Introduction To Human Resource Management

Introduction to Human Resource Management Introduction - Human resource management (HRM) is a relatively modern label for the range of themes and practices involved in managing people. It is defined and described in a variety of (sometimes contradictory) ways. Many people find HRM to be a vague and elusive concept - not least because it seems to have a variety of meanings. Pinning down an acceptable definition can seem like trying to hit a moving target in a fog. This confusion reflects the different interpretations found in articles and books about human resource management. HRM is an elastic term (...). It covers a range of applications that vary from book to book and organization to organization. (...) Pages 32-35 of Human Resource Management in a Business Context 2/e discuss the use and meaning of the term 'human resource management', consider a number of textbook definitions and provide a working definition for the book: 'A philosophy of people management based on the belief that human resources are uniquely important in sustained business success. An organization gains competitive advantage by using its people effectively, drawing on their expertise and ingenuity to meet clearly defined objectives. HRM is aimed at recruiting capable, flexible and committed people, managing and rewarding their performance and developing key competencies.' Activity 2:1. To answer the activity question in this section you should look at the nine textbook definitions of HRM and compare them with the working definitions provided by the Steering Committee for HRM Standards and Qualifications in South Africa. You will see that the textbook definitions are shorter and more theoretical than the practitioner definitions. But the textbook definitions do not correspond exactly with each other and do not attempt to be as descriptively comprehensive as the South African example. You should think about the purposes of the definitions and the different aims of academics and practitioners. Academics are interested in the theoretical basis and intellectual validity of the concept. Practitioners have a job to get on with and are likely to be more interested in a practical description of the management discipline for which they are responsible.

Maps and models of HRM This section begins with a discussion of various approaches to HRM, including Keenoy's hologram comparison and Sisson's 4 main features of HRM models. A key concept is that of Hard and Soft HRM: 'Storey (1989) has distinguished between hard and soft forms of HRM, typified by the Michigan and Harvard models respectively. ‘Hard’ HRM focuses on the resource side of human resources. It emphasizes costs in the form of ‘headcounts’ and places control firmly in the hands of management. Their role is to manage numbers effectively, keeping the workforce closely matched with requirements in terms of both bodies and behaviour. ‘Soft’ HRM, on the other hand, stresses the ‘human’ aspects of HRM. Its concerns are with communication and motivation. People are led rather than managed. They are involved in determining and realizing strategic objectives.' The section goes on to consider the views of Guest and Legge and then discusses the classification of HRM models. Activity 2:2. To answer this activity question you should be aware that a fundamental element of most rhetorical accounts of HRM is that one of the distinctive features of human resource management (as opposed to personnel management) is that it is 'holistic'. In other words it is concerned with the 'big picture' and the way that different aspects of people management fit together. Activity 2:3. Comparing the different typologies can be difficult because they do not use the same underlying logic. But does that mean that individual typologies are not of value? Three American perspectives on HRM are provided from the work of Fitz-Enz, Ulrich and Pfeffer on pages 39-40. Activity 2:4. Each of these commentators is a 'management guru' to some extent. They have been particularly influential in the USA in the last decade. Fitz-Enz is, perhaps, the least well-known but has been instrumental in developing the notion that HR initiatives and their results can (should?) be measured.

People management Arguably, HRM has become the dominant approach to people management in Englishspeaking countries. But it is important to stress that HRM has not 'come out of nowhere'. There is a long history of attempts to achieve an understanding of human behaviour in the workplace. Throughout the 20th century and earlier, practitioners and academics deweloped theories and practices to explain and influence human behaviour at work. HRM has absorbed ideas and techniques from a wide range of these theories and practical

tools. In effect, HRM is a synthesis of themes and concepts drawn from a long history of work, more recent management theories and social science research. (...)

Background and origins of people management The roots of people management (and, therefore, of HRM) lie deep in the past. Just as the tasks that have to be carried out in modern organizations are allocated to different jobs and the people who perform those jobs, humans in ancient societies divided work between themselves (...) Pages 4-8 of Human Resource Management in a Business Context 2/e discuss the division of labour, the evolution of a managerial class, the Industrial Revolution and the concept of alienation.

Professional managers (...) By 1900 the USA had undergone several decades of rapid, large-scale industrialization. Large American companies such as Heinz and Singer Sewing Machines had the characteristics of modern, highly structured organizations. They produced standardized consumer durables for the mass market. These organizations required a supply of trained managers. Notionally selected on the basis of ability and expertise rather than family connections - they needed to know how to organize, reward and motivate their staff. In the USA, state and private universities were opened to cater for this new professional need. The first companies of equivalent size and organization did not arise in Britain and the Commonwealth until the 1920s and management education was similarly late in developing. Like most European or Asian companies they still tended to employ relatives or to promote long-standing workers to management roles. (...) Pages 9-13 of Human Resource Management in a Business Context 2/e discuss the continued influence of F.W. Taylor ('Scientific' Management). the Gilbreths, and Henry Ford and the doctrine of 'Fordism'.

The human factor The 'science' in scientific management was doubtful. (...) Initially the work of occupational psychologists bordered on physiology as they investigated fatigue and monotony. (...) Their work directly countered the myth that working longer hours produced greater output. In their research on monotony they took a deliberate anti-Taylorist perspective. They confirmed Taylor's views on the value of rest-pauses but argued against the notion of 'one best way by a first-class man'. The simple truth was that individual tasks could be done equally effectively in a variety of ways by a diverse range of people. (...)

Human Relations The US human relations movement dominated management thinking until the 1950s and was a significant influence on the development of modern HRM. The movement gained most of its inspiration from the famous Hawthorne studies at the Western Electric Company plant of that name in Chicago from the 1920s to the early 1940s. The plant employed 40,000 people and was regarded as progressive. The studies were organized by the company, with some assistance from the Harvard Business School. The intention was to find out how productivity might be affected if working conditions such as lighting, heating and rest-pauses were varied. Elton Mayo, an Australian professor at Harvard, picked up these studies and publicized a new approach in American management philosophy that spread to many other countries.

Managing Employee Resources Human Resources Management (HRM) is that branch of management that deals with managing one of the resources of the organisation-Human Resources. It is also called as Personnel Management. However the term Personnel Management is being replaced in most spheres by the term Human Resource Management or Human Resource Development (HRD) or simply Human Resources (HR). In our text we shall be using these terms interchangeably. Most organisations have a full-fledged Human Resource Management department. The function of Human Resource Management is to acquire, train, develop and retain the human resources of the organisation so that with the help of these human resources, the organisation is able to achieve its goal. Broadly the activities carried out by Human Resource Management are • • • • • • • • • •

Manpower Planning Recruitment and Selection Induction of the New employees Performance Appraisal Organisation Development Training and Development Employee Counseling Compensation Planning Industrial Relations Employee separation

We will be looking at these topics at greater depth in the later part of this text. Since Human Resource Management has such a wide berth, defining it is quite a task. One good definition of Human Resource Management is given by the UK based Institute of Personnel and Development, which defines it as: "Recruiting and selecting people, training and developing them for their work, ensuring that payment and conditions of employment are appropriate, where necessary negotiating such terms of employment with trade unions, advising on healthy and appropriate working conditions, the

organisation of people at work, and the encouragement of relations between management and work people." Relation between Human Resources and management: Human Resource Management is an integral part of management. It helps the management in taking a strategic view of a very important resource i.e. Human Resource. It helps management in identifying key skill sets, knowledge, values required in the employee and the rewards that are needed to be given to the employees so that the organisation goals are fulfilled. Also like other management functions, it has to ensure that these resources are available at an optimal cost. It has to look into various training and development activities to ensure this. This is a key area for Human Resource Management as it shows their contribution in terms of money. The money here would be the opportunity cost incurred due to appointing of new employees instead of developing current employees for the task in hand. The HR manager has a dual role in the organisation. He performs the role of an executive as well as a consultant. Managing people is not only a HR area but also part of the job of line managers. These managers are managers heading various activities like accounts, audit, production, marketing, sales etc. They have people working under them and have to manage them too. There are times when line managers have problems handling employees and are unable to resolve the issue. This is where the HR person steps in as a consultant. The HR person can provide advice to the line manager to tackle the situation. This is in addition to the executive role he performs. The executive role of the HR person is his role in carrying out the routine activities of his area. There are occasions when they have to on both the hats of an executive as well as that of a consultant. A typical example is the role of the HR person when recruiting people for line functions, where line managers decide as they have the expertise, they help the line managers with advice while simultaneously carrying out their executive role of recruiting.

Human Resource Management Introduction Human resource (or personnel) management, in the sense of getting things done through people, is an essential part of every manager's responsibilities, but many organizations find it advantageous to establish a specialist division to provide an expert service dedicated to ensuring that the human resource function is performed efficiently. "People are our most valuable asset" is a cliché which no member of any senior management team would disagree with. Yet, the reality for many organizations is that their people remain under valued, under trained and under utilized. The rate of change facing organizations has never been greater and organizations must absorb and manage change at a much faster rate than in the past. In order to implement a successful business strategy to face this challenge, organizations, large or small, must ensure that they have the right people capable of delivering the strategy.

The market place for talented, skilled people is competitive and expensive. Taking on new staff can be disruptive to existing employees. Also, it takes time to develop 'cultural awareness', product/ process/ organization knowledge and experience for new staff members. As organizations vary in size, aims, functions, complexity, construction, the physical nature of their product, and appeal as employers, so do the contributions of human resource management. But, in most the ultimate aim of the function is to: "ensure that at all times the business is correctly staffed by the right number of people with the skills relevant to the business needs", that is, neither overstaffed nor understaffed in total or in respect of any one discipline or work grade.

Functional overview and strategy for HRM These issues motivate a well thought out human resource management strategy, with the precision and detail of say a marketing strategy. Failure in not having a carefully crafted human resources management strategy, can and probably will lead to failures in the business process itself. This set of resources are offered to promote thought, stimulate discussion, diagnose the organizational environment and develop a sound human resource management strategy for your organization. We begin by looking at the seven distinguishable function human resource management provide to secure the achievement of the objective defined above. Following on from this overview we look at defining a human resource strategy. Finally, some questions are posed in the form of a diagnostic checklist for you to consider, which may prove helpful for you to think about when planning your development programs for the human resources in your organization, if they are truely "your most valuable asset."

Function 1 | Manpower planning The penalties for not being correctly staffed are costly. Understaffing loses the business economies of scale and specialization, orders, customers and profits. Overstaffing is wasteful and expensive, if sustained, and it is costly to eliminate because of modern legislation in respect of redundancy payments, consultation, minimum periods of notice, etc. Very importantly, overstaffing reduces the competitive efficiency of the business. Staffing level planning requires that an assessment of present and future needs of the organization be compared with present resources and future predicted resources. Appropriate steps then be planned to bring demand and supply into balance. Thus the first step is to take a 'satellite picture' of the existing workforce profile (numbers, skills, ages, flexibility, sex, experience, forecast capabilities, character,

potential, etc. of existing employees) and then to adjust this for 1, 3 and 10 years ahead by amendments for normal turnover, planned staff movements, retirements, etc, in line with the business plan for the corresponding time frames. The result should be a series of crude supply situations as would be the outcome of present planning if left unmodified. (This, clearly, requires a great deal of information accretion, classification and statistical analysis as a subsidiary aspect of personnel management.) What future demands will be is only influenced in part by the forecast of the personnel manager, whose main task may well be to scrutinize and modify the crude predictions of other managers. Future staffing needs will derive from: • • • • • •

Sales and production forecasts The effects of technological change on task needs Variations in the efficiency, productivity, flexibility of labor as a result of training, work study, organizational change, new motivations, etc. Changes in employment practices (e.g. use of subcontractors or agency staffs, hiving-off tasks, buying in, substitution, etc.) Variations, which respond to new legislation, e.g. payroll taxes or their abolition, new health and safety requirements Changes in Government policies (investment incentives, regional or trade grants, etc.)

What should emerge from this 'blue sky gazing' is a 'thought out' and logical staffing demand schedule for varying dates in the future which can then be compared with the crude supply schedules. The comparisons will then indicate what steps must be taken to achieve a balance. That, in turn, will involve the further planning of such recruitment, training, retraining, labor reductions (early retirement/redundancy) or changes in workforce utilization as will bring supply and demand into equilibrium, not just as a one–off but as a continuing workforce planning exercise the inputs to which will need constant varying to reflect 'actual' as against predicted experience on the supply side and changes in production actually achieved as against forecast on the demand side.

HR Function 2 | Recruitment and selection of employees Recruitment of staff should be preceded by: An analysis of the job to be done (i.e. an analytical study of the tasks to be performed to determine their essential factors) written into a job description so that the selectors know what physical and mental characteristics applicants must possess, what qualities and attitudes are desirable and what characteristics are a decided disadvantage;

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In the case of replacement staff a critical questioning of the need to recruit at all (replacement should rarely be an automatic process). Effectively, selection is 'buying' an employee (the price being the wage or salary multiplied by probable years of service) hence bad buys can be very expensive. For that reason some firms (and some firms for particular jobs) use external expert consultants for recruitment and selection. Equally some small organizations exist to 'head hunt', i.e. to attract staff with high reputations from existing employers to the recruiting employer. However, the 'cost' of poor selection is such that, even for the mundane day-to-day jobs, those who recruit and select should be well trained to judge the suitability of applicants.

The main sources of recruitment are: • • • • •

Internal promotion and internal introductions (at times desirable for morale purposes) Careers officers (and careers masters at schools) University appointment boards Agencies for the unemployed Advertising (often via agents for specialist posts) or the use of other local media (e.g. commercial radio)

Where the organization does its own printed advertising it is useful if it has some identifying logo as its trade mark for rapid attraction and it must take care not to offend the sex, race, etc. antidiscrimination legislation either directly or indirectly. The form on which the applicant is to apply (personal appearance, letter of application, completion of a form) will vary according to the posts vacant and numbers to be recruited. It is very desirable in many jobs that claim about experience and statements about qualifications are thoroughly checked and that applicants unfailingly complete a health questionnaire (the latter is not necessarily injurious to the applicants chance of being appointed as firms are required to employ a percentage of disabled people). Before letters of appointment are sent any doubts about medical fitness or capacity (in employments where hygiene considerations are dominant) should be resolved by requiring applicants to attend a medical examination. This is especially so where, as for example in the case of apprentices, the recruitment is for a contractual period or involves the firm in training costs. Interviewing can be carried out by individuals (e.g. supervisor or departmental manager), by panels of interviewers or in the form of sequential interviews by different experts and can vary from a five minute 'chat' to a process of several days. Ultimately personal skills in judgment are probably the most important, but techniques to aid judgment include selection testing for: • •

Aptitudes (particularly useful for school leavers) Attainments

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General intelligence

(All of these need skilled testing and assessment.) In more senior posts other techniques are: • • •

Leaderless groups Command exercises Group problem solving

(These are some common techniques - professional selection organizations often use other techniques to aid in selection.) Training in interviewing and in appraising candidates is clearly essential to good recruitment. Largely the former consists of teaching interviewers how to draw out the interviewee and the latter how to xratex the candidates. For consistency (and as an aid to checking that) rating often consists of scoring candidates for experience, knowledge, physical/mental capabilities, intellectual levels, motivation, prospective potential, leadership abilities etc. (according to the needs of the post). Application of the normal curve of distribution to scoring eliminates freak judgments.

Function 3 | Employee motivation To retain good staff and to encourage them to give of their best while at work requires attention to the financial and psychological and even physiological rewards offered by the organization as a continuous exercise. Basic financial rewards and conditions of service (e.g. working hours per week) are determined externally (by national bargaining or government minimum wage legislation) in many occupations but as much as 50 per cent of the gross pay of manual workers is often the result of local negotiations and details (e.g. which particular hours shall be worked) of conditions of service are often more important than the basics. Hence there is scope for financial and other motivations to be used at local levels. As staffing needs will vary with the productivity of the workforce (and the industrial peace achieved) so good personnel policies are desirable. The latter can depend upon other factors (like environment, welfare, employee benefits, etc.) but unless the wage packet is accepted as 'fair and just' there will be no motivation. Hence while the technicalities of payment and other systems may be the concern of others, the outcome of them is a matter of great concern to human resource management. Increasingly the influence of behavioral science discoveries are becoming important not merely because of the widely-acknowledged limitations of money as a motivator, but because of the changing mix and nature of tasks (e.g. more service and professional jobs and far fewer unskilled and repetitive production jobs).

The former demand better-educated, mobile and multi-skilled employees much more likely to be influenced by things like job satisfaction, involvement, participation, etc. than the economically dependent employees of yesteryear. Hence human resource management must act as a source of information about and a source of inspiration for the application of the findings of behavioral science. It may be a matter of drawing the attention of senior managers to what is being achieved elsewhere and the gradual education of middle managers to new points of view on job design, work organization and worker autonomy.

Function 4| Employee evaluation An organization needs constantly to take stock of its workforce and to assess its performance in existing jobs for three reasons: •

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To improve organizational performance via improving the performance of individual contributors (should be an automatic process in the case of good managers, but (about annually) two key questions should be posed: o what has been done to improve the performance of a person last year? o and what can be done to improve his or her performance in the year to come?). To identify potential, i.e. to recognize existing talent and to use that to fill vacancies higher in the organization or to transfer individuals into jobs where better use can be made of their abilities or developing skills. To provide an equitable method of linking payment to performance where there are no numerical criteria (often this salary performance review takes place about three months later and is kept quite separate from 1. and 2. but is based on the same assessment).

On-the-spot managers and supervisors, not HR staffs, carry out evaluations. The personnel role is usually that of: • •

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Advising top management of the principles and objectives of an evaluation system and designing it for particular organizations and environments. Developing systems appropriately in consultation with managers, supervisors and staff representatives. Securing the involvement and cooperation of appraisers and those to be appraised. Assistance in the setting of objective standards of evaluation / assessment, for example: o Defining targets for achievement; o Explaining how to quantify and agree objectives; o Introducing self-assessment; o Eliminating complexity and duplication.

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Publicizing the purposes of the exercise and explaining to staff how the system will be used. Organizing and establishing the necessary training of managers and supervisors who will carry out the actual evaluations/ appraisals. Not only training in principles and procedures but also in the human relations skills necessary. (Lack of confidence in their own ability to handle situations of poor performance is the main weakness of assessors.) Monitoring the scheme - ensuring it does not fall into disuse, following up on training/job exchange etc. recommendations, reminding managers of their responsibilities.

Full-scale periodic reviews should be a standard feature of schemes since resistance to evaluation / appraisal schemes is common and the temptation to water down or render schemes ineffectual is ever present (managers resent the time taken if nothing else). Basically an evaluation / appraisal scheme is a formalization of what is done in a more casual manner anyway (e.g. if there is a vacancy, discussion about internal moves and internal attempts to put square pegs into 'squarer holes' are both the results of casual evaluation). Most managers approve merit payment and that too calls for evaluation. Made a standard routine task, it aids the development of talent, warns the inefficient or uncaring and can be an effective form of motivation.

Function 5| Industrial relations Good industrial relations, while a recognizable and legitimate objective for an organization, are difficult to define since a good system of industrial relations involves complex relationships between: (a) Workers (and their informal and formal groups, i. e. trade union, organizations and their representatives); (b) Employers (and their managers and formal organizations like trade and professional associations); (c) The government and legislation and government agencies l and 'independent' agencies like the Advisory Conciliation and Arbitration Service. Oversimplified, work is a matter of managers giving instructions and workers following them - but (and even under slavery we recognize that different 'managing' produces very different results) the variety of 'forms' which have evolved to regulate the conduct of parties (i.e. laws, custom and practice, observances, agreements) makes the giving and receipt of instructions far from simple. Two types of 'rule' have evolved: •

'Substantive', determining basic pay and conditions of service (what rewards workers should receive);

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'Procedural,' determining how workers should be treated and methods and procedures.

Determining these rules are many common sense matters like: Financial, policy and market constraints on the parties (e.g. some unions do not have the finance to support industrial action, some have policies not to strike, some employers are more vulnerable than others to industrial action, some will not make changes unless worker agreement is made first, and rewards always ultimately reflect what the market will bear); the technology of production (the effect of a strike in newspaper production is immediate -it may be months before becoming effective in shipbuilding); the distribution of power within the community - that tends to vary over time and with economic conditions workers (or unions) dominating in times of full employment and employers in times of recession. Broadly in the Western style economies the parties (workers and employers) are free to make their own agreements and rules. This is called 'voluntarism'. But it does not mean there is total noninterference by the government. That is necessary to: • • • •

Protect the weak (hence minimum wage); Outlaw discrimination (race or sex); Determine minimum standards of safety, health, hygiene and even important conditions of service; To try to prevent the abuse of power by either party.

The personnel manager's involvement in the system of industrial relations varies from organization to organization, but normally he or she is required to provide seven identifiable functions, thus: 1. To keep abreast of industrial law (legislation and precedents) and to advise managers about their responsibilities e.g. to observe requirements in respect of employing disabled persons, not to discriminate, not to disclose 'spent' convictions of employees, to observe codes of practice etc. in relation to discipline and redundancy, and similarly to determine organizational policies (in conjunction with other managers) relevant to legal and moral requirements (see also 4.). 2. To conduct (or assist in the conduct) of either local negotiations (within the plant) or similarly to act as the employer's representative in national negotiations. This could be as a critic or advisor in respect of trade etc. association policies or as a member of a trade association negotiating team. Agreements could be in respect of substantive or procedural matters. Even if not directly involved the personnel manager will advise other managers and administrators of the outcome of negotiations.

3. To ensure that agreements reached are interpreted so as to make sense to those who must operate them at the appropriate level within the organization (this can involve a lot of new learning at supervisory level and new pay procedures and new recording requirements in administration and even the teaching of new employment concepts – like stagger systems of work - at management level). 4. To monitor the observance of agreements and to produce policies that ensure that agreements are followed within the organization. An example would be the policy to be followed on the appointment of a new but experienced recruit in relation to the offered salary where there is a choice of increments to be given for experience, ability or qualification. 5. To correct the situations which go wrong. 'Face' is of some importance in most organizations and operating at a 'remote' staff level personnel managers can correct industrial relations errors made at local level without occasioning any loss of dignity (face) at the working level. 'Human resource management' and the obscurity of its reasoning can be blamed for matters which go wrong at plant level and for unwelcome changes, variations of comfortable 'arrangements' and practices and unpopular interpretation of agreements. 6. To provide the impetus (and often devise the machinery) for the introduction of joint consultation and worker participation in decision-making in the organization. Formal agreement in respect of working conditions and behavior could never cover every situation likely to arise. Moreover the more demanding the task (in terms of the mental contribution by the worker to its completion) the more highly–educated the workers need to be and the more they will want to be consulted about and involved in the details of work life. Matters like the rules for a flexitime system or for determining the correction of absenteeism and the contents of jobs are three examples of the sort of matters that may be solely decided by management in some organizations but a matter for joint consultation (not negotiation) in others with a more twenty-first-century outlook and philosophy. Human resource management is very involved in promoting and originating ideas in this field. 7. To provide statistics and information about workforce numbers, costs, skills etc. as relevant to negotiations (i.e. the cost of pay rises or compromise proposals, effect on differentials and possible recruitment/retention consequences of this or whether agreement needs to be known instantly); to maintain personnel records of training, experience, achievements, qualifications, awards and possibly pension and other records; to produce data of interest to management in respect of personnel matters like absentee figures and costs, statistics of sickness absence, costs of welfare and other employee services, statements about development in policies by other organizations, ideas for innovations; to advise upon or operate directly, grievance, redundancy, disciplinary and other procedures.

Function 6 | Provision of employee services Attention to the mental and physical well-being of employees is normal in many organizations as a means of keeping good staff and attracting others. The forms this welfare can take are many and varied, from loans to the needy to counseling in respect of personal problems. Among the activities regarded as normal are: • • • •

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Schemes for occupational sick pay, extended sick leave and access to the firm's medical adviser; Schemes for bereavement or other special leave; The rehabilitation of injured/unfit/ disabled employees and temporary or permanent move to lighter work; The maintenance of disablement statistics and registers (there are complicated legal requirements in respect of quotas of disabled workers and a need for 'certificates' where quota are not fulfilled and recruitment must take place); Provision of financial and other support for sports, social, hobbies, activities of many kinds which are work related; Provision of canteens and other catering facilities; Possibly assistance with financial and other aid to employees in difficulty (supervision, maybe, of an employee managed benevolent fund or scheme); Provision of information handbooks, Running of pre-retirement courses and similar fringe activities; Care for the welfare aspects of health and safety legislation and provision of firstaid training.

The location of the health and safety function within the organization varies. Commonly a split of responsibilities exists under which 'production' or 'engineering' management cares for the provision of safe systems of work and safe places and machines etc., but HRM is responsible for administration, training and education in awareness and understanding of the law, and for the alerting of all levels to new requirements.

Function 7 | Employee education, training and development In general, education is 'mind preparation' and is carried out remote from the actual work area, training is the systematic development of the attitude, knowledge, skill pattern required by a person to perform a given task or job adequately and development is 'the growth of the individual in terms of ability, understanding and awareness'. Within an organization all three are necessary in order to: • • •

Develop workers to undertake higher-grade tasks; Provide the conventional training of new and young workers (e.g. as apprentices, clerks, etc.); Raise efficiency and standards of performance;

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Meet legislative requirements (e.g. health and safety); Inform people (induction training, pre-retirement courses, etc.);

From time to time meet special needs arising from technical, legislative, and knowledge need changes. Meeting these needs is achieved via the 'training loop'. (Schematic available in PDF version.) The diagnosis of other than conventional needs is complex and often depends upon the intuition or personal experience of managers and needs revealed by deficiencies. Sources of inspiration include: • •

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Common sense - it is often obvious that new machines, work systems, task requirements and changes in job content will require workers to be prepared; Shortcomings revealed by statistics of output per head, performance indices, unit costs, etc. and behavioral failures revealed by absentee figures, lateness, sickness etc. records; Recommendations of government and industry training organizations; Inspiration and innovations of individual managers and supervisors; Forecasts and predictions about staffing needs; Inspirations prompted by the technical press, training journals, reports of the experience of others; The suggestions made by specialist (e.g. education and training officers, safety engineers, work-study staff and management services personnel).

Designing training is far more than devising courses; it can include activities such as: • • • • • •

Learning from observation of trained workers; Receiving coaching from seniors; Discovery as the result of working party, project team membership or attendance at meetings; Job swaps within and without the organization; Undertaking planned reading, or follow from the use of self–teaching texts and video tapes; Learning via involvement in research, report writing and visiting other works or organizations.

So far as group training is concerned in addition to formal courses there are: • • • • • •

Lectures and talks by senior or specialist managers; Discussion group (conference and meeting) activities; Briefing by senior staffs; Role-playing exercises and simulation of actual conditions; Video and computer teaching activities; Case studies (and discussion) tests, quizzes, panel 'games', group forums, observation exercises and inspection and reporting techniques.

Evaluation of the effectiveness of training is done to ensure that it is cost effective, to identify needs to modify or extend what is being provided, to reveal new needs and redefine priorities and most of all to ensure that the objectives of the training are being met. The latter may not be easy to ascertain where results cannot be measured mathematically. In the case of attitude and behavioral changes sought, leadership abilities, drive and ambition fostered, etc., achievement is a matter of the judgment of senior staffs. Exact validation might be impossible but unless on the whole the judgments are favorable the cooperation of managers in identifying needs, releasing personnel and assisting in training ventures will cease. In making their judgments senior managers will question whether the efforts expended have produced: • • • • • • •

More effective, efficient, flexible employees; Faster results in making newcomers knowledgeable and effective than would follow from experience; More effective or efficient use of machinery, equipment and work procedures; Fewer requirements to implement redundancy (by retraining); Fewer accidents both personal and to property; Improvements in the qualifications of staff and their ability to take on tougher roles; Better employee loyalty to the organization with more willingness to innovate and accept change.

FACTORS INFLUENCING TRENDS

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The objectives of managements, the ways in which enterprises are managed to achieve these objectives and the human resource management (hereinafter referred to as "HRM") and industrial relations (hereinafter referred to as "IR") initiatives in this regard, are affected by pressures, many of which are exerted by globalization. Changes in IR practices (rather than in institutions and systems) such as increased collective bargaining at enterprise level, flexibility in relation to forms of employment as well as in relation to working time and job functions have occurred as a result of such factors as heightened competition, rapid changes in products and processes and the increasing importance of skills, quality and productivity. These factors have also had an impact on HRM policies and practices. In managing change, the key elements include employee involvement in effecting change, greater customer orientation, and ensuring that the skills of employees are appropriate to the production of goods and the provision of services acceptable to the global market. As such, managing people in a way so as to motivate them to be productive is one important objective of HRM. The implications and consequences of globalization include the following: 1. Countries are more economically interdependent than before, particularly in view of foreign direct investment interlocking economies, as well as increased free trade. The inability of economies to be 'self-sufficient' or 'self-reliant' or 'selfcontained' has been accompanied by a breakdown of investment and trade barriers. 2. Governments are increasingly less able to control the flow of capital, information and technology across borders. 3. There has been de-regulation of financial and other markets, and the integration of markets for goods, services and capital such as the European Community. 4. It has led to the de-nationalization of enterprises and the creation of global companies and global webs. 5. Production of goods and services acceptable to the global market, and the convergence, to a great extent, of customer tastes across borders determined by quality. 6. The need to achieve competitiveness and to remain competitive in respect of attracting investment, goods and services. This means, inter alia, the necessity for high quality skills at all levels to attract high value-added activities, as distinct from cheap labour low value-added ones, and improvements in productivity. Enterprises driven by market pressures need to include in their goals improved quality and productivity, greater flexibility, continuous innovation, and the ability to change to respond rapidly to market needs and demands. Effective HRM is vital for the attainment of these goals. Improved quality and productivity linked to motivation can be achieved through training, employee involvement and extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. The growing interest in pay systems geared to performance and skills reflects one aspect of the increasing significance of HRM in realizing management goals and a gradual shift from collectivism to the individualisation of pay. In such pay systems a critical attraction is the

possibility of achieving these goals without increasing labour costs but at the same time increasing earnings. Realizing management goals and managing change need employee involvement, commitment and training, employee participation, cooperation and teamwork - all important HRM initiatives and activities. The dominant position towards which HRM is moving points to a "change in power relations and highlights the supremacy of management. The management prerogative is rediscovered but in place of command and control the emphasis is on commitment and control as quality, flexibility and competence replaces quantity, task and dumb obedience. To put it another way: the managerial agenda is increasingly focused on innovation, quality and cost reduction. Human resource management makes more demands on employees, work is intensified .... there is less room for managerial slack and for indulgency patterns."1 From a purely HRM perspective, one writer2 has identified the following six factors as accounting for the increasing interest in and resort to HRM practices: a. Improving the management of people or utilizing human resources better as a means of achieving competitive advantage. b. The numerous examples of excellence in HRM have created an interest in such models. c. The traditional role of personnel managers has failed to exploit the potential benefits of effective management of people; neither did personnel management form a central part of management activity. d. In some countries the decline of trade union influence has opened the way for managements to focus on more individual issues rather than on collectivist ones. e. The emergence of better educated workforces with higher individual expectations, changes in technology and the need for more flexible jobs have, in turn, created the need to incorporate HRM into central management policy. f. Many important aspects of HRM such as commitment and motivation emanate from the area of organizational behaviour, and place emphasis on management strategy. This has provided an opportunity to link HRM with organizational behaviour and management strategy.

TRENDS IN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES

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When identifying some of the trends in HRM and when subsequently analysing how they could contribute to achieving management objectives, it is necessary to voice a note of caution. The fact that one elaborates on an ideal model of HRM does not mean that such models have been widely adopted in the real corporate world.3 As Thomas A Kochan and Lee Dyer point out, "even today we find that the human resource function within many American corporations remains weak and relatively low in influence relative to other

managerial functions such as finance, marketing, and manufacturing ... despite the outpouring of academic writing on 'strategic human resource management' little progress has been made in developing systematic theory or empirical evidence on the conditions under which human resources are elevated to a position where the firm sees and treats these issues as a source of competitive advantage."4 The 'best practice' models are really the exceptions, but their value is that they, in a sense, prove the rule, so to speak. Absence of widespread practice is no argument against such a model, but is rather a reason to advocate it, in the same way that the absence of a harmonious IR system in a given situation or country is no argument against advocating it. However, it is possible that the various pressures on enterprises in the 1990s will result in increased resort to effective HRM policies and practices. In the ultimate analysis, HRM and IR are about how people are treated, and their relevance increases where an enterprise takes a long-term view, rather than a short-term one, of what it wants to achieve. Two writers, after examining some of the successful companies such as IBM, GE, Hewlett Packard and Matsushita, observe that "there are a series of things concerned with corporate objectives and culture that seem to matter. Agreement on basic directions for the long-term development of the business, and on how to treat people within the firm, are perhaps the most essential common features of these companies."5 The increasingly significant role of HRM in achieving management objectives is reflected in the transformation of the personnel management function. Over the last two decades this function was often marginalized in terms of its importance in management activities and hierarchy. It has evolved from a concentration on employee welfare to one of managing people in a way so as to obtain the best and highest productivity possible from the employee, through methods that provide the employee with both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.6 Therefore today "far from being marginalised, the human resource management function becomes recognized as a central business concern; its performance and delivery are integrated into line management; the aims shift from merely securing compliance to the more ambitious one of winning commitment. The employee resource, therefore, becomes worth investing in, and training and development thus assume a higher profile. These initiatives are associated with, and maybe are even predicated upon, a tendency to shift from a collective orientation to the management of the workforce to an individualistic one. Accordingly management looks for 'flexibility' and seeks to reward differential performance in a differential way. Communication of managerial objectives and aspirations takes on a whole new importance."7 What separates or distinguishes HRM from the traditional personnel function is the integration of HRM into strategic management and the pre-occupation of HRM with utilizing the human resource to achieve strategic management objectives. HRM "seeks to eliminate the mediation role and adopts a generally unitarist perspective. It emphasizes strategy and planning rather than problem-solving and mediation, so that employee cooperation is delivered by programmes of corporate culture, remuneration packaging,

team building and management development for core employees, while peripheral employees are kept at arms"length."8 HRM strategies may be influenced by the decisions taken on strategy (the nature of the business currently and in the future) and by the structure of the enterprise (the manner in which the enterprise is structured or organized to meet its objectives)9. In an enterprise with effective HRM policies and practices, the decisions on HRM are also strategic decisions influenced by strategy and structure, and by external factors such as trade unions, the labour market situation and the legal system. In reality most firms do not have such a well thought-out sequential model. But what we are considering here is effective HRM, and thus a model where HRM decisions are as strategic as the decisions on the type of business and structure. At a conceptual level the interpretations of HRM indicate different emphases which lead to concentration on different contents of the discipline. The various distinctions or interpretations indicate that HRM "can be used in a restricted sense so reserving it as a label only for that approach to labour management which treats labour as a valued asset rather than a variable cost and which accordingly counsels investment in the labour resource through training and development and through measures designed to attract and retain a committed workforce. Alternatively, it is sometimes used in an extended way so as to refer to a whole array of recent managerial initiatives including measures to increase the flexible utilization of the labour resource and other measures which are largely directed at the individual employee. But another distinction can also be drawn. This directs attention to the 'hard' and 'soft' versions of HRM. The 'hard' one emphasizes the quantitative, calculative and businessstrategic aspects of managing the headcounts resource in as 'rational' a way as for any other economic factor. By contrast, the 'soft' version traces its roots to the humanrelations school; it emphasizes communication, motivation, and leadership."10 There are several ways in which HRM has changed earlier attitudes and assumptions of personnel management about managing people.11 The new model of HRM includes many elements vital to the basic management goal of achieving and maintaining competitiveness. First, HRM earlier reacted piece-meal to problems as they arose. Effective HRM now increasingly seeks to link HRM issues to the overall strategy of the organization. Organizations with the most effective HRM policies and practices seek to integrate such policies in corporate strategies and to reinforce or change an organization's culture. Integration is needed in two senses -integrating HRM issues into an organization's strategic plans and securing the acceptance and inclusion of a HRM view in the decisions of line managers. The HRM policies in respect of the various functions (e.g. recruitment, training, etc.) should be internally consistent. They must also be consistent with the business strategies and should reflect the organization's core values12. The problem of integrating HRM with business strategy13 arises, for example, in a diversified enterprise with different products and markets. In such cases there is the difficulty of matching

HRM policies with strategies which could vary among different business activities, each of which may call for different HRM policies. For instance, in particular cases "the 'hard' version of human resource management appears more relevant than the 'soft' version of human resource management. In other words, matching HRM policies to business strategy calls for minimizing labour costs, rather than treating employees as a resource whose value may be enhanced .... by increasing their commitment, functional flexibility, and quality."14 This contradiction is sometimes sought to be resolved through the claim that developing people is possible only where the business is successful. Therefore if reducing the labour force or dispensing with poor performers is dictated by business conditions, resorting to such measures and treating people as a resource are not antithetic. Another reconciliation of this contradiction is sought through management initiatives to change business strategy (e.g. in sectors where reducing costs is a common practice such as in mass production and supermarket retailing) through greater employee involvement, commitment and training. Second, building strong cultures is a way of promoting particular organizational goals, in that "a 'strong culture' is aimed at uniting employees through a shared set of managerially sanctioned values ('quality', 'service', 'innovation', etc.) that assume an identification of employee and employer interests."15 However, there can be tension between a strong organizational culture and the need to adapt to changed circumstances and to be flexible, particularly in the highly competitive and rapidly changing environment in which employers have to operate today. Rapid change demanded by the market is sometimes difficult in an organization with a strong culture. IBM has been cited as a case in point. Its firmly-held beliefs about products and services made it difficult to effect change in time, i.e. when the market required a radical change in product and service (from mainframe, customised systems, salesmen as management consultants to customer-as-end user, seeking quality of product and service) to personal computers (standardized product, cost competition, dealer as customer).16 Nevertheless in the long term a strong organizational culture is preferable to a weak one: "Hence it could be said that the relationship between 'strong' cultures, employee commitment, and adaptability contains a series of paradoxes. Strong cultures allow for a rapid response to familiar conditions, but inhibit immediate flexibility in response to the unfamiliar, because of the commitment generated to a (now) inappropriate ideology. 'Weak' cultures, in contrast, when equated with ambiguous ideologies, allow flexibility in response to the unfamiliar, but cannot generate commitment to action. Yet strong cultures, through disconfirmation and eventual ideological shift may prove ultimately more adaptive to change, assuming the emergence of a new strong yet appropriate culture. This may be at the cost of a transitional period when ability to generate commitment to any course of action -new or old - is minimal."17 Third, the attitude that people are a variable cost is, in effective HRM, replaced by the view that people are a resource and that as social capital can be developed and can contribute to competitive advantage. Increasingly, it is accepted that competitive advantage is gained through well-educated and trained, motivated and committed employees at all levels. This recognition is now almost universal, and accounts for the

plausible argument that training and development are, or will be, the central pillar of HRM. By the end of the 1980s leading companies in Germany, Japan and the USA were spending up to 3% of turnover on training and development, but in the UK such expenditure amounted to only about 0.15%.18 The economic performance of some of the East Asian countries (Japan, Korea, Hong Kong and Taiwan) and of some of the South East Asian countries (Singapore and Malaysia) are intimately connected with their high level of investment in education and training. Other countries are now placing human resource development at the centre of their national strategic plans - Indonesia being a recent example. Thus "The existence of policies and practices designed to realize the latent potential of the workforce at all levels becomes the litmus test of an organization's orientation."19 Fourth, the view that the interests of employees and management or shareholders are divergent and conflictual - though substantially true in the past - is giving way to the view that this need not necessarily be so. HRM seeks to identify and promote a commonality of interests. Significant examples are training which enhances employment security and higher earning capacity for employees and which at the same time increases the employee's value to the enterprise's goals of better productivity and performance; pay systems which increase earnings without significant labour cost increases, and which at the same time promote higher performance levels; goal-setting through two-way communication which establishes unified goals and objectives and which provides intrinsic rewards to the employee through a participatory process. Fifth, top-down communication coupled with controlled information flow to keep power within the control of management categories is gradually giving way to a sharing of information and knowledge. This change facilitates the creation of trust and commitment and makes knowledge more productive. Control from the top is being replaced by increasing employee participation and policies which foster commitment and flexibility which help organizations to change when necessary. The ways in which the larger Japanese enterprises have installed participatory schemes and introduced informationsharing and two-way communication systems are instructive in this regard. In enterprises which tend to have corporate philosophies or missions, and where there are underlying values which shape their corporate culture, HRM becomes a part of the strategy to achieve their objectives. For example, in Matsushita Electric Company "finance, personnel and training are all fully centralised .... Personnel and training exist to create 'harmony' In other words the central role of these functions is to help build and maintain the Matsushita culture ....people are seen as the critical resource."20 In some types of enterprises such as ones in which continuous technological change takes place, the goal of successfully managing change at short intervals often requires employee cooperation through emphasis on communication and involvement. As this type of unit grows,

"If there is strategic thinking in human resource management these units are likely to wish to develop employee-relations policies based on high individualism paying above market rates to recruit and retain the best labour, careful selection and recruitment systems to ensure high quality and skill potential, emphasis on internal training schemes to develop potential for further growth, payment system designed to reward individual performance and cooperation, performance and appraisal reviews, and strong emphasis on team work and communication ... In short, technical and capital investment is matched by human resource investments, at times reaching near the ideals of human resource management."21 If, as is often the case, (the UK is a good example22), enterprises are dominated by financial issues, HRM will not be a part of the central strategy of such enterprises. HRM as a means of achieving management objectives - at least in enterprises which have recognized, or have been compelled to recognize, the utilization of the human resource in achieving competitive edge - becomes clear from an examination of four important goals of effective HRM.23 HRM is closely linked to motivation, leadership and work behaviour. An enterprise's policies and practices in these areas have an impact on whether HRM contributes to achieving management goals. The first goal of HRM is integration, which in itself has four aspects. Although "a comprehensive corporate strategy is essential to continuing business success ... in many cases, human resource planning is not an integral part of strategic planning, but rather flows from it"24, so that giving effect to strategic plans becomes more difficult. This is especially so in today's context when the success of the process of adapting to change requires an increasing degree of individual and group involvement, so that human resources need to be integrated into strategic plans. As has been aptly stated in regard to managing change:25 "Corporate entrepreneurs - single-minded individuals that they are - still get their projects done by crafting coalitions and building teams of devoted employees who feel a heightened sense of joint involvement and contribution to decisions. The integrative, participative vehicles surrounding innovators - open communication, interdependent responsibilities, frequent team efforts- keep them close to the power sources they need to operate, ensuring access to information, resources and the support needed for implementation. Involving grass roots employees on participative teams with control over their own outcomes helps the organization to get and use more ideas to improve performance and increase future skills. Whether called 'task forces', 'quality circles', 'problem-solving groups', or 'shared-responsibility teams', such vehicles for greater participation at all levels are an important part of an innovating company. Masters of change are also masters of the use of participation." Human resource policies should also be internally consistent in the sense that policies in each area of human resources (e.g. selection, motivation, rewards) should further common strategic objectives. Further, successful integration depends on line managers accepting and practising the appropriate HRM policies. Moreover, employees should be

integrated (as in the case of the best practice in Japanese companies) so that there is as little divergence of interests between those of the enterprise and the employee. The second is the goal of commitment, which involves identification of the type of commitment sought e.g. attitudinal, behavioural.26 Commitment could be to the organization, to the job, to career advancement. Commitment could be seen as acceptance of enterprise values and goals, and could be reflected in behaviour which seeks to further these goals. Thus: "The theoretical proposition is therefore that organizational commitment, combined with job related behavioural commitment will result in high employee satisfaction, high performance, longer tenure and willingness to accept change."27 Among measures to achieve commitment are setting objectives through a two-way communication process which requires consultation and involvement; performance appraisal systems based on agreed goals and performance measures; intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. The third is the goal of flexibility and adaptability, which in essence means the ability to manage change and innovation and to respond rapidly to market demands and changes. This requires a HRM policy which is conducive to change at all levels of the organization, a structure which is not bureaucratic, rigid and hierarchical, with an absence of rigid job demarcations and with functional flexibility (flexible skills and willingness to move from one task to another). Promoting these is possible only "if employees at all levels display high organizational commitment, high trust and high levels of intrinsic motivation."28 Measures to achieve flexibility would include training, work organization, multi-skilling and removal of narrow job classifications. The fourth goal of HRM is the goal of quality. This assumes the existence of policies and practices to recruit, develop and retain skilled and adaptable staff, and the formulation of agreed performance goals and performance measures. To these goals could be added two broader goals - building a unified organizational culture and achieving competitive advantage through the productive use of human resources.

Evolution of HRM in India India’s huge population provides it with a critical competitive advantage during a period of increasing concerns regarding an aging workforce in the developed world and talent shortages globally. In this global context, India can consider itself relatively lucky. Just 7 percent of Indians are above the age of 60. In 25 years time only 12 percent will be above 60. India will continue to be young and will see a swelling workforce of scientific, technical, and professional talent.

Despite this seeming competitive advantage, the fact is that due to its late start on the road to development and a strong history of union activity, India has traditionally lagged in the systematic development of high-quality talent. There have been a lot of talented professionals around, but Indian organizations have only in the past few decades engaged in a focused effort to develop their talent pool.

In the first 40 years after Indian independence, slow economic growth rates, militant unionism, the protected nature of the Indian economy (and correspondingly limited concern with employee productivity) as well the dominance of public-sector enterprises in key industrial sectors meant that companies did not view HRM as a key business imperative. Opportunities in the private sector for ambitious and talented people were limited and employee mobility was low.

Starting mid-1991, this all started to change. Faced with an economic crisis due to a fiscal lack of discipline and negligible foreign exchange reserves, the country started on the path of economic liberalization. Effectively, this meant the end of the tradition of industrial licenses, a lowering of trade barriers, an open invitation to multinational and foreign investors to do business in India, and a gradual opening up of regulated sectors.

The message was clear – the rules of doing business in India were changing. And they were changing in ways that they had never before. In a nutshell, if one was to draw the major themes in the Indian economy in the decade of the 1990s, they would be:

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Expansion of markets and brand visibility

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Shakeout of long-dominant domestic industry leaders

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Deregulation of capital and financial markets as well as highly protected industrial sectors

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Boom in services across a host of industries

The large talent base, proficiency with the English language, expertise in software, a stable financial and regulatory environment, and a noisy but active democracy are just some of the factors that are cited as a part of India’s portfolio of advantages. These advantages combined with the new, more positive economic climate has led to major changes in the landscape for HRM.

The reverse brain drain – While “brain drain” to the West from the 1960s to the 1980s may have caused significant talent loss, the value of having such a highly skilled and successful talent “diaspora” became evident post-1991. A substantial contribution to the creation of a distinct “India Inc.” brand image goes to this segment of Indian professionals. They have also added value through their investments in the software and IT-enabled services sector, and by using their positions in top global organizations to focus efforts toward developing India as a market.

Employee mobility – Gone are the days of lifetime employment and stable careers. While in certain sectors such as heavy manufacturing or in public-sector organizations this still may not be a reality, it has fast caught up with the others.

Diminishing employee loyalty – The increasing employee mobility and proliferation of job opportunities caused the first casualty in the form of eroding employee loyalty. The somewhat paternalistic style of people management had created an aura about being stable with one job or organization. The 1990s saw a total reversal with job changes, and even career changes, becoming acceptable. The longevity of employees started being counted in a few years or even months, as opposed to decades.

The global Indian manager – A new trend that has emerged is the use of India as a sourcing ground for global talent. Topping the list of organizations seeking Indian talent are global consulting majors and investment banks. This trend also validated what had already been witnessed in software and information technology: the premium value attached to Indian talent.

Shedding the welfare focus – Given the strong welfare focus and the employee-centric labor legislation in India, job security had been a thing taken for granted. However, many organizations, including some from the public sector, recently have gone in for a

systematic process of restructuring and downsizing of their workforces. The accent on employee productivity and becoming lean has been a fundamental mindset shift among Indian managers.

We can focus on five broad themes that typify the nature of the HRM challenges in India.

1. No longer a recruiter's market Individuals scouring for job opportunities in the market have many more choices today. The changed dynamics in the recruitment market impacts on the retention strategies within organizations as well – the usual tactics of paying above the market or high-impact roles may not work anymore.

2. Focus on efficiency Recent trends have shown an increasing tendency to restructure workforces, downsize, outsource, and automate. This has happened with the enhanced use of outsourcing and technology solutions to transform the transactional nature of the HRM function. In today’s changing context, HR professionals are being challenged to show results and deliver tangible value.

3. A new employee relations environment In recent years trade unions have been reluctant to call for strikes because they are afraid that a strike may lead to the closure of the unit. Service sector workers feel they have become outsiders and are becoming increasingly disinterested in trade union activities. Instead of demanding higher wages, allowances, or facilities, trade unions now demand job security and some are even willing to accept wage cuts or wage freezes in return for job protection.

4. The emergence of Global Indian companies The liberalization process not only opened India to the globe, but also allowed leading Indian organizations to arrive on the global stage. While Infosys, Wipro, and TCS are prominent names in the IT industry globally, large multi-business houses such as Reliance, Tata Sons, and the AV Birla Group are also actively operating overseas.

The challenge of managing diversity on a global scale will be a new one for Indian business leaders and HRM professionals. The demand for skills that can effectively integrate cultures, manage diversity, initiate communication mechanisms across time zones, and still maintain a core of consistent organizational values will be of premium.

5. The search for new paradigms As a large majority of cutting-edge research and practices in the area of management thinking (including HRM) has been in the West, more specifically in the United States, what is the level of “fit” with the realities of different cultures? Local adaptations of global HRM initiatives have been very successful in some case, but not in others. As far as the “fit” of these concepts and frameworks to an Indian context is concerned, the jury is still out.

In many ways, the growth and evolution of the HRM agenda is reflective of the changed socioeconomic realities in post-liberalization India. While great strides have been taken in enhancing human capital productivity and Indian talent is gaining recognition globally, there are vast gaps to be bridged before we can truly talk of a transformation in the talent market. This veritable race against time to build on existing strengths and cover the major weaknesses will engage business and HRM leaders of India in the foreseeable future.

Changing Roles and Myth about HRM

The Foremost and prime HR function in any organization is recruiting the right person and then getting requisite quality and quantity of work (Read productivity) for a reasonable period of tenure, in line with organizational goals (Do most of organizations and the top HR Bosses themselves know about it?). One can call it Strategic Human Resource Management, which uses various tools and techniques for motivation, appraisal, training, cross cultural management, emerging issues in personnel laws like, sexual harassment and competence mapping, etc. In fact HR function is main responsibility of a supervisor and not of a HR Department, and higher goes the role and scope of responsibilities, higher the supervisor in Organization Hierarchy. In many organizations, for instance, IT industry, one has very loose or flattish hierarchy due to knowledge workers outfit.

Over the decades HRM became a separated out function graduating from a simple Time Office function to a high profile Division in organizations until recently when most of HRM functions have been leased out (Outsourced) and what is left with HR departments is Planning and Strategy. But unfortunately the supervisors have abandoned their prime responsibility to manage men and think that this better be taken care of by HR Specialists. This is simply a myth. Increasing globalization and migration of labor in both directions like the financial capital, the challenges of staffing, retention and motivation of highly skilled workers from wider canvass and background and even education background, is really serious issue that better be not ignored by Businesses. My experience in Corporate sector in India in various types of organizations ranging from Steels to Textiles, Chemicals and Services sector has been quite amusing and educative as far as the way HR has been handled by various types of entrepreneurs in India right from SBEs to the so called Large corporate units. Majority of Indian businesses still treat employees as commodities and expect them to come trained and skilled in specific areas they are hired for (Even in US it is not feasible despite Industry Institutes interface). Hire and fire has been very popular policy in India and suppressing welfare laws regarding labor has been a favorable pass time, and matter of satisfaction & pride for Indian Businessmen. It was often observed by me that rapid expansion of businesses were scarcely accompanied by timely organizational structuring, expansion, training and growth in pace with such expansions and thus most of such expansions fell flat, even destroying their existing business lines and profitability. The problem with HRM is that one cannot use clear cut formula that can be applied in particular situations due to highly subjective, emotional and cultural deviation amongst the employees. Secondly skilled and committed workers will become more and more scarce commodity due to rapid global expansion of business, high aspiration levels, fast growth mentality of youth including job-hopping, mobility of labor across borders and rapidly changing technologies. This is just too much to handle for traditional HR experts and involvement of Top line functional supervisors is essential for strategic growth of organizations. Indian businesses have a soft belly there due to still continuing contemptuous and casual attitude towards employees. As we move from Time Office to Personnel Management and on to HR Management to Human Asset management to Intellectual Capital paradigms, drastic changes in HR practices and HR organizations in Businesses is inevitable. Another thing to understand is that there is not very strong correlation between wages & incentives and motivation level of employees as is generally thought. Motivation and stability of employees is rather complicated task determined by several volatile factors, for instance, cultural background, family unit, education level and type, age, job satisfaction and so many others still not fully understood.

It is another myth of HRM that giving doses of some foreign trip and 50 or 100 hrs of boring and stereotyped training sessions (requirement of TQM, ISO 9000 also) will raise motivation, skills and work style standards of employee. Most important change required is commitment, interest and achievement motivation within framework of organizational goals. One thing is very clear from above discussions that Quality and stability of Employees in organizations is going to be key differentiator and even main foundation for survival of a business in coming times and that too in highly nebulous environment of labor markets. The third Myth worth mentioning is that employees always work better by giving better facilities, rewards and training sessions. I have found it to be doubtful in most situations. In fact the best way to train and induce employee to work and achieve higher is to create slight stress in work environment and little bit of job in security. As they say, throw the child in waters and it will pick swimming faster- very well applies to all human activities. There is no substitute for experience gained repeatedly by varied situations of decision-making and it is really confounding as to why inexperienced graduates from B-schools colleges are paid unreasonably high wages. Some one may like to deeply probe the issue whether such high remunerations are really effective in extraordinary achievements of organizations? One of the main reason for rise in corruption and materialistic pursuit by public sector employees is envy towards unusually high wage rates in so called hi-fi and MNC organizations around the globe, particularly in countries like India that are having poor quality of Public Administration, public awareness and legal systems. We can see that there is acute crisis facing the HR Managers who are yet to get their own roles re-defined and who have to find or create leaders in multi cultural setting in a highly competitive business environment and tight job market, with very high attrition rates in some sectors, like in Call Centers and software industries, and developing requisite inner motivation levels and soft skills that are often neglected in promotions and wage fixations (Here 'wage' is being used as a generic term for all kinds of compensation structures at all levels). While loyalty can be developed and maintained in employees, I would like to explode fourth Myth in HRM by revealing the fact that loyalty also has frequently roots in ethical, community and genetic background (We may call these attitudes, or inherent attitudes or life positions taken by an employee during initial grooming in young age). There is need to develop yet more effective psychometric tests or procedures to sift the candidates for right combination of IQ, EQ and loyalty index (I would like to find a formula for this term). One big damage globalization has done is to popularize the western materialistic high-growth rate focused employee culture prevalent in US where employees have little emotional concern with organizations they work (Even Japan is fast becoming victim to this epidemic!). Another challenge facing Organizations is to handle legal pressures relating to employee related laws of newer types like gender bias, racial or caste bias in employment, sexual harassment (At least two very senior officials of Indian Organizations have already been charges or accused of this in USA), ethical issues in handling organization information and challenges of multi-ethnic or multi-cultural staffed work places.

Work place diversity is a good major of challenge in Organizations. This will grow in near future. According to Thomas (1992), dimensions of workplace diversity include, but are not limited to: age, ethnicity, ancestry, gender, physical abilities/qualities, race, sexual orientation, educational background, geographic location, income, marital status, military experience, religious beliefs, parental status, and work experience. The future success of any organizations relies on the ability to manage a diverse body of talent that can bring innovative ideas, perspectives and views to their work. The challenge and problems faced of workplace diversity can be turned into a strategic organizational asset if an organization is able to capitalize on this melting pot of diverse talents. With the mixture of talents of diverse cultural backgrounds, genders, ages and lifestyles, an organization can respond to business opportunities more rapidly and creatively, especially in the global arena (Cox, 1993), which must be one of the important organizational goals to be attained. A key issue that influences success in international arena is the awareness of cultural differences and thus development of both a business strategy and corresponding HR strategy that is consistent with the culture of host country. The interface between culture of the organization and culture of host country become important. Instead of leaving these issues to be tackled by HR personnel, the senior executives in international business arena have to take the HR strategies and solutions in their own hands. More and more Informational technology is being used in organizations to deliver HR services (Example HRSC of IBM) and a good part of these are being outsourced. This is natural outcome in changing business environment and brings in both advantages of expertise and economics. Large organizations otherwise also cannot cope with information exchange requirements in huge staffed organization in traditional manner unless they follow IBM like I nitiatives. The example of IBM HRSC is an attempt to combine people, technology and customer service, much as it does with its external customers. The center service about 20 business units in areas including benefits, retirement planning, compensation, employee suggestions, staffing, job posting, orientation, performance management, EEO compliance, employee separations, leave of absence, and skill development through 80 customer service representatives. This will be more or less true for all leading organizations in services sector in particular in near future. IBM too had repositioned itself as service driven organization. Impact of technology can be viewed as challenges in: - Necessary expansion/contraction of work force. - Training needed to utilize new technology (A major reason of failures in Indian Small & mid size organizations from 80s to end of 90s) - Effective change Management - Impact on work group dynamics and concept of human face - Costs for hiring, severance, training. - Unwillingness of entrepreneurs to understand, recognize and adopt technology that can drive productivity, quality, customer satisfaction and new market opportunities. - Sliming down of organizations particularly at lower levels and reduced hierarchy.

Another Myth of US based HR Practices is non-relevance of old employees or problem of graying workforce. The reason could be higher health care costs and perception of lower productivity. This may be true, but not in all circumstances. The element of loyalty may weigh favorably in favor of older employees as also their vast experience particularly useful in handling crises and negotiations, grievance handling within and outside organizations and networking advantage. I strongly decry the US corporate culture largely derived from social attitudes towards old in devaluing them .One serious disadvantage of old employees is their resistance to change in practices and call of business environment changes. As supply of baby boomers exceeds the demand, HR challenge is to handle this tricky issue including retirement and retraining or rehabilitation plan. US culture simply does not suit Indian culture and ethos and we should not blindly go for US system. HRM will not have to deal only with cultural diversity of employees and organization but also issues of minorities, backward classes and racial preferences in employment. Neither many-grounded theories are available in HR, nor the traditional HR practices will apply to most of organizational settings in coming times. Traditional HR Versus Strategic HR (From chapter 4, PP 101-102, Jeffrey A Mello 2) Indicator

Traditional HR

Strategic HR

Responsibility for HR

Staff Specialists

Line Managers

Focus

Employee Relations

Partnership with internal and external customers

Role of HR

Transactional, Change follower and respondent

Transformational, change leader and initiator

Initiatives

Slow, reactive and fragmented

Fast, proactive and integrated

Time Horizon

Short-term

Short, medium, Long (as necessary)

Control

Bureaucratic-roles, policies, procedures

Organic-Flexible, whatever is necessary to succeed

Job design

Tight division of labor, independence, Broad, flexible, cross training, specialization teams

Key investments

Capital, Products

People, knowledge

Accountability

Cost center

Investment center

The traditional HR assumes a role of handling transaction as they arise. In India in most of organizations that are still bossed by 60+ adults from orthodox family business background (Babu ji culture), the role of HR personnel is not understood by

them and they mostly serve as front for the CEO's decisions ranging from hiring, firing, wages, promotions and all kinds of manipulations. The traditional HR itself branched out as scientific division of labor relieving line managers from highly subjective, time consuming and inconvenient activities related to employee and which were not considered crucial to profit making and growth of organization. Strategic HR plays role of transformational change agent with focus on and in line with long term or strategic goals of organization. To become strategic the HR managers will have to be drawn from general Management rather than specialist training background, have to adopt long term and strategic focus and persuade management to look beyond current performance. Further, most of senior executives including entrepreneurs themselves hardly appreciative benefits and possibility of HRM as strategic partner. In fact most managers view HR with dislike being rule machines that hinder flexibility and carrying out of jobs. It is surprising but true that most senior executives in India as well as owners view human assets as liability and not owned by them and therefore a high-risk investment. HR activities in organizations are mostly taken up to do face lifting and present modernized face of organization because the direct benefits of HR are difficult to see and quantify. The HR and training budgets get axe first when need arises to do so. References: 1. The challenges of Human Resource Management-Dr Alvin Chanwww.Zeromillion.com/business/hrm 2. Strategic Human resource Management- Jeffrey A. Mello, Thomson South Western 2004 3. "Technology, Diversity and Work Culture-Key trends in next Millennium" Harvey B H; HR Magazine 45, (7) July 2000 p 59 4. 'How will the new technology change the HR Profession?'-Workplace Visions, Society for Human resource Management, No 3, 2000.