Islam Feminits Thesis Nurulhuda

Islā ām Femiinist in A Americaa: a Casse Studyy of Historric Jum mu`ah

THESIS Submitted as a Partiaal Fulfilmentt of Requirem ment for Sarjanaa Sastra Degrree in the Ennglish Deparrtment Faculty off Letters and Fine Art Sebelass Maret Univversity

By: NU URUL HUD DA C0300008

ENGLISH DEPAR RMENT FACULT TY OF LE ETTERS AND A FINE E ARTS SEB BELAS MARET M UN NIVERSIT TY 2008

APPROVAL Approved to be examined before The Board of Examiners Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University

Thesis Consultants: (

1. Dra. Susilorini, M.A First Consultant

) NIP. 132 000 807

2. Drs. Mugijatna, M.Si

(

Second Consultant

) NIP. 131 569 256

The Head of English Department

Dra. Zita Rarastesa, M.A NIP 132 206 593

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Accepted and Approved by The Board of Examiners Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University On April 28, 2008

The Board of Examiners:

1. Drs. Batoro M.S., M.A

(

Chairman

) NIP. 130 529 731

2. Dra. Zita Rarastesa, M.A

(

Secretary

) NIP. 132 206 593

3. Dra. Susilorini, M.A

(

First Examiner

) NIP. 132 000 807

4. Drs. Mugijatna, M.Si

(

Second Examiner

) NIP. 131 569 256

Dean of Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University

Drs. Sudarno, M.A NIP 131 472 202

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MOTTO

Èe≅ä. 4’n?tã uθèδuρ 4 çνρ߉ç6ôã$$sù &™ó_x« Èe≅à2 ß,Î=≈yz ( uθèδ ωÎ) tμ≈s9Î) Iω ( öΝä3š/u‘ ª!$# ãΝà6Ï9≡sŒ ∩⊇⊃⊄∪ ×≅‹Å2uρ &™ó©x« That is Allàh, your Lord! There is no god but He, the Creator of all things: then worship ye Him: and He hath power to dispose of all affairs. (QS. Al An'am [6]:102)

Keep moving forward - Nurul Huda

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DEDICATION

This thesis is simply dedicated to those Muslim youth who are searching for a ray of light in the deepest darkness that surrounds us, and who are seeking a solution and a way out of the crisis that currently overwhelms us; in the hope that it may be of benefit to them.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Bismillahirrahmanirrahim

In the Name of Allàh. the Compassionate, the Merciful, Praise be to Allàh, Lord of the Universe, and Peace and Prayers be upon His Final Prophet and Messenger Alhamdulillahirabbilalamin, the thesis entitled “Islām Feminist in America: a Case Study of Historic Jumu`ah” has been finished. This research could not have been completed without the help and support of many persons and organizations. I am very grateful to all of them. My thank you to The Dean of Letters and Fine Arts Faculty, Drs. Sudarno, M.A for approving this thesis. Thanks to The Head of English Department, Dra. Zita Rarastesa, M.A for giving me permission to do this research. I wish to convey my thanks to Drs. Gatot Sunarno, the Academic Advisor taking care of me during these years. I am greatly indebted to my supervisors. This thesis would not have been carried out and written without attentive supports from both of them. I am very thankful to Drs. Mugijatna, M.Si for his valuable guidance, comment and show the scientific way. I am very grateful Dra. Susilorini, M.A for all of the very helpful discussion, supports, times, and advices in helping me conduct this thesis. I would like to express my gratitude to Ustadz Solihan Mahdum Cahyana, as a teacher, masyayikh, murrobi, and our motivator in applying al Islām, especially for his valuable scientific and encouraging support. I am also grateful to my classmate Haris, Mia, Yogo, Yudis, Diah, Wahyu, Nia, Widya and Azzamers for providing a friendly atmosphere during the struggle

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time and the others favor to me especially, Joko Wiyono, M.Afifudin Zam’i the roomate, Agus Nur Hidayah, Habib Novan Sodika, Ayub Rizal for president, Arif Luthfi Abdul Rosyid, Kurniawan Arief Mahendra, Faris Khoirurijal. I would like to offer my sincere gratitude to Sugeng Riyanto I also sincerely thank from Ismail, Yunihar, Handoko, Ahmadi, Imam, for their support. I owe a lot to my parents and my brother for accepting my absence during my study. They have been a constant source of patience and encouragement. And my special thanks to Isti Wijaya, the one who lets me feel the meaning of love, for her every smile which contains prayer and hope- let Allàh give the best for both of us. I owe a lot to those supported me during my study and especially within the research work. People might have helped me to perform the research and finalize this thesis by providing scientific, technical, administrative, and moral support that I could not list it- wishing that Allàh will replay all of their kindness. Critiques and suggestion will be highly expected for the development. Finally, the highest salutation for all the greatest friends that cannot be mentioned one by one “Keep moving forward” May Allàh guide us all to the straight path.

Surakarta, 14 April 2008

Nurul Huda

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PRONOUNCEMENT

Name NIM

: :

Nurul Huda C0300008

Pronounces wholeheartedly that the thesis entitled Islām Feminist in America: a Case Study of Historic Jumu`ah is originally made by the researcher. It is not a plagiarism nor made by others. The things related to other people’s works are written in quotation and included in the bibliography. If it is then proved that the researcher cheats, the researcher is ready to take the responsibilities. Surakarta, 14 April 2008

Nurul Huda

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE

..................................................................................................................... i

APPROVAL .................................................................................................................... ii THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS .................................................................................. iii MOTTO

................................................................................................................... iv

DEDICATION ................................................................................................................. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................. vi PRONOUNCEMENT .................................................................................................. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................... ix TABLE OF FIGURES .................................................................................................. xii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. xiii CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION A. Background ................................................................................................................. 1 B. Research Question ....................................................................................................... 4 C. Objectives .................................................................................................................... 4 D. Benefits

.................................................................................................................... 5

E. Methodology ............................................................................................................... 5 1. Type of Research ................................................................................................... 5 2. Theoretical Approaches ......................................................................................... 5 3. Data and Source of data ......................................................................................... 6 4. Technique of Collecting data ................................................................................. 7 5. Technique of Analysis ........................................................................................... 8 6. Thesis organization ................................................................................................ 9

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CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW A. Uṣūl al-fiqh: Methodology for Research................................................................... 10 1. The Sciences from Which Uṣūl al-fiqh Derived Its Academic Basis.................. 11 2. Origins and Development of Uṣūl al-fiqh ........................................................... 13 3. Methods for Deriving Rulings from The Sources ............................................... 17 a. As to the Qur’án ............................................................................................. 17 b. As to the Sunnah ............................................................................................ 18 c. As to Ijtihad ................................................................................................... 19 B. Islâm and Friday Prayer............................................................................................. 20 1. Friday Prayer is Obligatory ................................................................................. 22 2. Command for Friday Prayer: Its Merits and Importance ..................................... 23 3. Pre-requisites of Friday Prayer ............................................................................ 26 4. Pre-requisite of the Muslim Ruler ....................................................................... 29 5. Sunnah in the Friday Prayer ................................................................................ 29 6. Regulations Relating to the Sermon .................................................................... 33 C. Feminism .................................................................................................................. 36 1. Feminism Movement ........................................................................................... 37 2. Islâmic feminism ................................................................................................. 39 3. The Latest Development in America ................................................................... 41 4. Islam feminist in Historic Jumu‘ah...................................................................... 43 a. Professor Dr. Amina Wadud MacCloud ........................................................ 44 b. Asra Q Nomani .............................................................................................. 45 c. Ahmed Nassef ................................................................................................ 46 d. The others ....................................................................................................... 47

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CHAPTER III: ANALYSIS A. Deviation in Historic Jumu‘ah from Mainstream Islâm ........................................... 48 1. Woman Acting as Imám in Prayer....................................................................... 50 2. Woman delivering Jumu‘ah Khutbah (Friday sermon) ....................................... 53 3. Ikhtilath ................................................................................................................ 55 B. How Historic Jumu‘ah Represents Feminism ........................................................... 59 1. Reclaiming Back the Right .................................................................................. 59 2. Historic Jumu‘ah and the portrayal of Islâm ....................................................... 72 CHAPTER IV: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION A. Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 77 B. Recommendation ....................................................................................................... 78 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................... 79

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TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1. (L to R) Jawad Ali, Ahmed Nassef and Sarah Eltantawi at Amir’s on March 17, the night before the big Friday prayer, toasting “the end of patriarchy.” ...... 42 Figure 2. Historic Jumu‘ah congregants in prayer .......................................................... 57 Figure 3. Dua after the prayer ......................................................................................... 58 Figure 4. Amina Wadud leads the congregational prayer ............................................... 61 Figure 5. Wadud gives her khutbah before the prayer .................................................... 68 Figure 6. Amina Wadud, calling herself a “lonely scholar,” addresses reporters before the prayer. March 18. ........................................................................................... 68 Figure 7. A congregant after the prayer. March 18 ......................................................... 69 Figure 8. Amina Wadud leads both men and women in prayer March 18 at Synod House at the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York. ......................................... 73

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ABSTRACT Nurul Huda. C0300008. 2008. Islām Feminist in America: a Case Study of Historic Jumu`ah. Thesis: English Department Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts Sebelas Maret University Surakarta. This thesis explores the American experiences addressing Islām feminist movement. The research is studying a case of Historic Jumu`ah or a Friday prayer led by a woman in mix gender congregants. This first Muslim woman on record to lead mixed-gender prayer happened on Friday, March 18th 2005, at Episcopal Church. It is a synod house in 1047 Amsterdam Ave, North East corner of 110th Street, Upper Manhattan. The research questions are: 1) How does Historic Jumu`ah deviate from mainstream Islām? 2) How does Historic Jumu`ah represent feminist movement in America? This thesis uses uṣūl al-fiqh and feminism as approach to answer those research questions. Nevin Reda in her article entitled ‘What would the Prophet Do? The Islamic Basis for Female-Led Prayer’ argues the religious validity of female Imám in a mixed-gender Friday prayer. She uses a hadith that was reported by Imam Ahmad, Abú Dàúd, on the authority of Umm Waraqah as hujjah of women are permitted to lead a Friday prayer. Some scholars of Hadith regard the chain of reporters of this Hadith is weak thus this hadith could not be used as hujjah. Moreover Ibn Qudamah says that since women are not permitted to call the Adhan for Prayer for men; they are also not allowed to lead them in Prayer. The conclusions of this research are: 1. It is found that there are three major deviation of Historic Jumu`ah. They are: a woman acts as Imám, a woman delivers Jumu`ah khutbah, and ikhtilath. 2. Historic Jumu`ah represents feminist movement in America by presenting feminism spirits such as a woman should have the same treatment as a man. Moreover historic Jumu`ah is a manifestation of Islāmic feminism in getting listened by world and it is “the resurrection of Islām feminist” in America. The event of historic Jumu`ah is about Muslim women reclaiming their rightful place in Islām.

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Background Today there are few places in the United States where one does not find Muslims living, working, and worshiping. Their kids go to public schools and pick up local culture while mosques renovated houses and even storefronts serve as places of worship. There are more than 1,209 mosques in the United States based on the statistic, and its development has been increasing 25 percent in a year since 1994. Islām has become the fastest growing religion in the United States. (Kehidupan Muslim di Amerika, 2003:2) Its development cannot be separated from aftermath 11 September 2001 attacks in the United States. More pressure to Islām gives more curiosity to people to learn Islām. Sadik Kirazli, in his thesis Changes in Islāmic Hermeneutics and Social Evolution: A Comparative Study of Turkey and Algeria, said that the September 11th terrorist attacks on the United States, have led to an explosion of interest and scholarly work on Islām and the Muslim world (However Islām in America is a phenomenon that actually positioned by the media). (Kirazli, 2003:4-5) Media in America published that Islām becomes the fastest growth in the United States. In the same time they also give negative point of view of Islām. This situation has been explained deeply by an Assistant Professor of Social Studies, School of Education, Brooklyn College at CUNY, J. A. Progler. in his paper, “The Utility of Islāmic Imagery in the West”, states that the negative image of Islām in United States and the fastest growth of Islām is published widely on purpose. (Al Tawhid, Vol XIV No. 4). J. A. Progler in his analysis has put basic understanding about growth of Islām in America as an issue spread by the media.

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Teuku Alvisyahrin, Past Executive President Islāmic Center Of Northwest Arkansas, in his email had given emphasized that Islām is the fastest growing religion in America and Europe. The reason is because more and more people today understand the Islāmic teaching despite the propaganda in certain media. And this will likely not happen this fast without an active role of Muslims doing their part and setting a good example in many aspects of daily life. In a recent survey, there are 1,209 mosques in America, over half founded in the last 20 years. Between 17 and 30 percent of American Muslims are converts to the faith. Muslims living in the United States today represent a great many movements and identities: immigrant and indigenous, Sunni and Shi'ite, conservative and liberal, orthodox and heterodox. While exact figures for the current number of Muslims in the U.S. population are difficult to determine, over half are members of first-, second-, or third-generation immigrant families. These are quick facts Islām in America: Table 1. Facts Islām in America Mosques in the United States American Muslims associated with a mosque Increase in number of mosques since 1994 Proportion of mosques founded since 1980 Average number of Muslims associated with each mosque in the United States U.S. mosque participants who are convertsa American Muslims who "strongly agree" that they should participate in American institutions and the political process Islām in America: Ethnic origins of regular participants in U.S. mosques U.S. mosques attended by a single ethnic group U.S. mosques that have some Asian, African-American, and Arab members South Asian (Pakistani, Indian, Bangladeshi, Afghani) African-America Arab Sub-Saharan African European (Bosnian, Tartar, Kosovar, etc.) White American Southeast Asian (Malaysian, Indonesian, Filipino)

1,209 2 million 25 percent 62 percent 1,625 30 percent 70 percent

7 percent + 90 percent 33 percent 30 percent 25 percent 3.4 percent 2.1 percent 1.6 percent 1.3 percent

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Caribbean Turkish Iranian Hispanic/Latino U.S. mosques that feel they strictly follow the Qur’án and Sunnah U.S. mosques that feel the Qur’án should be interpreted with consideration of its purposes and modern circumstances U.S. mosques that provide some assistance to the needy U.S. mosques with a full-time school

1.2 percent 1.1 percent 0.7 percent 0.6 percent More than 90 percent 71 percent nearly 70 percent More than 20 percent

Source: Religion Statistics around the World (2006) Islām has been present and visible in New York City for over a century. For most of its history the largest city in the United States, New York has been home to a rich variety of ethnic groups, and its Muslim population has included merchant seamen, tradesmen, entertainers, white-collar professionals, and owners of major businesses. Mosque-building activity has flourished in New York. National Islāmic organizations find the city a particularly fruitful place to extend their activities, and a large number of elementary and upper-level Islāmic schools, as well as Muslim stores and businesses, are springing up all over the city. The development of Islām in America and its phenomenon has given space to do research particularly in social sciences. More researchers, those working in the social sciences, have taken the view that each and every phenomenon is unique and its uniqueness is its most important quality. (Allison, 1998:8) Their idea (Americans) will give different perception and translation about values and believes even in understanding Islāmic teaching. There are a lot variety of communities who claim themselves as Muslim community. One of the communities in North America is Progressive Muslim Union. This community has different perception about Islām of the mainstream. Other muslim communities who have uniqueness are Women’s Freedom Tour, Muslim WakeUp.

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On Friday, March 18th 2005, the communities mentioned above held an event that has never occurred before; they held a Friday prayer at Episcopal Church. This is a Synod House in 1047 Amsterdam Ave on the North East corner of 110th Street, Upper Manhattan. That was not an ordinary Friday prayer since it was led by a woman and mix gender congregants. This event is called Historic Jumu`ah. Historic Jumu`ah is interesting case, since in the America (West) culture was positioned as norm while in Islām, culture was positioned as a result of the application of Islāmic teaching. The feminism spirit has a role in presenting historic Jumu`ah. The research found that these Muslim communities’ had applied religion using the cultural approach that was idea of the feminist and secularism.

B. Research Questions In order to give a focus, research questions are formulated as follows: 1.

How does Historic Jumu`ah deviate from mainstream Islām?

2.

How does Historic Jumu`ah represent feminist movement in America?

C. Objectives The objectives of this research are: 1.

To describe how Historic Jumu`ah deviates from mainstream Islām.

2.

To describe how Historic Jumu`ah represents feminist movement in America?

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D. Benefits In this research, the researcher hopes the result will give some benefits to the reader as follows: 1.

Giving contribution to the readers to understand and comprehend the historic Jumu`ah as a presentation of feminist movement. The research informs the reader about the Friday prayer in Islāmic teaching and gives explanation from the feminist perspective.

2.

Giving additional information about the practice of American Muslim feminist. It will become the reference for feminist scholar that has interest in Muslim development and the feminist movement in America.

E. Research Methodology 1.

Type of Research

This research is a descriptive qualitative research. The research was a case study which analyzed an event called historic Jumu`ah that happened in the past, on Friday, March 18th 2005. A loyal opposition was arguing that the natural sciences were all well and good at what they did, but the study of human behaviour required a special insight and special methods. (Anderson, 1987:238)

2.

Theoretical Approaches

Different methodology will give different result of analysis. When dealing with the Islāmic perspective of any topic, there should be a clear distinction

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between the normative teachings of Islām and the diverse cultural practices among Muslims, which may or may not be consistent with them. (Badawi, 2002). The prayer in Islāmic teaching is a fiqh matter. The researcher needed Uṣūl al-fiqh methodology in accessing the data. As a science which is derived from Qur’án and Sunnah, fiqh needs theoretic frame and methodology which called Uṣūl al-fiqh. Uṣūl al-fiqh is “knowledge about general fiqh argumentation, the way how to use it, also the knowledge about the one who will use the argument”. The function and role of Uṣūl al-fiqh is similar with logic in philosophy. If logic could avoid for someone in doing fallacies, so Uṣūl al-fiqh prevent a faqih doing mistakes in deriving the law. (Syafrin, 2005:38) Historic Jumu`ah is the first Muslim woman on record to lead a public mixed-gender. The event was sponsored by Muslim WakeUp and the Muslim Women's Freedom Tour. Thus it needs feminism theory to analyze the event. Feminism theory gives the reader an understanding to the feminist group. 3.

Data and Source of data

The data employed in this research is divided into two groups; those are main data and supporting data. a.

The main data were taken from the event of Friday prayer on March 18, 2005, from 1-3pm, in Synod House 1047 Amsterdam Ave on the North East corner of 110th Street and Amsterdam Avenue in Upper Manhattan. It included all data that were received straight from the organizer and the congregants of Historic Jumu`ah. The data consist of publication from Muslim wakeup, Progressive Muslim Union, notes from Asra Nomani, Amina Wadud, Syed Ebrahim, and other congregants. The photos of the event are from Quincy Patriot Ledger taken by Omar Sacirbey http://www.aliciapatterson.org/APF2202/Sacirbey/Sacirbey.html.

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b.

The supporting data were taken from books, academic journals, writing publication, and online discussion report, which are relevant to the research. Most of data are derived from library and Internet. 4.

Technique of collecting data

First the researcher visited historic Jumu`ah site: www.muslimwakeup.com. Then all articles from this site which have relation with the event of historic Jumu`ah were downloaded. The researcher read them and made notes about everything that have relation with research questions. Picture of historic Jumu`ah were

downloaded

from

http://www.aliciapatterson.org/APF2202/Sacirbey/

Sacirbey.html Another publication, books, articles, blog notes, academic journals, and online discussion report were collected from many sites through search engine. The others were obtained from library and interview. The data were read carefully and repeatedly until the researcher understood the situation that happened at that time. The researcher made important notes which are appropriate with the research questions. For the interview data, researcher recorded it and saved it in the digital form. Then the file were played repeatedly and carefully listened. Having completed purposive data collecting method, the ‘raw’ mass data and information were obtained.

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5.

Technique of Analysis

The raw data and information were classified based on where the thought came from. The classification is divided into Islāmic teaching, feminism, and cultural value. The first analysis answered the research question how Historic Jumu`ah deviated from mainstream Islām. From data that covered the proofs in the Shari’ah source-texts about Friday prayer researcher interpreted the jurisprudence of Friday prayer. The result was thought of mainstream Islām (x). Then from data of feminism class, the researcher analyzed the legal arguments on which adduced the basis of the principles. In here, the organizer's interpretations and assigned preference were formulated. The result was thought of Historic Jumu`ah (y). The next step, the researcher analyzed (x) and (y) from the methods of deriving rules from Qur’án, Sunnah, and Ijtihad. This analysis leads to conclusion how valid dalil and hujjah that is used in Historic Jumu`ah. The second analysis answered second research question about how Historic Jumu`ah represents feminist movement in America. From the cultural value, the researcher identified the feminism epistemology (w). Then, the feminism, (y) were analyzed using (w). The result leads to the conclusion as the final interpretation.

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6.

Thesis organization

The thesis organization is arranged as follows. The title of the thesis is “Islām Feminist in America: a Case study of Historic Jumu`ah”. In the first chapter, introduction is divided into some subchapters; there are Background of Choosing the subject, Scope of Study, Research Questions, Objectives, Benefit, Methodology, Theoretical Approaches and Thesis Organization. Second chapter is Literature Review, which is divided into some subchapters; they are Uṣūl al-fiqh, Islām and Friday prayer, and feminism. Third chapter, analysis is divided into two major analyses. First the analysis on how Historic Jumu`ah deviates from the Islām teaching mainstream and second, the discussion of how Historic Jumu`ah represents feminism. The fourth chapter is conclusion consists of conclusion and recommendation.

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CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter deals with looking into available literature that covers the components which the researcher used in the analysis. They are Uṣūl al-fiqh, methodology for research, Islām and Friday prayer, and the feminism theory. This literature review chapter is divided into four sub chapters. The first sub chapter discuses about Uṣūl al-fiqh: methodology for research. The second sub chapter explains Islām and Friday prayer. And the rest sub chapter provides information about feminism in America.

A. Uṣūl al-fiqh: Methodology for Research Uṣūl al-fiqh is a methodology in which reason and revelation come together, where considered opinion is accompanied by received law. Yet, Al Uṣūl does not rely purely on reason in a way that would be unacceptable to law, nor is it based simply on the kind of blind acceptance that would not be supported by reason. Hence, the methodology of Uṣūl al-fiqh has been called the Philosophy of Islam. According al Razi, in his book Al Mahsul Fi 'Ilm Usul al Fiqh, edited by Dr. Taha Jabir Al Alwani, Riyadh, Imam ibn Sa'ud Islamic University, 1st edition, 1399/1979, part I, p.94, Uṣūl al-fiqh is defined as part of science. The science of Source Methodology in Islāmic Jurisprudence Uṣūl al-fiqh has been defined as the aggregate, considered per se, of legal proofs and evidence that, when studied properly, will lead either to certain knowledge of a Shari’ah ruling or to at least a reasonable assumption concerning the same; the manner by which such proofs are adduced, and the status of the adducer (Al Alwani, 1990:11).

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Uṣūl al-fiqh as subject matter deals with the proofs in the Shari’ah sourcetexts, viewing them from the perspective of how, by means of Ijtihad, legal judgements which are derived from their particulars; though after, in cases where texts may appear mutually contradictory, preference has been established. Al Alwani talked about the benefit of Uṣūl al-fiqh in his book, the science of Uṣūl al-fiqh engenders the ability to have knowledge of Shari’ah rulings through study, on the part of those qualified to perform Ijtihad and who meet all its requirements, of the legal proofs revealed in the sources by the Lawgiver. The benefit to be had from this science to those not qualified to perform Ijtihad

is that, through their study of the classical schools of legal thought

madhahib of the mujtahidun (those who practise Ijtihad) and the reasoning behind their rulings, the student of Source Methodology in Islāmic Jurisprudence is enabled to understand the various schools of thought, to analyze them, to choose from among their interpretations and assign preference, and to adduce legal arguments on the basis of the principles formulated by the classical mujtahidun. (Al Alwani, 1990: 11).

1.

The Sciences from Which Uṣūl al-fiqh Derived Its Academic Basis

The science of Uṣūl al-fiqh is in fact an independent and autonomous field. It is, however, based on certain fundamental predications muqaddamat, knowledge of which the Islāmic legal scholar cannot do without (Al Alwani, 1990:11). Still in his book Al Alwani explains these predications have been derived from several other disciplines: a.

Some are derived from the science of Aristotelian logic which the philosopher-theologian writers’ mutakallimun had become accustomed to discussing in the introductions to their works. These academic discussions dealt, for example, with the ways in which words convey

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meanings, the division of subjects into present and predicable, the need for, and varieties of, discourse depending on conceptual principles taken from interpretations and definitions, the validity of conclusions based on inductive reasoning, and discussions about evidence and how it may be used to prove the claims of the one who is adducing it, or to refute contradictions. b.

Some are derived from Ilm al Kalam Scholastic Theology, and include discussions of such questions as the nature of the Sovereign Hakim, in the sense of whether it is the Shari’ah itself or reason which decides what is right and what is wrong; or such as whether one can have knowledge of right and wrong before revelation; or such as whether rendering thanks to the Bounteous Creator is a duty derived from the Shari’ah or from human reasoning.

c.

Some are general linguistic rules which the scholars of al Uṣūl developed through linguistic research and presented in a crystallized form, such as research dealing with languages and their origins, the classification of words into metaphorical and literal, discussions of etymology, synonymity, emphasis, generalization, specification, the meanings of grammatical particles.

d.

Some are derived from the classical sciences of the Qur’án and the Sunnah, such as discussions concerning the transmission of Hadith by a single narrator Ahad, or by an impeccable plurality of narrators Tawatur, the non-standard recitations of the Qur’án and the rules about them, the criteria for the acceptance Ta'dil or rejection Jarh of narrators of Hadith, abrogation of legislation al Nasikh wa al Mansukh, (the study of those verses of the Qur'an whose content have abrogated a legal meaning another verse, or in a Hadith, which is therefore called al Mansukh. This

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branch of al Uṣūl also studies whether or not the contents of a Hadith may abrogate legal meanings in the Qur’án, and in other Hadith) the condition of the text of a Hadith and its chain of narrators. e.

Finally, the examples cited by the scholars of al Uṣūl in illustration of their arguments are derived from the specifics of Fiqh, and from the detailed evidence for the same as taken from the Qur’án and the Sunnah.

The issues with which the scholars of al Uṣūl are primarily concerned include the following: a. Logic and its predications b. Linguistics c. Commands and Prohibitions d. Comprehensive al 'Amm and Particular terms al Khass e. Inconclusive al Mujmall and Determined concepts al Mubayyan f. Abrogation al Naskh g. Deeds (in particular, those of the Prophet, upon whom be peace, and their significance) h. Consensus al Ijma' i. Narrations relating to the Sunan j. Analogical reasoning al Qiyas k. Indicating preference in cases of apparent contradiction l. Exercising legal acumen and scholarship Ijtihad m. Following a specific school of legal thought Taqlid n. Disputed Sources (those other than the four "agreed" sources) 2.

Origins and Development of Uṣūl al-fiqh

As a science which is derived from Qur’án and Sunnah, Fiqh needs theoretical frame and logical methodology that is called Uṣūl al-fiqh. More, Uṣūl al-fiqh is about general understanding of fiqh arguments and the understanding of people who used those arguments. Uṣūl al-fiqh adalah ”pengetahuan tentang dalildalil fiqh secara umum, cara menggunakannya, serta pengetahuan tentang orang yang menggunakan dalil-dalil tersebut. (Syafrin, 2005:38)

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It is difficult to attempt a study of Uṣūl al-fiqh and its development without considering The history of Fiqh and the practical precepts of Shari’ah that have been gleaned from detailed source-evidence (Al Alwani, 1990:13). Al Alwani still in his book explains, the lexical meaning of Uṣūl is foundation, or basis Asl; plural Uṣūl or that upon which something else is built. In the legal system of Islām, Fiqh is built upon and stems from the bases Uṣūl which constitute its source-evidence. Hence, in order to understand the origins of Uṣūl al-fiqh, researcher needs to have a general idea of the history of Islāmic legislation Tashri'. Establishing Shari’ah legislation, prescribing law, laying down rules and regulations, and defining systems is a function which is specific to Allàh alone. Anyone who presumes to ascribe these functions to any other than Allàh commits the sin of al Shirk, as, in doing so, he has effectively contradicted the belief in the Oneness of Allàh Tawhid. Allàh has provided articulate proofs and clear source-evidence in order that the believers should have no trouble in finding their way to the particulars of His legislation, or Ahkam. with reference to some of this source-evidence, the Islāmic Ummah has agreed on its validity and its relevance to the Ahkam, and has accepted it as such. However there are differences with regard to other sourceevidence. The source-evidence upon which the whole Ummah fully agrees, and on the validity of which there is general consensus, comprises the two sources that formed the basis of legislation at the time of the Prophet (PBUH). These two sources of legislation are: a.

The Qur’án: This may be defined as the words revealed to the Prophet (PBUH) the recitation of which itself constitutes an act of worship, the shortest Sùrah of which is a challenge to mankind to produce anything

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the like thereof, every letter of which has been transmitted to us via an indisputably authentic chain of authority Tawatur; which is written between the two covers of the Holy Book Mushaf beginning with Sùrah al Fatihah "The Opening Chapter" and ending with the Sùrah al Nas. b.

The Sunnah: This includes everything, other than the Qur’án, which has been transmitted from the Prophet (PBUH); what he said, did, and agreed to.

Thus, every utterance of the Prophet (PBUH), apart from the Qur’án, and his every deed, from the beginning of his mission to the last moment of his life, constitute his Sunnah, in the general sense of the word, whether these establish a ruling which is generally applicable to all members of the Ummah, or a ruling which applies only to the Prophet himself or to some of his Sahabah. Regardless of whether what the Prophet (PBUH) did was instinctive or otherwise, his every word, deed and approval may be taken as the basis for evidence in a legal ruling. This is so regardless of whether his utterances or actions related to matters of faith or practice, or whether they were concerned with commanding or recommending, prohibiting, disapproving, or allowing; and regardless of whether his word or action was based on a ruling previously revealed in the Qur’án, or whether it served independently to establish legislation. During the lifetime of the Prophet (PBUH), all the legal rulings Ahkam of the Shari’ah, inclusive of all of its classifications, such as principal and derived rulings, teachings on the fundaments of the faith, and regulations regarding personal practice and legalities, were derived from these two sources, the Qur’án and the Sunnah. c.

Ijtihad was practiced by the Prophet (PBUH) and by those of his companions with legal proclivities Ahl al Nazar. The Prophet's Ijtihad was sometimes confirmed by the Qur’án and sometimes not; in which

16

case it was explained that the better solution was other than that which he had adopted. The Ijtihad made by the Companions was always in response to situations which actually occurred to them. Later, when they met the Prophet (PBUH), they would explain what happened and tell him what they had decided. Sometimes he (PBUH) approved of their Ijtihad, and such decisions of theirs (having gained the approval of the Prophet) became a part of the Sunnah. If he (PBUH) disapproved of their Ijtihad, his explanation of the correct procedure would become the Sunnah. Thus, researcher can say that at that stage legislation depended on the two forms of Divine revelation Wahy: 1.

Recited revelation Wahy Matlu; or the Qur’án with its absolute inimitability I'jaz

2.

Non-recited revelation Wahy Ghayr Matlu; or the Sunnah of the Prophet (PBUH)

Indeed, the Ijtihad made by the Prophet (PBUH) set a precedent for his Sahabah and later Muslims, that clearly proved the legitimacy of Ijtihad , so that when they could not find a revealed rule in the Qur’án or Sunnah, they were to make use of Ijtihad in order to arrive at a judgement on their own. Moreover, probably to reinforce and establish this concept, the Prophet (PBUH) used to order certain of his Companions to make Ijtihad concerning certain matters in his presence. Then he would tell them who was correct and who was mistaken.

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3.

Methods for Deriving Rulings from The Sources a.

As to the Qur’án

The Qur’án was learned and understood by the Sahabah without their ever having recourse to formal rules of grammar. Likewise, endowed as they were with clear vision, sharp wits and common sense, they readily understood the aims of the Lawgiver and the wisdom behind His legislation. (Al Alwani, 1990:15) Indeed, the Sahabah rarely used to question the Prophet (PBUH) about any matter unless he himself mentioned it first. It is reported that Ibn Abbas said that he had never seen any people better than the Sahabah of the Prophet (PBUH),. Throughout his mission, until he passed away, they only asked him about thirteen matters, all of which are mentioned in the Qur’án. For example, [the meaning of]: 'They ask you about fighting in the sacred month...' (QS. Al Baqarah [2]:212); and 'They ask you about the menstruating woman...' (QS. Al Baqarah [2]:222) " Ibn Abbas said, "They only asked him about matters which were of actual concern to them." Ibn 'Umar said in this respect: "Don't ask about something that hasn't happened, for I heard my father, 'Umar ibn al Khattab, cursed one who asked about something which had not occurred." Qasim said: "You asked about things we never asked about, and quarrel about things we never quarrelled about. You even asked about things which I'm not familiar with; but if we did know, it would not be permitted for us to remain silent concerning them." Ibn Ishaq said: "I met more of the Prophet's Sahabah than anyone else did; and I have never seen a people who lived more simply, or who were less demanding on themselves." 'Ubadah ibn Nusay al Kindi said: "I have known a people whose austerity was not as rigid as yours, and whose questions were quite other than the ones you ask." Abu 'Ubaydah said in his book Majaz al Qur’án: "It has never been reported that any of the Sahabah went to the Prophet (PBUH) for knowledge of anything which could be found in the Qur’án." Quoted by Shaykh 'Ali Abd al Razzaq in Tamhid li Tarikh al Falsafah, Cairo, p. 152. (Al Alwani, 1990:15)

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b.

As to the Sunnah

The parts of the Sunnah which consist of the Prophet's words were in the Companions' own language, so they knew its meaning and understood its phrases and context. As far as the Prophet's deeds were concerned, they used to witness them, then toldl others exactly what they had seen. For example, hundreds of people saw the Prophet (PBUH) making ablutions (Wudu’) and then adopted his practice without asking him about details; like which of the various actions in Wudu’ were obligatory and which were recommended, which were merely allowed and which were not. Likewise, they witnessed him (PBUH) performing Hajj and Salah, and the other acts of worship. People were heard asking the Prophet (PBUH) to give Fatawa concerning various matters, and he did so. Cases were referred to him, and he would pronounce his judgement. Problems would arise amongst the Sahabah, and he would give a definite answer; whether the problems concerned mutual relations, personal conduct, or various political matters. They witnessed all these situations and they understood the context in which they took place, so that the wisdom and purposes of the Prophets judgements were not hidden from them. People also saw how the Prophet (PBUH) used to notice the conduct of his Sahabah and others. Thus, if he (PBUH) praised anybody, they knew that the person's act had been a good one; and if he (PBUH) criticized anybody, they knew that there had been something wrong with what the person had done. Moreover, all the reports concerning the Prophet's Fatawa, rulings, decisions and approval or disapproval of various matters indicate that they took place in the presence of many people. So, just as the colleagues of a doctor know, due to their long association and experience, the reasons for his prescribing certain medicines, so also the Sahabah of the Prophet decisions. (Al Alwani, 1990:16).

knew exactly the reasoning behind his

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c.

As to Ijtihad

Al Alwani stated, the indications that Ijtihad is valid and relevant in the contemporary context are many. For example, Mu'adh ibn Jabal states that when the Prophet (PBUH) sent him to Yemen, he asked: "what will you do if a matter is referred to you for judgement?" Mu'adh said: "I will judge according to the Book of Allàh." The Prophet asked: "what if you find no solution in the Book of Allàh?" Mu'adh said: "Then I will judge by the Sunnah of the Prophet." The Prophet asked: "And what if you do not find it in the Sunnah of the Prophet?" Mu'adh said: "Then I will make Ijtihad to formulate my own judgement." The Prophet patted Mu'adh's chest and said "Praise be to Allàh who has guided the messenger of His Prophet to that which pleases Him and His Prophet." (Al Alwani, 1990:16) This Ijtihad and forming of one's own judgement, as mentioned by Mu'adh, is further explained in the advice Umar gave to Abu Musa when he appointed him a judge: "Judgement is to be passed on the basis of Qur’án command or established Sunnah practices." Then he added: "Make sure that you understand clearly every case, that is brought to you for which there is no applicable text of the Qur’án or the Sunnah. Yours, then, is a role of comparison and analogy, so as to distinguish similarities -in order to reach a judgement that seems nearest to justice and best in the sight of Allàh." (Al Alwani, 1990:16) Abu Bakr al Siddiq, said that as far as the prophet concerned, his opinion had always correct because Allàh always guided him. In their case, however, they have just opinion and they conjectured. (Al Alwani, 1990:16) Thus, the researcher may state that the concept of Ijtihad

or "opinion", at

that stage, went no further than one of the following: a.

Applying one or another of the possible meanings in cases where a sentence may lend itself to two or more interpretations, e.g. when the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) ordered the Muslims to pray among Banu Qurayzah.

b.

Comparative Qiyas; which deals with a matter by comparing it with another, similar matter which is dealt with in the Qur’án or Sunnah. For

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example, the Qiyas of 'Ammar who compared the case of Tayammum when in a state of Janabah to Ghusl, and therefore rubbed his whole body with dust. c.

Ijtihad by taking into account something which is potentially beneficial; or prohibiting something which could lead to wrongdoing; or deriving a particular ruling from general statements; or adopting a specific interpretation; and so on.

The extent of the Prophet's concern with encouraging the Sahabah to make Ijtihad and training them in its use can be seen in his saying "If a judge gives a verdict/ Ijtihad according to the best of his knowledge and his verdict is correct he will receive a double reward, and if he gives a verdict according to the best of his knowledge and his verdict is wrong, even then he will get a reward." (Bukhàrì, 147: V. 9 B. 92 N. 450) The Ijtihad of many of the Sahabah was so accurate that in many cases the revelations of the Qur’án confirmed it, and the Prophet (PBUH) supported it. Obviously, their close association with the Prophet (PBUH) had afforded them a keen sense of the aims of the All-wise Lawgiver, of the basic purposes behind the Qur’ánic legislation, and of the meanings of the texts; opportunities which those who came after them did not directly enjoy.

B. Islām and Friday Prayer Historic Jumu`ah is an event of Friday prayer. The Friday prayer is one of prayers which exist in Islām. This sub chapter discusses Islām at glance and the Friday prayer. Islām is major world religion belonging to the Semitic family; it was promulgated by the Prophet Muhammad in Arabia in the 7th century AD. (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2006).

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Islām is one of the three major world religions, (along with Judaism and Christianity), that profess monotheism, or the belief in a single God. (Dallal, 2004) From two points above the researcher agreed that Islām is a religion (Human beings' relation to that which they regard as holy, sacred, spiritual, or divine). Islām according to Islāmic teaching is a religion that belongs to Allàh. The Religion before Allàh is Islām (submission to His Will): Nor did the People of the Book dissent there from except through envy of each other, after knowledge had come to them. But if any deny the Signs of Allàh, Allàh is swift in calling to account. (QS. Ali Imran [3]:19) From this Sùrah, Allàh confessed that there is another religion that does not belong to Allàh, but Islām is the religion of Allàh. Allàh taught His religion to human through His prophets to prophets’ congregants. Then Allàh sent the revelation through the prophet with some reason; Allàh sent the revelation in order to make human become Muslim. "If then they (your false gods) answer not your (call), know ye that this revelation is sent down (replete) with the knowledge of Allàh, and that there is no god but He! will ye even then submit (to Islām)?" (QS. Huud [11]:14) The other reason is thus man knows the only one of Allàh and worships to Allàh. Not a messenger did We send before thee without this inspiration sent by Us to him: that there is no god but I; therefore worship and serve Me. (QS. Al Anbiyaa’ [21]: 25) The way of worshiping to Allàh is called prayer. There are many of kinds of prayers in Islām. One of them is a Friday prayer. In Islām view, the Jumu`ah has the same meaning as Friday, moreover in the Qur’án has used Jumu`ah rather than Friday. Thus the reason Friday prayer on March 18th 2005 is called by Historic Jumu`ah.

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1.

Friday Prayer is Obligatory

The Friday Prayer had become obligatory even before the Prophet's migration to Madìnah, though he could not enjoin it on the Muslims on account of the highly unfavourable conditions prevailing in Makkah. However, when the Muslims started migrating to Madìnah, the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) sent a written instruction to Hadrat Musa ibn Umair, their leader, to the effect: Seek nearness to Allàh with two rak`ahs of Prayer on Friday when the sun has passed over the meridian. Having received this instruction Hadrat Musa offered the first Friday Prayer at Madìnah with twelve followers. (Kamal, 1986:2) According to Hadrat Kab ibn Malik and Ibn Sírín, even before this, the Ansàr of Madìnah had agreed to mutually observe a congregational prayer on one day in the week. For this purpose they had selected Friday, avoiding the Sabbath of the Jews and the Sunday of the Christians, and Hadrat As ad ibn Zurrárah had led the first

Friday

Prayer

at

Biadah

in

Madìnah

with

40

followers.

(Musnad Ahmad, Abú Da ud, Ibn Màjah) The scholars are in agreement that Friday prayer is an individual obligation and it is two rak`ahs. Allàh says in the Qur'an: "O you who believe, when the call for the salah of Jumu'ah is proclaimed, hasten unto the remembrance of Allàh, and leave off business (and trading). That is best for you if you but knew." (Saabiq, 1990:131) Saabiq in his fiqh-us-Sunnah explains the obligatory nature of Friday prayer is also obvious from the Hadith recorded by Bukhàrì and Muslim from Abu Hurairah that the Prophet said that "We are the last [of the people to come] but the first on the day of resurrection. They received their books before us and we got ours after them. This day was obligatory upon them, but they differed concerning

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it, and Allàh guided us. The people, therefore, follow us: the Jews tomorrow and the Christians the day after tomorrow." Ibn Mas'ud reports that the Prophet noticed some people staying away from Al Jumu'ah and said that "I had the notion to order someone to lead the people in prayer, and then to go and burn the houses of those who stayed away from Al Jumu'ah." This is related by Ahmad and Muslim. Abdullah b. Umar and Abú Hurairah said that they heard Allàh's Messenger (PBUH) say on the planks of his pulpit: People most cease to neglect the Friday prayer or Allàh will seal their hearts and then they will be among the negligent. This is related by Muslim (N. 1882), and by Ahmad and Nasa'i from ibn Umar and ibn Abbas. Abu Al Ja'd ad Damari reports that the Prophet said that "Whoever misses three Friday prayers in a row out of negligence will have a seal put over his heart by Allàh." This is related by the five, and Ahmad and Ibn Majah have something similar from Jabir, while Ibn as Sakin has graded it to be sahih.

2.

Command for Friday Prayer: Its Merits and Importance

Friday Prayer is obligatory and this is supported by the Qur’án, the Sunnah and the consensus of the scholars. It occupies an important place among the distinctive features of Islām. A person who does not believe in the obligatory status of the Friday Prayer falls outside the pale of Islām, and the one who abandons it due to negligence and carelessness, without a genuine reason, becomes a sinner. O Believers! When you hear the call to the Friday Prayer, hasten to the remembrance of Allàh and leave your trading; this is better for you only if you know it. (QS. Al Jumu`ah [62]:9)

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Here remembrance means the Friday Sermon and the congregational service, and hastening implies that one should make necessary preparations for it and attend the mosque promptly. The other prayers can be offered without the congregation and, if missed, can be offered later also. But it is not in the Friday Prayer. It is conditioned upon congregation and, if missed, cannot be offered later. Therefore, as soon as the call for it is given, the Believers are commanded to leave their business and trading and hasten to the mosque for the remembrance of Allàh. The following explanation refers to Kamal (1986) in Everyday fiqh (Vol.1) p. 3-5. The fact is that the remembrance of Allàh for a little while and bowing and prostrating oneself before Him along with the congregation in full consciousness yields eternal benefits for man far greater in value and worth than the temporary and meagre material gains that he craves for in the world. The Prophet (PBUH) has said: a.

Narated By Tariq ibn Shihab: The Prophet (PBUH) said: The Friday prayer in congregation is a necessary duty for every Muslim, with four exceptions; a slave, a woman, a boy, and a sick person. (Dàúd, N. 1062)

b.

The Friday Prayer is obligatory on every person who believes in Allàh and the Last day; the one who ignores it on account of sport or fun, or trade and business, will be ignored by Allàh, Who is Pure and SelfSufficient. (Dárquiní) Narated By Abdullah ibn Amr: The Prophet PBUH said: The Friday prayer is obligatory on him who hears the call. (Dàúd, N. 1051)

c.

The name of the person who abandons the Friday Prayer without a genuine reason, will be recorded as a hypocrite in the Book (the Preserved Tablet), whose writings can neither be scraped out nor tampered with. (Mishkát)

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c.

I wish I should appoint someone as Imám in my place, and should go and set fire to the houses of the people who stay back at home and neglect the Friday Prayer. (Muslim)

d.

Abdullah b. Umar and Abú Hurairah said that they heard Allàh's Messenger (PBUH) say on the planks of his pulpit: People most cease to neglect the Friday prayer or Allàh will seal their hearts and then they will be among the negligent. (Muslim, N. 1882)

e.

The one who hears the call to the Friday Prayer and does not turn up for it on one Friday, and then on the second Friday and the third Friday consecutively, has his heart sealed and is turned a hypocrite (Tabáranì) Alláma Sarakhsi says: The Friday Prayer is obligatory according to the Qur’án and the Sunnah and the consensus of the Muslims. (Al Mabsút, Vol. II, p. 22 in Kamal. 1986: 4)

Alláma Ibn Hummám says: Prayer's obligatory status is established by the Qur’án and the Sunnah, and the consensus of the Ummah is that the person who denies this is outside the pale of Islām." (Fath Al Qadir, Vol. I, p. 407 in Kamal. 1986:4) Hadrat Ibn Abbás says: the person, who misses several Friday Prayers consecutively, has abandoned Islām. (Ilm al Fiqh, Vol. II in Kamal. 1986:4) The Prophet (PBUH) has described the merits of the Friday Prayer thus: The one who had a bath on Friday, cleaned himself fully, used oil and perfume, then went to the mosque early in the afternoon and took his place quietly without pushing or disturbing the people; then offered the Sunnah prayer; then listened to the sermon peacefully, he will have all his sins committed since the previous Friday forgiven. (Bukhàrì, 147: V. 2 B. 13 N. 033)

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Narrated by Abdullah ibn Amr ibn Al ‘As, the Prophet (PBUH) said: There are three types of men who come to offer the Friday Prayer: (1) He who comes and indulges in irrelevant talk: such a one does not gain anything beside this. (2) He who busies himself in meditation and supplications to Allàh, which Allàh may or may not grant. (3) He who takes his place quietly and peacefully: neither he disturbs the people nor hurts them in any way: this man’s good behaviour becomes an expiation for his negligence till the next Friday and for three days more, for Allàh says: The one who does one good deed, gets the reward for ten good deeds. (QS. Al An'am [6]:160) (Dàúd, N. 1108) Again the Prophet (PBUH) has said, “The one who washes himself clean on Friday, then walks to mosque, then listens to the sermon peacefully, avoiding every frivolous act and utterance, gets the reward of one full year's worship on every step of one year's fasting and one year's prayer.” (Tirmizí)

3.

Pre-requisites of Friday Prayer

In Islāmic teaching, the Friday prayer must have a few pre-requisites, which must be fulfilled for become essential and valid for the people. They are prerequisites of essentiality and pre-requisites of validity. a.

Pre-requisites of Essentiality These are five in number: 1)

Being a male: the Friday Prayer is not binding on the females.

2)

Being a free man: the Friday Prayer is not binding on the slave.

3)

Being an adult sane person: the Friday Prayer is not binding on the child and the insane person.

4)

Being a resident: the Friday Prayer is not binding on the traveller.

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5)

Being healthy and well: a sick or disabled person, who cannot go to the mosque, is exempted; however, if a sick or disabled person can go to the mosque, he will be under obligation to attend the prayer.

Friday prayer is an obligation upon every free, adult, sane, resident Muslim who has the ability to attend it and does not have a valid excuse to miss it. In any case, the Friday prayer is just for person who fulfils all the five pre-requisites mentioned above, but if a person lacking all these, or some of these pre-requisites offers the Friday Prayer, his prayer will be valid and in order, and he will not have to offer the Zhuhr Prayer that day. And if there is a woman or a disabled person attends the Friday Prayer, her or his prayer will be perfectly in order and valid, and they will not have to offer the Zhuhr Prayer.

b.

Pre-requisites of Validity If the following five pre-requisites are not fulfilled, the Friday Prayer

will not be valid. If in spite of this, some people offer it, they will have to offer the Zhuhr Prayer as well. 1)

MisrJami: A large town or habitation The Friday Prayer will not be valid if it is held in the jungle, or a

village, or a temporary camp. Hadrat Alí has said: The Friday and the Id Prayers cannot be held except in large towns. A large town or habitation in every such city where the number of the males upon whom the Friday Prayer is binding, is so large that no mosque in the town may accommodate them all together. (Kamal, 1986:6) 2)

Time of Zhuhr Prayer The majority of the companions were of the opinion that the time of

Friday prayer is the same as that of the Zhuhr. It is not valid to observe

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the Friday Prayer before or after the prescribed time of the Zhuhr Prayer. Ahmad, Bukhàrì, Abú Dàúd, Tirmizhi, and Baihaqi record from Anas that the Prophet (PBUH) would have Friday prayer when the sun had passed its meridian. Ahmad and Muslim record that Salamah ibn Al Akua' said: "We would pray Friday prayer with the Prophet when the sun had passed the meridian, and when we returned [from the salah], we would be following our shadow." Bukhàrì says: "The time of Friday prayer is when the sun passes its meridian." Similar narrations have been recorded from Umar, Ali, Nu'man ibn Bashir, and Umar ibn Harith. Ash Shaf'i says: "The Prophet (PBUH), Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and the imams after them all prayed the Friday prayer when the sun had passed its zenith." (Saabiq, 1990:132) 3)

The Friday Sermon/khutbah The Sermon has to be delivered within the prescribed time limit

before the congregational Prayer. If it is delivered after the congregational prayer or before the prescribed time, the Friday Prayer will not be valid. The majority of the people of knowledge are of the opinion that khutbah for Friday prayer is obligatory and they support this by the confirmed Hadith which state that the Prophet always made the khutbah with the Jumu`ah. In their support they also quote the saying of the Prophet: "Pray as you see me pray," and the Qur'anic verse: "O you who believe, when the call is proclaimed for salatul Jumu`ah, hasten unto the remembrance of Allàh. This verse contains an order to hasten unto the remembrance, which implies it is obligatory, and the scholars interpret the remembrance of Allàh to include the khutbah. (Saabiq, 1990:137)

4)

Congregational service There should be at least three adult males besides the Imám, who

should remain present from the commencement of the Sermon to the completion of the prayer, and each of them should be fit to lead the

29

prayer. The presence of females or of minor male children only is not enough.

5)

General call for the Prayer The Friday Prayer has to be offered publicly in a place where any

and every Muslim may come to attend it without let or hindrance. If the prayer is held in a restricted place, for instance, a bungalow, where the common Muslims are not allowed to join in, or held behind closed doors, the prayer will not be valid. 4.

Pre-requisite of the Muslim Ruler

According to Kamal and some fiqh books, the presence of the Muslim ruler or his deputy is necessary for the establishment of the Friday Prayer. The object is that the ruler himself should attend the prayer as a duty and should organize it officially and make arrangements for keeping law and order in view of the big gathering. As for the countries where the rulers are non-Muslims, the Muslim population is not absolved from the duty of observing the Friday Prayer. The Muslim community have to organize and hold the prayer themselves.

5.

Sunnah in the Friday Prayer

The following Sunnah are based on the explanation in Fiqh us Sunnah, Daily Sunnah and many sources of fiqh materials. a.

It has prescribed to clean and purify oneself on Friday, to have hair and nails, cut, to put on the best available dress, to use perfume, and attend the mosque early in the afternoon. The Prophet (PBUH) has said: The

30

person who has a bath on Friday, puts on the best available clothes, uses perfume if available, and comes for the prayer, and takes his place quietly without disturbing the people, then offers the prayer that Allàh has destined for him, and sits in perfect silence and peace from the time the Iákes his place till the completion of the prayer, he will have all his sins committed since the previous Friday expiated on this account. (Abú Dá úd in Kamal, 1986:8) b. If in spite of necessary preparations, a person is not able to attend the Friday Prayer due to error or negligence, he should offer four rak`ahs of Zhuhr and give away something in charity. Similarly the person, who cannot attend the mosque on account of nursing a patient, or rainstorm, or danger of an enemy, should offer four rak`ahs of Zhuhr . c. It is preferable that the person who delivers the Sermon should lead the prayer as well, but another person may also lead the prayer provided that he has attended the Sermon. If a person who has not attended the Sermon leads the prayer, if will not be valid. (Durr Al Mukhtar) d. It is advisable that all the people of a habitation should offer the Friday Prayer in the principal mosque of the place, but there is no harm if they offer the prayer in different mosques of a big city or town. (Bahr arRà'iq) e. It is forbidden to offer the Zhuhr Prayer before the Friday Prayer in a city or habitation where the Friday Prayer is usually held. If a sick or disabled person offers it, it will be an imperfect prayer, and he will have to offer it again after the Friday Prayer has been held. (IlmAl Fiqh, Vol II). f. The sick and disabled persons upon whom Friday Prayer is not binding, should offer the Zhuhr Prayer on Friday Prayer on Friday individually; it

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is highly undesirable that they should offer it in congregation. (Durr Al Mukhtár) g. The prayer should be somewhat longer than the Sermon. Abu Wa'il reported: Ammar delivered to us the sermon. It was short and eloquent. When he descended (from the pulpit) we said to him: O Abd al Yaqzn, you have delivered a short and eloquent sermon. Would that you had lengthened (the sermon). He said: I have heard the Messenger of Allàh as saying: The lengthening of prayer by a man and the shortness of the sermon is the sign of his understanding (of faith). So lengthen the prayer and shorten the sermon, for there is charm (in precise) expression. (Muslim, N. 1889) h. If a latecomer joins the Friday Prayer in the Final Sitting, or joins it after Sajdah Sahv in Tashahhud, his prayer will be valid. He should complete his two rak`ahs independently after salutation by the Imám. i. One should start making preparations for the Friday Prayer from Thursday as was the practice of the Prophet (PBUH). (Mishkát) Five good things are such that if a person can perform them all on the same day, Allàh will include him among the dwellers of Paradise. j. On Friday one should spend as much of one's time as possible in the remembrance of Allàh, recitation of the Qur’án asking for Allàh’s forgiveness of one's sins, works of charity, visiting the sick and the graveyard, attending funerals and other works of public good. According to Hadrat Abú Saìd Khudri, the Prophet (PBUH) said: Five good things are such that if a person can perform them all on the same day, Allàh will include him among the dwellers of Paradise: 1 visiting the sick, 2 attending the funerals, 3 observing the fast, 4 offering the Friday Prayer, 5 setting the slave free.

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According to another tradition reported by Hadrat Abù Saíd Khudri, the Prophet (PBUH) said “The person who recites Sùrah Al Kahf on Friday will have a bright light lit up for him till the next Friday.” (Nasai) According to Hadrat Abu Hurairah, the Prophet (PBUH) said: The person who recites Sùrah Ad Dukhán on Friday night, will have seventythousand angels imploring Allàh for his forgiveness with the result that he will have all his sins forgiven. (Tirmizí) The Prophet (PBUH) has also said: There is a blessed hour on Friday during which a person is granted by Allàh anything that he prays for. (Bukhàrì). As to the specification of this hour, two of the views generally accepted are: (1) It begins from the time the Imám ascends the pulpit for delivering the sermon and lasts till the completion of the prayer, (2) it implies the last moments of Friday when the sun is about to set. One may pray to Allàh at both these times for fulfilment of one's lawful desires. k. It is desirable that one should reach the mosque as early in the afternoon as possible. The Prophet (PBUH) has said “The person who has a bath on Friday and purifies himself fully, then comes to the mosque early, will be regarded as though he has sacrificed a camel; the one who comes a bit late, would be regarded as though the has sacrificed a cow or a buffalo; the one who comes still later, will be regarded as though he has sacrificed a two horned ram; and the one who comes last of all, will be regarded as though he has given away an egg in the way of Allàh. Then when the Imám comes out to deliver the Sermon, the angels leave the door of the mosque and take their places in order to listen to the Sermon and offer the prayer.” (Muslim in Kamal, 1986: 10)

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l. It is in accordance with the Sunnah to recite Sùrah Há Mim Sajdah (41) and Sùrah Ad Dahr (76) in the Fajr Prayer on Friday. m. It is in accordance with the Sunnah to recite Sùrah QS. Al Jumu`ah (62) and Al Munaafiquun (63), or Sùrah Al A’laa (87) and Al Ghaasyiyah (88) in the Friday Prayer. n. One may take one's place quietly wherever one may find it and avoid jumping over the people's shoulders in search of a comfortable place, because this disturbs the people physically as well as mentally. According to Hadrat Abdullah ibn Abbàs, the Prophet (PBUH) said “The person who stands in the second row instead of the first row only with a view to avoid disturbing a fellow Muslim, is awarded a double reward as against the one standing in the front row. (Tabarànì). o. On Friday one should invoke Allàh as often as possible for His blessings on the Prophet (PBUH), for the Prophet (PBUH) has said: The best day for you is Friday because Adam was created on Friday and he died on Friday and Resurrection will take place on Friday. Therefore, you should invoke Allàh blessings for me frequently on this day, because your invocations in this regard are presented before me. The Companions asked, O Messenger of Allàh! Even when your body will have decayed? The earth is forbidden to eat up a Prophet. (Muslim in Rabbani, 2005)

6.

Regulations Relating to the Sermon

a. The Imám has to deliver the Sermon in two parts: in the first part he should instruct the people in religion, and exhort them to action; in the second he should recite a few verses of the Qur’án, invoke Allàh

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blessings for the Prophet (PBUH), and pray for forgiveness of his Companions. b. The preacher should prepare a suitable and comprehensive khutbah for every Friday and should deal with the problems facing the Muslims in the light of the Qur’án and the Sunnah, and teach the people the ways of solving and tackling those problems in the Islāmic way. He should remind them of their religious duties and obligations and infuse into them the spirits of their faith and love of their community. It is permissible to read out a prepared sermon from the book, or deliver one of the Prophet's Sermons. But the real object of the Friday Sermon is that the leader of the Muslims should instruct them in their religion in a natural, systematic and organised way, explain to them their obligations and responsibilities and afford them guidance in respect of the current problems in the light of the Qur’án and the Sunnah. c. The preacher after delivering the first sermon should sit down on the pulpit for so long. It is about three short verses or the words Subhãn-Allàh may be recited. Then he should stand up and deliver the second part of the sermon. In the first sermon he should give religious instructions in a spirited and dignified manner and exhort the audience to practice; in the second sermon he should recite some verses of the Qur’án, invoke Allàh. The Imám may also pray for the Muslims ruler of the time. d. The Sermon should be somewhat shorter than the prayer, for it is undesirable to make the sermon unduly long. The Prophet (PBUH) has said, “The prolongation of the prayer and shortness of the sermon are an index of the Imam’s common sense and insight in religion; you should, therefore, offer a long prayer and deliver a short sermon.” (Muslim)

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e. It is obligatory to listen to the sermon peacefully and with full attention, whether the listener is sitting near the Imám or away from him. f.

It is desirable that one should sit close to the Imám during the sermon and face towards him. (Mishkàt)

g.

When the Imám has stood up to deliver the sermon, no one should offer an individual prayer, nor should one engage in conversation, for it is forbidden to talk, offer prayer, busy oneself in meditation, eat, drink, greet or respond to greeting, or do anything which may distract one from the sermon. Even giving of religious instruction or exhorting others to do good is forbidden. The Prophet (PBUH) has said: The person who talks when the sermon is in progress, is like a donkey loaded with books, and the one who tells another one to be quiet, during the sermon, has lost his own Friday Prayer. (Musnad Ahmad, Tabaràní) One is, however, permitted to offer a missed prayer during the sermon, and one must do so if necessary.

h. One may invoke Allàh’s blessings for the Prophet (PBUH) inaudibly when his name is mentioned in the sermon. i. In the second sermon, it is commendable to pray for the Prophet's near and dear ones, his Companions, wives, especially the rightly-guided Caliphs, Hadrat Hamzah and Hadrat Abbás. The Imám may also pray for the Muslims ruler of the time, but it is forbidden to exaggerate his praises and say things beyond the truth. (Ilm al Fiqh, Vol II,.148 in Kamal. 1986:12) j. In the Sermon of the last Friday of Ramadán, though it is not forbidden to dwell on farewell themes, it is undesirable to make such themes an integral part of one's sermon persistently because no such thing has been reported from the Prophet (PBUH) and his Companions, nor has it been

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mentioned in the authentic books of Fiqh. Due to the prevailing practice of giving farewell sermons, people have wrongly started looking upon the last Friday of Ramadán as of special religious significance, which is a misconception and needs to be eradicated. k. As soon as the sermon is over, Iq’mah for the prayer should be pronounced, as was the practice in the Prophet's time; it is forbidden to engage in worldly business between the sermon and the prayer. If the Imám does so and prolongs the interval, for instance in taking food, or settling a commercial issue, he will have to deliver the sermon once again. However, if he has to attend to an unavoidable religious matter, for instance, performing of Wudu’, or Ghusl, which is necessary and he remembers of it after the sermon, there is no harm in observing the interval and no need to deliver the sermon again.

C. Feminism Feminism generally is talking about pattern of relation between men and women in the society. In its development there is no standard definition for this idea. Kamla Bashin and Nighat Said Khan, two South Asian feminists, state that “It is not easy to define term of feminism that can be accepted or applied to all feminists every where and every place. It was caused by the definition of feminism has always changed to follow the different practice of social culture which became background of its appearance, also the different level understanding, perception and action by the feminist itself.” (Muslikhati, 2004:1718). Humm, in her preface of Dictionary of Feminist Theory stated that a fundamental goal of feminist theory was to change women’s oppression in terms

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of race, gender, class, and sexual preference (Humm, 1995). Feminist theory reveals the importance of women’s individual and shared experiences and their struggles. Feminism can be defined as, a doctrine that advocates or demands for women the same rights granted men, as in political and economic status. (The American Heritage Dictionary, 496). The belief in the social, economic, and political equality of the sexes, feminism is manifested worldwide and is represented by various institutions committed to activity on behalf of women’s rights and interests. (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2006). The definition incorporates both a doctrine of equal rights for women (the organised movement to attain women’s rights) and an ideology of social transformation aiming to create a world for women beyond simple social community. “In general, feminism is an ideology of women’s liberation since intrinsic in all its approaches is the belief that women suffer injustice because of their sex” (Humm, 1995:94). From many definitions above, the researcher took conclusion: feminism is an ideology about each gender which has the same right and freedom to choose in their life. This idea is supported by Freedman in Rarastesa; Feminism is a belief that women and men are inherently of equal worth. Because most societies privilege men as a group, social movements are necessary to achieve equality between women and men, with the understanding that gender always intersects with other social hierarchies (Rarastesa, 2007:2). 1.

Feminism Movement

Feminism movement in America has gone through three phase. The first phase is called first-wave feminism which happens in the end of 19th and early 20th centuries. The first-wave focus on women’s legal right, such as right to vote. The second-wave feminism is seeking equal rights and opportunities for women

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in their economic activities, their personal lives, and politics. The second-wave feminism of the “women's movement” peaked in the 1960s and '70s and touched on every area of women's experience including family, sexuality, and work. And the third–wave feminism is reconsidering the position of men as partner in work and life. “… adalah third-wave feminism yang kembali ke first-wave feminist movement namun bukan lagi memperjuangkan hak untuk memberikan suara namun kembali mempercayai nilai-nilai yang menganggap laki-laki sebagai partner yang bisa diajak kerja sama dan bukan memisahkan diri dari laki-laki” (Rarastesa, 2007:2). Tong in his book Feminist Thought makes eight classifications of feminist thought. They are Liberal feminism, radical feminism, Marxist and socialist feminism, psychoanalytic and gender feminism, existentialist feminism, post modern feminism, multicultural and global feminism, and ecofeminism. The liberal feminist thought in the Eighteenth Century is about equality education between men and women. The focuses in the nineteenth century are equal political rights and economic opportunities. The overall goal of liberal feminism is to create “a just and compassionate society in which freedom flourishes” Only in such a society can women as well as men thrive. (Tong, 1998:12) The Radical's Feminism emerged as the reaction from the Liberal movement of Feminism. The Radical's Feminism also could be defined as the movement of the fighting woman in sexual reality, and less in other realities. Therefore, this movement especially discussed how it destroyed patriarchy as the system thought that becomes institution in the community. Marxist Feminism emerged as the upper reaction of liberal feminism. Thinking about how to increase the status and the role of the woman, Marxist

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Feminism believes that backwardness that was experienced by women was caused by the social structure, politics and close economics of capitalism system. Socialist Feminism is the synthesis of the Radical's Feminism with Marxist Feminism. In Marxist feminism, capitalism system caused the retardation and oppression of woman. But in the socialist feminism, found in the socialist country, many women who have been autonomous economically and obviously was still oppressed because of being dominated by the patriarchy system. For Socialist Feminism, to remove the domination of the men must be anticipated by means of the awareness of the woman about their position that was crushed. Tong’s classification does not include Islāmic feminism. The researcher uses Islāmic feminism as point of view in the discussion of historic Jumu`ah. Thus the next section is about Islāmic feminism.

2.

Islāmic feminism

The title of the thesis is Islām Feminist in America: a Case study of Historic Jumu`ah. Thus it is a case study that involves Islām feminist as an object of study. Islām feminist is a term that researcher used to identify one community which has special characteristic. Islām feminist is a phrase that consists of two words; Islām and feminist. Islām is a religion, in Encarta encyclopaedia noted one of the three major world religions, along with Judaism and Christianity, which profess monotheism, or the belief in a single God. While feminist refers to people who support the feminism and practice it in their daily life. Thus, Islām feminist is a definition given to a community which has characteristic support the feminism, specifically Islāmic feminism.

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Islāmic feminism is not a product of East or West. Indeed, it transcends East and West. Islamic feminism is being produced at diverse sites around the world by women inside their own countries, whether they come from countries with Muslim majorities or from old established minority communities. Islamic feminism is also growing in Muslim Diaspora and convert communities in the West. Islamic feminism is circulating with increasing frequency in cyberspace - to name just one site: maryams.com (Badran, 2002). There has been much misunderstanding, misrepresentation, and mischief concerning Islāmic feminism. The term of Islāmic feminism began to be visible in the 1990s in various global locations. The definition of Islāmic feminism refers to some the following explanations. Islāmic feminism is “a discourse of gender equality and social justice that derives its understanding and mandate from the Qur’án and seeks the practice of rights and justice for all human beings in the totality of their existence across the public-private continuum” (MWU, 2004). A feminist historian Margot Badran, in Islamic feminism: what's in a name?, defines Islāmic feminism as a feminist discourse and practice articulated within an Islāmic paradigm. Islāmic feminism, which derives its understanding and mandate from the Qur’án, seeks rights and justice for women, and for men, in the totality of their existence (Badran, 2002). According to Windows faith (2001) edited by Gisela Webb, It is important to distinguish between Islāmic feminism as an explicitly declared project, as an analytical term; and Islāmic feminist as a term of identity. Some Muslim women describe their project of articulating and advocating the practice of Qur’ánically mandated gender equality and social justice as Islāmic feminism. Others do not call this Islāmic feminism but describe it as an Islāmic project of rereading the Qur’án, women-centered readings of religious texts, or "scholarship-activism”.

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The main aim of Islām feminism, as the aim of feminism generally, is to erode treatment injustice towards the women in the social structure as well as to fight for gender equality. The Islāmic feminist considered that in fact the social life of the Muslim community, the women still were being treated unjust, where the women did not yet obtain the position that was equal to the man in gender relations. 3.

The Latest Development in America

The Islāmic feminist in America has developed into organization. Some organizations are used as the means to spread the spirit of feminism. At the early of those organizations they succeeded in forming virtual communities. A growing number of virtual communities are evolving into physical communities, organizing “Progressive Muslim” groups through Meetup.com, the website that Howard Dean supporters built their powerful grassroots movement (Sacirbey, 2005:3). One which is popular is Muslim WakeUp. It seeks to bring together Muslims and non-Muslims in America and around the globe in efforts that celebrate cultural and spiritual diversity, tolerance, and understanding through online and offline media, events, and community activities. Muslim WakeUp champions an interpretation of Islām that celebrates the Oneness of God and the Unity of God’s creation through the encouragement of the human creative spirit and the free exchange of ideas, in an atmosphere that is filled with compassion and free of intimidation, authoritarianism, and dogmatism. In all its activities, Muslim WakeUp attempts to reflect a deep belief in justice and against all forms of oppression, bigotry, sexism, and racism (MWU, 2003). In January 2003, Ahmed Nassef and Jawad Ali launched Muslim WakeUp, a website that gave American Muslims an unprecedented opportunity to express

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t themselves without w censor on a wide range off topics (PM MU, 2004). Since S going o online in Jannuary 2003, Muslim WaakeUp had unearthed u a segment off America’s M Muslim poppulation thatt its founderrs believed existed, It is a diverse population t that includess some whoo are deeply devout and others who are adamanntly secular b still iddentify as Muslims. but M Thhey are trooubled by the sexism,, violence, a authoritarian nism and otther ills theey see besettting Muslim m communiities in the U United Statees and abroadd. They feel a connectioon with Islām m, either as a faith or as a heritage, but b also see themselves t aas part of thee fabric of A American lifee and enjoy m movies, cockktails and ro omance (Sacirbey, 2005:2-3). One evidence that MuslimWakkeUp has the afiliation with w Islāmicc feminism i this picturre. is

Figure . (L to R) Jawad F d Ali, Ahmeed Nassef an nd Sarah Elltantawi at Amir's A on 1 the nigh ht before thee big Fridayy prayer, toaasting "the end of March 17, patriarchy." On the eve of whaat the trio saaid would be a watershed event in more than 1,400 years of Islamic history, h the tthree sat in Amir’s, A a sm mall Lebanesse diner on M Manhattan’s s upper west side, andd planned a party. Thhe theme---tthe end of p patriarchy, to t commemorate a fem male-led, mixxed-gender pprayer that would w take p place the next day at thee Synod Houuse of St. Joohn of the Diivine, a giannt cathedral a couple of blocks b awayy (Sacirbey, 2005:1). 2

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Another community is known as PMU. Progressive Muslim Union is launched on November 15, 2004, the day of Eid al Fitri, in New York. The Progressive Muslim Union (PMU) is the result of almost two years of conversation and collaboration between a group of North American Muslims who are committed to representing and renewing the community in all its social, ideological and political diversity. PMU members range from deeply religious to totally secular, sharing in common a commitment to learning, political and social empowerment, a commitment to justice and freedom and a concern and love for the Muslim community (PMU, 2004). The spirit of Islāmic feminism of PMU can be seen from the content of Shattering the idol of spiritual patriarchy: Towards a gender-fair notion of prayer in Islām by Omid Safi, PMU Co-Chair. Our aim in this process of Ijtihad is to open up the debate to the whole of Muslim society, female and male. Our question is that of the presupposition: do we believe that God has created women in the fullness of physical, emotional, intellectual, and spiritual dignity, or not? Do we believe deep in our hearts that women are fully human, entitled to their humanity as a precious creation of God, or not? Are women not also the bearers of the Trust (amana), that we are told in the Qur’an is of such cosmic significance that the Heavens and the Earth could not bear it, but all of humanity took upon itself? If our nobility in the sight of God is not due to race or gender or national origin but is rather based on our piety and God-consciousness (taqwa), then let us pray behind Imáms who are God-conscious and pious, be they male or female, of whatever racial and ethnic background (Safi, 2005).

4.

Islam feminist in Historic Jumu`ah

The historic Jumu`ah had been supported by some American Islām feminist. In this section researcher gives information about them, their role in the historic Jumu`ah and explanation why the researcher gives them the label of Islām feminist.

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a.

Professor Dr. Amina Wadud MacCloud

"The issue of gender equality is a very important one in Islām, and Muslims have unfortunately used highly restrictive interpretations of history to move backward," Wadud said before the service. "With this prayer service we are moving forward. This single act is symbolic of the possibilities within Islām." (Muhammad, A. 2005, March) Wadud became the Imám and the khatib of historic Jumu`ah. She is the first woman that leads a Friday prayer in the American feminism history. On Friday, March 18, 2005, Dr. Amina Wadud, professor of Islamic studies at Virginia Commonwealth University, will be the first woman to lead a public, mixed-gender Friday prayer. She will also deliver the Friday sermon (MWU, 2005). Associate Professor of Islāmic Studies, Dr. Wadud joined the Religious Studies Program at Virginia Commonwealth University in 1992, directly from the International Islāmic University in Malaysia. She made the adjustment to teaching general religious studies classes with one or two opportunities to teach directly in her own area of specialty: Islāmic Studies. Wadud's particular sub-disciplines are Gender and Qur’ánic Studies. Her involvement with Islāmic studies started with her Ph.D. from the University of Michigan, which included an opportunity for intensive advanced Arabic studies component at American University in Cairo, where she also took classes at Cairo University and Al Azhar University. Her first book “Qur’án and Woman: Rereading the Sacred Text from a Woman's Perspective” became a worldwide phenomenon, the first interpretive reading of the Qur’án by a woman. In her book, Muslim progressive argues that it is not the religion but the patriarchal interpretation and implementation of the Qur’án that have kept women oppressed. Wadud seeks to validate the female voice in the Qur’án and bring it out of the shadows (Wadud, 2002). By matching her scholarship with the most recent advances in Modern Islāmic studies and movements, Wadud's approach is both interactive and active. Consequently, she has been an invited speaker, teacher and consultant within the

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United States, including Hawaii, as well as in Jordan, South and Southern Africa, Nigeria, Kenya, Pakistan, Indonesia, Canada, Norway, Netherlands, Sarajevo, and Malaysia. Wadud has been an Islāmic scholar and a gender activist for more than 25 years. Her focus on justice issues in Islām reform is motivated by the basic premise of her first book: The Divine spirit created all humankind as equal, despite exclusive interpretations and authoritative practices to the contrary. Wadud, mother of five children, has published her new book in 2006 entitled “Inside the Gender Jihad: Women's Reform in Islām”. b.

Asra Q Nomani

"There is a fundamental flaw in interpretations of sharia that say a woman or man should be punished for sex outside of marriage" Asra Nomani (Dawood, 2005l). She organised the first ever Muslim Friday prayer service of a mixed congregation led by a female Imam, Dr Amina Wadud, at Synod House at the Cathedral of St. John the Divine, an Episcopal church in Manhattan. Asra Q Nomani, an Indian-born Muslim raised in Morgantown, W.V., who refers to it in her own book, “Standing Alone in Mecca,” as the first time she was presented with a scene where a woman leads men in prayer together, Nassef and other progressive Muslims set-out to organize their own female-led prayer (Sacirbey, 2005: 9-10). The event was meant to draw attention to the inequality for women in Muslim spiritual life and Muslim life in general, "We are standing up for our rights as women in Islām. We will no longer accept the back door or the shadows," Nomani said. "At the end of the day, we'll be leaders in the Muslim world" (Nomani, 2006). Nomani is an author and also a journalist; she was the founder of Muslim Woman’s Freedom Tour, a campaign for religious equity and justice for women in

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Muslim communities. Her first book is Tantrika based on the Hindu erotic philosophy and her personal life experience. Nomani wrote her second book, Standing Alone in Mecca: An American Woman's Struggle for the Soul of Islām, as a call to action to all women and moderates within Islam to stand up to extremists. She has created also an Islamic Bill of Rights for Women in Mosques and an Islamic Bill of Rights for Women in the Bedroom (Dawood, 2005).

c.

Ahmed Nassef

Ahmed Nassef, a 39 year old Egyptian native who spent most of his life in the United States, and who cut his teeth in political activism as president of UCLA's Muslim Student Association in the 1980s. He is an activist in Muslim WakeUp who was co-founder and editor of Muslim WakeUp (Sacirbey, 2005: 2). Ahmed Nassef as editor has received multiple death threats. In early March of 2005, the organizers of the female-led prayer had to change its venue after the Sundarem Tagore Gallery, in Tribeca, the original host, received a bomb threat. In some of publication in Muslim WakeUp the researcher collects his statements. They are: the service was not meant as a protest against Muslim traditions. "It was always meant as a spiritual worship opportunity, and it is doing so in an equal space for women and men," "It's not about telling other Muslims how they should worship," "We just need to be open to new ideas." “Unlike a lot of organizations out there, we don’t claim to represent all Muslims in America. We just represent ourselves and a segment of the community. And we believe there’s a large segment in the community that is liberal and progressive and that does seek change” (Sacirbey, 2005:14)

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d.

The others

Jawad Ali is business and technology consultants, together with Ahmad Nassef started MuslimWakeUp.com. He has been writing for many feminist ideas in the Muslim WakeUp. Sarah Eltantawi, a long-time Muslim activist, is contributor for MuslimWakeUp.com. Suehyla El Attar. 29 years old. Her father is immigrated to America from Egypt in the 1960s. She is a theatre director in Atlanta. In historic Jumu`ah she becomes the muezzin (a prayer caller). These are the Islām feminist who indirectly connected with historic Jumu`ah event. Khaled Abou El Fadl, a lawyer by training. He is one of the few scholars brave enough to come right out and acknowledge women’s rights to be imams for both women and men. Reza Aslan, an Iranian immigrant who’s written a book called No god but God. He says that women are not obligated to cover their hair with a scarf, which is considered part of the Islamic code according to so many people. And he accepts homosexuality as part of social life. Asma Barlas, a professor of Ithaca College has done these great readings of the Qur’án by Believing Women in Islām. Omid Safi, Progressive Muslim Union of North America Co-Chair, he has written a book on progressive Islam. Zaina Anwar from Sisters in Islam. They have already challenged so much of the family law that denies women’s rights. Kecia Ali, she has done really important work on sexuality issues in Islām.

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CHAPTER III ANALYSIS This chapter consists of the analysis to find the answer to the research questions. The analysis is divided into two parts; the first sub chapter deals with the deviation of Historic Jumu`ah. This section tries to dig out any information as much as possible from data collected to support the description of the deviation of historic Jumu`ah. The second sub chapter answers the second research question about how Historic Jumu`ah represents feminist movement in America

A. Deviation in Historic Jumu`ah from Mainstream Islām

Muslim WakeUp and the Muslim Women's Freedom Tour are proud to sponsor The First Muslim Woman on Record to Lead a Public Mixed-Gender Jumu`ah Prayer. It is a generally held view in the Muslim world and among many in the North American Muslim community that women cannot lead a mixedgender prayer. This custom is pervasive and goes unchallenged. Muslim feminist, Reda, argues that research from the Qur’án and the Hadiths of Prophet Muhammad demonstrates that there is no prohibition precluding women from leading mixed-gender prayer and, further, that Prophet Muhammad approved the practice of women leading mixed-gender prayer (Reda, 2005). It is important here to state that the original judgment concerning acts of worship is that anything not prescribed in Shari`ah in explicit texts is prohibited, so that people may not innovate matters in religion not ordained by Allàh. Thus, people may not innovate a certain act of worship, change or add things in the ordained ones according to their own fancies or only because they think such matters are desirable, including worship in Friday prayer congregation. Therefore

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any innovates of or an addition to religious ritual, in this case act of worshipping is rejected. The Prophet (PBUH) also warned against the same wrongdoing in the Hadith which states, “Whoever innovates in this matter of ours whatever is not in it, that innovated thing is rejected” (Bukhàrì and Muslim). The Prophet (PBUH) also said, “Beware of innovated matters, for every novelty is perversity” (Ahmad in his Musnad and regarded as authentic). All scholars are resolved that acts of worship are unchangeable and must be taken exactly as Allàh has ordained them. That is exactly what Allàh has warned us from in the Qur’án when He dispraised the disbelievers saying. Or have they partners (of Allàh) who have made lawful for them in religion that which Allàh allowed not? (QS. Asy Syuura [42]:21) The practice of Historic Jumu`ah is presenting a Friday prayer with some innovations. According to Holly, Vice provost, University of southern California, and Executive Director of USC Stevens Institute of Innovation, and the American Heritage Dictionary, innovation means the process of making improvements by introducing something new: something newly introduced, and the process of translating new ideas into tangible societal impact. In this prayer the researcher found something newly introduced, new ideas concerning acts of worship by this Islām feminist. The new ideas and its practice are basically deviating from the custom prayer in Islāmic teaching, and never exist in the Shariah. They are Friday sermon delivered by a woman, a woman becomes Imám for male congregation, and female congregants stand in the same line or beside male congregants which lead to ikhtilath (a mix gender in the prayer). The following sub-subchapters discuss these innovations and the feminist ideas underlying this practice.

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1. Woman Acting as Imám in Prayer It is known in a consensus among Muslim jurists that a woman is not allowed to lead men in a mosque or congregation. A woman, however, is allowed to lead a congregation consisting only of women. She is not allowed to lead people in a Friday prayer or to deliver the Friday khutbah. The vast majority of scholars agree that it is not permissible for a woman to lead men in obligatory Prayers. However, there is a minority of scholars who consider it permissible for a woman to lead members of her own household including men in Prayer, on condition that she is old and well-versed in the Qur’án and that she stands behind, not in front of them (Qaradawi, 2005). In order to arrive at any new legal doctrine, or hukm, one must employ a systematic methodology, uṣūl al-fiqh, to extract meaning from Qur’án and hadith. The innovation made historic Jumu`ah needs justification from any Islāmic legal law. In order to justify the event, MWU has posted an article by Nevin Reda arguing for the religious validity of female Imám in a mixed-gender Friday prayer. (Azam, 2005). Reda’s article entitled ‘What Would the Prophet Do? The Islamic Basis for Female-Led Prayer’ is actually the result of theological discussion which was published by The Canadian Council of Muslim Women (CCMW) (Reda, 2005). The feminist research on Qur’án and Hadiths has found evidence that the prophet approved the practice of female Imám. Thus it justified a woman to be an Imám of a Friday prayer. It is a professor of Islāmic studies, Dr. Amina Wadud Mac Cloud presenting a Friday prayer which was well known as the Historic Jumu`ah. In response to the case of Historic Jumu`ah with women’s leading people in the Friday Prayer and delivering them the Friday sermon, the eminent Muslim scholar Sheikh Yusuf Qaradawi states: “Throughout Muslim history it has never

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been heard of a woman leading the Friday Prayer or delivering the Friday sermon, even during the era when a woman, Shagarat Ad Durr, was ruling the Muslims in Egypt during the Mamluk period” (Qaradawi, 2005). The different juristic schools agree that it is not permissible for women to lead men in the obligatory Prayer, though some scholars voice the opinion that the woman who is well-versed in the Qur’án may lead the members of her family, including men, in Prayer on the basis that there is no room for stirring instincts in this case. If researchers review the religious texts pertaining to the rulings of Prayer, there will not be found a text that states point blank that women are not permitted to lead people in Prayer or deliver the Jumu`ah prayer. There is no single Muslim jurist ever heard to have agreed to the woman’s leading people in the Friday Prayer or delivering its sermon. There is only one Hadith, which is not well-authenticated, reported by Ibn Màjah on the authority of Jabir ibn Abdullah in this connection; it is to the effect that “A woman may not lead a man in Prayer, nor may a Bedouin lead a believer of the Muhajirun or a corrupt person lead a committed Muslim in Prayer.” The eminent scholars of Hadith say that the chain of reporters of this Hadith is extremely weak, and hence, it is not to be taken as evidence in the question in hand. The uṣūl al-fiqh methodology used by the feminist is reflected in interpreting the hadith that contradicts. “We use the fundamentals of Islāmic thinking — the Qur’án, the Sunnah, or traditions and sayings of the prophet Muhammad, and Ijtihad, or independent reasoning” (Nomani, 2005). Furthermore, there is another hadith that contradicts this one. It is reported by Imam Ahmad, Abú Dàúd, and others on the authority of Umm Waraqah, who

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said that the Prophet (PBUH) appointed a muezzin for her, and ordered her to lead the members of her household in Prayer. Narated By Umm Waraqah daughter of Nawfal: When the Prophet (PBUH) proceeded for the Battle of Badr, I said to him: Apostle of Allàh allow me to accompany you in the battle. I shall act as a nurse for patients. It is possible that Allàh might bestow martyrdom upon me. He said: Stay at your home. Allàh, the Almighty , will bestow martyrdom upon you. The narrator said: Hence she was called martyr. She read the Qur'an. She sought permission from the Prophet (PBUH) to have a muezzin in her house. He, therefore, permitted her (to do so). (Dàúd, 002:0591) Though scholars of Hadith also regard the chain of reporters of this Hadith as weak, yet it has to do with a special case in which a woman well-versed in the Qur’án led the members of her family in Prayer where usually would be no place for arousing instincts among them. Furthermore, Ad Darqatani reported that the order the Prophet (PBUH) gave to Umm Waraqah here was that she lead the women among her household in Prayer. Commenting on this report of Ad Darqatani, Ibn Qudamah said in his book Al Mughni, “This addition of Ad Darqatani must be accepted even if it had not been mentioned pointblank in the Hadith in question. It is to be logically deduced from the Hadith that the Prophet (PBUH) ordered Umm Waraqah to lead the women of her household in obligatory Prayer, for (according to the Hadith) he (PBUH) appointed her a muezzin, and the Adhan is practiced only in the obligatory Prayer; besides, there is no scholarly disagreement regarding it being impermissible for women to lead men in obligatory Prayers.” (Qaradawi, 2005) Ibn Qudamah then said, “Even had Umm Waraqah been ordered to lead both men and women of her household in Prayer, this would have been peculiar to her, for no other woman was appointed a muezzin (by the Prophet) as was the case with her, and hence, it would have followed from this that leading men of her household in Prayer had been peculiar to her.” Ibn Qudamah, moreover, supported his view by saying that since women are not permitted to call the Adhan for Prayer for men; they are also not allowed to lead them in Prayer.

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From the discussion above, three principal matters can be taken. 1. The feminist used the hadith of Umm Waraqah as evidence for Women Leading Congregational Prayers. 2. The congregational prayer has its own rule. A woman is allowed to lead a congregation consisting only of women. 3. A Friday prayer is a congregation which mostly consisting of men. From the 3 points above, it can be concluded that a woman may lead congregational prayers as long as consisting only of women. Since the Friday prayer consisting mostly male congregants thus the practice of a woman led a Friday prayer contradicts the rules. The proposed ruling that women may lead men in Friday prayer - violates several basic texts and classical interpretive principles, and its proponents provide neither a sound critique of the traditional legal methodology or nor an improved one to replace it. The impression one gets is that there is no consistent methodology, that in fact, the desired ruling (the permissibility of women leading mixed-sex congregations for Friday prayer) dictates their use of texts and of interpretive method (Azam, 2005).

2. Woman delivering Jumu`ah Khutbah (Friday sermon) In the Pre-requisites of validity of the Friday prayer, the third one is the Friday sermon/khutbah. The Friday prayer is preceded by a khutba delivered in two parts by a speaker (khatib). The khutbah, which is a technical replacement of the two reduced rak’ahs of the ordinary Zhuhr prayer, is followed by a communal prayer, led by an Imám. In most cases the khatib also serves as the Imám (Jumu'ah, 2006) The innovations of a woman delivering Jumu`ah khutbah appears to be problematic.

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1. Women may do Friday prayer instead of Zhuhr prayer. Of course they have just become the participant not the organizer since the obligation of Friday prayer is dedicated for men congregants. 2. In Friday prayer, khutbah is delivered by the organizer. In the historic Jumu`ah Wadud delivered a khutbah which is about tolerance; compassion and leaving judgment to Allàh, but also about Allàh’s oneness, and that men and women were equals in faith. Amina Wadud dealt it for me. The struggle would continue, but seeing Wadud give her sermon, I could see the light at the end of the 1,400-yearlong tunnel. Hearing her recite verses that addressed men and women as equals and listening as she pointed to the exclusion of women by male jurists from the codification of Islamic law - several decades after the death of the prophet Muhammad - it was clear she was serving notice that female scholars of Islam were done with being on the sidelines. The spiritual equality at the heart of Islam meant nothing less than equality in religious leadership, Wadud was saying. Our presence there at Synod House was our collective Amen to that (Eltahawy, 2005). Reda states that men need to hear women to say in enjoining good and forbidding harm. This refers to Qur’án: “The Believers, men and women, are protectors one of another: they enjoin what is just, and forbid what is evil: they observe regular prayers, practise regular charity, and obey Allàh and His Messenger. On them will Allàh pour His mercy: for Allàh is Exalted in power, Wise.” (QS. At Taubah [9]:71). And according to her, Friday and Eid sermons are an excellent opportunity for women to do so. The argument of Reda about enjoining good and forbidding harm for men and women is right. It also supported by Ibn Kathir in his tafsir, it states the believers, men and women are supporters of one another they help and aid each other. There is nothing wrong when a woman is giving help and aid, giving a lecture or a speech to men. The problem is when they do it by becoming the organizer of a Friday prayer and delivering the khutbah.

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A woman may deliver a khutbah, a lecture, or speech since in enjoining good and forbidding harm. There is nothing wrong, a woman to lecture in a mixed assembly in universities or mosques, or elsewhere. However, she has to adhere to her Muslim identity. In other words, she should pay attention to her dress and decorum in public. She should not soften her voice in a way that raises curiosity in those who possess ill manners (Kutty,2005). In the feminist point of view, as they were permitted to be congregants of Friday prayer of course it does not close possibility for them to organize it. Nassef states, we are not trying to change Islām. This is about going back to the roots of justice and compassion of our faith that in principle are at the heart of our religion (Sacirbey, 2005:14). Thus they organized the first muslim woman on record to lead a public mixed-gender Jum'ah prayer. Ibn Kathir states, women are not allowed to deliver Jumu`ah khutbah, which is part of an act of worship. The reason is because these were established during the life of the Prophet under divine guidance (Azam, 2005). The Muslim scholar Sheikh Abdel Khaliq Hasan Ash Shareef states: Sister, you should know that a woman is not permitted to deliver Jumu`ah khutbah nor to lead men in Prayer. Jumu`ah Prayer, in principle, is not an obligation upon women (Kutty,2005). Islām does not forbid women to participate in Friday prayer. They may make a khutbah which will be delivered by the khatib. But they could not deliver by them self. It is rule which attached in the ritual of Friday prayer. However a woman delivering a khutbah in Friday prayer is not accepted in Islām.

3. Ikhtilath The women and men stood in the same shof (row) in a prayer. This act leads to ikhtilath, see figure 2. In the first row almost of them were women, there were four male in the left side. Syed was in shof with two men in his left side and about ten women in his right side.

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Syed Ebahim stood in the row with two males on his left and about ten women on his right side. The front row was almost occupied by women. I admit it was the first time in my life that I had an opportunity to pray with women around me. Except for their nice smell oozing off from various perfumes, a condition so lacking in all-male mosque, I honestly failed to notice any significant difference of a Jumu`ah led by woman (Ebrahim, 2005). Ikhtilath as word means the mixing one to another thing, while as a term it refers to an occasion which man and woman which have no relation of mahram are being together in one place. Ikhtilath according to language means getting involved with something else. Meanwhile according to Shariah, ikhtilath is a condition between male and female which have no relatives’ relation (mahram) are being together in one place (Hafidz, 2007). The hujjah of ikhtilath in Islām are found in Qur’án Sùrah Al Ahzab [33]:53, 33; QS. An Nuur [24]:30-31; and QS. Al Israa' [17]:32. O ye who believe! Enter not the Prophet's houses,- until leave is given you,for a meal, (and then) not (so early as) to wait for its preparation: but when ye are invited, enter; and when ye have taken your meal, disperse, without seeking familiar talk. Such (behaviour) annoys the Prophet: he is ashamed to dismiss you, but Allàh is not ashamed (to tell you) the truth. And when ye ask (his ladies) for anything ye want, ask them from before a screen: that makes for greater purity for your hearts and for theirs. Nor is it right for you that ye should annoy Allàh's Messenger, or that ye should marry his widows after him at any time. Truly such a thing is in Allàh's sight an enormity. QS. Al Ahzab [33]:53 Say to the believing men that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty: that will make for greater purity for them: And Allàh is well acquainted with all that they do. And say to the believing women that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty; that they should not display their beauty and ornaments except what (must ordinarily) appear thereof; that they should draw their veils over their bosoms and not display their beauty except to their husbands, their fathers, their husband's fathers, their sons, their husbands' sons, their brothers or their brothers' sons, or their sisters' sons, or their women, or the slaves whom their right hands possess, or male servants free of physical needs, or small children who have no sense of the shame of sex; and that they should not strike their feet in order to draw attention to their hidden ornaments. And O ye Believers! turn ye all together towards Allàh, that ye may attain Bliss. Marry those among you who are single, or the virtuous ones among yourselves, male or female: if they are in poverty, Allàh will give them means out of His grace: for Allàh encompasseth all, and he knoweth all things. QS. An Nuur [24]:30-31

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Nor com me nigh to adultery: forr it is a sham meful (deedd) and an evvil, opening the road d (to other evvils). QS. All Israa' [17]:32 Al Imam m Asy Syauukani rahimahullah says that: t “the gooodness of women w shof b behind the man m shof iss, it does noot cause thee ikhtilath bbetween them m (Hafidz, 2 2007). This hadith preessures that congregantts in a prayyer must bee separated b between men n and womeen in order too avoid ithtillath. In Shah hih Muslim (I: 660), “nnarrated by Muslim from m Anas binn Malik, he told thaat the propheet was becom ming an Imáám in a prayyer together his mother and hiss aunt. Anass says: “He asked me to t stand in his right sidde and the women were behindd us” (Musliim). Act of the woman n and man in the sam me row of prayer or mix-gender m c congregants is deviating g from the m mainstream. See S the pictuures below.

Figure . Historic Jumu`ah conggregants in prayer

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Figure . Dua D after thee prayer

From thhe fiqh pointt of view theey performed d ikhtilath acct, and it devviated from t prayer ru the ule. Figure 2, Nomani, number threee from left,, does not uuse hijab. Acccording to I Islāmic teach hing, when praying p a wooman must cover c her body except fo or her faces a palm off hands. The obligation oof covering the and t aurat forr woman is not n just in a p prayer but allso in the daaily life, the hujjah h can be b found in Q QS. Al Ahzabb [33]:59 O Proph het! Tell thyy wives and daughters, and a the belieeving womenn, that they should cast their outer o garmennts over theeir persons (when ( abroaad): that is hat they shouuld be know wn (as such) and not mollested. And most coonvenient, th Allah iss Oft-Forgiving, Most M Merciful. Based on o discussionn above, it can c be conclluded that thhe historic Juumu`ah led t ikhtilath which to w deviattes from the custom of Friday F prayerr.

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B. How Historic Jumu`ah Represents Feminism

1.

Reclaiming Back the Right

Nassef and other progressive Muslim leaders acknowledge that sustaining a movement will be challenging, that no group can claim to represent “mainstream American Muslims” because so many American Muslims have yet to identify with a Muslim institution. (Sacirbey, 2005:8) These progressive Muslim made a test of the movement’s credibility, the first step is Historic Jumu`ah. These Islām feminists have developed into Muslim communities and they were accepted with their uniqueness. “People laughed at the idea of Progressive Muslims. But now, they’ve spoken up, are organized, and are making statements, they’ve developed a following,” she said. “People are starting to have to recognize these communities … they’re not a group of whackos, but a group that has to be reckoned with, and with a good deal of credibility.” (Sacirbey, 2005:12) The Islām feminists in Historic Jumu`ah believe that they are not trying to change Islām. What they want to do is to reclaim the place that the prophet Muhammad and Islām gave to them in the seventh century. They think it is about going back to the roots of justice and compassion of their faith that in principle are at the heart of Islām religion. Islām is part of the solution for a better world and so do the Islām feminists. As Dembosky states it; rooted in religion, the efforts of Islamic feminists are focused on reclaiming sacred texts by means of a progressive,

contemporary

interpretation

that

includes

women’s

rights

(Dembosky, 2005). Islām feminist justified what they thought as the right of woman by finding proof from Islāmic sources of law. The following paragraph is about justifying of Historic Jumu`ah practice. First, Reda sees the position of Imám as having the same meaning as leadership. According to her understanding, in the Qur’án Allàh affirms the

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suitability of women in major leadership roles. It is found in the queen of Sheba story in Sùrah Al Naml (27:23-44). Queen Sheba is a model of female positive leader. As a leader the queen put the welfare of her people upon her interest. Sheba included transparency, public consultation, as her method in ruling her people. Based on this Reda concludes that there is a possibility that a woman may become a good leader for her people depending on how she conducts it. The main point is that a good leader must not be necessarily a man. On the other hand, being just a man is not enough to be a good leader. Reda gives example Pharaoh, he is the Qur’ánic role model for negative leadership. His words in (QS. An Nazi'at [79]:24) “I’m your lord, Most high” shows his arrogance. His negatif attitude has been described in (QS. Al Qashash [28]:4), (QS. Ad Dukhaan [44]:31), (QS. Az Zukhruf [43]:54), dan (QS. Huud [11]:9798). Thus being male gender is no guarantee for a successful leader. Women can be successful leaders as well. Following these arguments, Reda concludes that a woman is allowed to be a leader, and thus becoming an Imám in a prayer. Considering the position of Imám, Reda argues that a woman could be a leader even an Imám for a prayer just like a man. The feminist derived a hadith from Umm Waraqah telling that she became an Imám in her own place, and no explanation about male congregants in that prayer. Thus Amina Wadud may become an Imám for a mixed-gender congregation.

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F Figure . Am mina Wadud d leads the congregatio c nal prayer

Second, Reda sees that Allàh affirms the suitability oof woman in religious r roles. It can be found in the story off Imron’s wivve (QS. Ali 'Imran ' [3]:35 5-37). milarly affirrmed the suiitability of women w in major m religiouus roles as God sim can be noted in thhe Qur’ánic presentation of Mary as a Naziritte (Qur’án A Israeelite Naziritees had accesss to the highhest religiouus positions 3:35). Ancient in the land, l as cann be noted inn the case of o Samuel and a Samson.. They had access to the Holyy of Holiess (mihrab), which conttained the Ark A of the w only thhe religious elite could eenter. Whereeas Mary’s Covenaant, and to which mother expected a boy, b God wiilled her to deliver d a girll, thereby aff ffirming the suitability of womeen for major religious rolles (Reda, 20005). Qur’án, Ali 'Imran [3]: 35 tellss about Imroon wife whoo expects herr child will s serve Allàh. Then she prrays for a baaby (male). o 'Imran saiid: "O my Lord! L I do deedicate unto Thee what Behold! a woman of i in my wom is mb for Thy special s serviice: So acceppt this of mee: For Thou hearest h and k knowest all things." Theen Ali 'Imraan [3]: 36 tellls that Imroon wife had a daughter

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and prayed for her baby. When she was delivered, she said: "O my Lord! Behold! I am delivered of a female child!"- and Allàh knew best what she brought forth"And no wise is the male Like the female. I have named her Mary, and I commend her and her offspring to Thy protection from the Evil One, the Rejected." Her prayer was granted by Allàh revealed in Ali 'Imran [3]: 37, Right graciously did her Lord accept her: He made her grow in purity and beauty: To the care of Zakariya was she assigned. Every time that he entered (Her) chamber to see her, He found her supplied with sustenance. He said: "O Mary! Whence (comes) this to you?" She said: "From Allàh: for Allàh Provides sustenance to whom He pleases without measure" (Bold type – from the writer). According to the tradition at that time, the one who serves Allàh is usually a man. That is why Imron’s wife expected a son. Then Allàh gave her a daughter. Thus Reda concludes that Allàh affirmed the suitability of women in religious roles. However In the sight of Allàh the righteous of man and woman has been affirmed in the (QS. Al Hujuraat [49]:13) that they have the same opportunity in religious role. Third, Reda sees that Allàh affirmed the suitability of woman in major leadership roles. God affirmed the suitability of women in major leadership roles as seen in the example of the queen of Sheba in Surat al-Naml (27:23-44). In the category of non-Prophets, she is the Qur’anic role model for a positive leader. Her method of leadership included transparency, public consultation, and putting the welfare of her people first (Reda, 2005). The Islām feminist thought that the queen Sheba story which is found in Sùrah Al Naml (27:23-44) is presenting a leadership role in Islām. But, this Sùrah is about a queen who becomes a believer and submits to Islām. She said: "O my Lord! I have indeed wronged my soul: I do submit, with Solomon, to the Lord of

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the Worlds." (QS. An Naml [27]:44) (Bold type – from the writer). Thus it is not true that Sùrah Al Naml (27:23-44) presents a leadership role in Islām The queen Sheba leadership might become a positive example of leadership. As a leader the queen put the welfare of her people upon her interest. Sheba included transparency, public consultation, as her method in ruling her people. But her leadership is not including a leadership role in Islām. Dalam teks-teks al-Qur’an dan al-Hadith tidak ditemui perkataan atau istilah yang khas negara Islam. Istilah ‫ ﺑﻠﺪة‬dalam al-Qur’an tidak mengandungi pengertian Islam, ia seperti perkataan am yang neutral dan masih dilengkapi dengan keterangan ‫ﻃﻴﺒﺔ و رب ﻏﻔﻮر‬. (al-Saba’ 34; 15) Ertinya jika keterangan tambahan ini tidak disebutkan perkataan ‫ﺑﻠﺪة‬hanya bererti negara biasa yang tidak ada kena mengena dengan ampunan Tuhan. Dalam kes kisah Ratu Balqis istilah ini dapat diertikan sebagai negara (baldah) yang kufur kepada Tuhan menjadi negara yang baik (tayyib) dan diampuni Tuhan (rabbun ghafur). (Zarkasyi, 2002:9) Zarkasyi emphasized the changing condition of the state in which its queen was part of the believers and Islām after having known the prophet. Thus Reda argues that Allàh has affirmed the appropriateness of women in major leadership roles. The method of deduction which is used by Reda is incorrect. She equalizes becoming Imám of a prayer and a leader of country; in fact they are two different positions and each of them has its own characteristic. Zarkasyi explains the characteristic of a leader in an Islāmic state by quoting Muhammad Tahi-ul-Qadri’s definition about Islāmic state. Islamic state is a Muslim state, ruled by its chosen representatives whose function is a purely consultative manner and work for the enforcement and advancement of the politico-legal and socio economic order of Islam. Its government is not sovereign in the absolute senses. Its status is a trust and vicegerency to the manifestative sovereignty of the Prophethood of Muhammad, who is the direct recipient of imperishable and inviolable divine authority and who is the last apostle of God Almighty, the sole ultimate sovereign of the unimaginable and inconceivable universe. (Zarkasyi, 2002:11).

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While a leader of a prayer is someone who leads the congregation, and is called Imám. If there are two people or more do a prayer together, one of them is followed the others, they are called prayer in congregation. The one whom followed is called Imám, while the others the followers behind are called congregant (Rasjid, 1998:106). The pre-requisites of becoming Imám have been determined as part of prayer and it is included in fiqh matters. It is a feminist idea, that a woman should have the same treatment as men. According to the publication of historic Jumu`ah, the place for women and men are separated. “In order to respect and accommodate everyone's needs, we are planning to conduct the prayer using a ‘Mecca’ format: there will be separate sections for women and men on either side of the hall, joined by a shoulder-toshoulder family section in the middle” (MWU, 2005). The researcher believes that those step is to avoid ikhtilath, they used a Mecca format - organisation of congregants in a prayer - according to people in Mecca (not the term of Islām). The Mecca format is the position alignment/shof of female congregants who were separated with male congregants. But as a matter of fact it leads to ikhtilath. The male and female congregants were mixed in the same shof as if there is no limit between each gender. From discussion above, it can be concluded that spirit of feminist which asked for the same treatment for women in a prayer has attached in historic Jumu`ah. Fourth, about gender discrimination, Reda states “Preventing female Muslims from major leadership positions, such as giving sermons or leading congregational prayers is gender discrimination and a way of abasing female Muslims” (Reda, 2005). Reda, in her writing stated that God addresses gender discrimination done by pagan Arabs from the moment a baby girl born as in the following verses: When news is brought to one of them of (the birth of) a female (child), his face darkens,

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suppressing his anger. He hides himself from the people, because of the bad news he has had! Shall he retain it in abasement, or bury it in the dust? Bad is what they judge! (QS. An Nahl [16]:58-59). These Sùrah tells us of the gender discrimination done by ignorant Arabian in the past. Such thought of Reda could not be separated from the historical background of the Arabian before the coming of the prophet. In the age of darkness, in the Middle East, the birth of a girl was disgrace not just for the family but also for the tribe. This believes encouraged them to bury their daughter alive because being shame. The burial was done cruelly without pity. The child was buried alive. They did the cruelty in many ways. One of them, a girl was born; they let her live till 6 years, then the father asked the pitiful mother to dress their daughter, because he will bring her to visit their relative. While the father had prepared a hole in the desolate desert, he brought his 6 years daughter to that place. Reaching the place the father asked his daughter to see the hole and then by purpose he pushed her into and buried without mercy (Malik, 2002:15). The story about the ignorant arabs in killing the baby girls might become an evidence for the gender discrimination in that time. But the Sùrah QS. An Nahl [16]:58-59 were not supposed to be used as god addresses gender discrimination. This is about Qur’án gives explanation-a clear information (QS. An Nahl [16]:44) “(We sent them) with Clear Signs and Books of dark prophecies; and We have sent down unto thee the Message; that thou mayest explain clearly to men what is sent for them, and that they may give thought”. Thus something appeared in Qur’án is not always right to be done-revering to examples of wrong doing which should be a lesson. When news is brought to one of them, of (the birth of) a female (child), his face darkens, and he is filled with inward grief! With shame does he hide himself from his people, because of the bad news he has had! Shall he retain it on (sufferance and) contempt, or bury it in the dust? Ah! what an evil (choice) they decide on? QS. An Nahl [16]:58-59

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These Sùrah above tell us about what have done by ingratitude in the past (QS. An Nahl [16]:55). There is no relation that God affirmed the gender discrimination. This is because the aim of the Qur’án is as the lesson for us. “We have already sent down to you verses making things clear, an illustration from people who passed away before you, and an admonition for those who fear.” (QS. An Nuur [24]:34) The Islām feminist found gender discriminations attached to Muslim community. A rule of congregation in a prayer is one of them. In a prayer, women congregants must stand behind the man congregants. And in the prophet’s time there was no gender segregation in congregational prayer. The feminist said that the alingnment of congregants or shof in a prayer has never been found in Al Qur’án. This has been done with the conclusion that there was no gender segregation in congregational prayers in the Prophet’s lifetime, but that it was introduced later. The word for “rows” used in the above hadith is “shof” in Arabic. The word “shof” does not appear in the Qur’án in connection with prayers, but with battle rows (See for example 61: 4). Nothing in the text of the above hadith connects the above arrangement with prayers. It is possible that a tradition, which originally arose in the context of battle, was later applied to prayer (Reda, 2005). A woman Imám is only for women congregants and the position of female shof is behind the man. “Leading salat (prayer) is representative of the devotion to ritual as well as the capability of participation for women” (Ramadan, 2005:6). The obligation of Friday prayer is only for male Muslim, thus for sending a khutbah prayer. The feminist spirit forced women to refuse hujjah which has determined-that the obligation of Friday prayer is just for man. But, the feminist asked the same treatment in the Friday prayer. They thought if man has given authority so do the women. There is nothing in Islam that bars a woman from giving the Friday sermon or from leading a mixed-gender prayer. The fact that only men have done

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both for centuries is one of many things that Muslims have rarely questioned (Eltahawy, 2005). In historic Jumu`ah researcher found the women who did not cover their body while in prayer. It is an innovation since covering the aurat is an obligation in a prayer. The feminist regarded the obligation to cover woman’s body using veil, as gender discrimination. “The veiled Muslim woman has come to represent the ultimate symbol of backwardness and oppression” (Muslim Feminists and the Veil: To veil or not to veil - is that the question?). Thus by practicing the Friday prayer without covering their body-unveiled, they struck ultimate symbol of backwardness and oppression. Act of Amina Wadud in giving a sermon in Friday prayer is purposed to against gender discrimination. “We are affirming the right of women to be spiritual leaders, including Imáms, or prayer leaders, women will go from the back of the mosque to the front of the mosque” (MWU, 2005). Of course from the feminist point of view, woman may do what a man can do. In Friday prayer, when women can attend prayer, they are not satisfied by only attending and listening to the khutbah. But if a man can give khutbah for Friday prayer a woman can too. Thus the feminists also want to give a sermon in Friday prayer. Thus, Amina Wadud was standing in front of her congregants while giving her khutbah. In violet dress Wadud, told to the world that she became the first woman in leading mixed-gender Friday prayer, the first since 1,400 years.

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Figure . Wadud W gives her khutbah h before thee prayer

Figure . Amina Wa adud, callin ng herself a "lonely schoolar," addrresses repo orters beforre the prayeer. March 188.

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Figure . A congregaant after thee prayer. M March 18 Nomani Asra, the Islām I feminiist, one of thhe organizerrs of Historicc Jumu`ah, t talks about Islāmic I femiinism. Accorrding to her, it is kind off applicationn of Islāmic t teaching. It is i not just abbout women’s right but more m than thhat. When we w think aboout Islāmic feminism, f itt is not just about womeen’s rights. It’s abo out a more progressive p and tolerantt expression of Islām in n the world for all people. p It’s about a kindneess and gooddness to all ppeople. Wom men’s rights is one aspect a of it, it’s i not the eend-all, but I also think tthat the wom men’s issue is the strongest s enntry point thhat we’ve go ot to challennging extrem mism. You raise a woman’s isssue and youu get the baccks of the coonservatives up against n just aboutt any other issue in ouur communitty. It’s the the walll faster than fastest path p that wee’ve got to m making channge happen. If as women n we stand up day in and day out, day aftter day, thenn we really force f the exxtremists to bosky, 2005) confronnt their real ideas. (Nomaani in Demb As an Islām feminist Nomani states, s “thesee women aree so far aheaad of where w are as American Muuslims in afffirming and asserting theeir rights in the world” we

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(Dembosky, 2005). As American Muslim, what they can uniquely do in America is mobilizing and galvanizing a lot of these ideas and resources. “It’s a war of ideas. We are very well supported in this country by institutions, academic and non-profit, that are already in the field endorsing women’s rights and tolerance. We have skills and resources from growing up in America to raise funds or build websites or publish papers or develop big picture plans. We can publish op-eds in newspapers that get wide circulation to send strong messages out to the world” (Nomani in Dembosky, 2005). These feminists have declared that their struggle is a war of ideas against patriarchy. And their profit of being in America is that the country has support resources to do war ideas. The combination between skills and resources in endorsing women’s right and tolerance idea is a mutual relationship that becoming the power of Islāmic feminism in America. From what Nomani had stated, the effort of the Islām feminist does not just stop at the "the end of patriarchy" Historic Jumu`ah. The historic Jumu`ah is just one step leading to “the resurrection of Islām feminist” in America. It does not take along time to prove it. The first International Congress on Islāmic Feminism was held in October 2005 in Barcelona. But this movement will not follow in the footsteps of other feminist movements from history. Rooted in religion, the efforts of Islamic feminists are focused on reclaiming sacred texts by means of a progressive, contemporary interpretation that includes women’s rights. (Dembosky, 2005) Historic Jumu`ah is a manifestation of Islāmic feminism in getting listened by world. This event is about Muslim women reclaiming their rightful place in Islām. (PMU. 2005) Over the centuries, Muslim women have lost their place as intellectual and spiritual leaders. It is a generally held view in the Muslim world that women cannot lead mixed-gender prayer, but in the prophet time, there is no prohibition precluding women from leading mixed-gender prayer. The feminists believe that

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they have lost their rightful place in Islām. Hajar's story, part of the forgotten Islāmic history has become evidence that women have lost their place in Islām.

The symbolic mother of Islām is a woman named Hajar. Pilgrims follow in her footsteps in one of the most important rituals of the pilgrimage to Mecca called the hajj. From her spawned the tribe in which the prophet of Islām, Muhammad, was born thousands of years later in the 7th century. She and a woman named Sarah were tied to the personal history of the man the world remembers as the father of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam -- Abraham. Yet, centuries later, Hajar's story is part of the forgotten history of women in Islām and so many societies (Nomani, 2005). Historic Jumu`ah is a test of the movement’s credibility to the world. The organizer used publication, media attention to send strong messages out to the world. “The prayer had garnered international media attention. It was debated on American Muslim websites and in the editorial pages of newspapers in Muslim countries around the world”. As a community, they want to show the public that Islām acknowledged the multiplicities of interpretation within tradition in faith (Islām). This community also covers a diverse population that includes some who are deeply devout and others who are adamantly secular but still identify as Muslims. They are troubled by the sexism, violence, authoritarianism and other ills they see besetting Muslim communities in the United States and abroad. They feel a connection with Islam, either as a faith or as a heritage, but also see themselves as part of the fabric of American life and enjoy movies, cocktails and romance (Sacirbey, 2005:2-3). The first real test of the movement’s credibility would appear in the Friday of the female-led, mixed gender prayer (Sacirbey, 2005:9). The focus of Islāmic feminist is, on the one hand reclaiming sacred text and on the other hand the reinterpretation of Al Qur’án and hadith. The sole agenda is to help “create Muslim communities that reflect the egalitarian nature of Islām”. This is not an attempt to “change” Islam, nor to condemn others who interpret Islām differently (PMU, 2005). The Islām feminist has its own interpretation of

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Qur’án and hadith which lead to the way it was practiced during the time of prophet.

2.

Historic Jumu`ah and the portrayal of Islām

Historic Jumu`ah has a role in constructing portrait of Islām especially in America. The feminist ideas and secular spirit have given variety of diversity in Islām application. The Islām feminist made Islām image by their perspective. Thus the components which construct it need to be found. Progler states that it has been for so long that the West has consistently constructed and perpetuated negative images of Islām and Muslims. What Progler meant by West in this context is Western image-makers: including religious authorities, political establishments, and corporate-media conglomerates. They have planed to construct Islām for certain reasons. The long history of encounters between Western civilization and Islām has produced a tradition of portraying, in largely negative and self-serving ways, the Islāmic religion and Muslim cultures. There is a lot of literature cataloguing (and sometimes correcting) these stereotypes (Progler, 2005). The negative portrayal of Islām has been lasting for so long in America. In this discussion, the topic of gender in Islām, again, is a target by certain media in the west to wrongly portray Islām as peaceful religion. One of the component image makers is Islām community it self. And Islām feminists concerned with the condition of Muslim community in the US. They are troubled by the sexism, violence, authoritarianism and other ills they see besetting Muslim communities in the United States and abroad. They feel a connection with Islam, either as a faith or as a heritage, but also see themselves as part of the fabric of American life and enjoy movies, cocktails and romance. (Sacirbey, 2005:2-3)

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The Isllām feminissts have bigg role in constructing c Islām porttrait. Islām f feminists in n America are a concentrrating on th he women rright and th he equality b between eacch gender freeedoms. It iss well knownn that Islām advocates eqquality and j justice for eaach gender. The T only diffference amo ong men andd women in the t sight of A Allàh is theiir level of rigghteousness//taqwa. (QS.. Al Hujuraaat [49]:13) According to the writer, Hisstoric Jumuu`ah revealeed that Islāām accepts of issue of gender equaality. It referrs to many iissues which p possibilities h appear in t practice of historic Jumu`ah. the J Thhe issue of gender g equallity is a veryy important o one in Isllām, and Muslims hhave unforttunately useed highly restrictive ns of history to movee backward. The historric Jumu`ahh organizer i interpretatio s stated that historic h Jumuu`ah is symbbol of the poossibilities w within Islām, "With this F Friday prayeer service we w are movinng forward. This single act is symbbolic of the p possibilities within Islām m.” (Metimees.com, 20055)

Figure . Amina A Wadu ud leads booth men and d women in prayer p Marrch 18 at Synod d House at the t Cathedrral of St. Joh hn the Divin ne in New York. Y

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Teuku Alvisyahrin, Executive President of Islāmic Center Of Northwest Arkansas gives an example. A father is responsible for providing for his family. Likewise, a mother has an irreplaceable role in the upbringing and early education of her children at home. Islām never looks down on women. On the contrary, Islām came to rescue women from the humiliation and subordination that occurred during the time of ignorance (Alvisyahrin, 2006). Some feminist researchers hold that Islām could be defined as one of the worst sorts of patriarchal religion, oppressing women and legitimizing gender inequality (Darvishpour, 1996:1). In comparison with other religions, the idea of patriarchy is even greater in Islām. They mean that there are in the Qur’án many verses, especially QS. An Nisaa' [4] which clearly legitimizes gender inequality. Even Hadith and Shariah have the same tendency. The Muslim woman has been portrayed as submissive, oppressed, and backward. Mass media and educational systems have played a major role in the construction of this representation (Darvishpour, 1996:2). The feminist in historic Jumu`ah tries to show what Islām is, according to their own understanding. That is women are not subordinate of men. Thus the Historic Jumu`ah put Islām not as a patriarchal religion. "If the Qur’án is fully comprehended," Wadud writes in her book Women and Qur’án, "It will become a motivating force for women's empowerment" (Metimes.com. 2005). The discussion about Islām and the feminist thought will lead to how actually Islām put the position between women and man relationship. Islām rules where women should be placed in the relation with man. It does not seem like in the feminist thought which put women relation against (being oppressed by) man. The Qur’án states: “… And women shall have rights similar to the rights against them, according to what is equitable; but men have a degree (of advantage) over them.

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And Allàh is exalted in Power, Wise.” (QS. Al Baqarah [2]:228). The feminist uses this Sùrah to justify that Islām is a patriarchal religion In Islāmic perspective, such “degree” is Quiwama (maintenance and protection) (Badawi. 1980:12). This refers to that natural difference between the sexes which entitles the weaker sex to protection. It implies no superiority or advantage before the law. Yet, man's role of leadership in relation to his family does not mean the husband's dictatorship over his wife. Islām emphasizes the importance of taking counsel and mutual agreement in family decisions. Qur’án gives example, a wife should make consultation to her husband first before deciding to wean their child. "If they (husband wife) desire to wean the child by mutual consent and (after) consultation, there is no blame on them..." (QS. Al Baqarah [2]:233) Over and above her basic rights as a wife comes the right which is emphasized by the Qur'an and is strongly recommended by the Prophet; kind treatment and companionship. "O ye who believe! Ye are forbidden to inherit women against their will. Nor should ye treat them with harshness that ye may take away part of the dower ye have given them, except where they have been guilty of open lewdness; but consort with them in kindness, for if you hate them it may happen that you hate a thing wherein God has placed much good." (QS. An Nisaa' [4]:19). Prophet Muhammad, ‘The best of you is the best to his family and I am the best among you to my family. The most perfect believers are the best in conduct and best of you are those who are best to their wives’ (Ibn Hanbal, No. 7396). Islām puts each gender according to their nature, which is complimentary. Man has its own privilege that woman cannot cover such as social authority, economic responsibility. Woman also has her own privilege such as providing home for her family and bringing up her children properly.

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In feminist perspective, women compete with men in every aspect. The patriarchy mind forced women to equalize the position with men. It is because women subordinated of men. Islām realized that men and women are not the same; each has particular features and characteristic. Islām envisages their roles in society not as competing but as complimentary. This opinion has been supported by Syed Hossein Nasr in The Feminist Movement and The Muslim Woman. Each has certain duties and functions in accordance with his or her nature and constitution (Jameelah, 2006). Islām has been imaged as the worst sorts of patriarchal religion, oppressing women and legitimizing gender inequality. The Islām feminist attempt to create a portrait of Islām – that Islām is not a patriarchy religion, oppressing women and legitimizing gender inequality. They show the egalitarian nature of Islām. Historic Jumu`ah represents the feminist’s spirit in applying Islāmic teaching as part of their life. However Islām accepts possibilities in issue of gender equality. But it is not something important to be struggled in Islām, because men and women have been put as human – to serve Allàh. Allàh has given them the same potential, such as mind and life needs, thus they can life in the world, and appropriate their vision of life on earths to worship Allàh. That is Allàh, your Lord! There is no god but He, the Creator of all things: then worship ye Him: and He hath power to dispose of all affairs. (QS. Al An'am [6]:102). More over Islām puts each gender in its right place.

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CHAPTER IV CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION This chapter consists of conclusion, which is drawn from the analysis in this research, and recommendation. The first sub chapter is the conclusion of this research. The second sub chapter is the recommendation for the reader who are interested in American studies and who will take Islāmic feminism as the subject of the study.

A. Conclusion The conclusions of this thesis answer the research questions which are formulated in the first chapter. Based on the analysis the research comes into the following conclusions: 1. Historic Jumu`ah is a Friday prayer led by a woman in mixed-gender congregation. In its practice, it leads to many deviations from Islāmic teaching. These deviations have the same meaning as innovation. Historic Jumu`ah is a Friday prayer with innovations which have relation with feminism ideas. They are as follows: a. A woman acts as Imám in Friday prayer. The analysis states that a woman may lead congregational prayers as long as consisting only of women. A woman is not allowed to lead men in a mosque or congregation. Since the Friday prayer consists of mostly male congregants thus the prayer contradicts the rules. b. A woman delivers Jumu`ah khutbah. In historic Jumu`ah Amina Wadud delivered a Jumu`ah khutbah. Islām does not forbid women to participate in Friday prayer. A woman is permitted to make a draft of khutbah which will be delivered by the khatib. But

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they are not allowed to deliver khutbah by themselves. It is a rule attached in the ritual of Friday prayer. However a woman delivers a khutbah in Friday prayer is a deviation in Islām. c. Ikhtilath. Ikhtilath is a condition in which women and men found in one place. And they have no relatives’ relation (mahram). From the analysis it can be concluded that the historic Jumu`ah led to ikhtilath which deviates from the custom of Friday prayer. 2. Historic Jumu`ah represents feminist movement in America. It can be concluded from the following statements. a. A woman should have the same treatment as a man. it is found in Historic Jumu`ah that women asked to be Imám, deliver a khutbah, and stand in the same shof with men congregants. b. The historic Jumu`ah is just one step leading to “the resurrection of Islām feminist” in America. It is a manifestation of Islāmic feminism in getting listened by world. This event is about Muslim women reclaiming their rightful place in Islām.

B. Recommendation This research has analyzed “Historic Jumu`ah” using uṣūl al-fiqh and feminism approaches. There are many ideas that occurred during the work on this research. Therefore, the researcher recommends other researchers to use other approaches just like historical and sociological approaches to get different points of view. It would be also interesting to investigate the same topic from American goverment prespective. It is also suggested to other researchers to get data from local television documentation (e.g. live video-record, speech) to enrich data for analysis.

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