Mgt[1].7

Leading: Human Factors and Motivation

Leading • Leading is defined as the process of influencing people so that they will contribute to organization and group goals. – Involves considering of human factors, motivation and some other internal human process – Aim is to establish an environment where individuals will work together in groups to achieve common objective. 11/14/09

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Motivation • The willingness to exert high levels of effort to reach organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.

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The Need-Want-Satisfaction Chain Need

Want

Satisfaction

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Tensions

Actions

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Mcgregor’s Theory X and Theory Y • Theory X Assumptions: 1. Average human beings have an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if they can. 2. Because of this human characteristic of disliking work, most people must be coerced, controlled, directed, and threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort toward the achievement of organizational objectives. 3. Average human beings prefer to be directed, wish to avoid responsibility, have relatively little ambition and want security above all.

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Continued… •

1. 2.

3. 4. 5.

6.

Theory Y Assumptions:

The expenditure of physical effort and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest. External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means for producing effort toward organizational objectives. People will exercise self direction and self control in the service of objectives to which they are committed. The degree of commitment to objectives is in proportion to the size of the rewards associated with their achievement. Average human beings learn under proper conditions, not only to accept responsibility but also to seek it. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population. Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilized.

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory NEEDS General Examples

Achievement

Selfactualization

Status

Esteem

Friendship Stability Food

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Organizational Examples

Challenging job

Belongingness Security Physiology

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Job title Friends at work Pension plan Base salary

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Weaknesses of Maslow’s theory • Five levels of need are not always present. • Ordering or importance of needs is not always the same (importance vary with change in career).

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The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation (Proponent : Fredrick Hertzberg)

Motivation Factors • Achievement • Recognition • The work itself • Responsibility • Advancement and growth Satisfaction

No satisfaction

Hygiene Factors • Supervisors • Working conditions • Interpersonal relations • Pay and security • Company policies and administration 11/14/09

Dissatisfaction

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No dissatisfaction

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Continued… – Criticisms of the Two-Factor Theory • Interview findings are subject to different explanations. • Sample population was not representative. • Subsequent research has not upheld theory.

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Expectancy Theory Proponent : Victor Vroom

• Basics of expectancy theory: – A theory of motivation that suggests that motivation depends on two things – valence and expectancy. – Force = valence x expectancy – So for motivation to occur both these elements must have values greater than zero i.e. positive.

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Continued… • The expectancy model:

Environment

Motivation

Effort

Performance

Ability

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Outcome

Valence

Outcome

Valence

Outcome

Valence

Outcome

Valence

Outcome

Valence 12

Continued… • Suggests that motivation leads to effort, when combined with ability and environmental factors, that results in performance which, in turn, leads to various outcomes that have value (valence) to employees. • Efforts to performance expectancy – Strong (1.00) , unrelated (0) or some what related (0 – 1.00) • Performance to outcome expectancy – High (1.00), indifferent (0) or moderate (0 – 1.00) • Out comes and valence – Positive, negative or indifferent.

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Equity Theory

Proponent: J. Stacy Adams • Equity theory refers to an individual’s subjective judgments about the fairness of the reward she or he got relative to the inputs (effort, experience, education etc.) in comparison with the rewards of others. • There should be a balance of the output/input relationship for one person in comparison with that for another person.

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Continued… outcomes (self) inputs (self)

outcomes (other) =

inputs (other)

• Results: – Inequitable: dissatisfaction, reduced output, departure – Equitable: continuation at the same level – More than equitable: harder work, discounted reward

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Reinforcement Theory • An approach to motivation that explain the role of rewards as they cause behavior to change or remain the same over time. – Assumes that behavior that results in rewarding consequences is likely to be repeated, whereas behavior that results in punishing consequences is less likely to be repeated.

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Continued… • Kinds of reinforcements – – – –

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Positive reinforcement (e.g. praise) Avoidance (e.g. escaping reprimands) Punishment ( e.g. fines) Extinction (e.g. withdrawing incentives)

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Continued…

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