Korean Language

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Korean language

Korean language language isolate. It is agglutinative in its morphology and SOV in its syntax.

This article is mainly about the spoken Korean language. See Hangul for details on the native Korean writing system.

Names

Korean ???, ??? Hangugeo, Chosŏnmal Spoken in

South Korea, North Korea, People’s Republic of China

Total speakers

78 million[1]

Ranking

18

Language family

language isolate or Altaic (controversial)

Writing system

Exclusive use of Hangul (Both Korea), mix of Hangul and hanja (some professional scripts in S. Korea), or Cyrillic alphabet (lesser used in Goryeomal)

The map showing usage of Korean language in the world The Korean names for the language are based on the names for Korea used in North and South Korea. In South Korea, the language is most often called Hangungmal (???; ???), or more formally, Hangugeo (???; ? ??) or Gugeo (??; ??; literally "national language"). In North Korea and Yanbian in China, the language is most often called Chosŏnmal (???; with hanja: ???), or more formally, Chosŏnŏ (???; ???). On the other hand, Korean people in the former USSR, who refer to themselves as Koryo-saram (also Goryeoin [???; ???; literally, "Goryeo person(s)"]) call the language Goryeomal (???; ???). In mainland China, following the establishment of diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1992, the term Cháoxiǎnyǔ (??? or short form: Cháoyǔ (??)) has normally been used to refer to the language spoken in North Korea and Yanbian, while Hánguóyǔ (??? or short form: Hányǔ (??)) is used to refer to the language spoken in South Korea. Some older English sources also used the name "Korean" to refer to the language, country, and people.

Official status Official language in

Regulated by

North Korea South Korea Yanbian ( People’s Republic of China) United States (minority and auxiliary) South Korea: The National Institute of the Korean Language ????? North Korea: Sahoe Kwahagwon Ŏhak Yŏnguso ????? ?????

Language codes ISO 639-1

ko

ISO 639-2

kor

ISO 639-3

kor

History

Korean (???/???, see below) is the official language of North Korea and South Korea. It is also one of the two official languages in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in China. There are about 78 million Korean speakers. It was formerly written using Hanja, borrowed Chinese characters pronounced in the Korean way. In the 15th century a national writing system was developed by Sejong the Great, currently called Hangul. The genealogical classification of the Korean language is debated. Some linguists place it in the Altaic language family, while others consider it to be a

Korean is descended from Old Korean and Middle Korean.

Classification The classification of the modern Korean language is uncertain, and due to the lack of any one generally accepted theory, a cautious classification will describe it as a language isolate. On the other hand, since the publication of the article of Ramstedt in 1928, some linguists[2] support the

1

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Korean language

hypothesis that Korean can be classified as an Altaic language or as a relative of proto-Altaic. Korean is similar to Altaic languages in that they both lack certain grammatical elements, including articles, fusional morphology and relative pronouns. However, linguists agree today on the fact that typological resemblances cannot be used to prove generic relatedness of languages[3] as these features are 1. typologically connected 2. easily borrowing.[4] Anyway, factors such as typological divergence such as Middle Mongolian exhibiting gender agreement[5] can be used to argue that a generic relationship is unlikely.[6] The hypothesis that Korean might be related to Japanese has had some more supporters due to some considerable overlap in vocabulary and similar grammatical features that have been elaborated upon by such researchers as Samuel E. Martin[7] and Roy Andrew Miller[8]. Sergei Starostin (1991) found about 25% of potential cognates in the Japanese-Korean 100-word Swadesh list, which - if true - would place these two languages closer together than other possible members of the Altaic family.[9] Others linguists, most notably Alexander Vovin, argue, however, that the similarities are not due to any genetic relationship, but rather to a sprachbund effect and heavy borrowing especially from Korean into Western Old Japanese.[10] A good example might be Middle Korean sàm < Proto-Korean asam ‘hemp’ and Japanese asa ‘hemp’.[11] This word seems to be cognate, but while it is well-attested in Western Old Japanese and Northern Ryūkyū, in Eastern Old Japanese it only occurs in compounds, and it is only present in three subdialects of the South-Ryūkyūan dialect group. Then, the doublet wo ‘hemp’ is attested in Western Old Japanese and Southern Ryūkyū. It is thus plausible to assume a borrowed term.[12] See East Asian languages for morphological features shared among languages of the East Asian sprachbund, and Classification of Japanese for further details on the discussion of a possible relationship. Though not related to Chinese, it has borrowed heavily, using thousands of Chinese characters; see #Vocabulary below.

Dialects of Korean of stress: speakers of Seoul dialect use very little stress, and standard South Korean has a very flat intonation; on the other hand, speakers of the Gyeongsang dialect have a very pronounced intonation. It is also worth noting that there is substantial evidence for a history of extensive dialect levelling, or even convergent evolution or intermixture of two or more originally distinct linguistic stocks, within the Korean language and its dialects. Many Korean dialects have basic vocabulary that is etymologically distinct from vocabulary of identical meaning in Standard Korean or other dialects, such as South Jeolla dialect /kur/ vs. Standard Korean ? /ip/ "mouth" or Gyeongsang dialect /ʨʌŋ.ɡu.ʥi/ vs. Standard Korean /puːʨʰu/ "garlic chives." This suggests that the Korean Peninsula may have at one time been much more linguistically diverse than it is at present. See also the Buyeo languages hypothesis. There is a very close connection between the dialects of Korean and the regions of Korea, since the boundaries of both are largely determined by mountains and seas. Here is a list of traditional dialect names and locations:

Dialects

Phonology

Korean has several dialects (called mal [literally "speech"], saturi, or bang-eon in Korean). The standard language (pyojuneo or pyojunmal) of South Korea is based on the dialect of the area around Seoul, and the standard for North Korea is based on the dialect spoken around P’yŏngyang. All dialects of Korean are similar to each other, and are in fact all mutually intelligible, perhaps with the exception of the dialect of Jeju Island (see Jeju dialect). The dialect spoken in Jeju is in fact classified as a different language by some Korean linguists. One of the most notable differences between dialects is the use

This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters.

Consonants The IPA symbol (a subscript double straight quotation mark, shown here with a placeholder circle) is used to denote the tensed consonants /p͈/, /t͈/, /k͈/, /ʨ͈/, /s͈/. Its official use in the Extensions to the IPA is for ’strong’

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Korean language

Standard dialect

Where used

Seoul

Seoul (??), Incheon (??/??), most of Gyeonggi (??/??)

P’yŏngan (??/??)

P’yŏngyang, P’yŏngan region, Chagang (North Korea)

Regional dialect

Where used

Gyeonggi

limited areas of the Gyeonggi region (South Korea)

Chungcheong

Daejeon, Chungcheong region (South Korea)

Gangwon

Gangwon-do (South Korea)/Kangwŏn (North Korea)

Gyeongsang

Busan, Daegu, Ulsan, Gyeongsang region (South Korea)

Hamgyŏng

Rasŏn, Hamgyŏng region, Ryanggang (North Korea)

Hwanghae

Hwanghae region (North Korea)

Jeju

Jeju Island/Province (South Korea)

Jeolla

Gwangju, Jeolla region (South Korea)

Nasal

Bilabial

Alveolar

? /m/

? /n/

Postalveolar

Velar ? /ŋ/ (syllable-final)

Plosive and Affricate

plain

? /p/

? /t/

? /ʨ/

? /k/

tense

? /p͈/

? /t͈/

? /ʨ͈/

? /k͈/

aspirated

? /pʰ/

? /tʰ/

? /ʨʰ/

? /kʰ/

Fricative

plain

? /s/

tense

? /s͈/

Liquid Monophthongs

Glottal

? /h/

? /l/ /i/ ?, /e/ ?, /ɛ/ ?, /a/ ?, /o/ ?, /u/ ?, /ʌ/ ?, /ɯ/ ?, /ø/ ?

Vowels preceded by intermediar- /je/ ?, /jɛ/ ?, /ja/ ?, /wi/ ?, /we/ ?, /wɛ/ ?, /wa/ ?, /ɰi/ ?, /jo/ ?, /ju/ ?, /jʌ/ ?, ies, /wʌ/ ? or Diphthongs

Vowels

articulation, but is used in the literature for faucalized voice. The Korean consonants also have elements of stiff voice, but it is not yet known how typical this is of faucalized consonants. They are produced with a partially constricted glottis and additional subglottal pressure in addition to tense vocal tract walls, laryngeal lowering, or other expansion of the larynx.

Allophones /s/ becomes an alveolo-palatal [ɕ] before [j] or [i] for most speakers (but see Differences in the language between North Korea and South Korea). This occurs with the tense fricative and all the affricates as well. At the

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Korean language Korean particles

After a consonant

After a rieul

After a vowel

-ui (-?) -eun (-?)

-neun (-?)

-i (-?)

-ga (-?)

-eul (-?)

-reul (-?)

-gwa (-?)

-wa (-?)

-euro (-??)

-ro (-?) South Korea, which pertains to Sino-Korean vocabulary. Such words retain their word-initial /l/ in North Korea. All obstruents (plosives, affricates, fricatives) are unreleased [p̚, t̚, k̚] at the end of a word. Plosive stops /p, t, k/ become nasal stops [m, n, ŋ] before nasal stops. Hangul spelling does not reflect these assimilatory pronunciation rules, but rather maintains the underlying, partly historical morphology. Given this, it is sometimes hard to tell which actual phonemes are present in a certain word. One difference between the pronunciation standards of North and South Korea is the treatment of initial [r], and initial [n]. For example, • "labour" - north: rodong (??), south: nodong (??) • "history" - north: ryŏksa (??), south: yeoksa (??) • "female" - north: nyŏja (??), south: yeoja (??)

Morphophonemics Grammatical morphemes may change shape depending on the preceding sounds. Examples include -eun/-neun (?/-?) and -i/-ga (-?/-?). Sometimes sounds may be inserted instead. Examples include -eul/-reul (-?/-?), -euro/-ro (-??/-?), -eseo/-seo (-??/-?), -ideunji/-deunji (-???/-??) and -iya/-ya (-??/-?). However, -euro/-ro is somewhat irregular, since it will behave differently after a rieul consonant. Some verbs may also change shape morphophonemically.

The Korean consonants end of a syllable, /s/ changes to /t/ (Example: beoseot (? ?) ’mushroom’). /h/ may become a bilabial [ɸ] before [o] or [u], a palatal [ç] before [j] or [i], a velar [x] before [ɯ], a voiced [ɦ] between voiced sounds, and a [h] elsewhere. /p, t, ʨ, k/ become voiced [b, d, ʥ, ɡ] between voiced sounds. /l/ becomes alveolar flap [ɾ] between vowels, and [l] or [ɭ] at the end of a syllable or next to another /l/. Note that a written syllable-final ’?’, when followed by a vowel or a glide (i.e., when the next character starts with ’?’), migrates to the next syllable and thus becomes [ɾ]. Traditionally, /l/ was disallowed at the beginning of a word. It disappeared before [j], and otherwise became /n/. However, the inflow of western loanword changed the trend, and now word-initial /l/ (mostly from English loanwords) are pronounced as a free variation of either [ɾ] or [l]. The traditional prohibition of word-initial /l/ became a morphological rule called "initial law" (????) in

Grammar Sentence structure Korean is an agglutinative language. Modifiers generally precede the modified words, and in the case of verb modifiers, can be serially appended. The basic form of a Korean sentence is Subject Object Verb, but the verb is the only required and immovable element. A:

4

??-?

??-?? (?????)

kage-e

kasseo-yo

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia store + [location marker (?)]

Korean language

Determiner

[go (verb root) (?)]+[conjunctive (?)]+[past (?)]+[conjunctive (?)]+ [polite marker (?)]

Korean determiners (???, gwanhyeongsa, ???) are also known in English as "determinatives", "adnominals", "pre-nouns", "attributives", and "unconjugated adjectives". Examples include ? (kak, "each"). For a larger list, see wikt:Category:Korean determiners.

"Did [you] go to the store?" ("you" implied in conversation) B:

Noun

?.

A large body of Korean nouns (??, myeongsa, ??) stem from Chinese characters, e.g. ? (?, san, mountain), ? (?, yeok, station), ?? (??, munhwa, culture), etc. Others are native to the Korean language, e.g. ?? (nara, country), ? (nal, day). Many Sino-Korean words have a native Korean equivalent and vice versa, but not always. Nouns do not have grammatical gender and can be made plural by adding ? to the end of the word, however in most instances the singular form is used even when in English it would be translated as plural. For example, while in English the sentence "there are three apples" would use the plural "apples" instead of the singular "apple", the Korean sentence ?? ?? ???? (sagwa segae isssumnida) maintains the word ?? (sagwa, "apple") in its singular form, thus rendered in English as "apple three(things) exist." For a list of Korean nouns, see wikt:Category:Korean nouns.

ye yes "Yes."

Parts of speech Verb Korean verbs (??, tongsa, ??) are also known in English as "action verbs" or "dynamic verbs" to distinguish them from [???(???), hyeong-yongsa, "adjectives"]), which are also known as "descriptive verbs" or "stative verbs". Examples of action/dynamic verbs include ?? (hada, "to do") and ?? (kada, "to go") which constitute an action or movement as opposed to descriptive verbs such as ??? (yehppeuda, "to be beautiful"). For a larger list of Korean verbs, see wikt:Category:Korean verbs. Unlike most of the European languages, Korean does not conjugate verbs using agreement with the subject, and nouns have no gender. Instead, verb conjugations depend upon the verb tense, aspect, mood, and the social relation between the speaker, the subjects, and the listeners. The system of speech levels and honorifics loosely resembles the T-V distinction of most IndoEuropean languages. For example, different endings are used based on the speaker’s relation with the person they are talking to or the person about whom they are talking. Politeness is a critical part of Korean language and Korean culture, therefore, when talking to someone esteemed, the correct verb ending, which should indicate a lot of respect, must be chosen.

Pronoun Korean pronouns (???, daemyeongsa, ???) are highly influenced by the honorifics in the language. Pronouns change forms depending on the social status of the person or persons spoken to, e.g. the pronoun for "I" there is both the informal ? (na) and the honorific/humble ? (jeo). In general second person singular pronouns are avoided, especially when using honorific forms. For a larger list or Korean pronouns, see wikt:Category:Korean pronouns.

Adverb Korean adverbs (??, busa, ??) include ? (tto, "also") and ?? (gadeuk, "fully"). For a larger list, see wikt:Category:Korean adverbs.

Adjective

Particle

Words categorized as Korean adjectives (???, hyeongyongsa, ???) conjugate similarly to verbs, so some English texts call them "descriptive verbs" or "stative verbs", but they are distinctly separate from ?? (tongsa). English does not have an identical grammatical category, so the English translation of Korean adjectives may misleadingly suggest that they are verbs. For example, ?? (pukda) translates literally as "to be red" and ? ?? (aswipda) often best translates as "to lack" or "to want for", but both are ??? (hyeong-yongsa, "adjectives"). For a larger list of Korean adjectives, see wikt:Category:Korean adjectives.

Korean particles (??, josa, ??) are also known in English as "postpositions". Examples include ? (neun, topic marker) and ? (reul, object marker). For a larger list, see wikt:Category:Korean particles.

Interjection Korean interjections (???, gamtansa, ???) are also known in English as "exclamations". Examples include ?? (ani, "no"). For a larger list, see wikt:Category:Korean interjections.

Number Korean numbers or numerals (??, susa, ??) constitute two regularly used sets: a native Korean set and a Sino-

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Korean language

Korean set. The Sino-Korean system is nearly entirely based on the Chinese numerals. The distinction between the two numeral systems is very important. Everything that can be counted will use one of the two systems, but seldom both. Sino-Korean words are sometimes used to mark ordinal usage: yeol beon (? ?) means "ten times" while sip beon (?(?) ?(?)) means "number ten." The grouping of large numbers in Korean follow the Chinese tradition of myriads (10000) rather than thousands (1000) as is common in Europe and North America.

especially words that denote abstract ideas, are SinoKorean words,[13] either • directly borrowed from Written Chinese, or • coined in Japan or Korea using Chinese characters, in a similar way European languages borrow from Latin and Greek. Korean has two number systems: one native, and one borrowed from Chinese. To a much lesser extent, words have also occasionally been borrowed from Mongolian, Sanskrit, and other languages. Conversely, the Korean language itself has also contributed some loanwords to other languages, most notably the Tsushima dialect of Japanese. The vast majority of loanwords other than SinoKorean come from modern times, 90% of which are from English.[14] Many words have also been borrowed from Japanese and Western languages such as German (areubaiteu ‘part-time job’, allereugi ‘allergy’). Some Western words were borrowed indirectly via Japanese, taking a Japanese sound pattern, for example ‘dozen’ > ? ?? dāsu > ?? daseu. Most indirect Western borrowings are now written according to current Hangulization rules for the respective Western language, as if borrowed directly. There are a few more complicated borrowings such as ‘German(y)’ (see Names for Germany), the first part of whose endonym [ˈd̥ɔɪ̯ʧʷ.la̠ntʰ] the Japanese approximated using the kanji ?? doitsu that were then accepted into the Korean language by their Sino-Korean pronunciation: ? dok + ? il = Dogil. In South Korean official use, a number of other Sino-Korean country names have been replaced with phonetically oriented Hangulizations of the countries’ endonyms or English names. North Korean vocabulary shows a tendency to prefer native Korean over Sino-Korean or foreign borrowings, especially with recent political objectives aimed at eliminating foreign (mostly Chinese) influences on the Korean language in the North. By contrast, South Korean may have several Sino-Korean or foreign borrowings which tend to be absent in North Korean.

Speech levels and honorifics The relationship between a speaker or writer and his or her subject and audience is paramount in Korean, and the grammar reflects this. The relationship between speaker/writer and subject referent is reflected in honorifics, while that between speaker/writer and audience is reflected in speech level.

Honorifics When talking about someone superior in status, a speaker or writer usually uses special nouns or verb endings to indicate the subject’s superiority. Generally, someone is superior in status if he/she is an older relative, a stranger of roughly equal or greater age, or an employer, teacher, customer, or the like. Someone is equal or inferior in status if he/she is a younger stranger, student, employee or the like. Nowadays, there are special endings which can be used on declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences; and both honorific or normal sentences. They are made for easier and faster use of Korean.

Speech levels There are seven verb paradigms or speech levels in Korean, and each level has its own unique set of verb endings which are used to indicate the level of formality of a situation. Unlike honorifics — which are used to show respect towards the referent — speech levels are used to show respect towards a speaker’s or writer’s audience. The names of the 7 levels are derived from the non-honorific imperative form of the verb ?? (hada, "do") in each level, plus the suffix ? (’che’, hanja: ?), which means "style." The highest 6 levels are generally grouped together as jondaenmal (???), while the lowest level (haeche, ??) is called banmal (??) in Korean.

Writing system Korean writing systems Hangul Hanja • Hyangchal • Gugyeol • Idu Mixed script Korean romanization • Revised Romanization of Korean • McCune-Reischauer • Yale Romanization

Vocabulary The core of the Korean vocabulary is made up of native Korean words. Like Japanese and Vietnamese, more than 50% of the vocabulary (up to 60% by some estimates),

See also: Hangul consonant and vowel tables In ancient times, the languages of the Korean peninsula were written using Chinese characters, using hyangchal or idu. Such systems were not popular because hanja is

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Korean language Consonants

Hangul

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

RR

b,p

d,t

j

g,k

pp

tt

jj

kk

p

t

ch

k

s

h

ss

m

n

ng

r,l

IPA

p

t

ʨ

k

p͈

t͈

ʨ͈

k͈

pʰ

tʰ

ʨʰ

kʰ

s

h

s͈

m

n

ŋ

w

r

j

Vowels Hangul

? ? ?

?

? ?

?

RR

i

e oe

ae

a o

u eo

IPA

i

e ø

ɛ

a o u ʌ

Word Meaning

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

eu

ui

ye

yae

ya

yo

yu

yeo

wi

we

wae

wa

wo

ɯ

ɰi

je

jɛ

ja

jo

ju

jʌ

wi

we

wɛ

wa

wʌ

Pronunciation North (RR/MR)

North (Hangul)

South (RR/MR)

South (Hangul)

??

wide

neoptta (nŏpta)

??

neoltta (nŏlta)

??

??

to read (continuative form)

ilkko (ilko)

??

ilkko (ilko)

??

???

Amnok River

amrokgang (amrokkang)

???

amnokkang (amnokkang)

???

??

independence

dongrip (tongrip)

??

dongnip (tongnip)

??

??

idea / sense / conception

gwallyeom (kwallyŏm)

??

gwannyeom (kwannyŏm)

??

hyeoksinjjeok (hyŏksintchŏk)

???

hyeoksinjeok (hyŏksinjŏk)

???

???* innovative

not well suited to the Korean language. Its use is now limited. Korean is now mainly written in Hangul, the Korean alphabet promulgated in 1446 by Sejong the Great; hanja may be mixed in to write Sino-Korean words. South Korea still teaches 1800 hanja characters in its schools, while the North abolished the use of hanja decades ago. Below is a chart of the Korean alphabet’s symbols and their canonical IPA values: Modern Korean is written with spaces between words, a feature not found in Chinese or Japanese. Korean punctuation marks are almost identical to Western ones. Traditionally, Korean was written in columns from top to bottom, right to left, but is now usually written in rows from left to right, top to bottom.

Words that are written the same way may be pronounced differently, such as the examples below. The pronunciations below are given in Revised Romanization, McCune-Reischauer and Hangul, the last of which represents what the Hangul would be if one writes the word as pronounced. * Similar pronunciation is used in the North whenever the hanja "?" is attached to a Sino-Korean word ending in ?, ? or ?. (In the South, this rule only applies when it is attached to any single-character Sino-Korean word.)

Spelling Some words are spelled differently by the North and the South, but the pronunciations are the same.

Spelling and pronunciation

Differences between North Korean and South Korean

Some words have different spellings and pronunciations in the North and the South, some of which were given in the "Phonology" section above: In general, when transcribing place names, North Korea tends to use the pronunciation in the original language more than South Korea, which often uses the pronunciation in English. For example:

The Korean language used in the North and the South exhibits differences in pronunciation, spelling, grammar and vocabulary.[15]

Pronunciation

Grammar

In North Korea, palatalization of /si/ is optional, and /ʨ/ can be pronounced as [z] in between vowels.

Some grammatical constructions are also different:

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Word spelling

Korean language

Meaning Pronunciation Remarks (RR/MR)

North South ??

??

sunshine haeppit (haepit)

The "sai siot" (’?’ used for indicating sound change) is almost never written out in the North.

??

??

cherry beotkkot blossom (pŏtkkot)

???

? ??

cannot read

???

???

Hallasan hallasan (hallasan)

When a ?-? combination is pronounced as ll, the original Hangul spelling is kept in the North, while the Hangul is changed in the South.

??

??

rules

In words where the original hanja is spelt "?" or "?" and follows a vowel, the initial ? is not pronounced in the North, making the pronunciation identical with that in the South where the ? is dropped in the spelling.

monnikda (monnikta)

gyuyul (kyuyul)

Spacing.

Word

Meaning Remarks

North North spelling pronun.

South South spelling pronun.

??

ryeongryang ?? (ryŏngryang)

yeongnyang strength Initial r’s are dropped if followed by i or y in the South (yŏngnyang) Korean version of Korean.

??

rodong (rodong)

??

nodong (nodong)

work

Initial r’s are demoted to an n if not followed by i or y in the South Korean version of Korean.

??

wonssu (wŏnssu)

??

wonsu (wŏnsu)

mortal enemy

"Mortal enemy" and "head of state" are homophones in the South. Possibly to avoid referring to Kim Il-sung / Kim Jongil as the enemy, the second syllable of "enemy" is written and pronounced ? in the North.

???

rajio (rajio)

???

radio (radio) radio

?

u (u)

?

wi (wi)

??

anhae (anhae)

??

anae (anae) wife

??

kkuba (kkuba)

??

kuba (k’uba) Cuba

When transcribing foreign words from languages that do not have contrasts between aspirated and unaspirated stops, North Koreans generally use tensed stops for the unaspirated ones while South Koreans use aspirated stops in both cases.

?

pe (p’e)

?

pye (p’ye), pe (p’e)

In the case where ye comes after a constant, such as in hye and pye, it is pronounced without the palatal approximate. North Korean orthography reflect this pronunciation nuance.

on; above

lungs

Original name North Korea transliteration

English name South Korea transliteration

Spelling Pronunciation

Spelling Pronunciaton

Ulaanbaatar

?????

ullanbattareu (ullanbattarŭ)

Ulan Bator

?????

ullanbatoreu (ullanbat’orŭ)

København

????

koeppenhabeun (k’oeppenhabŭn)

Copenhagen

????

kopenhagen (k’op’enhagen)

al-Qāhirah

???

kkahira (kkahira)

Cairo

???

kairo (k’airo)

8

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Word

Korean language Meaning

Remarks

North North spelling pronun.

South South spelling pronun.

???

doeyeotda (toeyŏtta)

???

????

gomawayo ???? (komawayo)

gomawoyo thanks (komawŏyo)

?-irregular verbs in the North use ? (wa) for all those with a positive ending vowel; this only happens in the South if the verb stem has only one syllable.

???

halgayo (halkayo)

halkkayo (halkkayo)

Although the Hangul differ, the pronunciations are the same (i.e. with the tensed ? sound).

???

doeeotda (toeŏtta)

past tense of ?? All similar grammar forms of verbs or adjectives that (doeda/toeda), end in ? in the stem (i.e. ?, ?, ?, ?, ? and ?) in the North "to become" use ? instead of the South’s ?.

Shall we do?

Word

Meaning

Remarks

Apartment

??? (appateu/appat’ŭ) is also used in the North.

North spelling

North pronun.

South spelling

South pronun.

????

munhwajutaek (munhwajut’aek)

???

apateu (ap’at’ŭ)

???

joseonmal (chosŏnmal) ???

hanKorean gugeo(han’gugeo) language

??

gwakbap (kwakpap)

dosirak (tosirak)

???

Vocabulary

lunch box

Korean, was instituted in 1997; 17,000 people applied for the 2005 sitting of the examination.[19]

Some vocabulary is different between the North and the South:

See also

Others

• Hangul • Korean romanization • Revised romanization of Korean • McCune-Reischauer • Yale Romanization#Korean • SKATS • Korean numerals • Korean count word • Korean language and computers • Hanja • Sino-Korean vocabulary • Korean mixed script • List of English words of Korean origin • Altaic languages • List of Korea-related topics • Vowel harmony

In the North, guillemets ? and ? are the symbols used for quotes; in the South, quotation marks equivalent to the English ones, “ and ”, are standard, although ? ? and ? ? are sometimes used in popular novels.

Study by non-native speakers The United States’ Defense Language Institute classifies Korean alongside Arabic, Chinese, and Japanese as a Category IV language, meaning that 63 weeks of instruction (as compared to just 25 weeks for French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian) are required to bring an Englishspeaking student to a limited working level of proficiency in which he or she has "sufficient capability to meet routine social demands and limited job requirements" and "can deal with concrete topics in past, present, and future tense."[16] As a result, the study of the Korean language in the United States is dominated by Korean American heritage language students; they are estimated to form over 80% of all students of the language at non-military universities.[17] However, Korean is considerably easier for speakers of certain other languages, such as Japanese; in Japan, it is more widely studied by non-heritage learners.[18] The Korean Language Proficiency Test, an examination aimed at assessing non-native speakers’ competence in

References [1]

[2] [3] [4] [5] [6]

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"Korean". Ethnologue, 14th ed.. http://www.ethnologue.com/14/ show_iso639.asp?code=kor. Retrieved on 2008-09-25. eg Miller 1971, 1996, Starostin et al. 2003 eg Vovin 2008: 1 Trask 1996: 147-151 Rybatzki 2003: 57 Vovin 2008: 5

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia [7] [8] [9]

[10] [11] [12] [13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

Korean language

eg Martin 1966, 1990 • Martin, Samuel E. (1966): Lexical Evidence Relating eg Miller 1971, 1996 Japanese to Korean. Language 42/2: 185-251. Sergei Starostin. Altaiskaya problema i proishozhdeniye • Martin, Samuel E. (1990): Morphological clues to the yaponskogo yazika (The Altaic Problem and the Origins relationship of Japanese and Korean. In: Philip Baldi (ed.): Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology. of the Japanese Language). http://www.alib.ru/ Trends in Linguistics: Studies and Monographs 45: findp.php4?author=%D1%F2%E0%F0%EE%F1%F2%E8%ED&title=%C0%EB%F2%E0%E9%F1%EA%E0%FF+%EF%F0%EE%E1%EB%E5%EC%E0+%E8 483-509. Vovin 2008 • Miller, Roy Andrew (1971): Japanese and the Other Whitman 1985: 232, also found in Martin 1966: 233 Altaic Languages. Chicago: University of Chicago Vovin 2008: 211-212 Sohn, Ho-Min. The Korean Language (Section 1.5.3 Press. ISBN 0226527190. • Miller, Roy Andrew (1996): Languages and History: "Korean vocabulary", p.12-13), Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 0521369436 Japanese, Korean and Altaic. Oslo: Institute for Sohn, Ho-Min. The Korean Language (Section 1.5.3 Comparative Research in Human Culture. ISBN "Korean vocabulary", p.12-13), Cambridge 9748299694. University Press, 2001. ISBN 0521369436 • Ramstedt, G. J. (1928): Remarks on the Korean Kanno, Hiroomi (ed.) / Society for Korean language. Mémoires de la Société Finno-Oigrienne Linguistics in Japan (1987). Chōsengo o manabō (???? 58. • Rybatzki, Volker (2003): Middle Mongol. In: Juha ?????), Sanshūsha, Tokyo. ISBN 4-384-01506-2 Janhunen (ed.) (2003): The Mongolic languages. Raugh, Harold E.. "The Origins of the Transformation of London: Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1133-3: 47–82. the Defense Language Program". Applied Language • Starostin, Sergei A.; Anna V. Dybo; Oleg A. Mudrak Learning 16 (2): 1–12. http://www.dliflc.edu/academics/ (2003): Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages, 3 academic_materials/all/ALLissues/all16two.pdf. volumes. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN Retrieved on 2008-01-09. 9004131531. Lee, Saekyun H.; HyunJoo Han. "Issues of Validity of SAT • Sohn, H.-M. (1999): The Korean Language. Cambridge: Subject Test Korea with Listening". Applied Language Cambridge University Press. Learning 17 (1): 33–56. http://www.dliflc.edu/academics/ • Song, J.-J. (2005): The Korean Language: Structure, Use academic_materials/all/ALLissues/ALL17.pdf. and Context. London: Routledge. Fujita-Round, Sachiyo; John C. Maher (2007). "Language • Trask, R. L. (1996): Historical linguistics. Hodder Education Policy in Japan". Language policy and political Arnold. issues in education. United States: Springer. pp. 393–404. • Vovin, Alexander: Koreo-Japonica. University of ISBN 978-0-387-32875-1. Hawai’i Press. "Korea Marks 558th Hangul Day". The Chosun Ilbo. • Whitman, John B. (1985): The Phonological Basis for the 2004-10-10. http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/ Comparison of Japanese and Korean. Unpublished news/200410/200410100002.html. Retrieved on Harvard University Ph.D. dissertation. 2008-01-09.

External links

Bibliography

• Ethnologue report for Korean • Linguistic and Philosophical Origins of the Korean Alphabet (Hangul) • Free course on line in English of Korean • Linguistic map of Korea (in French) • Korean - a Category III language Languages which are exceptionally difficult for native English speakers

• Chang, Suk-jin (1996). Korean. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 1556197284. (Volume 4 of the London Oriental and African Language Library). • Hulbert, Homer B. (1905): A Comparative Grammar of the Korean Language and the Dravidian Dialects in India. Seoul.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_language" Categories: Korean writing system, Agglutinative languages, Language isolates, Buyeo languages, Korean language, Languages of China, Languages of Korea, Languages of North Korea, Languages of South Korea This page was last modified on 13 May 2009, at 03:50 (UTC). All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See Copyrights for details.) Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3) tax-deductible nonprofit charity. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers

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