Mcclendon, The History Of The Site Of St Peters.pdf

Yale University, School of Architecture

The History of the Site of St. Peter's Basilica, Rome Author(s): Charles B. McClendon Source: Perspecta, Vol. 25 (1989), pp. 32-65 Published by: The MIT Press on behalf of Perspecta. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1567138 . Accessed: 26/11/2014 16:40 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

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The HistoryoftheSiteofSt.Peter'sBasilica,Rome CharlesB. McClendon

St. Peter'sbasilicain Rome,withthecombined imageofitsdome,monumentalfacade,colonnaded piazza and centralobelisk,is one ofthe mostcelebratedarchitectural ensemblesin the world.Andyet,thereis muchmoreto this monumentthanis at firstapparent.The complexof St. Peter'sis not theworkof a single architector eventheresultof a singlebuilding campaign;rather,it grewout ofvariouscircumstancesand intentionsthatwerefounded on a continuousbeliefin thesanctityand powerof thesite.

1. Composite drawingofsuccessive plansforSt. Peter'sbasilica.

3. ViewofSt. Peter's fromabovethe colonnade the of piazza.

2. Via dellaConciliazione looking

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westtowards St. Peter's.

westtowards theapse.

In thespace of a shortessay,it is impossibleto discussall of theissuesinvolvedin thedesign and construction of thisgreatmonument. Instead,I proposea new wayof approaching thesubject.In orderto illustratehow a series of buildingprojectsrespondedto thephysical demandsand spiritualassociationsof a particular place,I willtracetheformation of this in architectural reverse montage chronological orderbyusingthemethodsof boththearchaeologistand thehistorianof architecture. 2

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5. ViewfromthedomeofSt. Peter's easttowards theTiberRiver looking 6. ViewfromthedomeofSt. Peter's oftheVia della duringconstruction ca. 1940. Conciliazione,

1. SpiroKostoff,The ThirdRome, and Glory 1870-1950: Traffic ArtMuseum, (Berkeley:University 1973),pp. 9-10. Translatedfrom di BenitoMussolini, Scrittie discorsi editedbyHoepli, vol. 6 (Milan: 1934),p. 93.

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In orderto fulfill thisambitiousvision, Mussoliniand his architectsdevisedhighwaysofgrandezza,suchas theVia dell'Imperothatcutthroughtheancient ImperialFora ofTrajanand Augustus,linking theColiseumwithPiazza Venezia,and theVia del Mare, thatled fromthe CapitolineHill to theportcityof Ostia on the Mediterraneancoast.Both avenueswere should such beginby Any investigation thatrunsfromthe essentiallycompletedby 1931 and formed followingthethoroughfare thebackboneofla grandeRomaof thefascist Tiber Riverto thegreatpiazza in frontof Mussoliniturnedhis era. Not long after, thebasilica.One would assumethatthis obelisk attention to the Vatican area. in line with the approach, magnificent and thedome of St. Peter's,was theresultof The nameofthemodernboulevardleading planning.Andyet,before1936, far-sighted the piazza of St. Peter'swas not directlylinked to St. Peter's,theVia della Conciliazione,or ConciliarWay,refersto thetreatyofreconto theTiber Riveror Castel Sant'Angelo ciliationsignedin 1929 byMussoliniand itself. It was or evento thecityof Rome BenitoMussoliniwho initiatedtheconstruc- Pope Pius XI. The road standsas a physical between tionof thisnew boulevardas partofhis grand expressionofthenew relationship thesovereignstateofVaticanCity,created urbanschemefor"modernizing"Rome. In 1924,Mussolinioutlinedhis plan forthecity in 1929,and Rome,thecapitalofItaly,a nationthatwas unifiedonlyin 1870 and as follows: oppositionof thePapal againstthefervent I shouldliketodividetheproblems ofRome,the See. The Via is also a chronologicallink intotwocateRomeoftheTwentieth Century, betweenpre-and post-WorldWar II Italy, and the ofnecessity theproblems forthe gories: problems projectbegunin 1936 was not thelatterunless Onecannotconfront ofgrandeur. until1950. The Via della completed Theproblems thefirsthavebeenresolved. of thecreationof Conciliazioneis therefore risefromthegrowth ofRome,andare necessity modernpoliticsas well as a responseto the and in thisbinomial: encompassed housing demandsofmoderntechnology, thatis, the are Theproblems communications. ofgrandeur automobile.And anyonewho ever-present all ofancient kind:wemustliberate ofanother has visitedRome recentlyknowsthatit is that construction Romefromthemediocre thorone of thefewrelatively free-flowing it,butsidebysidewiththeRomeof disfigures oughfaresin a cityotherwiseheavilyconwemustalsocreate and Christianity antiquity gestedwithtraffic. RomeoftheTwentieth themonumental Century.'

The wealthofvisual,historical,and archaerelatedto St. Peter's ologicaldocumentation willmakeit possibleto stripaway,layerby layer,theaccumulationof ages and,in so doing,revealthecontinuumofhistorythat linksa seriesof seeminglydisparateevents on a commonsite.

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9. Plan ofViadellaConciliazione areas(shaded)destroyed showing its during construction.

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The concernsfor"necessityand grandeur" inherentin thefascistschemeforthe Via della Conciliazionewerenot new.The idea ofprovidinga monumentalapproach to St. Peter'scan be tracedto thereignof Pope NicholasV in themid-fifteenth centurywhen,withtheadviceofthegreat Renaissancetheoristof architecture, Alberti, a plan was devisedforthreecolonnaded streetsto connectthebasilicawithCastel Sant'Angeloon thebanksof theTiber River. Like so manyprojectsforSt. Peter's,this schemewas nevercarriedout,buttheneed to unitetheVaticanmoredirectlywith thecenterof Rome remaineda topicof debateforcenturies.The architectsofthe Via della Conciliazione,Marcello Piacentini and AttilioSpaccarelli,forexample,were greatlyinfluencedbythe designsof Carlo Fontana,thearchitectof St. Peter'sat the

10. CarloFontana,"open"solution to fora monumental approach St. Peter's,1694. 11. CosimoMorelli,proposal for a V-shaped avenueleadingto St. Peter's,1776.

end ofthe seventeenth In hisbook, century. in Vaticanum, Templum published 1694, Fontanapresentstwobasic solutionsto the problem:one thatmaybe termed"closed" and theother"open." The simplestis the open solution,whichsuggeststhecreation of a greatV-shapedavenueleadinglikean invertedfunnelfromtheTiber Riverto thepiazza of St. Peter's.The otherproposal presentsa closed solutionwherethe V-shapedavenueis interrupted by a colonnaded blockwhichis linkedbynarrowcorridorsto thecurvedarmsof theoval piazza. Fontana'sprimarymotivationhereseemsto havebeen one of symmetry: thedistance fromhis nobileinterrompimento, as he called it,to thepiazza was to be thesame as the distancefromthepiazza to the facadeof the church.He also justifiedthissecondproposal on morepracticalgrounds:

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CarloFontana,"closed" solution

12. East/west section through nobileinterrompimento showing elevation enclosure ofsouth wall.

to fora monumental approach St.Peter's,1694.

13. Siteplan 14. Detailedplan

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15. Thepiazza ofSt.Peter'sbefore thedestruction ofthespinain 1936. 16. DetailfromtheNollimapof Rome,1746.

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18. GiovanniBattistaPiranesi, St.Peter'sbasilicaandpiazza, 1748.

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and hiscortege ThePontiff ofCardinalswouldbe thecorridors durabletopassin comfort through rain or the the without fearof ingprocessions heatofthesun.And,withthissingleexpense of oneelimitheproposed corridors, constructing thatis annuallymade natestheother[expense] duetotheplanting ontheoccasion ofprocessions and the the etc., raisingofawnings, of poles whichresultin an ignoble sight.2 2. Carlo Fontana, Vaticanum (Rome: 1694), Templum pp. 179,243.

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Between1934 and 1938,Piacentiniand Spaccarelli,followingFontana'sexample,also schemes,butas finally proposedalternative

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built,theVia della Conciliazionepresents an ingeniouscompromisebetweenthe "open" and "closed"solutions.Like theopen scheme,it providesthegrandvistafrom theTiber Riverto thedome,facade,and obeliskof St. Peter's,butin keepingwiththe closed schemethegreatexpanseof thepiazza of St. Peter'sis, at leastpartly, concealedfrom or wingsof twofacing viewbypropylaea palacesthatprojectfromtheleftand right in frontof intothethoroughfare immediately thepiazza. The irregularities in thealignment of thebuildings'facadeswhichframethe

TheHistory oftheSiteofSt. Peter'sBasilica,Rome

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boulevardare maskedbytwoparallelrowsof islandsbearingstreetlampsin the traffic formof miniatureobelisksthatlead theeye to theultimategoal of thebasilica. of theVia, earlyphotoBeforeconstruction show thattwonarrow and graphs maps streetsled in divergentpathsfromtheTiber Riverto St. Peter'sbasilica,forminga central seriesof buildingsknownas the triangular or spina spine.For anyvisitorto theVatican before1936,thevastpiazza in frontof St. Peter'scame as a surprise,as an unexpected

explosionofspace. One mightthinkthatthe grandoval of thepiazza servesas a perfectfoil forthecrowdedurbanenvironment ofthe spina,and yetbeforethemiddleoftheseventeenthcenturytherewas no formalpiazza but onlyan irregular, unpavedarea in frontofthe church.The piazza and colonnadewerethe creationofGianlorenzoBerniniwho between 1659 and 1667 transformed an unimpressive lot referred to as open by contemporaries the or into the simply platea open space majesticceremonialentranceto thegreatest shrinein Christendom.

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19. Bernini, planofthepiazza and at colonnade-corridorjunction. elevation 20. Bernini's workshop, preliminary forthepiazza, ca. 1656. drawing 21. Anonymous caricature drawing, oval ofBernini's design forthepiazza, 1659. 22. Diagramofthepiazza showing and oval. relationship ofobelisk 23. DetailfromtheTempesta map Rome, of plateabefore showing construction colonnade, ofBernini's 1593. 24. IsraelSilvestre, detailfrom view panoramic fromthedomeof St.Peter's,1641.

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DrawingsbyBernini'sassistantsand other drawingsin his own handmakeit possibleto followthecreativeprocessof thepiazza's design.His workshopfirstproposeda rectangularpiazza and thena circularone. Only thendid Berninihimself,in his characteristicallysketchymanner,arriveat thefinal, ellipticalsolution.Berninifoundmeaningin As he explained: thisconfiguration.

3. TimothyKitao,Circleand Oval in theSquareofSaintPeter's (New York:New YorkUniversity Press, 1974),p. 14.

SinceSt. Peter'sis,so tospeak,theMother accutheportico Churchtoall otherchurches, act her ofmaternally receiving ratelyexpresses tobeconfirmed in heropenarmsCatholics withthe tobereunited in thefaith,heretics tobeenlightened and unbelievers Church, bythe truefaith. From a formalpointofview,thedesignof thepiazza was determinedbytwointersecting circlescenteredaboutthefamiliarobelisk whichstandsin frontof thefacadeof St. Peter's.Andyettheobelisk,too,was a 23

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CharlesB. McClendon

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recentadditionto theplatea.For relatively broughtto Rome byone ofthe Roman the obelisk had stood not in front centuries, emperors.But sincetheMiddle Ages,popuof thebasilicabutalongitssouthernflank, larlegendhad it thatthegoldenorb atop in frontof twoancient,cylindrical theneedle containedtheashesofJulius mausolea. In 1586 theobeliskwas moved,at the Caesar. For SixtusV, therefore, theobelisk of Sixtus V and in its new in of front St. Peter'ssym(1585-90) instigation Pope setting his architect, Domenico Fontana,usingan bolizedthetriumphof theChurchover elaboratesystemofropes,pulleysand rollers paganism.In the spiritoftheCounterthatmayappearto us likea scene from thePope had theobelisksurReformation, Travels in but that its own was mounted a day by crossand placed on a new Gulliver's hailedas thetriumphof "moderntechnology." base withan inscription thatreads:"Behold The obeliskwas knownat thetimeto have theCross ofthe Lord! Flee adversaries, the come fromancientEgyptand to havebeen Lion ofJudahhas conquered."

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25. Viewoftheplateawithobelisk, lead ca. 1588. Thestairsin thecenter

27. Domenico Fontana,theVatican in situ obelisk withmodels ofvarious

totheentrance oftheatriumofthe abovewhichrisesthedrum oldchurch

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28. Domenico Fontana,themoving 1589. the Vatican obelisk, of

26. Viewoftheplateaat the coronation ofPopeSixtusVin 1585 the to prior movingoftheobelisk.

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horse,or in a carriage,startfromwhatever place in Rome one maywish,and continue in a straight line to themost virtually famousdevotions."'SixtusV, on theother to the"variousand diverse hand,referred ... perspectives to charmthesenses" afforded bythenew avenues.Not surprisonce theVaticanobeliskwas in place ingly, in frontof St. Peter'sbasilica,thePope expresseda desireto demolishthespinain orderto createuna bellaprospettiva. But like Nicholas V before him, Pope Pope SixtusV neversaw hislastwishfulfilled. For while the star-shapedpatternof streetshad been laid out in a sparselyinhabitedsectionof of an avenueleading Rome,theconstruction to St. Peter'srequiredthe demolitionof a denselypopulatedarea,makingsucha projectprohibitively expensive.As already noted,it was leftto a moderndictatorto finallycarryout theplan.

The movingof theVaticanobeliskmarked the firstof severalsuchundertakings sponsoredbySixtusV duringhis briefpontificate.He had otherobeliskserectedin the Piazza del Popolo and alongsidethechurch of S. Maria Maggioreand thenew papal palace adjoiningtheLateranbasilica.Not onlydid there-useof ancientmaterialrepreof Rome's sentan interpretatio christiana it formed but partof an ambipagan past, tiousprogramofurbandevelopmentwhere theobeliskswereused as focalpointsfora new networkof radiatingstreets.In symbolic terms,thisurbanschemewas described at thetimeas the"radianceof thestaron the to itsresemblanceto mountains,"referring a five-pointed starcenteredaboutthechurch of S. Maria Maggioreon theEsquilineHill.4 Domenico Fontana,as thepapal architect, saw it froma morepracticalpointofview,as an aid to pilgrimage:"One can byfoot,by

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6. Ludwigvon Pastor,TheHistory ofthePopesfromtheCloseofthe MiddleAges,3rdEnglishedition, vol. 6 (London: J. Hodges, 18911953),p. 464.

Atthetimeofthemoving oftheobelisk, thegreatdomeatopthechurchhadyetto be completed. Thisdominant feature, envisioned all architects of St. Peter'sin by thesixteenth was century, completed by GiacomodellaPortain 1590.Although is usuallygivencreditforthe Michelangelo of the dome,he infact present design ittohavea muchlowerprofile. intended His hemispherical domewouldhaveconveyeda senseofweightandcompression anda farmoreorganicrelationship withthe restofthebuilding thantheattenuated structure oneseestoday.Atthetimeof deathin 1564,however, Michelangelo's only theraiseddrumprovided a silhouette to thecity.Fortunately, manyartists livingin orvisiting Romesketched thegreatbuilding thisperiod,allowing one enterprise during to followitsprogress over stepbystep, manydecades.In the1530s,St.Peter's

stood withoutthe drumofthe dome; instead,one saw onlythemassivepiersand connectingarchedvaultsof thecrossing overthecrumblingshell risingmajestically of theold church. All thebuildingactivitydiscussedthusfar was theresultof thedecisionin 1506 by Pope JuliusII to replacethe old basilica withwhathe confidently feltwould be a As he explainedin an greaterstructure. edictissuedin 1513,thenew church"was to taketheplace ofa buildingteemingwith venerablememories,"and thatin so doingit "was to embodythegreatnessofthepresent and thefuture."6 The architectin charge of thisimportanttaskwas Donato Bramante who had onlyrecentlyarrivedin Rome fromMilan. Specificdetailsof Bramante's designforSt. Peter'sremainthetopicof considerabledebateamongscholarstoday.

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33. Michelangelo, earlydesign for thedomeofSt. Peter's.

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34. EtienneDupirac,west/east section ofMichelangelo 'sfinaldesign forSt. Peter's,ca. 1569. 35. Paul Letarouilly, west/east section basilica St. Peter's of afterMichelangelo's as completed death,1882.

36. G.A. Dosio,exterior viewof St. Peter's, theatriumand the showing remainsofthenaveoftheoldchurch

38. G.A. Dosio,interior viewofthe the crossing ofSt. Peter'sshowing drumofthedomeunderconstruction,

infrontofthecrossing anddrumofthe domeofthenewRenaissance church,

ca. 1562.

ca. 1565.

39. Martinvan Heemskerck, interior viewofSt. Peter'slooking west,

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ca. 1535. In theleftand right fore-

viewlooking southat thenew St. Peter'sunderconstruction, ca. 1540.

groundare theremainsofthewallsof thenaveoftheoldchurch; in the

In thecenter are thepiers background and archesofthecrossing (belowthe nearest archare theremainsofthe

center are thearchesand background the piersof newchurch crossing

northtransept armoftheoldchurch); totherightis theexterior elevation of

a smallshrinedesigned surrounding thehighaltar byBramantetoprotect and tombduringconstruction.

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Andyetthedecisionto demolishOld St. Peter'swas one ofthemostaudacious, and some wouldsayoutrageous,actsin the In fact,the decisionto historyof architecture. destroytheold churchwas criticizedat thetime.Even thefamoussixteenth-century artistand historianGiorgioVasari,who skill,"did not praisedBramante's"wonderful hesitateto pointout thatthesame architect "was so anxiousfortheworkto progressthat he destroyedin [old] St. Peter'smanyfine tombsofpopes,paintingsand mosaics,thus thememoryofmanyportraitsof obliterating greatmen scatteredabout theprincipal churchof Christendom."'7 For thisreason, Bramante thenickname contemporaries gave

artistin thecircle 40. Anonymous section ofthePantheon, ofBramante, Rome,earlysixteenth century. 41. BasilicaofMaxentius, Rome, A.D. builtin theearly fourthcentury medalof 42. Commemorative Bramante's forthenew design St. Peter's,1506. andplanof 43a,b. Serlio,elevation the Bramante's for domeofthe design ca. 1540. newSt. Peter's,

48

All agree,however,thata greatdome was envisionedas thepredominantfeatureofthe new churchfromthebeginning.Such a dome is represented in a famousmedal,mintedfor thegroundbreakingceremonyofApril18th, 1506,and is one ofthefewofficialrecords of Bramante'sintentions. Traditionhas it that Bramantewishedin thisdesignto place thedome of thePantheonoverthevaultsof theBasilicaofMaxentius,believedin the sixteenthcenturyto be the Templum Pacis or "Templeof Peace" in theancientRoman Forum.Clearlythenew St. Peter'swas meant to rival,ifnot to surpass,the greatestmonumentsof ancientRome bothin scale and technologicaldaring.In 1570,forexample, thearchitectPalladio wrote,"Bramantewas thefirstto bringbackto thelightof day thegood and beautifularchitecture thathad been hiddensincethetimeofthe ancients." The boldnessand beautyof Bramante's basic conceptservedas an inspirationforall of St. Peter's. subsequentarchitects

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Bramanteruinanteor "Bramantethe It shouldbe recognized,however, destroyer." thatOld St. Peter'swas in a bad state of repair.Pope JuliusII referred to it as "thedilapidatedchurch,"and contemporary accountsrevealthatthesouthwall of the ancientnavewas so out ofplumbthata thicklayerof dusthad collectedrendering theonce vividmuraldecorationvirtually illegible.Alreadyin themiddleof the Albertireportedto Pope fifteenth century, NicholasV that"I am convincedthatvery soon some slightshockor movement willcause it [thesouthwall of thenave]to fall.The rafters of theroofhave draggedthe wall inwards to a corresponding north degree."8In responseNicholas V initiated an extensiveremodelingof theold church of theouter involvingthestrengthening a monumental of walls,theconstruction choirbehindtheveneratedtomb,and the insertionofvaultingin theouteraislesand transeptin whatwas consideredto be a more modem style.He also saw therebuildingof

St. Peter'sas partof a coordinatedeffort to restorepapal authority, for,as he explained to his cardinals,"whenvulgarbelieffounded on doctrinesoflearnedmenis continually confirmed and dailycorroboratedbygreat which are perpetualmonuments buildings, and eternaltestimoniesseeminglymade by God, it is foreverconveyedto those,both who beholdthese presentand future, admirableconstructions."9Still,thecore of St. Peter'sand itsbasic designwereto be left largelyintactso thattheNicholinescheme forremodelingthebasilicacould be likened to a reliquaryon a monumentalscale. For variousreasons,theprojectofNicholas V - onlythe was nevercompletedin itsentirety foundationsof thechoirand transeptwere builtin thePope's lifetime.Butitsvery natureservesto underscorethefactthat beforethereignof Pope JuliusII, not only was theApostle'stombconsideredsacrosanct,but theentirebuildingitselfwas seen as a holyrelicofthefoundingof the ChristianChurchin Rome.

7. GiorgioVasari,TheLivesof theMostEminentPainters, Sculptors, andArchitects, translatedby A. B. Hinds,vol. 2 (New York: E. P. Dutton,1927),p. 189. 8. von Pastor,TheHistory ofthe Popes,vol. 6, p. 179. 9. CarrollW. Westfall, In This MostPerfect Paradise:Alberti, NicholasV,and theInvention of Conscious UrbanPlanninginRome, 1447-55 (University Parkand London: Pennsylvania State Press,1974),p. 33. University

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1505/6. forthenewchurch, design 45. Reconstructed planfortheremodelingofSt. Peter'sbyNicholasV Bernardo andhisarchitect Rossellino. Albertimayhaveserved LeonBattista as an advisor. 46. G. BattistaCostaguti, planofOld St.Peter'safterTiberio Alfarano,1684.

50

Planandelevation oftheEarly Before1506,thebasilicaof St. Peterhad drawings church madeinthesixteenth and stoodvirtually unalteredforalmost1200 years. Christian seventeenth before was Bramanterealizedthathe wouldhaveto it early century, ofthe buildaroundtheold churchand thehighaltar totally (thelastremains destroyed torndownuntil1605in orderto permitcontinuedliturgicaluse. As navewerenotfinally inthecourse oftheMiddle one mightexpect,he began bymakinga survey 12),showthat Bramante's and of site. the Renaissance the interior the construction Ages space drawing his had become not records cluttered with altars, burgeoning drawing only subsidiary ofthepopesandother tombs ideas forthenew church- noteespeciallythe individual officials oftheChurch, andwiththeshrines positionofthefourcrossingpiers- but it of accurate of its numerous saints. Even an theouteraisle plan provides extremely walls this is were Christian numerous predecessor.Indeed, pierced by Early funerary attached tothechurch likebarnaone of theearliestpreservedarchitectural chapels, measuredgrid.In clestoa great hull.Alloftheseembelship's drawingsto use a uniform, lishments hadbeenaddedovercenturies thiscase thegridis composedofsquares, by toglorify thatrepresent5 palmieach, individuals Peterandto drawnfree-hand, wishing obtain hisblessing oftheir whereone palmoequals 22 cm,or approxibytheproximity burial tohistomb. place,ortheir offering, matelythewidthof a man'shand.With this theMiddleAges,thetombofthe thedesignof theearlierchurch information, During oftheApostles withconsiderablepreci- Prince hadbecome can be reconstructed themost a of in reveals Western sion; thedrawing simple important relatively goal pilgrimage of a centralnave, thefaithful, from barn-likearrangement to Christendom; kings a from flocked the farthest reaches of flankedby doubleaislesand terminated paupers, by toprayatthisholyshrine. hall or transeptwitha centralapse. Europe transverse

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Reconstruction oftheapseof Old St. Peter'sas modifed by

theGreat. PopeGregory 47. Axonometric

48. Axonometric thelower revealing levelannularcrypt 49. Plan Reconsruction oftheapseof Old St. Peter'sbefore thereignof theGreat. PopeGregory 50. Axonometric 51. Plan

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Upon reachingtheirgoal,thesepilgrims foundthemainaltarcoveredby a baldacchino whichstoodin frontof theapse on a platform thatwas raisedsome twometersabove the floorof thechurch.As thepriestor bishop massat thehighaltar,thecongreperformed was able to catcha glimpseof thetomb gation a through smallwindow(called afenestella) directlybelow thealtar.Thus theliturgyand linkedbut tombwerenot onlyphysically unified. visually This formalunionof altarand relicmaybe creditedto one ofthemostimportant popes of theMiddle Ages,GregorytheGreat,who reignedfrom590 to 604. A contemporary accountin theLiberPontificalis ("Book ofthe that states "Pope Gregory Popes") simply arrangedso thatmasscould be celebrated above thebodyof theblessedPeter."' And in doingso, thearrangement at St. Peter's emulatedthevisionof St.Johnas describedin thebook of Revelation6.9: "I saw underneath thealtarthesouls of thosewho had been slaughteredforGod's wordand forthetestimonytheybore." GregorytheGreat,as a man ofhis time,was a fervent believerin the cultof relics,and in a letterdated594, he describedthebodyof SaintPeteras "glitteringwithgreatmiracles."He was acutely awareof theneed forthegrowingnumberof pilgrimsto be able to come in directcontact saw to withthetombitself.He therefore

it thata simplebut efficient was arrangement devisedso thatthevisitorcould pass through one oftwosmalldoorsto eitherside of the altarplatform thatled to a curvedsubterraneanpassagewayor crypt;at theapexof thesemi-circular crypttherewas a straight corridorthatled directlyto the tomb.This annularor ringcrypt,as it is called,was not partof theoriginalEarlyChristianchurch; beforethe reignofGregorytheGreat, anyonewishingto visitthetombof Peter confronted a "traffic flow"problem.Before about 590, approachingthetombhad been an extremely awkwardaffair, as made clear bytheFrankishchronicler, Gregory of Tours: ... isveryrarelyentered. [St. Peter's]sepulchre one wishes topray,thegatesbywhich However, if thespotis enclosed are opened, and he enters abovethetomb:thenhe opensa littlewindow thereandputshisheadinsideand makeshis tohisneeds.... Ifhedesires requests according tocarryawaywithhimsomeblessed he souvenir, throws insidea smallhandkerchief [theLatin wordis brandeum]whichhasbeencarefully and then,watching andfasting, heprays weighted thattheapostlemaygivea mostfervently to answertohisdevotions. favorable Wonderful the the say,if man'sfaithprevails, handkerchief whendrawnupfromthetombissofilledwith divinevirtuethatit weighsmuchmorethan and thenhe whopulledit upknows it didbefore; thathehasobtained thefavorhesought."

10. LiberPontificalis, editedby L. Duchesne,vol. 1 (Paris:E. Thorin, 1886-1892),p. 312. 11. Liberingloriamartyrum 1.28, Latina,vol. 71, (Migne,Patrologia col. 728ff).The Englishtranslation comes fromPeterLlewellyn, Romein theDarkAges(New York: Praeger,1971),p. 175.

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53

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Medieval pilgrims, liketouriststoday,often wishedto takehome a mementoof their travels.An ivorybox,now in theArchaeologicalMuseumin Venice,was carvedaround theyear400 to servesucha purpose;itwas designedto containa contactrelicor piece of clothsimilarto thebrandeum mentioned by GregoryofTours.Moreover,thebox bears theimageof theshrineof St. Peterbefore theintervention of Pope GregorytheGreat; herethemarkersurmounting thetomb of Peteris at floorlevel.On theivoryrelief, pairedmale and femalefiguresare shown prayingin thetypicalEarlyChristianmanner, and their standingwitharmsoutstretched handsopen to theheavens.In thecenter,two smallerfiguresare shownbeforethetomb monumentlookingas iftheyare trying to open that"littlewindow"and "sticktheir heads inside"in themannerdescribedby GregoryofTours. Framingthesefiguresare representedsix eleganttwistedcolumnssupportingan architraveand an open canopy.Around600, GregorytheGreat set thecolumnsin a single rowin frontof thecryptand altarplatform, and in the earlyeighthcentury, a secondrow ofsixmorespiralcolumnswas added. These columnsshouldappearfamiliar, because served as the for models Bernini's they bronzebaldacchinoof thesevenmagnificent teenthcentury. This relationship was not coincidentalas shownbythefactthatBernini set eightof thetwelvemarblecolumnsin theupperstoriesof thegreatcrossingpiersof thepresentchurch,whilea ninthwas placed in thechapelofMichelangelo'sPietih. Much

likeSixtusV's treatment oftheobelisk,

52

52. Spiralcolumn fromtheshrine ofOld St. Peter'snowin theChapel ofthePieti. 1624-33. 53. Bernini,baldacchino, 54. Ivorycasket fromPolashowing theshrineofOld St. Peter's,ca. 400.

54

53

54

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Berniniand his patronPope UrbanVIII (1623-44) consciouslyre-usedthese remnantsof theearliershrineto proclaim theancientoriginsof thechurchof St. Peter and to promotetheirconceptof the Counter-Reformation. The decisionto re-usetheseEarlyChristiancolumnswas also based in partupon a learnedtreatise on theancientshrinewhichhad been submittedto UrbanVIII shortlybeforeBernini beganhisproject.Accordingto popular legend,thespiralcolumnswerenot only associatedwiththetombofPeter,butthey werebelievedto havecome originally fromtheTempleof SolomoninJerusalem.12 Thus in thecrossingof St. Peter's,as decoratedin theBaroque age, thepresentwas made to mergewiththepast,reverberating to boththeBiblicaland withreferences historicaloriginsoftheRomanChurch. The LiberPontificalis, however,statesthatit was theEmperorConstantine(312-37) who "enclosedthetomb[ofPeter]on all sides ... withspiralcolumnsbroughtfromGreece." It was also underConstantinethattheentire churchwas builtaroundtheyear320. To envisiontheConstantinian buildingwhenit was firstcompleteone mustimaginethe churchwithoutthemedievaladditions.The unencumberedspace was on a colossalscale. The navewas 300 feetlong,thetransept225 feetlong and thecentralapse some 60 feet wide.Renaissanceviewsoftheremainsofthe churchand thepresentchurch Constantinian underconstruction revealthattheheightof theold navewallscorrespondedroughlyto thecornicelineof thepresentchurch,making thetotalheightof Old St. Peter'ssome

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12. For theseand otherissues concerningBernini'sdesignfor thebaldacchinoand thecrossing of St. Peter's,see IrvingLavin, Berniniand theCrossing of SaintPeter's(New York:New York Press,1968). University

57

CharlesB. McClendon

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55

105 feet.In otherwords,thebuildingof St. Peter'swas a grandioseenterprise worthy of Constantine'simperialpatronage. There seemsto have been no figuraldecorationin theConstantinianbasilicaas originally built,yettheinteriorwas aglowwithcolor frommarblerevetment and a gold mosaicin the apse. The oftenblandreconstructions of the interiorof theEarlyChristianchurchare the verymisleading;a frescorepresenting basilicaof St.JohnLateranbeforeit was remodeledin themid-seventeenth century givesa truersenseof thevisualimpressionof the fourth-century interior.In thisfresco,one sees thatthenave colonnadewas farfromuniform;columnswereofvarioussizes and colors,and the capitalswereofvariousorders (Corinthian,Ionic, and Composite).The reasonsforthisamazingjumbleare not fully known.Certainly, it representsa love of color and varietyfortheirown sake.And the re-useof oldermaterial- fornone ofthese elementswas made to orderforthe Lateran or St. Peter's- presumably helpedto speed the completionof thechurches.But therealso seemsto havebeen a reverencefor,and an admirationof,artifacts fromthepast. This attitudeis reminiscent of theuse of on the Arch of Constantine dedicated spolia in 315 wherereliefsofthesecond-century emperorsTrajan,Hadrian,and Marcus Aureliusarejuxtaposedto thenarrativefrieze of Constantine'sown day.It seemsthat remindersof theGolden Age of Rome were reassembledin thechurchand on the triumphalarchto announcethenew age of Constantine.

58

Only an Emperorcould havecarriedout such a lavishenterprise as the construction of St. Peter's.Beforethistime,Christians had no publicarchitecture of theirown. Early Christianwritersof thesecondand third centurieswereproudto proclaimthat"we haveno temples,we haveno altars."In the greatcitiesof theEmpire,such as Rome, Christiansmetin apartmentbuildingswith shopson thegroundfloorand privaterooms above whereworshippersgatheredfor prayerand thecelebrationof theEucharist. Baptismtookplace wherevertherewas water and deceasedmemberswerelaid to restin the undergroundcemeteriesofthecatacombs situatedon theoutskirts of thecity.Tenement

59

Reconstruction ofOld St.Peter's ca. 400. 58. Interior viewoftransept north. looking 59. Interior viewofnavelooking west.

56

TheHistory oftheSiteofSt.Peter'sBasilica,Rome

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buildingsand privatehousesservedas the meetingplaces of theEarlyChristians. Withoutexception,thesebuildingsremained inconspicuousfromtheoutsideand representedonlythesimplestadaptationsofutilifora Christianpurpose. tarianstructures withtheconAll thischangeddramatically versionof Constantineto Christianity followinghis conquestof Rome in 312, for become an not onlydid Christianity

officially recognizedreligion,freefrom thepersecutionsof thepast,butit now had theEmperoras an enthusiastic building involved patron.His firstbuildingenterprise the construction ofRome'scathedral,the churchnow knownas St.JohnLateran.The completionof theLateranbasilicawas quicklyfollowedbythebuildingof St. Peter's.And whiletheLateranservedas theadministrative centeroftheChristian in and theresidence Rome community

60. F Gagliardi,reconstruction ofthenaveoftheLateranBasilica arcaded),ca. 1650. (erroneously

60

CharlesB. McClendon

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57

ofthepopeuntilthemiddleofthefifteenth the St.Peter'swasbuilttoglorify century, burialplaceofRome'sfirst bishopandPrince oftheApostles.

Accordingto thisaccount,theupperportion ofan ancientbrickbuildingwas foundbelow thefloorlevelofthegrottoes.Fortunately, archaeologicalexcavationsof theimmediate area werecarriedout between1940 and The Lateranbasilicawasbuilton thesiteof 1950,althoughworkprogressedveryslowly anurbanvillaownedbytheLateranifamily duringWorldWar II. Nevertheless,the beforethereignof remainsofan ancientRomancemetery were sometwocenturies a whichmeantthatitlaywithin unearthedwithmanydifferent Constantine, typesof Rome's from district eastern tombs decorated residential elaborately along ranging posh to inside the walls. St. mausolea unmarked Peter's, just city graves. periphery,

on theotherhand,stoodfartothewest, In one area,investigators foundtheremains outsidethecityandon theothersideofthe becauseofthepurported location of a wall builtwithbricksbearingstamps TiberRiver, of ca. 160 A.D. (becausebrickmakingwas a ofPeter'stomb,whichhadbeena focusof before in theRoman veneration Constantine'sstate-controlled Christian long industry Empire,brickswerecommonlydated).At projectbegan.In thisway,the building thespiritual some latertime,a crudeshallowniche LateranandSt.Peter'smarked was hackedout ofthebrickwall. Framing Rome. polesofEarlyChristian It hadalwaysbeenassumedandbymany believedthatthesiteof fervently church wasdetermined Constantine's bythe locationofPeter'stombandyetthespecific wasunknown natureofthisrelationship In 1940,a portion ofthe untilquiterecently. belowthepresent so-calledgrottoes Aneyewitness wasbeingremodeled. church ofdiscovery: describes themoment 13. Engelbert Kirschbaum, S.J., TheTombs ofSt. Peterand St. Paul,

translated S.J. byJohnMurray, Press, (NewYork:St.Martin's 1959),pp. 19-20.

58

toprovide more Wewerebusy space for trying I St. the thenarrow crypt of Peter's.waswatching inmind, were workmen who,withthis purpose a there which behind wall, through breaking In theprotobepossibilities ofextension. appeared thatclearly wallwasrevealed cessa broad hadonce butnowended beenhigher thefloor justunder its Oncloser levelofthegrottoes. inspections was Theabancient masonry clearly recognizable. normal showed thickness ofmorethantwometers thatitwaspartofamonumental building. '3

thisnichewerefoundtracesofa small shrine,consistingoftwocolonnettescarrying a smallpediment.Scratchedintothe plasterthatcoatedan adjoiningwallwere foundthewordsin Latin and Greekofmany in and one inscription Christianprayers, Greekwhichreadsimply:PETR[o]S ENI or "Peteris here."

Althoughvarioushumanremainswere foundin associationwiththeshrine,it is not possibleto demonstrate conclusively thattheyrelateto Peter;thereare,afterall, limitsto archaeology.Here it is more to recognizethefactthatbythe important at theverylatest,theChristians 200, year of Rome believedthisspotto be thetombof Peter.At aroundthattime,a Romanpriest namedGaius wrote,"I can showyou the trophies(tropaia)of theApostles[St. Peter and St. Paul] ... ; ifyou go to theVaticanor theOstianWay [thesiteofthetombof

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location 61. Map ofRome,showing of theLateranbasilicaand St. Peter'sca. 500. 62. Viewoftheexcavated cemetery belowSt. Peter's. 63. Reconstruction oftheearly tombmarkerofSt.Peter Christian to and adjoining mausoleain relation thefoundation oftheConstantinian ca. 200. church

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64. Thehighaltar,baldacchino and the new St.Peter's. of crossing

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Ecclesiastical ofbuilding andthevertical ofcenturies 14. Eusebius, of St.Paul],thereyouwillfindthetrophies History, of 25-27. thread vol. thisChurch.""The modthosewhofounded 2,pp. history. as opposed estyofthetombshrineortrophy, ofPeterwasonlyone basilicabuiltbyConstantine, Thepurported totheelaborate grave in a vastcemetery. The burials of countless dramatic in the status of the reflects change oneoftheleast wasoriginally tomb inRomethattook Apostle's theChristian community in between anarray of fourth third and the between centuries, conspicuous, wedged place with decocultwastransformedelaborate whena modestreligious mausolea, many richly stucco wallsand ofpainted rated interiors force. intoa majorsocialandpolitical

theashurnsof toreceive rowsofniches

ofa single These various members the It wasthismodestshrinethatformed family. been well have tombs because focusoftheentireConstantinian preserved complex. thelaw;he Constantine daredtobreak The tombwasframed bytheapse,andthe andhadthetombs thiscemetery fromtheradius confiscated curveoftheapsewasderived intocreate a platform forhischurch. filled The ofa circlewiththeshrineatitscenter. of the dead wasillegal, to have Such desecration in seems of the church, fact, plan evenfortheemperor, butConstantine was beenlaidoutusinga moduleof30 Roman The was undaunted. feet,whichis thelengthoftheradiusofthe apparently cemetery onthesoutheastern circleaboutthetomb;so thatthedimensions situated slopeofthe Hill church be said to revolve Vatican and so the foundations ofthe oftheentire may sideofthechurch wereembedded in aboutthetomb.It is notsurprising, north literally shrinewas thehillside thattheEarlyChristian whilethefoundations ofthe therefore, foundtolie directly belowtheHighAltarof south sideweresome25feetaboveground. thepresent basilicaofSt.Peter.The one Partofthecemetery andmostofPeter's element thatneverchangedovertheentire tomb werethusobliterated from view;only of site the of the was the the of half the modest tomb marker position history upper tomb.Fromthelatesecondcentury was to allowed above the of floor onwards, protrude oraltarswerefitted memorials overthetomb, thebasilica oftheapse.Thefact atthechord oneafter theother.Thisaspectofthesite thatitwasfarfrom anidealsiteforconillustrates moreclearly thananyotherthe struction onceagaintheprimary emphasizes between thehorizontal ofthetombofPeter. relationship layering importance

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66 66. Plan oftheexcavations ofthe ancientRomancemetery at the Vaticanin relation tothefoundation wallsoftheConstantinian church. 67. South/north section ofthe to floorofSt.Peter'sin relationship theancient andslopeof cemetery theVatican Hill.

FLOOR LEVEL OF PRESENT BASILICA

LEVEL OF BASILICAOF CONSTANTINE

67

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61

68 15. Tacitus,TheAnnals14.14. See alsoJohnH. Humphrey, ArenasforChariot RomanCircuses: Racing(Berkeleyand Los Angeles: of CaliforniaPress, University 1986),pp. 545-52. 16. Tacitus,TheAnnals15.44. 17. PlinytheElder,NaturalHistory 36.74. 18. Humphrey, RomanCircuses, pp. 269, 549.

Accordingto ancientRomanlaw,all burials wererequiredto be outsidethecitylimits of and so vastcemeteriesringedtheoutskirts mostmajorcitiesoftheEmpire.Rome was no exception.Tombs and mausolealinedthe majorarteriesofthecity,suchas theVia Nomentanato theeast,theVia Flaminiato thenorth,theVia Corneliato thewestin the area of St. Peter's,and theVia Appia to the a cemeterywas referred south.In antiquity, Greekfor"cityof thedead." to as a necropolis, The narrowalleywaysamongthecrowded tombsand themanymausoleawithpedimentalfacadesin clearimitationof ancient Romanhousesmusthaveprovidedthe impressionof a miniaturecity.As one entered and leftthecityof Rome,or anymajorcityof theRomanworld,remindersof humanmortalitywereclearlyapparentas the"Cityof the Dead" embracedthe "Cityof theLiving." foundin The earliestcoinsand inscriptions associationwiththecemeterybelow St. Peter'sdate to themiddleof thefirst centuryA.D. Beforethattime,themajoruse of thearea had not been forburialbutfor sportingevents.A largeellipticalstadiumor circusstoodjustto thesouthof theVia Cornelia.In design,it musthavebeen similar to theCircusMaximus.Only portionsof theVaticancircushavebeen excavatedso that are theexactdimensionsof thestructure not known.Howeverin thelate 1940s, in connectionwiththecompletionof theVia della Conciliazione,themainend wall (the so-calledcarcerior prisons,whereanimalsand prisonerswerekept)was discoveredjustout-

62

side theperimeterof thepiazza of St. Peter's. Accordingto PlinytheElder,theVatican circuswas begunbytheemperorCaligula (37-41 A.D.), butit seemsto havereceivedits monumentalformunderNero (54-68 A.D.), who,accordingto theRoman historian Tacitus,"encloseda trackin theVatican valleyin whichhe could drivehorsesat a showawayfrompublicview."'"It was here thatChristianswereexecutedafterthegreat fireof64 A.D. thatravagedmuchof Rome. Tacitusexplainsthatthe Christianswere used as scapegoatsforthedisasterand their deathswereturnedintosport: weredressed in theskinsof They[theChristians] wildanimalsand torntopiecesbydogs,orthey werecrucified orsetfireas humantorches after dark.Nerooffered hisGardens forthespectacle andprovided entertainment in theCircus, withthecrowdor duringwhichtimehemingled 16 dressed as a charioteer stoodin a chariot, It was in thisstadiumthatPeteris believedby manyto havemethis death. Like anyRoman circus,theoval track was dividedbya centralislanddivider,called a spina.In themiddleofthespinawas usuallyan obelisk.We knowfromPlinythe Elder thattheVaticanobeliskwas setup bytheemperorCaligula in 37 A.D. after havingbeen broughtto Rome byshipfrom Alexandriain Egypt,whereit had been placed decadesbeforein theRoman forum IuliumbytheemperorAugustus.'7Originally,theobeliskhad stoodnotin Alexandria butin Heliopolis,theancientcenterofthe

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Egyptiansun-cultnearCairo in theEgyptian delta.Like otherobelisksat Heliopolis it was probablyquarriedforthepharaohSeti I and hisson RamsesII duringthenineteenth dynasty(1314-1197 B.C.).'8 The Vatican is theoldestobjecton the obelisk,therefore, of site.And it was upon thefoundations thisrace coursedividerthattheobeliskstood foroverfifteen hundredyearsuntilthe ofPope SixtusV and Domenico intervention Fontanain thelate sixteenthcentury. ofthestadiumin the Beforetheconstruction is littleevifirst there A.D., early century dence ofhabitationon thesite.Instead,one withonly mustimaginean open countryside, thegentleslope of one of themanyhillsof or VaticanHill Rome,theMons Vaticanus thelandformthatwould forevergivethearea itsname. The historyofthesiteof St. Peter'sspans twomillennia,duringwhichtimetheVatican area evolvedthroughtheinterrelated and change.Fromthe processesof continuity stadiumand obeliskto theancientRoman fromtheEarlyChristianbasilicato cemetery, theRenaissancechurch,and fromthesevenpiazza to thetwentieth-centuteenth-century each age, inspiredbythe rythoroughfare, beliefin thepowerof thesite,added another layerofmeaningnot onlythroughnew conand thus structionbutalso byincorporating, artifacts of the It is this past. transforming, consciousand consistentassimilationofthe of pastthatallowstheparticularfascination thesiteto endure.

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70. Romanmosaicrepresenting a chariot raceina circus, ca. third A.D. century

63

SELECTED CHRONOLOGY Anobeliskisquarried forthepharaohs 1314SetiI andRamsesII 1197B.C. andplacedinHeliopolis, Egypt. 30-20B.C. The emperor movestheobelisk totheRoman Augustus in forum Alexandria, Egypt. Iulium

1511

1546-64 Michelangelo as architect serves ofSt.Peter's under fiveconsecutive popes. 1586

37A.D.

isbrought The Egyptian obelisk totheVatican gardens inRomebytheemperor Caligula.

54-68

ontheVatican A monumental is constructed stadium Hillfortheemperor Nero.

64

The fourcrossing arecompleted. piersofthenewchurch

The obeliskismovedtotheplateainfront ofSt.Peter's, underthedirection ofPopeSixtus V andhisarchitect, DomenicoFontana, tothePope'sproposed according of Rome. plan

1588-93 The domeandlantern arecompleted byGiacomo dellaPorta.

St.Peteris traditionally believed tobe martyred onthisdate.

ortropaion 170-200 The shrine ofSt.Peteris constructed.

1608-18 CarloMaderno, thearchitect ofPopePaulV,oversees the construction ofthenaveandfacade.

312

The emperor converts toChristianity. Constantine

1626

317-332

ofOld St.Peter's isundertaken The construction the Constantine. by emperor

1624-34 Gianlorenzo Bernini andbuildsthebaldacchino designs forPopeUrbanVIII.

590-604

theGreatdirects theimprovements tothe PopeGregory altarabovetheApostle's tomb.

1656-67 Bernini, underPopeAlexander andoversees VII, designs theconstruction ofthepiazzaofSt.Peter's.

1450-55

LeoneBattista Alberti, PopeNicholasV andhisarchitect, St. a for Peter's and the project Borgothat propose building ofthebasilica. includes theremodeling the Only foundations oftheproposed choirarecompleted.

1929

1506

DonatoBramante, II withhisarchitect, PopeJulius initiate oftheEarlyChristian thedemolition basilica. The first stoneofthenewSt.Peter's is laidonApril18,1506.

64

The newbasilicais consecrated byPopeUrbanVIII.

ofreconciliation, PopePiusXI andMussolini signa treaty the state of Vatican creating sovereign City.

1936-50 Mussolini's MarcelloPiacentini andAttilio architects, the out demolition of the Spaccerelli, carry spina andtheconstruction oftheVia dellaConciliazione and thepropylaea.

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you of thesethings,thoughyou know soon, as our LordJesusChrist themand are establishedin thetruth showedme. And I willsee to it that thatyou have.I thinkit right,as long as I am in thisbody,to arouseyou by

aftermydepartureyou maybe able at anytimeto recallthesethings.

CharlesB. McClendon 65

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