Job Design

Unit 2 Management of Conversion System Chapter 8: Workforce Measurement Lesson 23 – Job Design Learning Objectives After reading this lesson you will be able to understand Traditional engineering dimension of job design Behavioral dimension of job design Good Morning students, today we are going to introduce the concept of what is known as JOB DESIGN. We would learn to appreciate the importance of the concept as applicable in Production and operations systems. We have discussed how to design products, where to locate production facilities, how to design the production process, and how to configure production facilities. The keys to the production system, however, are the workers in the system. In theory, all organizations have access to essentially the same standard equipment, materials, and facilities. It is an organization’s personnel that provides the competitive advantage and makes one organization more successful than another. It is the people who create new and better products and devise better ways to make and distribute them. Recruiting well – educated, responsible, and skilled people is a good starting point for creating a productive workforce. But, how employees are trained, organized, and motivated ultimately determines the success of the company. Often managers, responsible for many subordinates and equipment, feel overwhelmed by details.

Couldn't we be more efficient if we improved our jobs? But how can we improve them when we hardly know what the jobs consist of? Well, my friends, one answer to the managers' dilemma is offered by the scientific approach. It urges managers to do the following: 1. 2. 3.

Identify the general operations problem and the jobs that seem to be contributing to or causing the problem. Carefully analyze and document how work is being performed (established industrial engineering techniques are available to help analyze and document). Analyze the tasks that the jobs comprise.

4. Develop and implement new work methods. You get the idea , don’t you? Jobs can be broken apart into tasks. If the tasks are assigned to different workers, each worker can perform fewer tasks but can perform them faster and perhaps under more specialized conditions (for example, with special tools or work benches). This basic concept, specialization of labor, has been very effective in increasing operating efficiency in manufacturing; it has been less effective, however, in the service industries. We shall note that traditional engineering approaches to job design have emphasized the use of operation charts, activity charts, flow process charts, and principles of motion economy. We shall note that consideration must also be given to worker physiology and environmental conditions, as these affect job design. Such behavioral techniques as job rotation, enlargement, and enrichment in redesigning jobs will be responsible to enhance productivity and satisfaction. We shall note that if managers use both traditional modeling and contemporary behavioral concepts in designing jobs, the results may be more efficient and effective performance than could be provided by either alone. Job Design A job can be defined as the set of tasks and responsibilities of a worker. These tasks and responsibilities, along with performance expectations, work conditions (time and place of work), general skills, and possibly methods to be used, are normally contained in a written job description. There is no set formula for designing jobs that will best fit a production system. The number of variables controlled by the job designer and the number of corresponding trade-offs are enormous. However, the tasks to be done, the

training provided, the tools available for use, the organization of personnel, the design of the work area, and the compensation system all affect the contribution employees will make to the system. Job Content A central aspect of job design is to define the tasks the employee is supposed to do – the job content. The extent to which tasks can or should be defined will vary from job to job. For example, for repetitive jobs, such as those performed by workers on an assembly line, all the required tasks of the job can be clearly listed and described in detail. Other jobs, such as that of an plant engineer, encompass a much wider range of tasks, many of which are performed infrequently, and some of the tasks cannot be described ahead of time. In fact, some jobs deal with solving problems that arise unexpectedly and are not specifically assigned to anyone. In these cases, the job content has to be defined more in terms of general problem areas, skill areas, or responsibilities than in specific task descriptions. The trade off between specialization and task variety is the heart of the conflict between two schools of thought in job design: the scientific management school and the behavioral or psychological school. The scientific management school, as epitomized by Frederick Taylor’s work, concentrated on making the human mechanical aspects of work as efficient as possible. This approach, in effect, treated people as little more than thinking animals. Productivity was postulated to be primarily a function of the physical work methods of employees and their motivation, which was assumed to be purely money driven. By studying work methods in a scientific manner, managers could improve them and teach them to employees to make them more efficient. Little more was expected of workers than to carry out the mechanical aspects of their jobs as prescribed by industrial engineers. Subsequent study undertaken by those of the behavioral school has shown that there is more to raising worker productivity than simply work methods. Both the quality and the quantity of work performed are affected by psychological and organizational factors, such as how workers interact with coworkers. Neither school of thought fully captures the essence of job design. Successful job design requires a synthesis of both schools; we must develop efficient work methods and exploit specialization of repetitive tasks while providing workers with variety, control over their work, and a satisfying work environment. In recent years, the goal has been to reduce the layers of management, move decision

making down to first-line workers, and utilize the capabilities of workers more fully, thereby making their jobs more interesting while increasing their contribution to the production process. Job Enlargement Job enlargement is a horizontal expansion of job tasks; that is, the worker is assigned more tasks at the same general skill level. In a manufacturing setting, job enlargement might mean having a worker do several tasks at a work station rather than only one or two. In a bank, it might mean training a person to write home loans, car loans, and installment loans rather than only one of these. Job Enrichment It involves vertical expansion of a job’s responsibilities and skills. It may mean that a production worker is involved in the design of the product or production process, is responsible for her own quality testing, handles customer complaints, or deals directly with suppliers. For job enrichment to be of greatest value, at least some of the added tasks and responsibilities should involve greater use of the worker’s capabilities, including creativity, pattern recognition, interpersonal communication, and problem solving. Vertical expansion of the job necessitates greater training and empowerment of line workers.

Original Job: Install gauges on dashboard

Suggest changes to the assembly process and dashboard design

Install dashboard frame and cover

Install audio equipment

Horizontal job enlargement: wider variety of similar tasks

Vertical job enrichment: Higher level responsibilities

Train dealer mechanics on dashboard repairs

Fig : Job enlargement and job enrichment for an automobile assembly worker

Job Rotation Job rotation can be used to make work more interesting while exploiting the efficiencies of narrowly defined, repetitive jobs is to have employees work in teams and exchange jobs on a periodic basis. Within a department or production line there may be three, four, or more different jobs, each involving a different level of interest for the workers. If workers take turns and rotate among the jobs, no one is stuck with an extremely boring or physically demanding job all the time; the desirable and undesirable jobs are equally shared. How often rotation occurs will vary from job to job and will be affected by learning rates, the time needed to switch jobs, and the relative desirability of the jobs. Cross Training An essential part of job rotation is cross training of workers, that is, training them to do more than one job. Cross training is a form of job enlargement and, in many cases, job enrichment as well. It puts considerable responsibility on the organization to provide the additional training needed. Although cross-training is often instituted as part of a formal job rotation policy, it can be extremely beneficial in itself. Many organizations extensively cross-train their workers to allow for greater flexibility in using staff and to improve overall worker skill. Well, so now we see light at the end of the tunnel. But let’s all try to help the poor manager, a bit more. Poor dear… Work Methods Analysis Aids To help the manager or a staff analyst study a job once a problem has been identified, certain techniques have been developed. One of these uses operation charts to analyze the job in terms of elementary motions of the right and left hands reaching, carrying, grasping, lifting, positioning, and releasing, for example. Often a time scale is placed in the middle of the operation chart so that it is clear how much time is taken by each hand to perform the associated motion. Operation charts are appropriate for routine, repetitive, short-cycle tasks producing low to moderate volume products. Activity charts segment tasks into small, physical actions, for example, of both the worker and the machine worked with. Each action, human or machine, is timed. In this way, the analyst can easily compute the percentages of productive and idle time and concentrate on methods of reducing idle time for the worker and/or the machine. Activity charts are appropriate for routine, repetitive tasks with worker-machine

interaction. Dear students, why don’t you suggest the use of a flow chart at this stage? Flow process charts analyze interstation activities, attempting to portray the flow throughout the overall production process. To capture this flow, analysts classify each movement of the product through the conversion process into one of five standard categories: operation, transportation, storage, inspection, or delay. Flow process charts are appropriate for visualizing the sequential stages of the conversion process. They help reveal unnecessary or duplicated effort whose elimination would improve efficiency. Flow process charts provide a broader level of analysis than operation or activity charts. Many jobs are examined, but none in depth. Descriptions of the five categories of product movement, and the icon for each, are: Ο Operation: Work performed in manufacturing the product; usually assigned to a single station. Transportation: Movement of the product or its parts among stations. ∇ Storage: Intervals during which the product or its parts waits or is at rest. ∇T: A T inside the triangle designates temporary storage, when the product is stored for a short time before the conversion process has been completed. ∇P: A P inside the triangle designates permanent storage, when the completed Product is in a storage facility more than a day or two. Inspection: Work performed to verify that the product meets mechanical, Dimensional, and operational requirements. D Delay: Temporary storage before or after a production operation. When the temporary storage symbol is used, this category is often omitted. You know, for this purpose we can also effectively employ what is known as:-

Gang process chart To trace the interaction of several workers with one machine, analysts may use Gang process charts. A broad set of guidelines, called the principles of motion economy, may be used for analyzing and improving work arrangements, the use of human hands and body, or the use of tools to increase efficiency and reduce fatigue. Great, isn’t it. But have you taken into consideration the Worker Physiology? You forgot. Well, I didn’t. I mean, I can’t really afford to. So, we progress further… Worker Physiology Over the years considerable effort has been devoted to studying people's physiology as it relates to their work. Statistics on reaching range, grip strength, lifting ability, and many other physiological factors have been reasonably well documented. Workplace arrangements, job design, and equipment design all require consideration of physiological factors. An industrial engineering handbook is a good source of information on the physiological capabilities of workers. Let’s now focus on the Principles of motion economy Principles of motion economy Using the Human Body the Way It Works Best 1. The work should be arranged so that a natural rhythm can become automatic. 2. The symmetry of the body should be considered. The motions of the arms should be: (a) Simultaneous, beginning and completing their motions at the same time; (b) Opposite and symmetrical. 3. The human body is an ultimate machine and its full Capabilities should be employed: (a)Neither hand should ever be idle. (b) Work should be distributed to other parts of the body in line with their ability. (c) The safe design limits of the body should be observed. (d) The human should be employed at its

"highest" use. 4. The arms and hands as weights are subject to the physical laws and energy should be conserved: (a) Momentum should work for the body and not against it. (b) The smooth, continuous arc of the ballistic is most efficient. (c) The distance of movements should be minimized. (d) Tasks should be turned over to machines. 5. Tasks should be simplified: 6. (a)Eye contacts' should be few and grouped together (b) Unnecessary actions, delays, and idle time should be eliminated. (c) The degree of required precision and control should be minimized. (d) The number of individual motions should be minimized along with the number of muscle groups involved. A related question that comes to mind is:How are we arranging the Workplace to Assist Performance Let us all focus on this important aspect.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Arranging the Workplace to Assist Performance There should be a definite place for all tools and materials. Tools, materials, and controls should be located close to the point of use Tools, materials, and controls should be located -to permit the best sequence and path of motions. The workplace should be fitted to the task and to the human. Using Mechanical Devices to Reduce Human Effort 1. Vises and clamps can hold the work precisely where needed.

2. 3.

Guides can assist in positioning the work without close operator attention. Controls and foot-operated devices can relieve the hands of work.

4. Mechanical devices can multiply human abilities 5. Mechanical systems should be fitted to human use. You know friends, to a greater extent, we are what our environment has made us. The same applies for the employees too, who work in the system. Ask me. I would know. Working Environment Accounting for the physical environment is extremely important in designing jobs. Temperature, humidity, and air flow all affect work. If you've ever tried to mow grass or move furniture on a hot, humid day, you know how much harder high temperatures make your job. The same is true for less physically demanding work typing, writing, and studying. These tasks are easier at temperatures a little warmer than those that are best for manual tasks, but are harder when temperatures are very high than when temperatures are moderate. A comfortable temperature might range from 65 degree F to 80 degree F (26.4 degree C to 38.4 degree C), the lower temperature better for physically demanding work. With that, we have come to the end of today’s discussions. I hope it has been an enriching and satisfying experience. See you around in the next lecture. Points to ponder