A Massacre of Meanings: Phaibun Wongthet's "And So I Come in Search of Fedupness"
Susan F. Kepner University of California, Berkeley 2003 Paper Presented at Southeast Asian Studies Conference University of California, Berkeley
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Copyright © 2003 by Susan F. Kepner
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A Massacre of Meanings:
Phaibun Wongthet's "And So I Come in Search of Fedupness" This is the story of two books written ten years apart, during a critical period of modern Thai history. The first was written by a Thai author and political activist in 1971; the second is a parody of that book, written in 1981. Between 1971 and 1981, two massacres occungs: ary forces massacred unarmed political demonstrators in Bangkok, an event which led to the fall of the government, and the exile of its leaders. After three years of comparatively open political activity, in October 1976 military and paramilitary forces carried out another massacre in which even more people were killed. This massacre was followed by the imposition of a government that was perhaps even more repressive than the one that had fallen in 1973. The first book, a collection of essays, plays and poems entitled Ch|an cung maa h«aa khwaam m«aay / ฉันจึงมาหาความหมาย (And so I come in search of meaning) was published in the heyday of political activism by Witthayakorn Chiangkul, then 24 years old. The second book, the parody, is a collection of essays entitled Ch\an cung maa h«aa khwaam ng«øøy / ฉันจึงมาหาความหงอย: (And so I come in search of fedupness). It was written by Phaibun Wongthet, a friend of Witthayakorn's. Like Witthayakorn, Phaibun was a political activist and writer; like Witthayakorn, he was present at both massacres. He was 20 years old in 1973, 23 in 1976; and he was 30 years old when he wrote his parody, living in political exile in Stockholm. 1
1The
final word in Phaibun's title,
ng«øøy / หงอย¬, which I have translated
as "fed-up-ness," may also be defined as "despondency" or even "listlessness," but "fed-up-ness" seems to me closer to the feeling I believe Phaibun meant to convey.
4 It is my belief that the latter work, the parody, is the more "authentic" expression of Thai political and also literary expression, and that this is only one example, in Thai literature, of a parody surpassing an original text in conveying the message that the author of the original work meant to convey. I would also like to address the very important role of humor in Thai literature, as well as some of the cultural dimensions and linguistic details of Thai humor, which often do not "translate" well. The first book, Witthayakorn's collection, inspired an idealistic generation. He and every other Thai child had entered school at the age of six to learn to read, recite, and revere the words, "ch»aat / s\aatsan«aa / phr|amah«aakas\at:" "nation / religion / king," the triune definition of all that a Thai should hold most sacred. But this paradigm has sometimes served to mask and to excuse corruption, meager popular participation in the political process, and military rule. Although most of them did not think of destroying this paradigm altogether, at the the time Witthayakul's generation entered the university, many believed that a reimagining of Thai society was long overdue, and that they were the generation uniquely able and willing to take on the task. When Witthayakorn graduated from the Economics Faculty of Thammasat University in Bangkok in 1969, he had already written many of the works that would end up in his famous collection. All were heartfelt, utterly sincere, and survive less as outstanding examples of Thai literature than as artifacts of a hopeful and energetic political movement. Before I describe a few of them, it is useful to consider the Preface, written by another political activist named Suchat Sawatsri. It is studded with created Thai terms followed in parentheses by the English terms they more or less resemble: udomkat\î / อุดมคติ (idealism); khon m\ot alaay taay y\aak / คนหมดอาลัยตาย
อยาก (Cynic and this is an arguable definition he defines the English word "frustration" using the same term, with more justification); khwaam r|uus\üuk nay cherng anaath|îpataay / ความรู้สึกในเชิงอนาธิปไตย¬ (anarchist); s\îng th»îi
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สิ่งที่ไร้สาระ (absurd); khwaam r|uus\üüuk ph\ît-ph\‰‰k t\‰‰k-t\aang / ความรู้สึกผิดแผกแตกต่าง (a debatable translation of the term "alienation") and, finally, kras«ae s«amn|üuk / กระแสสำานึก (stream of r|ay s«aar|a /
consciousness). 2
Witthayakorn's collection of works includes a play in which the four protagonists are known as Prisoners Number One, Two, Three and Four; as victims of an unjust system, it is difficult to distinguishable one from another. Poems include "Suw«an k\ap kaan long thun" / สวรรค์กับการลงทุน (Heaven and capitalism), and "Mahakaam kh«øøng s\at müuang" / มหกรรมของสัตว์เมือง (The monstrous karma of the 'sat-müuang,'" a title describing evil, subhuman, people who have amassed wealth through crime and corruption, and occupy positions of political and social power.
ในมุมหนึ่งของโลกที่โศกนี้ ยังคงมีความสุขสนุกแสน ยืนอยู่บนความยากลำาบากแค้น ของคนแคลนสิ้นไร้ไปทั้งนั้น nay mum n\üung kh«øøng l»ook n|îi yang khong mii khwaam s\uk san\uk s«‰‰n yüuüun y\uu bon khwaam y»aak lamb\aak kh|‰‰n kh«øøng khon khl‰‰n s»în r|ay pay th|ang-n|an Translation: In one corner of this sad world are happiness, and joy standing upon the poverty and want of needy people with no hope of help.
2See
Suchat Sawatsri's Introduction to Witthayakorn 1971, 7-27.
6 Consider the times. The year 1971, when the collection was published, was an amazing year in which to graduate from Thammasat University. This was the heart and home of the student movement, which was flowering mightily, although it would not come into full bloom until 1973. Riding high on its successes in publicizing and acting out against the Japanese economic invasion, the student movement also was taking aim at other serious problems: Thailand's excruciating position as home base for U.S. bombers then causing massive destruction and death in the neighboring nations of Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam; the resultant escalating power and influence of the U.S. in Thai international and domestic affairs; the immense and shameless corruption of the military dominated Thai government; and the continuing exclusion of the Thai populace at large from a meaningful role in the governance of their nation. Witthayakorn belonged to a number of activist groups: among them were a student writer's group called "phracan s\îaw" / พระจันทร์เสี้ยว ("Crescent Moon"), focused on world literaure and international affairs. He wrote short stories, edited student journals, and belonged to an influential group of the day called "n\um n»aw s«aaw s«uay" / หนุ่มเหน้าสาวสวย. (Bad boys, pretty girls"). To be young, Thai, and at 3
university in those days was to experience a youth that was something new under the Thai sun. They imagined, and they worked to establish, a flowering of the arts, and of literature. They questioned every value that had been drummed into them via the deftly devised curricula of the Department of Education. They believed that they could and would be able to do all of these things, if only they had sufficient courage. On October 14, 1973, when students and other political activists were massacred in the streets of downtown Bangkok by military forces, military leaders accused them of being communists, certain that most Thai citizens would need to hear nothing more, in order to decide that the unarmed demonstrators were grave threats to nation, religion, and 3A
brief biography of Witthayakorn is included in Anderson and Mendiones 1985, 289-290. A translation of his short story, "As If It Had Never Happened" appears in this volume.
7 king. But in this, they badly miscalculated. The guns backfired on the military, whose massacre disgraced them in the eyes of the public, horrified at the sight of Thai children lying mutilated or dead in the streets of the capital, all for defying a government that everyone knew to be corrupt, and which had now proven itself to be brutal as well. The result was that the military government fell, and its leaders went into exile. King Bhumibhol Adulyadej personally ordered military leaders to step aside and leave the kingdom, and there ensued a brief honeymoon between the average man in the street or woman in the factory, or family in the rice field and the people in the student movement, and their many supporters. During the next three years, political activists were continually involved in spirited debates over the nature of proper government; in calling and joining strikes; in organizing rural farmers and urban workers; and in a host of unprecedented political and social activities. At first, they enjoyed tremendous respect and support. But gradually, the movement began to lose its lustre in the eyes of the population at large. What did they have to offer, in place of the things they criticized and deplored? And what of the educated urbanites who had initially rallied to the activists' cause, but who became increasingly disaffected after 1973? Literature is a case in point. The most extreme of the political activists attacked the classical works of Thai literature: for example, the Ramakian, which is the Thai version of the Ramayana, as well as native works such as Khun Chang Khun Phaen and Phra Aphaimani]. These tales, which focus on the frailties of human nature, were attacked as feudal tools that engendered "false consciousness" among the people. Some activists called for them to be collected and burned in the streets. There were passionate debates on the correct uses of literature. In one of them, a rather terrifiedsounding moderator, chosen because he was more or less acceptable to panel members representing both ends of the political spectrum, introduced the panel with these words: "We are here to consider is whether the literature of the past was composed in order to drug the masses
8 [mawm maw prachaachon /
มอมเมาประชาชน:
a common translation of the
term, "opiate of the masses"] and prevent free thought; or whether this literature had a (positive) part in the building of the Thai nation.... (Some say that) the literature of an era that extolled one class while condemning or vilifying or hurting another should no longer be taught; or, it should be taught on a selective basis. It is also said that the traditional Thai literature is irrelevant to the people because it is filled with old vocabulary that is understood today by hardly anyone (i.e., it is understood only by people of the elite/educated class) and it is not written in the language of the people. This is an argument that we have seen recently advanced in China, where people have asserted, for example, that Confucianism does not fit the civilization or the culture [w|
athanatham / วัฒนธรรม] newly created by the Chinese people." 4
One unconvinced scholar who participated in the debate said, "I am quite confused by all the talk about the word 'values' [kh»aa n|îyom /
ค่านิยม]
these days.
For example, some people will tell you that Khun Suchat [Sawatsri, also a panel member] obviously has new "values" because he has a beard and a mustache. But beards and mustaches are not values they are fashions. Values and fashions are not at all the same thing. Young men must dress in a certain way today if they wish to be "t»ay. " [A slang word, new at the time, originally adapted from the English word "taste."] But I do not see any new values, in this era. I see only old values, in a new society. And what is this new society? Look at it unstable, lacking law and discipline, toppling as if it were riddled with termites. I do not know what we are to do. What are our "values" now? Alienation, anxiety, and desolation. [khwaam w|aa wee w|aa w»un kl»um-jaay /
ความว้าเหว่ว้าวุ่นกลุ้มใจ] On October 6, 1976 (h\ok tuulaa / หกตุลา), the military returned with a
vengeance. But the public mood was quite different from what it had been in 1973. Just 4Boonlua
1986, 265-266. This excerpt is taken from a transcript of a tape recording made at the conference; passages in parentheses appear so in the transcript; passages in brackets are my explanatory notes.
9 a year earlier, in 1975, the war had ended, ushering in an atmosphere of uncertainty and fear. This time, scare tactics in Thailand concerning "communist" threats to the stability and the very survival of Thailand fell upon very receptive ears, compared to 1973. Many Thais were simply tired of the disorder and pandemonium that characterized the open political system, and they also were terribly fearful of what the coming years would mean, with communist governments now on their borders. One political figure who managed to escape, and go into exile abroad, was Phaibun Wongthet. Phaibun, who was born in Prachinburi and remained a selfdescribed "country boy" in his outlook, always had seen things a bit differently from his companions. He remained greatly attached to the Thai literary tradition of parody and satire. He was, and still is, a naturally very funny man. While his friends were poring over Thai translations of Che Guevara's Diary, or mimeographing the works of banned Thai radicals like the late Chit Phoumisak and writing earnestly about the social problems of the day in terms laboriously translated from English, Phaibun exhibited a certain cynicism, and skepticism, about the value of Che's, or even Chit's, ideas for dealing with contemporary Thai problems. Phaibun's parody of Witthayakorn's earnest collection was quite purposefully a massacre of meanings. Phaibun did not disagree with his colleagues who wrote passionate and often tendentious poems, plays and essays about politics and society. But his instinct, in the face of disaster, was to retreat into satire. Phaibun's work became better known and better loved than the work that inspired it not the first time such a thing has happened in Thai literary life. Parody has always played a special and important role in Thai literature, and Thai society. The work that is generally considered to be the first Thai novel, Khwaam phayabaat / ความพยาบาท (Vengeance, 1900), was a Thai version of the Victorian novelist Morie Corelli's work, Vendetta; or, The Story of One Forgotten. The Thai novel,
10 written by Phraya Surintharacha (พระยาสุรินทราชา), made perhaps its greatest impression on another writer, his friend Luang Wilat Poriwat (หลวงวิลาศปริวรรตถ์). Luang Wilat thought that Khwaam Phayabaat was hilarious a terrible piece of writing, and altogether hilarious. So he sat down and wrote a parody entitled Khwaam m»ay phayabaat / ความไม่พยาบาท (No vengeance, 1915). I believe that the event of Phraya Surintharacha's 1900 novel, followed by Luang Wilat Prawat's 1915 parody, presages the event of Witthyakorn's 1971 book, followed a dozen years later by Phaibun's 1982 parody. A serious work was followed by a parody that became more popular than the original. Through parody, Thai writers have reflected upon, ordered, and digested events in the cultural evolution of Thai society; and this literary process is hardly limited to twentieth century works. In earlier centuries, parodies of socalled classical works were popular at the Siamese court. 5
In contemporary Thai society, literary parodies are something like a "roast," in the U.S. In a backhanded gesture of honor, a person's best friends throw a lavish party at which they insult him or her with "toasts" so scathing that they amount to "roasts." This delight in "roasting" and ridiculing one's friends plays a significant part in Thai humor, and figures largely in popular Thai literature. As in many societies, Thai literary works of humor and/or parody seldom win literary prizes, even if they find far more readers than the prizewinners. Like many of his friends who were fortunate enough to escape prison or death, Phaibun Wongthet fled Thailand in 1976, and somehow ended up in Sweden, where he was miserable in the snow and the cold, with no Thai friends, much less Thai food. But he had brought with him a copy of Witthayakorn Chiangkul's And So I Come in Search of Meaning. In his misery and loneliness, quite literally during the winter of his discontent, 5See
Grow 1996, 47-67, and Kepner 1996, 9-11. In the latter, reference is made to the scandalous, obscene parodies of respectable poems written by Khun Suwan, a lady of the court at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century.
11 Phaibun wrote eleven parodies of works by Witthyakorn and ten other friends who had been the most important writers and political activists in Thailand from the late 1960s to 1976. Even the subtitle of his collection warns the reader of what is coming. He plays with words, another key feature of Thai humor. Elegant words are altered ever so slightly...rendering them ever so nasty. If you don't listen too closely, the sound of the subtitle of "And So I Come in Search of Fedupness" sounds like, "Contemporary Literature in Celebration of the Ratanakosin Era [i.e., the "Bangkok Era"] in Its 200th Year." Which would be, "Wanakam r|uam sam«ay somph»oot krung ratanakosin pii th»îi
200" / วรรณกรรมร่วมสมัยสมโภชน์กรุงรัตนโกสินทร์ปีที่ 200. But
that is not what it says. Phaibun has changed a consonant here, a vowel there so that in fact the subtitle reads, Wana-am r»uam sam«ay s«omph»aat krung r| atanakos«în pii th»îi 200 (วรรณอำำร่วมสมัยสมพำสกรุงรัตนโกสินทร์ปีที่200), or, "Contemporary lies fornicating the grand ratanakosin in its 200th Year..." 6
Phaibun also rewrites the names of the writers in silly ways. His own brother, Suchit Wongthet, becomes "Suchit Manth»eet" สุจิตต์ มันเทศ) "Suchit Potato." Witthayakorn Chiangkul is renamed, with the syllables of his last name reversed from Chiangkul to "Kunchiang," meaning "Chinese pork sausage." Perhaps the favorite parody in the collection is the scandalous reinvention of a famous and beloved poem by his brother Suchit, commonly referred to as "C»aw kh«un-thøøng pay p\aa" ("Jao Khun Thong goes to the forest"). "To the forest" is a code term for going off to join anti government forces, particularly communist groups in the rural Northeast. But Phaibun's 7
6The
word wana-am , a made-up word meaning "lies," sounds almost exactly like the word wanakam, which means "literature," while the word s«omph»aat, meaning "fornication," sounds very much like the word "s«omph»oot," which means "celebration." 7The
official title of this poem is
W|at ?˙y w|at b\oot /
วัดเอ๋ยวัดโบสถ์ An
English translation entitled, "Oh! Temple , Temple of Bot!" appears in Phillips, 1987. 336-338. Another English translation by Savitri Suwansathit appears
12 parody is entitled "Kh«un-thøøng pay kh»îi," "Khun Thong goes to defecate." It is a scatalogical masterpiece that I admit I was embarrassed to translate, when a Thai colleague asked me to do so. In the original poem, Khun Thong's confused but proud parents figure prominently. In Phaibun's parody, they are replaced by flies in the outhouse. At the end of the original poem, Khun Thong's mother and father are proud of their son, now gone, now lost. In Phaibun's parodies, Khun Thong is gone, gone from the outhouse, and only the flies remain, but they are proud of what they have witnessed. On and on Paiboon writes, and rants, ridiculing his friends and making fun of the most treasured essays, stories and poems of his generation. Works that were written with passion during the one brief shining moment "s\îp-s\îi tulaa /
สิบสี่ตุลา literally,
"the fourteenth of October" (1973), the day on which, following the initial horror of a massacre, all dreams had seemed possible. But following the second massacre, on October 6, 1976, all dreams seemed shattered, and the dreamers had scattered, from the forests of Thailand to the frozen streets of Stockholm. Some languished in the prisons of Bangkok. Their written works were banned. Phaibun's parodies kept them alive. Chetana Nagavajara, a Thai literature scholar, has written, "Phaibun's parody helped to keep them alive in an age hostile to them. To secure them their rightful place in the Thai 'republic of letters' was not to present or represent them in their original form, which [would have been] anathema to the establishment, but to translate them into parody." Chetana once remarked to me (I don't think that these remarks have appeared 8
in print), "One reason Thais don't make good revolutionaries is because, when things get very bad, someone always thinks of something ridiculous. Successful revolutionaries do not have much of a sense of humor." Phaibun Wongthet's response to oppression, violence, and tragedy has its roots in a longstanding Thai literary tradition. Perhaps he did not change anything, with his under the title, "The Saga of Khunthong," in the Thai P.E.N. Anthology: Short stories and Poems of Social Consciousness, , 94-96. 8Chetana 1996, 252. Italics appear in the original text.
13 parodies. But he survived, lived to write another day, gave hope to his friends, and made them laugh when there was little to laugh about. It was some kind of a victory.
Sources Anderson, Benedict R. O'G. and Ruchira Mendiones. In the Mirror: Literature and Politics in Siam in the American Era. Bangkok: Duang Kamol, 1985. Boonlua Thepyasuwan. Waen wanakam / / แว่นวรรณกรรม (Lens on literature). A collection of essays on literature. Bangkok: Aan Thai, 1986. Chetana Nagavajara. "Parody as Translation: A Thai Case Study." In Comparative Literature from a Thai Perspective. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press, 1996. Grow, Mary L. "Tarnishing the Golden Era: Aesthetics, Humor, and Politics in Lakhon Chati DanceDrama." In State Power and Culture in Thailand, 4767. Edited by E. Paul Durrenberger. New Haven: Monograph 44 / Yale Southeast Asia Series, 1996. Kepner, Susan F. The Lioness in Bloom: Modern Thai Fiction about Women. Berkeley: The University of California Press, 1996. Morell, David and Chaianan Samudavanija. Political Conflict in Thailand: Reform, Reaction, Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Oelgeschlager, Gunn & Hain, Publishers, Inc., 1981. Phillips, Herbert P. Modern Thai Literature: An Ethnographic Interpretation. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1987.
Thai P.E.N. Anthology : Short Stories and Poems of Social Consciousness. Bangkok: P.E.N. Internatonal Thailand Centre, 1984.
14 Witthayakorn Chiangkul. Ch|an cung maa h«aa khwaam m«aay / ©—
ฉันจึงมาหาความหมาย¬
(And so I come in search of meaning). Bangkok: Saphaa
naa khoom, 1971. Wongthet, Phaibun. Ch\an cung maa h«aa khwaam ng«øøy / ©—ฉันจึงมา
หาความหงอย¬ (And so I come in search of fedupness). Bangkok: Ruan Kaew, 1982. (Note: Chetana Nagavajara, cited above, indicates a later printing of this work by Kampaeng Press, also in Bangkok, in 1988.)