. Highest Educational Attainment: _____Bachelor’s Degree _____Bachelor’s Degree with MA/MS Units _____Masteral Degree _____Others, please specify Identified Mistakes in Writing Questions in Questionnaires (Bluman, 2011) a. Asking biased questions. Ex.: Are you going to vote for Gibo even though the latest survey indicates that he will lose the election? b. Using confusing words. Ex.: Do you think people will live longer if they were on a diet? c. Using double-barreled questions. Ex. Are you in favor of the Sin Tax bill to lessen the number of smokers in the country? d. Using double negatives in questions. Ex.: Do you feel that it is not appropriate to have areas where people cannot smoke?

e. Ordering questions improperly. Ex.: At what age should an elderly person not be permitted to drive? A later question might ask the respondent to list some problems of elderly people. Other factors that could bias a survey:  The participant may not know anything about the subject of the question but will answer the question anyway to avoid being considered uninformed.  Many people will make responses on the basis of what they think the person asking the questions wants to hear.  Participants will, in some cases, respond differently to questions depending on whether their identity is known.  The time and place where a study is conducted can affect the results.  The type (whether open-ended or close-ended) of questions asked influences the responses. 2. Interview It involves face-to-face contacts between the interviewer and interviewee. Sometimes a researcher interviews to confirm data obtained from the questionnaire. However, interviews alone would be enough for gathering data, depending on the nature of the problem. This data-gathering technique is quite laborious especially when the population is large. The researcher should personally meet respondents and needs to have adequate interviewing skills so that the objective of the study may be achieved. According to Sison (1991), the interviewer must be skilled in asking questions and sizing up people: alert, keen and free of prejudices or biases: even-tempered, and most importantly, he must have a thorough knowledge of the subject a. Structure Interview b. Unstructured Interview 3. Observation is another technique in data-gathering. It is essential for both qualitative and quantitative studies. This is used to enrich findings in descriptive studies where questionnaires and interviews have been employed a. Informal observation- records only what transpires is casual conversation with respondents. There is no limit when it comes to information; it depends on the results of the investigation. b. Formal observation -the researcher makes a guide on what to observe. Possible responses or answers may also be outlined. 

Statistical Treatment Non-Parametric Tests

Parametric Tests