Literature Review And Conceptual Framework

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CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK A. Literature Review 1. English Teaching and Learning a. Definition of Teaching and Learning Brown (1987: 6) defines teaching as “showing or helping someone to learn how to do something, giving instruction, guiding in study something, providing with knowledge, causing to know or understand”. Teaching is also defined as a change or modification of behavior containing three things which are necessary, they are: experience, discrimination, and association (Madsen, 1970: 8). Usman (1992: 16) defines teaching as the guidance of learning activities. Hornby (1974: 886) in his “Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English” gives the same definitions of teaching as a derivation of the word “to teach” as follows: 1) give instruction to somebody 2) cause somebody to know or be able to do something 3) give to somebody knowledge, skill, etc 4) give lesson Learning is defined as acquiring or getting knowledge of a subject or a skill by study, experience, or obstruction (Brown, 1987: 6). Webster (1979: 1032) defines the word “learn” in his dictionary as follows: 1) to gain knowledge of a subject; to acquire information concerning, as by instruction, study, observation, experience, etc.; to acquire skill in anything; as to learn the news, or a lesson

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2) 3) 4) 5)

to come to know; as I learned that he had sick to come to know how to fix in mind; to memorize to acquire as a habit or attitude 6) to teach: formerly a standard usage now substandard learning b. Components of the Teaching and Learning Process Gagne in Rustiyah (1994: 39) states that the teaching and learning

components are learning objectives, content, method, resources, media, management, evaluation, learner, teacher, and development of the teaching and learning process. Kemp (1977: 39-40) proposes different category of teaching and learning components. According to him the components of teaching and learning are goals, topic and general purposes, learner characteristics, learning objectives, subject content, pre-assessment, teaching and learning activities and resources, and supporting facilities. Some of the teaching and learning components according to Gagne in Rustiyah (1994:39) are as follows: 1) Learner Breen and Candlin in Richards (1985: 22-23) explain about the learner’s role in a communicative method as follows: “The role of learner as negotiator-the self, the learning process, and the object of learning-emerges from and interacts with the role of joint negotiator within the group and within the classroom procedures and activities which the group undertakes. The implication for the learners is that he should contribute as much as he gains, and thereby learn in an independent way”. Johnson and Paulston in Richards (1985: 23) state about the learner’s

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role in an individualized approach to language learning as follows: (a) the learner is the planner of his own learning program and thus ultimately assumes responsibility for what he or she does in the class room; (b) the learner is the monitor and evaluator of his/her own progress; (c) the learner is a member of a group and learns by interacting with others; (d) the learner is a tutor of other learners; (e) the learner learns from the teacher, from other students, and from other teaching sources. 2) Teacher Some of the instructional systems depend on the teacher as the source of knowledge; others see the teacher as the catalyst, consultant, diagnostician, guide, and model for learning. In the classical audio-lingual method, the teacher is regarded as the source of language and learning. The teacher is similar to a conductor of the orchestra, whose prime goal is to keep the players in tune and time, and without whom no music could be performed (Richards, 1985: 23-24). Teachers should be able to lead students to learn totally (developing their cognitive, affective, and psychomotor), optimalize the teaching - learning process, investigate the student potentials and personality, and motivate students for their future life (Samana, 1994; 29). Usman (1994: 7-10) states that the teachers’ roles in teaching are as the demonstrators, learning managers, evaluators, and facilitators. As demonstrators, the teachers should master the content of the materials to be taught to their students, and always improve their skill related to their specific knowledge. As learning managers, the teachers should be able to

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manage the classroom because the classroom is the learning environment and the aspect of school environment to be organized. As facilitators, the teachers should have enough knowledge about educational media because sometimes they have to use and create the media to support the teaching and learning process. It is because educational media are the instruments of communication to make the teaching and learning process more effective. So, they will help the students to understand the materials easily. As evaluators, the teachers should be able to evaluate the process and the result of the teaching and learning process. It is because evaluation will inform them about the students’ progress and the students’ learning development. Breen and Candlin in Richards (1985: 24) propose about the teacher’s role in a communicative method as follows: “The teacher has two main roles: the first role is to facilitate communication process between all participants in the classroom, and between these participants and the various activities and text. The second role is to act as an independent participant within the learning and teaching group. The later role is closely related to the objectives of the first role and arises from it. This role implies a set of secondary roles for the teacher; first, as an organizer of resources and as a resource himself, second as a guide within the classroom procedures and activities… A third role for the teacher is that if researcher and learner, with much to contribute in terms of appropriate knowledge and abilities, actual and observed experience of the nature of learning and organizational capacities”. 3) Materials and Subject Content Kemp (1977: 45-47) states that the content of the syllabus must closely related to the objective and students’ needs. Objectives are what the teachers’ want the content to do. For many teachers, the subject

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content is the traditional strategy point for teaching. In the planning, teachers are developing the syllabus, and developing the materials from the textbook which consider as the source of the subject content. Kemp (1977: 49) also states that the subject content comprises the selection and organizes the specific knowledge (fact and information), skills (systematic procedures, conditions, and requirement), and attitudinal factors of any topic. What is specified with respect to the content (the syllabus) and to the learner as well as teacher roles suggest the function for materials (Richards, 1985: 24). He (1985: 25) mentions the roles of instructional materials as follows: (a) The materials will facilitate the communication abilities of interpretation, expression, and negotiation. (b) Materials will focus on understandable and relevant communication rather that on grammatical form. (c) Materials will command the learner’s interest and involve their intelligence and creativity. (d) Materials will involve different types of text, and different media, which the participants can use to develop their competence through a variety of different activities and tasks. 4) Teaching and Learning Method In the Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, methodology is defined as the study of the practice and procedures used in teaching, and the principles and beliefs that underline them (Nunan, 1991: 2). A method refers to a language-teaching philosophy that contains a standardized set of procedures or principles for teaching a language that are based upon a given set of theoretical premises about the nature of

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language and language learning (Richards, 1985: 32). Roestiyah (1994: 65) states that a method in the teaching and learning activities is a systematic planning and strategy to present information. Stern (1983: 474) explains Anthony’s terminology about the distinction among approach, method and technique. According to Anthony’s terminology, an approach constitutes the axiomatic or theoretical bases of language teaching. A method is a procedural and the selection of materials to be taught, the graduation of those materials, their presentation, and pedagogical implementation to induce learning. Within one approach, there can be more than one method, while a technique is implementation. An approach is simply defined as a theoretical assumption, a method is the teaching strategy, while a technique is specific classroom activities. 5) Media Instructional media refers to audiovisual materials, books, and duplicated materials that serve instructional functions in education. (Burden & Byrd, 1999: 137). Sugeng (1997: 46) states that media are important factors to facilitate the teaching and learning process. In the teaching and learning process the teacher has to choose the media selectively, it is because the media that is used must be appropriate with the material that is taught. a) Contributions of media to the teaching and learning process Kemp and Smellie in Burden and Byrd (1999: 13) mention some

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benefits of media as follows: (1) The content of topic can be more carefully selected and organized. (2) The delivery of instruction can be more standardized. (3) The instruction can be more interesting. (4) Learning becomes more interactive when applying accepted learning theory. (5) The length of time required for instruction can be reduced. (6) The quality of learning can be improved. (7) The instruction can be provided when and where desired or necessary. (8) The positive attitude of individuals towards what they are learning and to the learning process itself can be enhanced. (9) The role of instructor or teacher can be enhanced. b) Types of media and resources Lado (1964: 173-202) distinguishes the main types of media as technological aids in language teaching into two namely language laboratory and visual media. The visual media consist of pictures, whiteboard, marker, charts, slide and slide projectors, film strips, opaque projectors, overhead projectors, motion pictures, and television. Burden and Byrd (1999: 144-159) also have a similar idea. They state that a wide variety of media and resources are available for instructional purposes including audio visual materials, books and duplicates materials, and other resources. Audio visual media consist of non-projected visual (chalk boards, display boards, flip charts, etc.), projected visual (overhead projector and transparencies, filmstrips, slides, and opaque projector), audio media (phonograph record, audiotapes and compact disc), multimedia (interactive video, multi-image system, etc), film and video, electronic distribution system (radio, television, etc.), computer, and simulation and games.

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Books and duplicated materials consist of textbooks, resource materials, and workbooks. Other resources are free and inexpensive materials (brochures, pamphlets, statistical reports, etc.), and media created by the teachers. 2. Constraints a. The Definition of Constraint Hornby (1995: 247) defines constraint as a thing that limits or restricts. According to Webster (1990: 281) constraint is state of being checked, restricted, or compelled to avoid or to perform some action. So, it can be concluded that a constraint is a confinement or restriction that limits or restricts one’s performance in some activities. b. The Constraints in the Language Teaching and Learning Rombepajung (1988: 14-15) mentions some constraints in language teaching and learning process; they are the subject content that must be taught, the teaching intensity, and quality of the teacher. The other constraints are the limited classroom, textbooks, and class teachers. Other factors such as classroom density, the noise, fatigue, and anxiety also influence the language teaching and learning process. Baradja (1990: 6) adds that the failure of the teaching of a foreign language is caused by the educational policy which is not suitable with the principles of foreign language teaching. The principles are small classes, professional teachers, high frequency of meeting, suitable learning

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resources, environmental supports, and students’ motivation. c. The Constraints in the Teaching and Learning Components The constraint of the language teaching and learning is a negative phenomenon that can disturb the success of the teaching and learning process. The constraints can emerge from the teaching and learning components: the teachers, the students, the material, time and space. 1) The Constraints Caused by the Teachers Coletti in Soekarwati (1995: 60) states that ineffective teaching is caused by several factors. First, the teachers may lack of the capability in making students interested in following and understanding the materials. The teacher cannot modify the material so that the students are not interested in the lessons. Second, the teachers sometimes tend to be selfish. The teachers do not want to receive criticism, advice or feedback from the students. It seems that they seem feel that they have given the best things to their students. This attitude may cause the students do not like the teachers. As the result, the classroom become noisy and the students do not pay full attention to the teacher’s explanation. Third, the teachers may lack on material mastery. The teachers only use the materials from the textbook. Thus, in the teaching and learning process, sometimes the teachers cannot answer the students’ questions, and cannot explain the material clearly. Without material

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mastery, the teachers will not make the students interested in the materials. Fourth, the teachers may lack of sense of humor. Without this sense the teachers will find some difficulties in teaching because they face students’ unpleasant feelings. Students will become afraid if their teachers teach them with a fiery face. Possibly, the classroom will be silent because the students feel afraid to ask questions to the teachers. As the result, the teachers will be angry because they feel that the students neglect them. So the teaching and learning process to be unsuccessful. Fifth, the teachers may lack of capability in managing the class. Classroom management in the teaching and learning process is an important thing. With good classroom management, the teaching and learning process will become more efficient. On the other hand, lack of capability

in managing the class will cause the teaching and learning

process to become inefficient. The classroom becomes noisy and students are difficult to manage. Last, the teachers may lack of capability in improving the quality of their leadership. The teachers are the leader of their students. Therefore, they should show their leaderships. So students will respect them. 2) The Constraints Caused by the Students Westwood (1975: 2) mentions the characteristics of children with learning difficulties as a) less being mature, b) less ready for academic work, c) having poor attention span, d) being poor at art work, e) having poor motor control, f) having poor social and emotional adjustment, g)

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having poor speech and language, and h) being more impulsive which often disturbs their learning activities. Kauchack, Eggen, and Jacobson (1989: 183) state that it is a problem if a student does not want to cooperate. This kind of problem can be frustrating in term of the time and energy that the teacher requires. Petty and Jenson (1980: 67-71) explain many factors that influence children language development, i.e., their mental abilities, physical characteristics, sex, time and environmental contexts, and ethnic and economic backgrounds. They further state that the family’s economic circumstances of children influence the language development. Children from the middle-income families tend to be more develop than children from low-income families. 3) The Constraints Caused by the Materials The constraints in the instructional material can occur because of the grammar practice. Students seem to find it difficult to understand a lesson because of grammar difficulties (Betts and Howell 1984: xii). Nunan (1991: 209) says that the criteria of good materials can be burdensome in a foreign language context. In this case, authentic source and stimulating materials may not be readily available in the textbook. Wilkins in Nunan (1991: 152) says, “…an inadequate knowledge of grammar would constraint linguistic creativity and limits the capacity for communication.” Meanwhile, Rivers in Nunan (1991: 117) argues that “…without an extensive vocabulary, we will be unable to use the

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structures and functions we may have learned for comprehensible communication.” 4) The Constraints Caused by Time and Space Willey and Harnischfegar in Kauchack, Eggen, and Jacobson (1989: 66) state that the lack of time can be the constraint in the teaching and learning process. It often happens because the teacher and the students have the lack of awareness of the time. They do not use the time optimally. In relation to the classroom environment, Kauchack, Eggen, and Jacobson (1989: 155) state that the room which is not well arranged can disrupt both management and achievement. Cullingford (1995: 129) states that a classroom is uncomfortable to the learning process if there is lack of resources, and if it is untidy and dirty. d. The Constraints in the English Skill Components 1) The Constraints in Speaking Lubis (1988: 13-14) states that there are some challenges in conversation practice. Students may be too shy and afraid to take part in the conversation. As a result, they speak too quietly, so their voice cannot be heard. So, the other students are not interested in the conversation. 2) The Constraints in Writing Smedly (1983: 16) states that the written work of English as a foreign language students is profusely littered with spelling errors, and hopes that they will be cured by time. But it turns out to be unfounded. Some of these poor spellers may well experience problems in reading and

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writing. 3) The Constraints in Reading Smedly (1983: 23) states that reading difficulties may occur when background of concepts and vocabulary is not enough to deal with specific material. The reading difficulties also occur if the students have the low motivation. 4) The Constraints in Listening Wittich and Scuhuller (1979: 171) state that many factors can obstruct students’ learning. Extraneous environmental noises, for example, can influence the audibility of instructional messages. An auditory system is also one of the constraints in listening, especially if the physical condition of hearing does not work optimally (Tarigan, 1985: 56). Besides, he also argues that vocabulary and structure of a message can be the constraint when those matters are new. 3. The Teaching of English to Children a. Principles of Teaching Scot and Ytreberg (1994: 5) propose some principles in the teaching English as a foreign language. The first principle is that ‘words are not enough.’ It means that when the teachers teach, they do not rely on the spoken words only. They should include movements and involve the senses. The second principle is ‘play with the language.’ This statement refers to the fact that the students should have experience in using the

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English. The teachers let the pupils talk to themselves, make up rhymes, sing a song, telling stories, etc. The third principle is ‘variety in the classroom.’ The teachers should create interesting activities for the children in the classroom, such as playing games, singing a song, telling stories, etc. So the students will not get bored. The fourth principle is ‘routines’, it is important for the children to know the rules and to be familiar with the situations. The teachers should create familiar situations and activities, such as repeat stories, rhymes, etc. The fifth principle is ‘cooperation not competition.’ It means that the teachers should create an atmosphere of involvement and togetherness. Rewards and prizes should be involved. Working in groups is one way to lead to cooperative learning. The sixth principle is ‘group the children together whenever possible’; this does not mean that the children have to be in groups all the time, but most children like to have other children around them. Therefore, it would be better for the teachers to provide some students with group activities. The last principle is ‘assessment’, it is necessary to know the children’s progress. To know the children’s learning development, the teachers should asses the children’s ability in the classroom. b. Characteristics of the Students

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According to Paint in Hudelson (1994: 256), children in the primary or elementary school are usually in the concrete operational stage of cognitive development. It is still hard for them to understand abstract things. Children will easily understand the material if the teacher gives examples or shows pictures, real objects, or gestures during the teaching and learning process. Scott and Yterberg (1994: 3-4) identify some general characteristics of children in relation to their capability and aptitudes. First, their basic concepts are formed, it means that when the children learn English the teachers need to give objects and pictures in order that they will understand the materials easily. They can know something from the objects that they have seen. Second, they tell the differences between fact and fiction. It means that when children come to school they find the fact and the fiction. They can tell the differences between fact and fiction. For example, something is fact if they can see and touch the object. Something is fiction if they cannot see and touch the object. Third, they ask questions all the time. It means that they learn something because they do not know about it. As we know, children have great curiosity that makes them asking all the time about something that they have not known. Fourth, they rely on the spoken words. When children learn something they will imitate what the teachers say, in the class activity they

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learn something new from their teachers. They will do all the instructions given by the teachers. They learn from the real world. Fifth, they are

able to make some decisions about their own

learning. Children will learn something if there is a desire from themselves. They will make decisions when they learn without any compellation from people around them. Sixth, they have insufficient view about what they like and do not like to do. Children will always doing something that they like everyday. Seventh, they have developed a sense of fairness about what happens in the classroom. What children usually do in the classroom is something that comes from their minds. In general, the children in the classroom like moving everywhere, making noise, and something that will make them feel happy without regards to the people around them. Last, they are able to work with others and learn from others. Children like learning in groups. They will easily work in groups because they can ask each other.

4. The Teaching of English at SD Muhammadiyah Girikerto SD Muhammadiyah Girikerto has conducted the teaching of English as a local content since 2004. The English teaching has begun at grade four. The class size of each grade is more than 30 students. The English subject is taught

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two hours a week. There is no specific English teacher. There is only one teacher who has some capability of teaching English. She graduated from SMK Ngebong and during her study she learnt English two hours a week. To improve her skill on English she learnt by herself. In the English teaching and learning process, the teacher only uses a textbook, which is published by Yudhistira. However, some students do not have the textbook, so they get the materials only from their teacher. The English teaching and learning process outside of the classroom and groupwork are rarely conducted, and there is no variety of activities. In terms of media use, the teacher only uses the pictures from the textbook although the number of pictures is limited. Time allocation is limited. The range is from 35 minutes to 70 minutes. With the limited time the teacher is unable to conduct group work. When the English lesson is in the afternoon, students’ focus is not on the lesson. They are tired and they want to go home quickly. The class size is more than 30 students. Meanwhile, the classroom size is 6X7 m, ideally the class size in a classroom was up to 25 students. The space of the classroom is not conducive for playing games. There is no space to modify the setting arrangement as the desks and chairs are difficult to move. B. Conceptual Framework In the English teaching and learning process, it often happens that there are some students and teachers who have constraints that influence the teaching and

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learning process and students’ learning achievement. The constraints might come from the teachers, students, materials, teaching and learning method, time, media, and supporting services. The students’ constraints concern to their backgrounds and conditions. The teachers’ constraints concern to their personal, professional and social competences, affected by their backgrounds, personalities, and experiences. Other constraints relate to the learning process, and the educational policy. The teaching English in elementary school is considered different from the English teaching and learning for the higher levels, both in approaches and techniques. Children have specific characteristics in their ways of learning. Students of elementary school learn the language differently from students in the secondary school. In the classroom setting, children understand things in a more real way than adults and they tend not to analyze the language but concentrate more on the total meaning. The children also learn best through active involvement. In other words, they learn by doing. In the children language classroom, activities provided by the teacher should include the element of fun which makes it possible for the students to learn while playing. It is believed that the use of songs, games, quizzes, group-work activities, and pictures seem to be more appropriate for children. Above all, the teacher who conducts the teaching of English to children should be aware of children’s characteristics. In addition, they need to know the principles of teaching for children including the materials, activities, and techniques.

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SD Muhammadiyah Girikerto has decided to conduct an English program as part of their local content curriculum. Since it is relatively new program, this program might have been implemented under the limitation of supporting facilities. Besides, there is no trained teacher of English. It is predicted that there are some constraints of the English teaching and learning process at SD Muhammadiyah Girikerto. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to find out and describe the constraints of the English teaching and learning process at SD Muhammadiyah Girikerto. The result of this study may be used as considerations in improving the teaching of English at SD Muhammadiyah Girikerto.