Intelligent Particle

INTELLIGENT PARTICLE

An introduction to the intelligent nature of particles AJMAL BEG

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c 2007 by Ajmal Beg. All rights reserved. Copyright °

Author and/or publisher shall not be liable for any kind of direct and/or indirect loss as a result of using information in this book.

ISBN: 978-0-9805610-0-5

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Dedicated to my family

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Contents 1 Introduction

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2 Intelligent behavior of particles 2.1 Intelligent photon and electron . . . 2.2 Intelligent gravitons . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Intelligent cosmological bodies . . . 2.4 Big Bang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Moment of universe creation

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3 Intelligent distribution of particles 3.1 Photon and mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Photons and gravitons . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Photon as a gravitons container . . . . . 3.3.1 Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Energy storage capacity of particle . . . 3.5 Discovery of microwave . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Energy contained in cosmological bodies 3.6.1 Energy storage capacity of sun . . 3.6.2 Energy contained in moon . . . . 3.7 Energy storage capacity of proton . . . . 3.8 Energy source of cosmological bodies . . 3.9 Purpose of orbits and spin . . . . . . . . 3.10 Pauli’s Exclusion Principle . . . . . . . . 3.11 Confirming energy chain . . . . . . . . . 4 Dynamic shapes of particles 4.1 Dimension of particles and speed . . . . 4.2 Objects capacity to expand and contract 4.2.1 Expanding universe . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Black holes/Collapsed stars . . . 4.2.3 Creation of moon . . . . . . . . . v

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CONTENTS

4.3

4.2.4 4.2.5 4.2.6 4.2.7 Types 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4

Basic structure of particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X-ray spectrum of metal targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . Matter density of particles forming material . . . . . . Tunneling of light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of dynamic change in particle’s dimensions . . . . . . . Change in the dimension of particles with uniform density Change in the dimensions of hollow particles . . . . . . Change in the dimensions of multilayer particle . . . . Change in the dimension of origami particle . . . . . .

5 Intelligent strong interaction 5.1 Strong interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Interaction without sensing environment . 5.3 Interaction involving sensing environment . 5.3.1 Zero field particle preparation time 5.3.2 Very high speed of sense particles . 5.3.3 Tunneling through barriers . . . . .

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6 Intelligent communication 6.1 Group behavior of particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1 Magnetic lines extending from the bar magnet . . 6.1.2 Different amplitude of waves with equal frequency 6.1.3 Diffraction of particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.4 Light splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Messages exchange mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Interaction between light and matter . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Pattern of interaction through messages . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Message processing in nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Energy chain 7.1 Basic Interactions . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Electromagnetic field and gravity 7.3 Gravity and strong interaction . . 7.4 Strong and weak interaction . . . 7.5 Energy flow in universe . . . . . .

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8 Basics of modern science 8.1 Basic concepts of modern science . . . . . . . . 8.1.1 What is matter? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.2 What is photon? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.3 What is conversion of mass into energy?

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CONTENTS

8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6

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8.1.4 Why heavy objects can release more energy? . . . . 8.1.5 Can objects control the intake of photons? . . . . . 8.1.6 Why matter do not travel more than speed of light? 8.1.7 Why light bends? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.8 Why gravity travels at the same speed as light? . . 8.1.9 Why gravitons are particle? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.10 Is speed of light is constant? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.11 How all objects fall at the same speed? . . . . . . . Electron’s energy level and radius of orbit . . . . . . . . . Energy bands in metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tunneling Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pushing particles beyond c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6.1 Apply a huge force on the particle instantly . . . . 8.6.2 Using the appropriate source of energy . . . . . . . Special Theory of Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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159 160 160 160 160 160 161 165 166 166 169 171 171 171 172 172

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CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Introduction Modern science is based on basic concepts developed by a number of brilliant scientists such as Newton, Maxwell, Plank and Einstein. Science has made tremendous advancement in last few centuries. However, many scientific effects cannot be clearly and fully explained by modern science. For instance: • Science extensively uses formula mc2 to calculate the energy contained in mass. However, there are theories which suggest that speed of light is slowing down with passage of time meaning that the capacity of matter to contain energy is dropping with time. It is not known why speed of photon can drop with the passage of time. • Science treats photon as a particle with zero inertial mass. However, photon is affected by gravity and can be treated as a particle with effective gravitational mass. Gravitational and inertial mass are always equal. Thus, photon should not have zero inertial mass. • Einstein proposed that photon momentum is in the direction of photon’s motion at the time photon and electron interacts. However, traveling electromagnetic wave (photon) has magnetic and electric field in perpendicular to the direction of motion. It is not clear why photon needs to have momentum in three directions. • Magnetic momentum is assumed to be due to electrons motion around the nucleus. This magnetic momentum is thought to exist at a right angle of the orbiting electron. However, it is not clear how magnetic moment at the right angle changes into curving magnetic lines existing between poles of bar magnet. Objects around us are collection of particles which show specific behaviors. We can improve our understanding of mechanisms governing the behavior of 1

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

objects around us if we understand how particles forming the objects interact with one other. As interaction between smaller particles cannot be observed directly, there is need for finding an indirect way to determine how smaller particles interacts. This book uses methodology as illustrated in Fig. 1.1 to help understand interactions among smaller particles.

Figure 1.1: Methodology of this book Methodology of this book assumes that: • All kinds of particles are formed from the same basic material. • All kinds of particles were formed through somewhat similar process and thus have somewhat similar functioning mechanism.

3 • The cosmological bodies such as sun, earth and moon are examples of very large size particles created through repetition of the same basic process which created small particles such as electrons. • As we are unable to directly observe the interactions among smaller particles, we study the interaction between cosmological bodies for the purpose of improving understanding of interaction among smaller particles. This book provides different simple experiments to confirm the validity of presented concepts. The book is divided into different chapters dealing with different aspects of object’s behavior. Chapter 1: Introduction This chapter describes the methodology used by this book. Chapter 2: Intelligent behavior of particles This chapter shows that particles which form this universe exhibit intelligent behavior. It also shows that the Big Bang was a highly creative process. Chapter 3: Intelligent distribution of particles This chapter discusses particles dependency on one another for their survival and how particles flow in an intelligent manner to meet one another needs. Chapter 4: Dynamic shapes of particles This chapter shows the possibility that particles have capability to adapt their dimensions dynamically while interacting with changing environment surrounding them. Chapter 5: Intelligent strong interaction This chapter shows that strong interaction requires capability to sense other particle before transferring field particles. Chapter 6: Intelligent communication This chapter discusses the possibility of particles having highly developed capability of communication. Chapter 7: Energy chain This chapter discusses the flow of energy in the universe. Chapter 8: Basics of modern science This chapter revisits the basics of modern science using concepts presented in this book.

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Chapter 2 Intelligent behavior of particles This chapter discusses the intelligent behavior of particles. It also shows that the Big Bang which resulted in creation of these intelligent particles was also a highly creative process.

2.1

Intelligent photon and electron

Hertz, Hallwach, J. J. Thomson, Philip and Einstein contributed to develop understanding of photoelectric effect. Figure 2.1 shows the details of different parts forming photoelectric effect apparatus. Electrons are emitted when light falls on a metallic plate.

Figure 2.1: Photoelectric effect apparatus In photoelectric effect: • Electron emitted from the surface of the metallic emitter have different velocities. 5

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CHAPTER 2. INTELLIGENT BEHAVIOR OF PARTICLES • The maximum kinetic energy Kmax of the emitted electron does not dependent on the intensity of the light which falls on the surface of the metallic emitter. • Kmax increases with the frequency of light as shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2: Relationship between Kmax and the intensity of light Einstein was awarded Noble Prize in year 1922 for his contribution to physics by developing theory about photoelectric effect. According to Einstein’s theory of photoelectric effect, relationship between Kmax and the energy of incident photon is given by: Kmax = hf − φ

(2.1)

where, Kmax : Maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electron hf : Energy of the photon φ: Work function of the metal φ is described as minimum energy an electron needs to leave the metal and is given by: (2.2) φ = hf0 It is thought that energy of photon is directly proportional to its frequency: E∝f (2.3)

2.1. INTELLIGENT PHOTON AND ELECTRON

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Let’s assume a photoelectric experiment, in which only monochrome light source is used to incident photons on the metallic emitter. In this case, all measurable quantities in Equation 2.1 are constant: Kmax = C1 = Constant

(2.4)

h = C2 = Constant

(2.5)

f = C3 = Constant

(2.6)

φ = C4 = Constant

(2.7)

Equation 2.1 can be rewritten as: C1 = C2 C3 − C4

(2.8)

Figure 2.3 shows photons falling on atoms that exist at the surface of the metal. Photons can be absorbed by both nucleus and electrons orbiting the nucleus. A single electron has a chance to absorb energy from multiple photons on three different occasions: • While electron is bound to the nucleus of metal. • While electron is released from the atom and is still inside the metal. • While electron is in the space outside the surface of the metal and is moving toward the electrons collector in the photoelectric device. Total probability of electron to meet photons in a unit time in photoelectric device can be described by the relationship: pcollision = min(p1 + p2 + p3 , 1)

(2.9)

where, pcollision : Total probability of the electron to meet the photons in a unit time in the photoelectric device p1 : Probability of the electron to meet photons while the electron is still bound to the metal nucleus p2 : Probability of electron to meet the photons, while electron is released from nucleus and is moving toward the surface of the metal after gaining energy from photons p3 : Probability of electron to meet the photons, while electron is outside the surface of the metal and is moving toward the electron collector in the photoelectric device

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CHAPTER 2. INTELLIGENT BEHAVIOR OF PARTICLES

Figure 2.3: Absorption of photons by metal

2.1. INTELLIGENT PHOTON AND ELECTRON

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It is obvious that probability of a single electron to meet photons increases as the number of photons falling on the metallic emitter increases. The relationship can be described as: pcollision ∝ nphoton

(2.10)

where, nphoton : Number of photons that falls on the unit surface area of the metallic emitter in a certain period of time Theoretically, Kmax should increase with increase in nphoton : Kmax ∝ pcollision ∝ nphoton

(2.11)

In photoelectric effect, increasing the intensity or the number of photons falling on the metallic emitter surface does not increase the value of Kmax . Kmax is constant when monochrome light falls on the metallic emitter. Kmax = C1

(2.12)

This book suggests that electron does not absorb more energy than hf regardless of having a chance to do so. To understand the mechanism of energy transfer between electron and photon, let’s assume two patterns of energy transfer between electron and photons in photoelectric effect. Pattern 1: One electron interacts with only one photon. Pattern 2: One electron interacts with multiple photons. Let’s look at these patterns in details. Pattern 1: In this pattern, which is much simpler compared to the pattern 2, a single electron absorbs only one photon in a certain period of time. After the electron has absorbed the energy from photon, it no longer accepts further energy from other photons. The electron gets the energy equal to hf when a single photon has transferred all its energy to the electron. Kmax = hf − φ

(2.13)

This book suggests that energy transfer between electron and photon is not an event that is repeated many times, but is a single discrete event which happens only once within a certain period of time. This pattern of interaction can be realized through different ways such as:

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CHAPTER 2. INTELLIGENT BEHAVIOR OF PARTICLES • An electron is capable of absorbing energy from only one photon within a certain period of time. • A photon collides with only those electrons which have not gained energy from any other photon within a certain period of time. • An electron and group of photons avoid each other after there has been an energy transfer among an electron and other photons within a certain period of time.

Second and third reason indicates the intelligent behavior of electron and photons, in which electron and photons are capable of sensing one another and making intelligent decisions. Controlled transfer of energy with the surrounding environment is an essential feature of living cells like bacteria. Figure 2.4 shows the basic structure of bacteria.

Figure 2.4: Basic structure of bacteria

The cytoplasmic membrane contains pores through which nutrients, wastes and other products of the cell pass through as shown in Figure 2.5. Cell only takes the amount of the nutrients, it can consume. It is the exactly the behavior of the electrons in the photoelectric effect. This book further claims that particles have the capability to interact with environment intelligently. Figure 2.6 shows docks on the surface of particle, on the same pattern as the pores on the cytoplasmic membrane. The reason the docks on the surface of particle have not been observed yet, can be contributed to the fact

2.1. INTELLIGENT PHOTON AND ELECTRON

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Figure 2.5: Pores on the surface of cells

that science has not yet progressed to the stage where the surface of small particles could be directly observed.

Figure 2.6: Surface of particle with docks to exchange field particles

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CHAPTER 2. INTELLIGENT BEHAVIOR OF PARTICLES

Pattern 2: In this pattern, energy that a single electron accumulates is a sum of energy transfers from multiple photons. Let’s assume n photons transferred their energy to electron in a certain period of time and each of these photons transferred only a part of the total energy it has. In this case, total energy transferred to the electron is given as: Esum = hf

n X

ki

(2.14)

i=1

Here ki is the fraction of the total energy of photon i that is transferred to the electron. However, according to Equation 2.1, the condition below need to be satisfied. n (hf

X

ki − φ) ≤ Kmax

(2.15)

i=1 n X

ki ≤ Constant

(2.16)

i=1

The above condition can be satisfied, only when the photons and/or electrons have an intelligent behavior or in other words they have intelligence to make complex decisions. Figure 2.7 shows the simplest intelligent behavior by which Equation 2.16 could be satisfied. A group of photons queues before the electron to transfer the energy. Different photons transfer a part of energy to the electron, until it is filled to the level hf . The different intelligent aspects of this kind of energy transfer are: • Photons are capable to determine current level of stored energy in electron. • Electrons are capable to acknowledge the current level of energy stored in them. • Electron and photons are capable to follow a protocol of energy transfer. Electron and photon need to have sophisticated functionality to perform such energy transfer.

2.1. INTELLIGENT PHOTON AND ELECTRON

Figure 2.7: Intelligent behavior of electron and photons

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2.2

Intelligent gravitons

Earth rotates around sun due to gravity. • Gravity is a flow of field particles called gravitons. • Gravitons flow between center of sun and earth. • Gravitons are capable of interacting with matter that forms the earth and can exert momentum on it. Assuming above statements are true, as illustrated in Figure 2.8 there exist a strong flow of gravitons between the center of sun and earth. As graviton exert force on matter, this laser like flow of gravitons can act like a sharp blade or steel rod. As the earth is spinning around its own axis, this flow of gravitons can divide the earth into two pieces.

Figure 2.8: Strong flow of gravitons between centers of gravity

As the earth does not get split into two pieces, it can be assumed that: • Gravitons are capable of differentiating between different parts of earth while they travel from center of sun toward earth. • Gravitons pass through the upper layers of the earth without exerting any momentum on them.

2.2. INTELLIGENT GRAVITONS

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• Gravitons exert force only on the matter that exists at the center of the earth as illustrated in Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9: Areas where gravitons exert momentum This book generalizes this observation and says: Graviton Flow Rule 1: Graviton releases the energy or in other words, exerts momentum only on the matter that exists only at the center of the cosmological body. Let’s assume there is body which is formed from large number of smaller pieces of mass as illustrated in Figure 2.10. Each smaller body has a center of gravity as shown in Figure 2.10. The larger body itself has a center of gravity. The position of the center of gravity of the larger mass is the function of the position of the center of the gravity of smaller body. It can be assumed that each smaller body itself is a collection of more bodies, each of them has their own center of gravity. Thus, the position of center of gravity of a larger object can be treated as a function of positions of center of gravity

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CHAPTER 2. INTELLIGENT BEHAVIOR OF PARTICLES

of smaller objects, where the number of objects with center of gravity are very large. There is need of very complex computing functionality to be able to exactly determine the center of gravity when any larger object is formed by very large number of smaller objects of different sizes.

Figure 2.10: Center of gravity when smaller objects form a larger object Let’s assume another example of two cosmological bodies, which are hollow from inside as illustrated in Figure 2.11. As gravitons exert momentum on the matter at the center of the cosmological body, there will be no gravitational force between the two cosmological bodies which are hollow. As this cannot be true, Graviton Rule 1 is modified into Graviton Rule 2 which is described as: Graviton Flow Rule 2: Gravitons acts on the surface of the cosmological body rather than the center of the gravity, when they travel from one cosmological body to another. In the case of the earth, which is spinning around its own axis while rotating in an orbit around the sun. Such flow of gravitons has two features:

2.2. INTELLIGENT GRAVITONS

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• Gravitons flow in the direction of the line joining the center of gravity of earth and sun. • Gravitons act on the external surface of the earth while earth spins around its own axis. Such strong force of gravitons can create a long and deep trench on the surface of the earth as shown in Figure 2.11.

Figure 2.11: Flow of gravitons in the direction of center of gravity As such long and deep trench is not evident, Graviton Flow Rule 2 is modified into Graviton Flow Rule 3, which states that: Graviton Flow Rule 3: Gravitons arriving at the surface of cosmological body, do not always act on a single point on the surface of the cosmological bodies or exactly at the center of gravity. Gravitons spread themselves before they exert momentum on the matter depending on the structure and/or graviton needs of the cosmological bodies. For bodies which are not formed of matter of equal density, the gravitons may spread themselves around and inside the matter forming the cosmological body before exerting the momentum. Let’s further consider the case, when there is a moon between the earth and the sun as illustrated in Figure 2.12. Even when the moon becomes a hurdle for gravitons flowing between the earth and the sun, the earth still rotates in its orbit. Based on this observation, it can be said that the gravitons leaving

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CHAPTER 2. INTELLIGENT BEHAVIOR OF PARTICLES

the sun does not exert momentum on the moon, but acts only on the earth only. Gravitons flow rule is modified as: Graviton Flow Rule 4: Gravitons acts only on their destination.

Figure 2.12: Gravitons heading toward the target

Several mechanisms through which gravitons can act only on their destinations are: Possibility 1 Gravitons pass through the moon without exerting momentum on moon as shown in Figure 2.12. Possibility 2 Gravitons change their path to avoid the moon. Possibility 3 Gravitons supply is stopped while there is an obstacle on the way. During the time when there is no gravitons from the sun to the earth, the earth uses the stored gravitons. Possibility 4 Gravitons know their destination and they only act when they have reached their destinations. In other words, gravitons are like packets of momentum with destination information embedded in them. Graviton Flow Rule 4 concludes that gravitons act in very coordinated way to have gravitons distributed themselves to their targets. In later chapters,

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the carrier for gravitons will be discussed. Existence of carrier means that carrier obeys Graviton Flow Rule 4.

2.3

Intelligent cosmological bodies

Let’s look at the gravitational forces between earth, moon and sun. Assuming that the moon is orbiting around the earth in a circular path, force between moon and the earth is given as: FM oon,Earth = Constant

(2.17)

Gravitational force between the moon and sun is not constant as the moon is rotating in an orbit around the earth. This force of attraction between the sun and the moon is a periodic function of time and is not constant as illustrated in Figure 2.13 and is given as: FM oon,Sun = FM oon,Sun (t) 6= Constant

(2.18)

Furthermore, the force between the sun and the moon is not very negligible and is approximately given by: FM oon,Sun = FEarth,Sun ∗

mM oon + F (t) mEarth

(2.19)

here, FEarth,Sun : Gravitational force between earth and sun. mM oon : Mass of moon. mEarth : Mass of earth. The total gravitational force on the moon is given by: FT otal = FM oon,Sun + FM oon,Earth = Constant

(2.20)

Let’s ignore here that FEarth,M oon is much larger than FM oon,Sun . The above equation says that the sum of a constant and non-constant value is a constant, which is not a valid mathematical relationship. Equation 2.20 can be satisfied in only two cases: Case 1: FM oon,Sun and FM oon,Earth are both variables. FM oon,Sun and FM oon,Earth adjust themselves over time to keep sum of both these forces constant. Case 2: FM oon,Sun is a constant Case 1 indicates that:

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CHAPTER 2. INTELLIGENT BEHAVIOR OF PARTICLES

Figure 2.13: Gravitational force as a mathematical function

2.3. INTELLIGENT COSMOLOGICAL BODIES

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• The flow of gravitons are constantly being adjusted to keep the sum of FM oon,Sun and FM oon,Earth constant. Gravitons (or the carrier of gravitons) are intelligent particles which adjust their quantity to specific values to keep the two factors constant. • For simplification purposes only moon, earth and the sun is being considered here. In reality, the solar system consists of many planets and moons around these planets. The universal applicability of Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitational Force links every cosmological body with another cosmological body through flow of gravitons. If every cosmological body is assumed as a collection of very larger number of smaller pieces of matter, every piece of matter in the universe is interacting with every other piece of matter. To be able to do so, every piece of matter needs to be very intelligent. Zero value for FM oon,Sun is the simplest condition that can satisfy Equation 2.20. In this case, the moon gets gravitons passing through the earth only and it is the confirmation of the gravitons flow paths as shown in Figure 2.12. Based on these observations, this book suggests that: • Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitational Force is valid only between certain cosmological bodies. A single cosmological body does not attract every other cosmological body. • As Gravitational Constant is not constant on different points on the surface of earth, there is a very limited chance that it is constant else where in the universe. Let’s assume a bar magnet and a piece of metal around it. The bar magnet exerts force k on the piece metal. If another seven equal mass pieces of metal are brought at the same distance to the bar magnet, the force each piece of metal will experience is k/8. Let’s assume, gravitational force acts in the same way as magnetic force works on metal. Large body is like the bar magnet and small body is like a piece of metal in vicinity of this bar magnet. The small body will experience force k If another seven bodies are brought near the large body, the gravitational force each body will experience will be k/8 as shown in the Figure 2.14.

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CHAPTER 2. INTELLIGENT BEHAVIOR OF PARTICLES

Figure 2.14: Splitting of gravitational force

2.3. INTELLIGENT COSMOLOGICAL BODIES

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There is no way available to bring 7 new moons around the earth and verify that gravitons flow will get divided into 8 equal flows each of which leading to one of these moons. Based on above argument, flow of gravitons is expected to be divided into multiple paths. If cosmological bodies behave in the same way as the bar magnet, the cosmological body needs to be able to perform the following functions: • Ability to observe or sense new cosmological body. • Ability to determine the distance toward the newly introduced smaller cosmological body. • Ability to keep monitoring the distance to smaller body. • Ability to determine the distance emitted gravitons can travel. • Ability to function as multiple channel of graviton flows. • Ability to function as reflector of gravitons. Let’s assume that the cosmological body is a mechanical robot. In such case, cosmological body need to have following functionalities: • Source to emit signals in surrounding areas. • Receiver to receive reflected signals to determine presence of a new body. • Source to convert these signals into a computable form. • Source to compute the decision based on the received reflected signals in the formatted form. • Computing source consisting of memory containing program and the unit to run this program. • Mechanical units to reflect energy. • Source to split energy into different flows. It can be said that cosmological body requires following capabilities to be able to function as a device which can distribute gravitons: • Cosmological body should be able to sense one another. • Cosmological body should be able to have computing power to be able to make sophisticated decision.

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CHAPTER 2. INTELLIGENT BEHAVIOR OF PARTICLES • Cosmological body should have a source of energy which emit energy. • Cosmological body should be able to change their form to adjust the amount of energy received.

Figure 2.15 shows an image of the required functionalities of a cosmological body.

Figure 2.15: Cosmological body as smart entity Many objects on the earth have the information processing power. For example: • Viruses are very simple living organisms but have a very sophisticated mechanism to adjust themselves to the environment. Unlike human who has a big brain but very limited capability to adjust to the environment, the virus changes and mutates itself to survive. Viruses can go to dormant state and revive. Virus is just a simple series of proteins. In case of virus, very highly sophisticated computing is done with very simple structure. Big cosmological bodies can posses a tiny material to process the information.

2.3. INTELLIGENT COSMOLOGICAL BODIES

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• Looking at the living organisms such as trees and plants, they are very sophisticated objects, which sense their environments and changes their structure according to the environment. Trees do not have a brain like organ as humans have, but still trees and plants posses the capability to sense and react to the environment. • The main processing unit, which is used in the devices is made of silicon and doping materials. Both materials are found on the surface of the earth. It can be said that even if there is no living organism live on the planets, the basic material to form a computing device exists. Based on above observations, possibility of cosmological bodies possessing the capability to compute the signals cannot be excluded. Now the next question is it, is it possible for cosmological bodies to posses a medium to store the information that needs to be processed. Let’s look at different feasibilities: • The elements used in fabricating the memory devices exists in large quantity on the earth. • Information can be represented and stored using different shapes. Now let’s consider the ability of cosmological bodies to reflect energy in any specific direction. Our earth has capability to reflect energy to specific direction. The earth is spinning around its own axis and is also rotating around the sun. The earth surface has different shapes which have different reflective and refractive qualities. The sea, the green plains, the deserts all are reflecting light in different ways. The mountains are changing shapes, the earth plates are moving, the level of the sea is changing. The areas with specific reflective properties are constantly changing their locations in the three dimensional space. Based on these observations, it can be said the earth has the capability to direct energy in different directions. All above characteristics are present in objects that exist on the earth. The earth is a collection of very large number of such objects. A object which is a collection of intelligent smaller objects can also act as an intelligent object, in case the objects forming the larger object coordinates their actions. The only reservation, we have about accepting large cosmological bodies as very intelligent object is their huge size. Humans are not used to see (living) intelligent objects of such huge size. How cosmological bodies are behaving like large intelligent bodies is outside the scope of this book. The most important conclusion here is that cosmological body can have the capability to sense environment and act according to change in the surrounding environment.

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CHAPTER 2. INTELLIGENT BEHAVIOR OF PARTICLES

Let’s see how the moon and the earth can sense each other. Earth can reflect flow of gravitons toward moon without sensing only when: • The space around the earth in which the moon rotates, has equal density of gravitons. In other words, the space around the earth is like a sea of gravitons and there exits a force F on every point that exists in the moon’s orbit. • The moon’s orbit can be treated like an infinite collection of points where each point is confined to a infinitely small area. • The total energy that earth is emitting is infinite as there are infinite point where each point is capable of exerting force F. Based on the above observation that space around the earth needs to contain infinite energy, it can be said that the earth needs to sense the location of moon. There are two feasible models to sense moon: Low efficiency model As shown in Figure 2.16, different points on the surface of the earth, releases streams of gravitons. The gravitons travel in curve. If gravitons are not captured by the moon, they return to the surface of the earth and absorbed back. This model can be regarded as low efficiency model as only a small part of the gravitons are captured and used by moon. High efficiency model Figure 2.17 illustrates this model. The earth rather than releasing gravitons in all directions, first detects the position of the moon. Once the position is detected, the gravitons are released. The model is more energy efficient, provided particles used in sensing the moon require less energy compared to the gravitons. The particles that can be used to sense the moon can be a kind of gravitons which are more energy efficient compared to the gravitons which exert momentum on the matter forming the moon. The nature generally follows the high efficiency model if living beings on earth are observed. The animals are equipped with multiple organs such as eyes, ears and nose to sense the environment around them. Bat does not have eyes but uses echo waves to sense the environment. This high efficiency model extensively used in human made machinery, where the sensors first scans the environment before taking any mechanical actions.

2.3. INTELLIGENT COSMOLOGICAL BODIES

Figure 2.16: Using gravitons for sensing

Figure 2.17: Using sensor particles

27

28

2.4

CHAPTER 2. INTELLIGENT BEHAVIOR OF PARTICLES

Big Bang

Galaxies in our universe contain large number of stars. Galaxies are receding away from earth at a very high speed. The receding speed of galaxies increases with the distance from earth. This is known as Hubble Law and is described as: v = HR (2.21) where, v: Speed of receding Hubble parameter H : 17 × 10−3 m/(s.lightyear) R: Distance from the earth Hubble Law has a limited accuracy of 50%. Hubble suggested that expansion of universe is responsible for galaxies moving away from earth.

2.4.1

Moment of universe creation

Let’s discuss possible reason of galaxies moving away from one another. Based on Newton’s law of motion, the velocity of a moving body is given as: vf = vi + at0 (2.22) where, t: Duration of time during which change in the speed of body is observed vi : Initial speed of body at the start of duration t at time instance t0 a: Rate of acceleration vf : Final speed of body at the end of duration t Now consider two moving galaxies A and B. The moving speed of galaxies A and B is given by following equations: vf (A) = vi(A) + aA tA

(2.23)

vf (B) = vi(B) + aB tB

(2.24)

For simplification purpose, let’s assume that galaxy A and B are moving in the same direction. The distance between galaxy A and B can increase with passing of time if: (2.25) vf (A) 6= vf (B) Let’s assume that galaxy A and B were joined together at the time of universe creation and thus were at rest in relation to one another: vi(B) = vi(A) = 0

(2.26)

2.4. BIG BANG

29

Equation 2.25 and 2.26 can be satisfied under three different scenarios: Scenario 1: aA = aB (2.27) tA 6= tB

(2.28)

aA 6= aB

(2.29)

tA = tB

(2.30)

aA 6= aB

(2.31)

tA 6= tB

(2.32)

Scenario 2:

Scenario 3:

Let’s look in details each of the above scenarios: Scenario 1 This scenario can be further divided into two cases: • Case 1: Galaxy A and B contain equal amount of mass • Case 2: Galaxy A and B does not contain equal amount of mass Case 1: In this case, Galaxy A and B have equal amount of mass and are moving with equal acceleration rate. It means galaxies A and B were pushed in specific directions with the same force at the moment of universe creation. Only a highly controlled and creative event can create galaxies of equal mass which started their journey containing equal amount of energy. Case 2: Only a highly controlled event can result in galaxies of different mass gaining same acceleration rate. Gravity can be also one of the forces under which Equation 2.27 can be satisfied as objects fall down toward earth’s surface with constant acceleration rate regardless of their mass. Under such assumption Equation 2.27 indicates possibility that galaxies are moving toward something with constant acceleration rate. It is thought that universe is expanding. Universe can expand if our universe is enclosed in a spherical shape container of very dense mass and this spherical shape container wall is pulling galaxies toward itself due to gravitational like force. Equation 2.28 means that galaxy A and B have been in motion for different interval of times. It indicates possibility that galaxies were created in temporal sequence and were pushed toward specific direction in which they have been traveling with

30

CHAPTER 2. INTELLIGENT BEHAVIOR OF PARTICLES

constant acceleration regardless of difference in their mass. Equations 2.28 also indicates that there was a series of events which resulted in creation of galaxies rather than an uncontrolled Big Bang event. Scenario 2 Equation 2.30 indicates that galaxy A and B were created at the same instance. Equation 2.29 means that the acceleration rate is different for different galaxies. Let’s divide the process of galaxies creation into two steps: • A large object is divided into galaxy A and galaxy B, where galaxy A is larger in mass compared to galaxy B. • Galaxy A and B are pushed with specific force. Let’s discuss the second step here. Large galaxy A should gain lower acceleration rate while small galaxy B should gain high acceleration rate. As receding speed of galaxies increase with distance from earth, mass contained in each galaxy should decrease with distance from earth according to Equation 2.29. If no such decrease in mass of galaxies is evident, it can be claimed that universe creation is a result of very intelligent process. Scenario 3 Equation 2.32 indicates the possibility that galaxies were created in temporal sequence. As receding speed of galaxies increase with distance from earth, mass contained in each galaxy should decrease with increase in distance from earth according to Equation 2.31. If this is not the case, it indicates that creation of universe as a result of highly intelligent process.

Chapter 3 Intelligent distribution of particles This chapter discusses how particles distribute themselves in an intelligent manner.

3.1

Photon and mass

Einstein proposed relationship between mass of an object and the total energy it can contain as: E = mc2 (3.1) where, E: Energy contained in the object m: Mass of the object at rest c: Speed of light E is also believed to be the quantity of energy in which mass can convert into. However, there is no experimental proof that any object with non-zero mass ever completely converted into energy (photons). It is also believed that energy can convert into mass as particles getting accelerated at very high speed behave as they are heavier. However, no one has been successful in creating a completely new mass by compressing energy (photons). Based on these arguments, this book treats mass merely as a container of photons. Conversion of mass into energy is a process which releases photons which are contained in this container. Similarly, increase in the mass of object is the process which results in increase in the number of photons contained in this container. Mass is represented mathematically as: Mass =

n X

Photoni + CP hoton

i=1

31

(3.2)

32

CHAPTER 3. INTELLIGENT DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLES

where, CP hoton : Container of photons Photoni : i-th photon contained in container CP hoton n: Total number of photons contained in container CP hoton Figure 3.1 illustrate the logical view of mass according to this book.

Figure 3.1: Mass as a container of photons In section 2.1, it has been observed that mass (a collection of particles) behaves like biological cells. Biological cell contain DNA which contains coded instructions controlling how the cell behaves. DNA is made of four types of base known as adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). DNA can be treated like a long series of these bases. Here, this book assumes that DNA of particle is also made of these four types of bases, which are represented in this book as 00, 01, 10 and 11. A series of this bases

3.1. PHOTON AND MASS

33

controls the behavior of the particle. In section 2.1 it has been observed that particle can also contain docks for exchange of particles in the same pattern as biological cells. As particle is a much smaller structure compared to biological cells, this book represents 0 as a dock (pore) without a photon and 1 as a dock (pore) with a photon. As DNA is a coded instruction which need to be transmitted, this book assumes a communication bus between the coded instructions (DNA) and the photons which behave according to these coded instruction. In Figure 3.1, left side of the communication base represents the coded instructions and the right side of the communication base represents the photons which follow the coded instructions received through the communication bus. Logical view of matter as illustrated in Figure 3.1 can be true, if photon can drop their speed to zero. Let’s consider the example of tennis ball which strikes a wall and bounces back as shown in Figure 3.2

Figure 3.2: Tennis ball striking a wall Speed of tennis ball reduces to zero at the moment tennis ball strikes the wall as shown in Figure 3.3. Now let’s assume that photon is like a tennis ball which strikes and bounces back from a hurdle (mirror) as shown in Figure 3.4. The moment photon strikes the mirror, it drops its speed to zero. After striking the mirror, photon changes its direction of motion and accelerates itself to c in a very short period of time as shown in Figure 3.5. Based on this observation, it can be claimed that photon has the capability to drop its speed to zero. If it is insisted that the space surrounding the mirror is a free space, then according to Einstein, speed of photon must increase from zero to c in no time as photon must always travel at c in free space.

34

CHAPTER 3. INTELLIGENT DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLES

Figure 3.3: Change in speed of tennis ball

Figure 3.4: Photon being reflected from a mirror

3.2. PHOTONS AND GRAVITONS

35

Figure 3.5: Change in speed of photon

3.2

Photons and gravitons

Falling photon experiment is a scientific method to confirm the effect of gravity on photons. Figure 3.6 shows the details of the falling photon experiment. At height H a photon emitting source is positioned and at the surface of the earth the frequency of the falling photons is measured using light frequency detector. Increase in the frequency of the photons at the surface of the earth can confirm that gravity increases the energy of photons. The law of conservation of energy leads to the relationship below. KE represents Kinetic Energy and P E stands for Potential Energy. KE0 + P E0 = KE1 + P E1

(3.3)

Assuming that potential energy at the surface of the earth is represented by mgH where photon mass is m = hf /c2 and H is the distance of the source of light from surface of the earth, Equation 3.3 can be rewritten as: Ã

!

hf0 hf0 + gH = hf1 + 0 c2

(3.4)

It leads to Equation which indicates that the frequency of light will increase when gravitational force acts on it. µ

hf1 = f0 1 +

gH c2

¶

(3.5)

To confirm this, falling photon experiment was conducted and it was confirmed that falling photon increases its frequency.

36

CHAPTER 3. INTELLIGENT DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLES

Figure 3.6: Falling photon experiment

It is known that light bends under the effect of gravity, when it passes near large cosmological bodies like sun and other stars. Figure 3.7 shows light bending phenomena when light from other stars passes by the sun. The bending of light results in showing stars at a different location than they actually are.

3.2. PHOTONS AND GRAVITONS

37

Figure 3.7: Star light bending under influence of sun’s gravity

For simplification purpose, let’s assume that there exist a uniform energy field from the surface of sun to the height R as shown in Figure 3.8. This energy field increases the energy of photon which flies through this energy field. Let’s consider two photons which pass through this uniform energy field. One photon does not bend and the other photon bends. The photon which bends, remains in the uniform energy field for longer period of time compared to the photon which does not bend. The act of bending results in increased input from the uniform energy field to the photon compared to the instance where photon passing by the sun does not bend.

38

CHAPTER 3. INTELLIGENT DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLES

Figure 3.8: Photon increase its energy by bending path

3.3

Photon as a gravitons container

Let’s assume photon as a black box with input and output as shown in Figure 3.9. Photon receives gravitons and emits energy in the form of magnetic and electric field. Here, let’s assume that emitted energy from the photon is also in the form of field particles.

Figure 3.9: Photon as a black box

Photon is like a factory which converts gravitons into field particles which form electric and magnetic field. During this process of conversion, gravitons reside in the photon or in other words, photon acts like a temporary container

3.3. PHOTON AS A GRAVITONS CONTAINER of gravitons. Photon =

n X

Gravitoni + CGraviton

39

(3.6)

i=1

where, CGraviton : Container of gravitons Gravitoni : i-th graviton contained in container CGraviton n: Total number of gravitons contained in container CGraviton According to the methodology as described in Figure 1.1, every large particle is formed by the repetition of the same process which forms the smaller particle. Based on this methodology, let’s assume that photon has the same structure as mass in Figure 3.1. Figure 3.10 shows the logical view of photon as a container of gravitons.

Figure 3.10: Photon as a container of gravitons

In section 2.1, it has been observed that mass (a collection of particles) behaves like biological cells. As mentioned before too, biological cell contain DNA which contains coded instructions controlling how the cell behave. DNA is made of four types of bases known as adenine (A), cytosine (C),

40

CHAPTER 3. INTELLIGENT DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLES

guanine (G), and thymine (T). DNA can be treated like a long series of these bases. Here, this book assumes that DNA of photon is also made of four types of bases, which are represented in this book as 00, 01, 10 and 11. A series of these bases controls the behavior of photon. In section 2.1 it has been observed that particle can also contain docks for exchange of particles in the same pattern as biological cells. As photon is a much smaller structure compared to biological cells, this book represents 0 as a dock without a graviton and 1 as a dock with a graviton. As DNA is a coded instruction which need to be conveyed, this book assumes a communication bus between the coded instructions (DNA) and the gravitons which behave according to these coded instruction. In Figure 3.10, left side of the communication base represents the coded instructions and the right side of the communication base represents the gravitons which follow the coded instructions received through the communication bus. Photon’s frequency is the indicator of the energy it contains. Photon with high frequency has more energy compared to a photon with low frequency. Gravitons have not been detected yet so it is not known what indicates the energy level of gravitons. For simplification purpose, this book assumes that each graviton has a fixed amount of energy. It means high frequency photon has large number of gravitons compared to that of a low frequency graviton. Thus, photon’s frequency is directly proportional to number of gravitons it contains:

fP hoton ∝ nGraviton

(3.7)

where, fP hoton : Frequency of photon nGraviton : Number of gravitons contained in photon In section 2.2, the intelligent nature of gravitons has been discussed under the assumption that gravitons do not need a carrier for movement and gravitons can travel on their own. Gravitons may need photon as a carrier for changing their position. Under this assumption, gravity (collection of gravitons) is actually contained in the glow of earth. Let’s discuss how a falling photon can increase its frequency. Figure 3.11 illustrates a falling photon which interacts with glow near the surface of earth.

3.3. PHOTON AS A GRAVITONS CONTAINER

41

Figure 3.11: Coupling of photons to exchange gravitons

• Mass forming the earth contains larger number of photons. Each such

42

CHAPTER 3. INTELLIGENT DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLES photon further contains multiple gravitons. • When a falling photon starts traveling toward the earth’s surface, photon from the surface of earth jumps and couples with the falling photon. • Gravitons transfer between these two coupled photons while they move toward the earth.

It can be easily confirmed with experiment that photon carries gravitons or in other words, gravity is light.

3.3.1

Experiment

• During the day time, a certain point on earth gets direct sunlight. If these photons from sun really carry gravitons with them, there should be a higher concentration of gravitons on the surface of earth during the day time. Thus, earth’s surface should show higher gravity during the day time. • During the night time, a certain point on earth do not get direct sunlight. If photons from sun really carry gravitons with them, there should be less concentration of gravitons on the surface of earth during the night time. Thus, earth’s surface should show lower gravity during the night time. • Falling photon or falling object experiment should show different results in day and night time if photons from sun really carry gravitons with them. In case of falling photon, falling photon can show different speed and/or frequency during day and night. In case of falling object, different results can be in the form of different kinetic energy that falling object transfers. Objects might have different falling speed during day and night time. • Falling photon experiment can be done in open desert where there is very less chances of interference from external magnetic fields. • Falling photon experiment can be carried out throughout the year to see impact of weather on gravity. The sea level rises during the night time. The rise in the level of sea is contributed to gravity from moon. However, sea level rise can also be due earth exerting less gravity on sea water during night time. If above experiment shows different behavior of photon during day and night, it can be claimed that objects are lighter during the night due to reduction in concentration of gravitons on the surface of earth.

3.4. ENERGY STORAGE CAPACITY OF PARTICLE

3.4

43

Energy storage capacity of particle

Figure 3.12 illustrates how energy carrying waves travel when a stone hit a pond full of water. The radius of energy carrying waves increases with time while energy these waves carry decreases. Photon also carries energy and keeps on reducing its energy (frequency) as it travels away from the source which emitted it.

Figure 3.12: Travel path of energy carrying particle

Let’s assume that photon is a flying vehicle which can fly long distance. As photon decreases its frequency while traveling, it is assumed here that it consumes energy while traveling in free space. Let’s assume that photon has a fuel tank with limited capacity that contains energy that photon uses while traveling in the free space. Photons are affected by gravity. Falling photon experiment proves that photon increases its frequency (energy). Photons also bend toward cosmological bodies while traveling in free space. Bending toward cosmological bodies can increase the energy of photons. In other words, gravity increases the fuel contained in the fuel tank of photon. To calculate how much distance photon can travel with the energy it can contain, let’s observe how far a photon can travel without refueling itself. The nearest star from our solar system is about 4.3 light years. Figure 3.13 shows the travel path of the photon between nearest star and the earth. At earth the photon which has traveled from the nearest star is absorbed. The photon takes about 4.3 light years to travel from the star to the earth surface. The height of the upper part of light cone is 4.3 light years. According to the concept of time and

44

CHAPTER 3. INTELLIGENT DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLES

space developed by Einstein, the equal size cone needs to exist downward. So the total height of both cones is 8.6 light years. If the time unit of c2 is ignored, it is almost equal to 9 light years. Thus, it can be said that photon can travel up to 9 light years with the energy it can contain within itself.

Figure 3.13: Maximum distance photon can travel without refueling

3.4. ENERGY STORAGE CAPACITY OF PARTICLE

45

Photon is capable of traveling with energy it contains up to 9 light years. To travel further than this distance, photon needs energy from external sources. There are stars millions of light years away from us and a photon is incapable of traveling such long distance. Photon needs to refill itself while traveling such long distances. Let’s assume dark matter is made of a specific type of particle P+ . For every particle, there exists an antiparticle. Hence, there should also exist antiparticle for P+ . This antiparticle is called P− here. • P+ exhibits gravity. In other words, P+ transfers gravitons to photons. • As P+ transfers gravitons to photons, P− should receive gravitons from passing photons. • Dark matter can be regarded as a three dimensional space with high concentration of P+ . • The three dimensional space where there is high concentration of P− is called anti dark matter here. • The free space is a combination of dark and anti-dark matter. • As photon always loses energy while traveling, it can be claimed that the quantity of anti dark matter is larger than that of dark matter in the free space. This book suggests that: • Photon is like a aircraft which can be refueled during its flight. • Photon starts its flight from one galaxy. • Photon travels on a path during its flight which passes near cosmological bodies. • Photon keeps on refueling its energy reserves by passing by the cosmological bodies or making rotations around the cosmological body. • Large number of black holes or collapsed stars are one of those cosmological bodies, which perform the role of refueling stations in the universe. Black holes may have other roles such as a collection of matter used in creation of cosmological bodies. However, the role of black bodies to as a point of refueling photons is only considered here. • Photon finishes its flight, when it reaches its destination. It stays at this destination before embarking on a new trip.

46

CHAPTER 3. INTELLIGENT DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLES

Figure 3.14 illustrate how the photon flies from one cosmological body to another, when they are at a distance of more than 9 × 1016 meters. The photon grazes the surface of different cosmological bodies (or makes round trip around the cosmological bodies) and refuels itself. It continues the process of consuming energy and utilizing it, until it reaches its destination. A fixed angle at which the photon bends toward the surface of sun has been an area of interest. This book postulates a new theory suggesting that: • The angle at which the photon bends toward the cosmological body while grazing it depends upon the quantity of energy the photon needs. The photons might be making round trips around the cosmological bodies. The number of round trips a photon make around the cosmological body depends on its energy need. • It means that two photon traveling from the same point A to point B, may have different angle of bending (or number of round trips) toward the cosmological body depending upon the initial energy storage (photon frequency), they had when they started their journey. • It is not necessary that the all the photon leaving a star flies toward the same destinations. Some of the photons may have destinations and others don’t. There is also a possibility that the photons leaving a cosmological body may have different target destinations. • This book suggests that photons might be rotating around the cosmological bodies to recharge themselves with gravitons. Based on this, the angle of bending can be also treated as the difference between the angle at which the photon started its round trip around the cosmological bodies and the angle at which it left the cosmological body after recharging itself. In short, it can that claimed that the Gravity or the stream are gravitons becomes fuel for photons to enable them travel from one destinations to another destination. Up to now, it had been believed that the role of gravity has been only to make one cosmological body rotate around another and it had no other role in the functioning of the light and matter. This theory can be regarded as a major discovery of link between gravitons and the photons. As any mass is a container of photons, it can be claimed that any mass including cosmological bodies can travel up to 9 light years with the energy they contains.

3.5. DISCOVERY OF MICROWAVE

47

Figure 3.14: Journey path of photon using cosmological bodies as refueling station

3.5

Discovery of microwave

In 1965, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered microwave that was same in whatever direction the microwave detector was pointed out. It was same through out the year. The detected microwave was assumed to be a glow from early universe. This book suggests some other possible explanations for existence of such microwave. Earth has a special place in the universe Let’s assume a spherical space with very large radius which has our earth at its center. The boundary of this spherical space has large number of same kind of uniformly distributed stars. Photons emitted by these star reach our

48

CHAPTER 3. INTELLIGENT DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLES

earth. With this kind of universe structure, microwave antenna should be able to detect microwaves regardless of the direction it is pointed out. Our universe is enclosed in a container with mirror like inner surface Let’s assume a spherical container which has mirror like inner surface and contains our universe. Photons from cosmological bodies cannot escape this container as they always get reflected from mirror like inner surfaces of the container. This kind of structure can help universe function without photons being wasted in traveling infinite space where there is no matter which needs interaction with these photons. Earth in such container can receive photons from all directions. However, photons received on earth will not be same in all directions unless; • Inner walls of the above spherical container act like photon energizer. Photons from different cosmological bodies that reach the inner wall of container are energized to a fixed level of frequency and then reflected back into the space within the container. • Earth or our solar system exists at almost the center of this container. Earth is traveling at a speed larger than c Let’s assume that the detected microwave is really a glow from early universe and creation of universe started from a specific space and time coordinate. If after the Big Bang, both light and origin of matter forming our earth started travel in the same direction from this specific space and time coordinate, then dEarth = dGlow = vEarth t = vGlow t (3.8) where, dEarth : Distance traveled by earth since the Big Bang dGlow : Distance traveled by glow since the Big Bang vEarth : Velocity with which earth traveled since the Big Bang vGlow : Velocity with which the early glow traveled since the Big Bang t : Time since the Big Bang As modern physics assumes that light’s speed is constant, Equation 3.8 can be satisfied only in case when average speed of earth and glow (light) has been exactly same since the time of universe creation. If glow from early universe is arriving on the earth now, it means that earth and glow are in close race, where sometimes glow travels faster than the earth and sometimes earth travels faster than the glow. It also means that even now our earth is traveling toward a specific target with at least speed of light. Any such explanation negates following two important rules which form the basis of modern physics:

3.6. ENERGY CONTAINED IN COSMOLOGICAL BODIES

49

• Speed of light is constant • Mass cannot travel faster than light The other possibility is that the Big Bang happened at the point where our earth exists now and since then the early glow from the universe remained attached to our earth. Cosmological bodies are energy hub Cosmological body (earth) receives energy within a specific frequency range (microwave). It is also known that cosmological bodies (stars) have unique spectrum. Based on these two facts, it can be suggested that cosmological body is an energy transformer which changes received energy to new frequency and then distributes it to different points in the universe. It indicates the possibility that cosmological bodies in our universe play a specific energy transmission role while being part of a very huge energy distribution network. Photons are dependent on matter for their survival The possible mechanism, due to which glow from early universe can be still detected on the earth can be due to existence of some kind of bond (relationship) between light and matter. Due to this bond light (glow) needed to remain in vicinity of matter (earth). In this scenario, glow from early universe and the origin of matter forming our earth started travel in the same direction at the same time. Earth traveled at a speed less than the speed of light while glow kept attached to the earth while traveling in vicinity of the earth at the speed of 3 ∗ 108 meters. Microwave detector can detect microwave regardless of direction it is pointed out, as even now significant quantity of this glow is moving in vicinity of around this earth due to some kind of bond (relationship) between light and matter.

3.6

Energy contained in cosmological bodies

The gravitational constant which forms the basis of Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation is not constant on different location on earth. Different locations on earth have different value of Gravitational Constant, casting doubt that the current gravitational mathematical relationship can be applied to the whole universe in its current form. Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation has two main concepts: • Smaller mass orbits around larger mass.

50

CHAPTER 3. INTELLIGENT DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLES • Force making the smaller body rotate around the larger body reduces when distance between smaller and larger cosmological bodies increase.

This book suggests that our universe is too complex to be described by a simple Gravitational Constant. Let’s evaluate the validity of the mathematical relationship proposed by Newton. Let’s assume that there are two types of object A and B with characteristics: Mass of an object OA of type A = m Mass of an object OB of type B = m/p p = Integer value Distance between the centers of object OA and object OB = r OA attracts Ob toward itself, or in other words, OA releases gravitational waves (the groups of particle gravitons) toward OB . The extent of the force F released by OA is given as: Gm2 F = =k pr2

(3.9)

where, G: Gravitational constant Let’s assume another object OC with the same mass as OB is brought in proximity to OA at the distance r. Now the total energy released by the OA is given as: F = 2k (3.10) When n number of bodies are brought in proximity to OA at distance r, the total energy released by is OA given as: F = nk

(3.11)

n→∞⇒F →∞

(3.12)

In the case, n approaches infinites, F becomes infinite too. The relationship means a limited amount of mass in our galaxy can release infinite amount of energy, which is against the basic understanding of modern physics. Figure 3.15 illustrates this concept. It is interested to know how cosmological bodies gain energy they need to perform their tasks. In the subsequent sub sections, the energy contained in sun and earth is discussed.

3.6.1

Energy storage capacity of sun

It is believed that gravitational force by sun is responsible for rotation of earth around it. Earth is assumed to be 4.5 billion years old. Let’s calculate

3.6. ENERGY CONTAINED IN COSMOLOGICAL BODIES

51

Figure 3.15: Mass as limited source of energy

whether sun posses enough energy to be able to rotate earth continuously around itself for 4.5 billion years. To calculate the energy of sun can contain, following generally accepted values are used: Mass of earth mEarth = 6 × 1024 kg Mass of sun mSun = 2 × 1030 kg Radius of earth rEarth = 6.4 × 106 m Radius of sun rSun = 1.7 × 106 m Mean radius of earth’s orbit REarth = 1.5 × 1011 m Assuming that there is no other cosmological body rotating around the sun except the earth, then the distance (meters) sun is able to move the earth is given by: mSun dSun,Earth = 9 × 1016 = 3 × 1022 m (3.13) mEarth Number of rotations the earth has made around the sun since its birth ( 4.5 billion years ) is equal to: nEarth = 4.5 × 109

(3.14)

Total distance traveled by the earth so far is given by: dEarth = 2πREarth × 4.5 × 109 = 4.24 × 1021 m

(3.15)

52

CHAPTER 3. INTELLIGENT DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLES

These calculations show that the sun has consumed significant part of energy it can contains in rotating earth around its orbit during the last 4.5 billion years. According to this book, it is clear that earth can travel only 9 × 1016 meters by using all the energy it contains. This distance is much less than the distance already earth has traveled. The solar system consists of following nine planets: • Mercury • Venus • Earth • Mars • Jupiter • Saturn • Uranus • Neptune • Pluto Now, let’s pay attention to Jupiter and see whether sun has enough energy to be able to rotate other planets like Jupiter. The distance sun can move Jupiter by using all the energy it can contains is given by: dSun,Jupiter = 9 × 1016

mSun = 9.47 × 1019 mJupiter

(3.16)

mJupiter : 317.8 times of earths mass. Assuming that Jupiter and the earth both came into being 4.5 billion years ago at the same time, then the number of rotations Jupiter has made around the sun are given as: nJupiter =

4.5 × 109 = 3.79 × 108 11.86

(3.17)

Assuming that Jupiter is rotating in a circle, the total distance Jupiter has traveled since it came into existence 4.5 billion years ago is given by: dJupiter = 2πRJupiter n = 1.85 × 1021

(3.18)

3.7. ENERGY STORAGE CAPACITY OF PROTON

53

where, RJupiter : Orbital radius of Jupiter which is 5.20 AU 1 Astronomical Unit (AU): 1.5 × 1011 meters From the calculations, it is obvious that the sun does not contain enough energy to rotate Jupiter around it for 4.5 billion years even when it uses all the energy it can contain. According to this book, Jupiter should not be able to travel more than 9 × 1016 meters by using all energy it contains. This distance is much less than the distance Jupiter already has traveled.

3.6.2

Energy contained in moon

The distance the earth is capable of rotating moon around is given by: dEarth,M oon = 9 × 1016

mEarth = 7.7 × 1018 mM oon

(3.19)

where, Mass of earth mEarth = 6 × 1024 kg Mass of moon mM oon = 7 × 1022 kg Assuming that the moon came into existence 4.5 billion years ago at the same time as the earth. The number of rotations moon has made around the earth is given as: nM oon =

4.5 × 109 × 365 = 6.0 × 1010 27

(3.20)

The total distance traveled by the moon since its existence 4.5 billion years is given as: dM oon = 2πRM oon nM oon = 1.5 × 1020 m (3.21) here, Radius of Moon’s orbit around the earth RM oon = 4 × 108 m It is obvious that even when the earth uses all the energy it can contain, it is not possible for earth to rotate the moon around its orbit for 4.5 billion years.

3.7

Energy storage capacity of proton

It is evident from the examples of cosmological bodies that they do not contain enough energy to perform their current tasks. Let’s investigate whether or not proton contains enough energy to able to rotate electron around its orbit. Here, let’s assume that earth itself is not in motion.

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CHAPTER 3. INTELLIGENT DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLES

Hydrogen is the simplest element consisting of only one proton and one electron. It is thought that hydrogen atom was formed 700000 years after the Big Bang. The Big Bang is thought to have occurred 15 Billion years ago. For simplification purpose, the life of the hydrogen atom is assumed to 15 billion years here. The total distance electron can travel using energy contained in the proton is given as: mP roton dP roton,Electron = 9 × 1016 = 1.68 × 1020 m (3.22) mElectron where, Mass of electron mElectron = 9.1 × 10−31 kg Mass of proton mP roton = 1.7 × 10−27 kg As no one ever has been able to directly observe the time an electron spends in making one rotation around the proton. This work reverse calculates the distance, electron would have traveled in last 15 billion years if all of the energy proton can contains is used rotating electron. Here, the energy electron uses to spin around its own axis is ignored: The distance electron has so far traveled in one second is given as: dElectron =

dP roton,Electron = 355.15m/sec 15 × 109 × 365 × 24 × 3600

(3.23)

The above calculations exclude the energy, proton uses to bind to other protons in the matter. A object traveling at 355.15 m/sec can be easily observed. Based on the calculated values, it can be claimed that the proton may not be capable of rotating electron around its orbit for 15 billion years, even when if it use all the energy it contain.

3.8

Energy source of cosmological bodies

In the case of cosmological bodies, it is evident that they do not contain enough energy to perform the task, they had been performing for a very long time. • The earth is incapable of rotating moon using all the energy it can contain. • The sun is incapable of rotating planets around it using all energy it can contain. Releasing of major part of energy from any object can make it useless. Let’s see how cosmological bodies can meet their energy needs.

3.8. ENERGY SOURCE OF COSMOLOGICAL BODIES

55

• Moon does not contain enough energy of its own which can enable it to rotate around the earth. The nearest possible channel of energy can be the planet (earth) around which it is rotating. In other words, the planet (earth) channels energy to the moon which enables the moon to keep on traveling in an orbit around the planet (earth). The other possibility is that moon gets energy from the sun and reflects it toward different parts of the earth while rotating around the earth. Here, only first possibility is considered. • The planet (earth) itself is rotating around the star (sun). The planet (earth) itself has not enough energy , which could have enabled it keep on rotating around the star (sun). At the same time, the planet (earth) also becomes path of energy flow to the moon. To be able to travel around the star (sun) and rotate moon in orbits, requires the supply of external energy. The star (sun) around which the planet (earth) rotates can be path of the flow of this energy. • Sun (star) is moving in an orbit around another star. Sun (star) needs energy for its own movement around another star and also for rotating planets around itself. The center of galaxy can be the path of flow of this energy. • Let’s assume galaxies are moving on specific paths. Galaxies need energy to supply to stars it contain and also for movement of galaxies on specific paths. Galaxies need supply of energy from specific point in the universe. From the above observations, it can be concluded that: • There is a very powerful flow of energy coming from some specific point in the universe. • The cosmological bodies acts as reflectors of this energy to other smaller bodies. In other words, there exists a whole infrastructure of energy supply to the universe, using cosmological bodies as energy reflectors. It has been observed that: • Cosmological bodies are made of matter. Matter is a container of energy. • From energy point of view, the matter is a consumer of energy and at the same time matter is a path through which energy passes on its way to its destination. Matter is like a vehicle which is without fuel. To be able to move or function, it needs fuel from outside.

56

CHAPTER 3. INTELLIGENT DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLES • The universe to be able to function, there is a need a source which contain very massive quantity of energy. This source supplies energy to mass. At the time of universe creation, this source was at the maximum level of energy. With the passage of time, the energy this source is supplying to the universe is dropping. At a certain point in future, the universe will be without energy to be able to function. • As energy supply drops, everything in the universe becomes slower including the speed of photons.

Figure 3.16 and Figure 3.17 shows how the cosmological bodies can act as a distributor of photons/gravitons. Figure 3.17 also shows two flow of gravitons/photons toward moon. First flow is from earth which moon uses for moving around the earth and the other flow of gravitons/photons is from sun, which moon diverts toward the earth. In other words, moon is an energy reflector from sun toward the earth. Moon gets energy from earth for rotating around the earth and while rotating around earth distribute gravitons/photons from sun toward different parts of the earth. Figure 3.18 shows how atom acts like an energy hub.

3.8. ENERGY SOURCE OF COSMOLOGICAL BODIES

Figure 3.16: Gravitons/photons distribution to galaxies

57

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CHAPTER 3. INTELLIGENT DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLES

Figure 3.17: Gravitons travel paths within galaxy

3.8. ENERGY SOURCE OF COSMOLOGICAL BODIES

Figure 3.18: Atom as an energy hub

59

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CHAPTER 3. INTELLIGENT DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLES

3.9

Purpose of orbits and spin

This book suggests: • Moving in orbits can help smaller objects reflect gravitons/photons to different parts of the larger object. • Rotation of a smaller object can help smaller object gain gravitons/photons from different parts of the larger object. • The radius of the orbit depends upon the energy needs of the smaller and larger object. Object which needs larger quantity of energy, remains near the larger body to capture more gravitons/photons. The body which does not need much energy remains at a larger distance. Similarly when smaller object is acting as a reflector of energy toward larger body, the distance between the larger and smaller body depend on the energy need of the larger body. • Shape of the orbit depends upon the energy need of the object as illustrated in Figure 3.19. Round Orbit Objects which consume gravitons quickly need to remain at a constant distance from the larger mass. This leads to a smaller object rotating around a larger mass in circle. Eclipse Orbit Objects which have some good capacity to store additional gravitons are able to move larger distance away from the larger mass. These objects store energy and travel far away. When they have used major part of their stored energy, they come back near the larger body to refill gravitons. It leads to an orbit in eclipse shape. • Angle of inclination of the orbit around the larger mass also depends upon the energy needs of the smaller objects. The gravitational constant G is not constant on all points of the earth. It may lead to the conclusion that the density of gravitons/photons that are released from the surface of earth is not constant at all points of the surface. The orbit at an inclined path may be helping capture gravitons according to needs of an object. Earth rotates around its own axis and similarly particles like electron also spin around their own axis. The particles are classified according the direction of spin and the extent of spin using number like 0, 1 and 2. This work suggests that:

3.9. PURPOSE OF ORBITS AND SPIN

61

• Spin helps particle capture gravitons on all sides the surface of the object. • As illustrated in Figure 3.20 the area A receives and stores the gravitons/photons when it is directly facing the larger body. With the spin of the object area A, it moves toward opposite side and consumes the gravitons/photons stored. Spin rotation around own axis helps all areas of the object gain gravitons/photons. • The speed of the spin depends upon how fast the received gravitons/photons are consumed. The objects which consume gravitons/photons very quickly and do not have larger graviton storage spin quickly. The objects which consume gravitons slowly and/or do have a good graviton storage capacity, spins slowly. • The direction of the spin (clockwise or anti clockwise) need not to be of very significance as rotating in clockwise or anti-clockwise both can help meet the gravitons/photons demands of the object. The direction of the spin depends upon the initial conditions when objects started its spin. • The objects which does not spin around own axis while rotating along a larger mass, can be described as objects which have a well developed gravitons/photons distribution system within themselves. Only one surface of the object receives gravitons/photons and gravitons/photons get distributed well throughout the inner of the object without need to have opposite sides directly getting exposed to gravitons/photons from larger body.

62

CHAPTER 3. INTELLIGENT DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLES

Figure 3.19: Shape of orbit depending on energy needs

3.9. PURPOSE OF ORBITS AND SPIN

Figure 3.20: Rotation around own axis

63

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CHAPTER 3. INTELLIGENT DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLES

3.10

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle says that there can be no two electron in the same orbit with the exactly same state. However, there are some situations where Pauli’s Exclusion Principle does not seems to be useful, such as in case: • Assume, there are two smaller object A and B, which are rotating around object C. • Object A and B are both made of uniform density matter and consumes only one type of field particle in equal quantity. • Object C has a supply of type of field particle which both, object A and object B consumes. • In case, C has sufficient supply of field particle which can meet the energy demand of both A and B, A and B can exist in the same orbit while spinning around their own axis in the same direction (clockwise or anticlockwise). However, there are cases in which Pauli’s Exclusion Principle seems useful. The top part of Figure 3.21 illustrates a case, in which the smaller body (electron) is rotating around a larger body (nucleus). • The electron has two sides A and B with equal surface area ae . • Side A and B of the smaller body has different roles. • Side A and side B requires different types of field particles or the same type of field particles in different quantity to perform their roles. The bottom part of Figure 3.21 shows: • Two electrons in an orbit spinning around their own axis in two different directions. One electron spins in clockwise direction, while the other electron spins in anti-clockwise. • Lift hand side figure shows the case, when side A of both electrons is facing the same direction, while right hand side shows a situation when the side of each electron is in opposite direction to each other. The important features of such arrangement are:

3.10. PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

65

Case 1 When both electrons face A is facing the same direction (bottom left side of the Figure 3.21) while they are spinning around their own axis, both electrons are able to capture gravitons using all parts of the surface A. Maximum area that gets directly get exposed at any instance during one spin is equal to 2ae . Case 2 When both electrons face A is facing opposite directions (bottom right side of the Figure 3.21) while they are spinning around their own axis, the maximum total area from both electron that directly gets exposed to the larger mass is equal to ae . Pauli’s Exclusion Principle can be useful for electrons only in situations such as : • In case 2, when the larger mass is able to pass field particles that can meet field particles requirement of only one electrons at any instance. By coordinating the the angle of spin of surfaces A (for example, two electrons place their surface A in complete opposite directions and rotates in opposite directions at the same rate), the both electrons are able to meet their field particles requirements. • In case 2, where - Larger body emits two different types of field particles gY and gZ meeting field particles requirements of area A and area B, respectively. - The gravitons gY and gZ are emitted in the same interval t. - The supply of field particles gY and gZ is not sufficient enough to meet all the requirements of 2 electrons during the interval t. - By coordinating the angle of spin of surfaces A (for example, two electrons place their surface A in complete opposite directions and start rotating in opposite directions at the same rate), the both electrons are able to meet their energy requirement. • The above discussion indicates that there is a limited supply of energy and objects/particles need to act in a coordinate manner to meet their energy needs.

66

CHAPTER 3. INTELLIGENT DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLES

Figure 3.21: Spin in opposite direction

3.11. CONFIRMING ENERGY CHAIN

3.11

67

Confirming energy chain

According to this book, there is a very well coordinated energy chain in the universe: • A source somewhere in the universe, is the main source of gravitons to the universe. • These gravitons gets disturbed in the universe through a very coordinated way. • Photon carries these gravitons and deliver them to objects which need them as a source of energy. This energy chain can be experimentally confirmed. A mechanical system should slow down when it is placed in darkness. Figure 3.22 shows an example of experiment. Any motor placed in complete darkness should show a different behavior compared to the system where the light is present.

Figure 3.22: Mechanical system in complete darkness

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CHAPTER 3. INTELLIGENT DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICLES

Chapter 4 Dynamic shapes of particles 4.1

Dimension of particles and speed

It has been discussed that energy transfer is a controlled process and particles do not accept more energy than a certain limit within a certain period of time. Assuming that there are docks on the external surface of the particle to accommodate field particles, there are two possible mechanisms through which flow of field particles can be controlled: • Reducing the diameter of dock will stop the flow of field particle when dock’s diameter becomes smaller than the dimensions of the field particle, in case field particle has dimension, . • Reducing the number of dock can also control the flow of field particles. Number of docks on a specific surface can reduced if some of the docks closes themselves or the surface containing these docks wraps itself to hide the docks. It is a very common characteristic of the material that: • Material reduces its volume under influence of external force. • Material partially or fully restores to its original volume when external force does not last for long period of time. • Strong force for extended period of time permanently changes the shape of the material. Changing shapes to reduce the force on the body is a well known characteristics of objects. For example: 69

70

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMIC SHAPES OF PARTICLES • Stones with sharp corners when placed in strong water current, will gradually change the shape of their corners. • Birds like eagle while diving at a high speed, reduce the width of their wings. • The sample principle is used in aircrafts, the area of the wing in the direction of the motion is increased when aircraft is landing or taking off. While flying at high speed, the area of the wing in the direction of the motion is reduced in order to reduce the force experienced by wings.

In short, there is a possibility that particles can control the flow of field particles through the docks on the external surface of the particle during energy exchange. The energy transfer through the docks can be controlled by reducing the number of docks on the external surface. To understand how particles under strong flow of field particles can adjust the number of captured field particles through docks on their external surface, let’s assume a three dimensional three space Z containing particle P with three dimensions. The dimensions of the space Z is given by: L: Length of the space Z W : Width of the space Z H: Height of the space Z All boundary walls of the space Z are at right angle to each adjacent wall, meaning that the space Z is a box shaped space with corners at the following (x,y,z) co-ordinates. ( 0, 0, 0 ),(L, 0, 0 ),(0, W, 0 ),( 0, 0, H ) ( L,W,0 ),( 0, W, H ),( L, 0, H ),(L, W, H) Let’s assume a particle P which exists in space Z and have following dimensions: l: Length of the particle P w: Width of the particle P h: Height of the particle P All boundary walls of the particle P are at right angle to each adjacent wall, meaning that particle P is a box shaped particle. Let’s assume that particle P is smaller than the space Z. Under this assumption, dimension relationships between particle P and the space Z are: l < L/4

(4.1)

w < W/4

(4.2)

h < H/4

(4.3)

4.1. DIMENSION OF PARTICLES AND SPEED

71

The volume v of the particle P is given by: v = lwh

(4.4)

Figure 4.1 shows such space. Let’s assume a force F which exists in space Z. This force F is in single direction, which is in positive x direction. Force F is exerted uniformly in the y, z plane of the space Z. Assume the density of the force F in space Z; f=

F HW

(4.5)

The particle P is placed in the space Z, with its center at the coordinate ( L/2, W/2, H/2 ). The force F will be exerted at the right angle of y,z surface of particle P. The force that particle P experiences follows: FP = f wh

(4.6)

Let’s assume that particles are also made of material which reduces their volume when external force is exerted on them. When external force is temporary and does not last for longer period of time, the particles resume their original form when this external force is removed. External force exerted on particles for extended period of time, may permanently change the dimensions of the particle. Let’s assume that the particle P changes its dimensions under the influence of external force and the new dimensions are: w⇒

w n

(4.7)

h⇒

h m

(4.8)

l ⇒ mnl

(4.9)

Now the force that particle P experiences after change in its dimensions varies as follows: FP (4.10) FP ⇒ nm To make the particle experience the same force as before, f the force per unit area in the space Z need to increased by factor nm. Particles can behave differently by changing dimensions.

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CHAPTER 4. DYNAMIC SHAPES OF PARTICLES

Figure 4.1: Space Z and Particle P

4.2. OBJECTS CAPACITY TO EXPAND AND CONTRACT

4.2

73

Objects capacity to expand and contract

The hypothesis that the particle changes dimensions dynamically to avoid force which they are incapable of handling can be supported if it can be verified that the particle actually contains empty spaces in its spherical shape which help them contract and expand easily without damaging their structure. Empty space does not necessarily mean that the inner of the particle is completely empty. It can also mean that outer layers of the particle are made of high density medium while the inner is made of low density medium. This chapter discusses different direct and indirect evidences about particles containing empty spaces.

4.2.1

Expanding universe

It is believed that the universe is expanding. Let’s assume that the universe expanded from a single large piece of something. Let’s assume that the universe as a whole is a closed energy and mass system and there is no more input of mass from the external source. Under these assumption,the average density of matter per square meter is dropping which can result in hollow spaces as universe is expanding.

4.2.2

Black holes/Collapsed stars

Black holes are thought to be the collapsed stars. When a star collapses into a black hole, its radius becomes very small rBlackhole ¿ rStar

(4.11)

where, r: Radius of the cosmological body The mechanism through which star collapses into a black hole is not clearly known yet. However, assuming that the earth and the star are created through the same process, the earth structure can help build a theory about collapsing of stars into very small size black holes. It is thought that the earth is made of seven large and several small plates. Examples of the identified larger plates are: • Pacific plate • North America plate • Eurasian plate

74

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMIC SHAPES OF PARTICLES • Antarctic plate • African plate

Identified smaller plates are: • Cocos plate • Nazca plate • Caribbean plate • Gorda plate The plates are assumed to be moving at the rate of a few centimeters a year, resulting in earthquakes and the volcanic activities. This book assumes that each such large plate is further made of many smaller plates. It is known that the mountains have roots. Mountains grow both in upward and downward directions. The mountains can have two roles: • The mountains help reduce movements of the earth plates, thus avoiding creation of large number of earth quakes by frequent collisions of the earth plates. • The mountains act as a staple which stitch together different earth plates. Figure 4.2 shows how a mountain can pin together different earth plates. As discussed in the previous section, it is believed that the universe is expanding. The universe can expand when cosmological bodies and dark matter it contains also expands. Assume that the earth plates are expanding too as a result of the universe expansion, the expansion of the earth plates and mountains can lead to the collapse of the mountains. It can lead to the phenomena of the earth turning flat from its current spherical shape in different stages as illustrated in 4.3. It has been assumed that the earth crust is made of high density matter, while the inner of the earth is a low density matter. The different steps that can lead to the change in the shape of the earth from the spherical structure to flat structure are: • The mountains expand in area and loose grip on the earth plates. At the same time, the earth plates also expand which further looses the bond between the earth plates and the mountains.

4.2. OBJECTS CAPACITY TO EXPAND AND CONTRACT

Figure 4.2: Mountains acting as pins to stitch together earth plates

75

76

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMIC SHAPES OF PARTICLES

Figure 4.3: Change in shape of earth

4.2. OBJECTS CAPACITY TO EXPAND AND CONTRACT

77

• Some of the mountains collapse when the earth plates and the mountains expand to a certain threshold. The mountain collapse leads to the separation of the earth plates. • The inner low density matter contained within the earth leaks out into the space as the separation of some of the earth plates creates a large opening. • After a while, due to the immense weight of the earth plates, the flat structure of earth plates collapse. According to methodology of this book, all cosmological bodies are assumed to be created through the same process. Under the same assumption, it can be said that the star collapse into the black hole through the same procedure as illustrated in Figure 4.3. The process of conversion of stars into the black hole is described in Figure 4.4. In the Figure 4.4, it has been assumed that the there are two types of cosmological bodies. • Cosmological bodies which are filled of matter which is of the same density as the external crust • Cosmological bodies which are either empty or filled with very low density matter. Paying attention to the nature on the earth, there is a life cycle for everything. Let’s have a look at the horticulture: • DNA code (seed), soil, sunlight and the water interacts together to form a plant. • Plant grows and then withers. • Plant turns back into the soil. Similarly let’s look at the cycle of rain: • Heat evaporates water in the water reserves. • Evaporated water turns into clouds. • Clouds move with air to a new location. • Clouds turn back into water in the form of rain. • Water flows back into the water reserves.

78

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMIC SHAPES OF PARTICLES

Figure 4.4: Conversion from large radius body to very small radius body

4.2. OBJECTS CAPACITY TO EXPAND AND CONTRACT

79

The process of stars creation and star collapsing may be still continuing. Based on this, this book postulates a new theory about the life cycle of the cosmological bodies: Figure 4.5 shows the full life cycle of the cosmological bodies. • A large condensed matter converts into flat sheets and solid pieces of matter which acts like pins. • The pins stitch together flat sheets to form the spherical cosmological bodies. • The pins positions and the sheets stretchiness enables the contraction and the expansion of the cosmological body. • Separation of the pins from the flat sheets results in the end of spherical shape and turns the cosmological body into a flat sheet. • The flat sheets collapse into the piece of condensed mass again. Figure 4.6 and Figure 4.7 shows the process of cosmological body creation in details. This book suggests that: • A localized high pressure acted as a blade to peel off layers from the large piece of matter. This process created sheets of different sizes and width. The pieces of matter which did not formed any sheet turned into small pieces of matter which acted like the pins. • The pins attached to the flat sheets to form large size sheets. • The ends of the sheets were stitched together to form large cosmological bodies. Localized pressure working as a blade is just an expression to explain the concept. In reality, matter in condensed gases form can detach itself from the surface or the inner of the cosmological body. These condensed gases can cool down over time to form a crust layer called sheets here. This book suggests that some of the cosmological bodies are not made of uniform density matter but are actually hollow from inside or contains a medium of very low density. In short word, some of the cosmological bodies are like bubbles, which exist in different sizes and are expected to be burst after some time. According to the methodology of this book, the cosmological bodies are an enlarged model of smaller elements as they are created through the same process at the time of the Big Bang. Based on this methodology , it can be said that:

80

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMIC SHAPES OF PARTICLES • Particle can expand. • Particle can also contract or collapse. • Particle have a life cycle.

4.2. OBJECTS CAPACITY TO EXPAND AND CONTRACT

Figure 4.5: Life cycle of the cosmological body

81

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CHAPTER 4. DYNAMIC SHAPES OF PARTICLES

Figure 4.6: Creation of the cosmological body 1

4.2. OBJECTS CAPACITY TO EXPAND AND CONTRACT

Figure 4.7: Creation of the cosmological body 2

83

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CHAPTER 4. DYNAMIC SHAPES OF PARTICLES

4.2.3

Creation of moon

It has been believed that the moon was a part of the earth in past. The process of creation of moon from the earth, can help us understand the structure of the cosmological bodies. Assuming that earth is filled with mass which has a solid crest around it. The earth in this condition is like a balloon filled with hot liquid or gases. In the process of creating a small spherical body (moon) from the big spherical body (earth), there is need to rapture the outer surface. This rapture starts with a small hole. Let’s assume that balloon filled with water or air as an example of earth. It is obvious that a small hole in a balloon with a needle will burst the balloon. Furthermore, comparing the radius of the moon to the earth, there earth surface should have a very big and deep crater on the surface of the earth. Observing the earth through the satellites, no such deep crater is visible. However, there is a large area on the surface of the earth, which is like a pilled skin on the surface of the earth. This observation can lead to the argument that if moon was once part of the earth then it was formed by following process: • A thin layer was peeled off from the surface of earth • After this thin layer moved away from earth, its corners get stapled together to form moon with a spherical shape Figure 4.8 illustrates this process. No one has ever drilled earth to the center of the earth, so it cannot be verified whether earth is really filled of hot melted mass which becomes hotter as we move toward the center of the earth or the inner of the earth is empty. According to the existing theories about the creation of the universe, the universe is a result of the Big Bang. Let’s assume that planets were the part of the sun and the moon was the part of the earth, then there is a need of series of bangs. Here, bang does not necessarily mean a powerful explosion. It can be a process of peeling off an external layer of the cosmological body. Let’s consider cosmological creation process related to this planetary system in which we live. This work excludes the time preceding the creation of the sun. Creation of Sun The sun was created from a cosmological body much larger than the sun due to peeling off of the external surface of this larger cosmological body due to the localized pressure working as a sharp blade. Creation of Planets There was a large localized pressure on the sun’s surface acting like a sharp

4.2. OBJECTS CAPACITY TO EXPAND AND CONTRACT

85

blade which created planets. As there are many planets around the sun, it can lead to the argument that there was a series of high localized pressure on the surface of the sun and each such localized pressure different in the intensity to another as the radius of different planets is different. Creation of moon There was a bang on the surface of the earth which created the moon. As there is just a single moon around the earth, new moon can be created in the future if there is intense localized pressure on the surface of the moon or earth again. As it is thought that the process of stars creation and the star collapsing is still being continued, black holes and starts might be releasing smaller stars into the universe. The methodology of this book assumes that cosmological bodies are very large size particles and may posses the same structure as the smaller particles which cannot be directly observed. Based on this methodology, it can be said that: • The external dimension of a particle can change due to the peeling off the external surface layer of the particle. • As it is assumed that the external surface of the particle have the docks which capture and release the field particles, peeling off the part of external surface of the particle changes the capability of the particle to interact with the other particles. • A particle can give birth to other smaller particle with the process of peeling off the external surface.

4.2.4

Basic structure of particles

Figure 4.9 shows the basic structure of particles according to this book. Strings join together to form sheet. Sheets join together to form spherical shaped particles.

86

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMIC SHAPES OF PARTICLES

Figure 4.8: Creation of moon from planet

4.2. OBJECTS CAPACITY TO EXPAND AND CONTRACT

Figure 4.9: Structure of particles

87

88

CHAPTER 4. DYNAMIC SHAPES OF PARTICLES

4.2.5

X-ray spectrum of metal targets

X-ray spectrum can clearly show that the particles such as electrons are not of uniform density and may contain empty spaces. X-ray was discovered by Wilhelm Roentgen in year 1895. Roengton found that a beam of high-speed electrons produces extremely penetrating type of electromagnetic rays when they strike a metal target. This newly discovered electromagnetic rays were named X-ray. Figure 4.10 shows the basic structure of the x-ray source. In the X-ray source, electrons hit the metallic targets. The X-ray is produced as a result of collision between high speed electrons and the atoms forming the metallic target. The atom is made of particles contained in the nucleus and the electrons orbiting around it. The X-ray appears as the energy that is lost during the collisions between the high speed electron and particles in the atoms forming the metallic target. Each material has its own unique X-ray spectrum consisting of following characteristics, which are also shown in Figure 4.11 • λmin , which is smallest wavelength of the electromagnetic waves in the X-ray spectrum. λmin remains constant for all the metallic targets. • Peak A of X-ray intensity at λA , which is regarded as the result of head-on-collision between the high speed electrons from the source and particles forming region A in the metallic target. • Peak B of X-ray intensity at λB , which is regarded as the result of head-on-collision between the high speed electrons from the source and particles forming region B in the metallic target. There are mainly three types of particles, electrons, protons and the neutrons which can forms the region A and B in the metallic target. The energy of the X-ray EXray can be represented as the difference between the kinetic energy of the high speed electron before and after the collision with the particles contained in the atoms in the metallic target: 1 2 2 EXray = Kme1 (vBef ore − vAf ter ) 2 where, K: Constant me1 : Mass of the electron in the source vBef ore : Velocity of the high speed electron before the collision vAf ter : Velocity of the high speed electron after the collision

(4.12)

4.2. OBJECTS CAPACITY TO EXPAND AND CONTRACT

89

EXray is a function of λ and from the X-ray spectrum it can be claimed that: λA 6= λB (4.13) EλA 6= EλB

(4.14)

vAf terA 6= vAf terB

(4.15)

where, vAf terA : Velocity of the high speed electron after collision with the particles forming region A in the metallic target while emitting electromagnetic waves of wavelength λA vAf terB : Velocity of the high speed electron after collision with the particles forming region A in the metallic target while emitting electromagnetic waves of wavelength λB The collisions between particles relevant to λA and λB are head-on-collision and the radius of electron and nucleus having a relationship below: rA 6= rB 6= rElectron

(4.16)

where, rA : Radius of the particles forming region A rB : Radius of the particles forming region B rElectron : Radius of the electron Let’s assume that the collisions between the particles in the process of emission of X-ray, is like the collisions between two solid balls, it can be said that as the energy lost by the high speed electron (or energy emitted as a form of X-ray) is different between the following two types of the collisions, the material characteristics of the electrons and nucleus are different at two regions A and B. One of the commonly known material characteristics which impact the energy transfer function is the hardness of the external surface of the particle. Paying attention to this characteristic, it can be claimed that: hA 6= hB

(4.17)

where, hN ucleus : Hardness of the particles forming region A in the metallic target hElectron : Hardness of the particles forming region B in the metallic target As the hardness of any material can be result of density of the material, it can be claimed that: (4.18) dA 6= dB where, dA : Material density of the particles forming the region A in the metallic

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target dB : Hardness of the particles forming the region B in the metallic target As the material density is different for two different particles, it can be claimed that the different particles may contain empty spaces or are the material distribution in the spherical shape of the particle is not uniform. If peak λA and λB is unique for each element in the X-ray spectroscopy, it can be used as an argument that the structure of elements as electrons, neutrons and the protons is unique for each type of element, when it is assumed that the mass of a type of particle is same for all the elements.

Figure 4.10: X-ray source based on Compton effect

4.2.6

Matter density of particles forming material

The comparison of mathematical calculated matter density in different particles can help indicate the possibility of mass density distribution being not uniform. The density of the proton and the electron can be calculated using fundamental physical constants from National Institute of Standards and Technology: Proton rms charge radius rproton : 0.875 ∗ 10−15 m Proton mass mproton : 1.673 ∗ 10−27 kg Classical electron radius relectron : 2.818 ∗ 10−15 m

4.2. OBJECTS CAPACITY TO EXPAND AND CONTRACT

Figure 4.11: X-ray spectrum of metal target

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Electron mass melectron : 9.109 ∗ 10−31 kg The comparison of the average density of electron and the proton can be calculated as: 3melectron pelectron = (4.19) 3 4πrelectron 3mproton pproton = (4.20) 3 4πrproton Ã

!µ

¶

pelectron melectron rproton 3 = (4.21) pproton mproton relectron Using above fundamental physical constant values the ratio between the density of the proton and the electron is calculated. pelectron = 1.63 ∗ 10−5 (4.22) pproton The calculated values show that the matter forming the electrons has different average mass density compared to the matter forming the proton. The calculated value shows that some particles are easily capable of contracting or reducing its three dimensional state compared to the others.

4.2.7

Tunneling of light

Assuming that the photon is an particle with non-zero mass, and is confined to a three dimensional space like particles such as electrons and protons. The photon structure should be able to collapse and expand again, if the concept of particle having a dynamic shape is correct. In the collapsed shape, the photon should not be observed. Such behavior of the photon can be observed in the case of Frustrated Total Internal Reflection as shown in the Figure 4.12. As shown in Figure 4.12, the light gets reflected at the hypotenuse face. However, when another prism is brought near to the first prism, some part of the light tunnels through the second prism and the light cannot be observed in the gap between the two prisms. According to the concept presented in this book, • Photon is a particle with non-zero mass. • Photon has a three dimensional structure. • Photon senses the environment and collapses its three dimensional structure resulting in the disappearance of the photon between the gaps of the two prisms. • Photon senses the environment and can bring the collapses structure to the original dimension.

4.3. TYPES OF DYNAMIC CHANGE IN PARTICLE’S DIMENSIONS93

Figure 4.12: Frustrated Total Internal Reflection

4.3

Types of dynamic change in particle’s dimensions

This section looks at the possible mechanism which can enable particle change their three dimensional structure. As the science has not reached to the level, where the structure of the particles could be directly observed, this work is unable to verify which type of particle dimension mechanism can actually work.

4.3.1

Change in the dimension of particles with uniform density

Figure 4.13 shows the type of particle which is filled with the matter of equal density. The contraction and the expansion of the particle happen with the change in the distance of the smaller particles which arrange themselves to form the larger particle as shown in Figure 4.14.

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Figure 4.13: Spherical particle filled with uniform density matter

Figure 4.14: Distance between particles forming spherical body of uniform density

4.3. TYPES OF DYNAMIC CHANGE IN PARTICLE’S DIMENSIONS95

4.3.2

Change in the dimensions of hollow particles

Figure 4.15 shows the mechanism of change in the dimensions of the particles which are hollow from inside. The thickness of the external layer of the particle changes, which results in the change of three dimensions of the particle.

Figure 4.15: Change in dimensions for particle with hollow inner

4.3.3

Change in the dimensions of multilayer particle

Figure 4.16 shows the mechanism of the particle which contains multiple layers. The change in the distance between the different layers of the particle is responsible for the change in the dimensions of the particle.

4.3.4

Change in the dimension of origami particle

Origami means folded paper. Origami is a traditional Japanese art, in which a piece of paper is converted into shapes of different objects without cutting the piece of paper into different size papers. There is a very strong possibility that most of the particle may be formed through the flat sheet structure and which changes their folds dynamically to form different shapes to adjust the area with docks which is exposed to the external environment. Figure 4.17

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Figure 4.16: Change in dimensions for particle with multiple layers

an exemplary structure in which the external surface folds its external layer to change its dimensions dynamically.

4.3. TYPES OF DYNAMIC CHANGE IN PARTICLE’S DIMENSIONS97

Figure 4.17: Change in particle dimensions due to origami structure

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Chapter 5 Intelligent strong interaction This chapter discusses intelligent aspects of strong interaction.

5.1

Strong interaction

Strong interaction is responsible for binding quarks together to form neutrons and protons. The strong interaction is extremely short-range and can be ignored for distance more than 10−15 meters. In 1935, Japanese physicist Hideki Yukawa proposed theory which explained the strong interaction. Yukawa proposed that a new particle is exchanged between protons and neutrons in strong interaction. The mass of this new particle called pion was proposed to be about 200 times the mass of the electron. Pion (π) comes in three varieties: • π + which has mass equal to 139.6 MeV/c2 • π − which has mass equal to 139.6 MeV/c2 • π 0 which has mass equal to 135.0 MeV/c2 Figure 5.1 shows the interchange of the pion between proton and the neutron.

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Figure 5.1: Interaction between neutron and proton

5.2. INTERACTION WITHOUT SENSING ENVIRONMENT

5.2

101

Interaction without sensing environment

Let’s consider an element which contains both proton and neutron in its nucleus. Now let’s see that whether such element has sufficient energy to utilize the low efficiency model of interaction. The following values are used in calculations here: dπ = 2 × 10−15 m tB = 15 billion years dπ is the distance the pion travels between proton and the neutron and here it is considered to be equal to the diameter of the nucleus. tB is the time since the Big Bang at which the mass was created with energy represented by Einstein’s energy and mass relationship. As there are three types of pion, the lightest pion (π 0 ) mass is used as the average mass of the pion. The ratio between the pion and the mass of the proton is given as: mP roton + mN eutron 938.3 + 939.6 = = 13.91 mπ 0 135

(5.1)

Let’s assume that the proton and neutron are of equal mass, the distance, nucleus of an atom with single proton or neutron, can move the pion by utilizing energy contained in it is given by: d = 6.95 × 9 × 1016 = 6.255 × 1017 m

(5.2)

The average distance pion has traveled since the time of the Big Bang in one second is given by: dT otal =

6.255 × 1017 = 1.322m 15 × 109 × 365 × 24 × 3600

(5.3)

Such low speed indicates that: • If at any given time at least one pion is flying in random direction from the surface of the proton or neutron in search of a target, it can be claimed that pion is a very slow particle which travels at the maximum speed for 1.322 m/sec. • A pion which travels in a path in which proton or neutron is not present resembles a free particle. • π + have positive charge and π − has negative charge.

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Such particle can be very easily torn off by any powerful charged plate from the three dimensional space of nucleus. The total number of times in one second pion is released in random directions without first sensing the position of the target, is given by npion : npion =

dT otal = 6.61 × 1014 dπ

(5.4)

Now let’s pay attention to the mass of pion and see how many pion a proton or neutron can contain, if pion, proton and neutron are all made of the same uniform density matter: n=

mπ+

mproton = 2.26 + mπ − + mπ 0

(5.5)

The proton can contain maximum two sets of three types of pion inside it. Let’s assume that: • Proton or neutron is container of three types of pion. • Pion can leave the surface of the proton 6.61 × 1014 times in one second The top diagram in Figure 5.2 illustrate a proton which contains six pions. The different parts of the protons are: • 2 sets of 3 types of pions occupy major portion of the mass of protons, so the remaining part of the photon is assumed to be made of low density matter. • As pions need to leave proton very frequently, they need to exist near the external surface of protons and neutrons. If it is assumed that the proton/neutron does not sense the presence of the neutron/proton in the neighborhood and keep on throwing the pions in random directions from its surface in the hope that they will strike a neutron/proton, the pions need to leave the external surface of the proton/neutron very frequently. In this case, as shown in the bottom figure in Figure 5.2 the outer layer of the neutron/proton need to have docks holding pions. The same docks can capture the pion from the other particles. Non existence of the docks can rapture the proton/neutron making it very short lived particle. Furthermore, it is believed that the π − is a very short lived particle, while the image presented in Figure 5.2 shows it as long life particle. This book suggests that the π − are stable when they are staying in the docks on the

5.2. INTERACTION WITHOUT SENSING ENVIRONMENT

Figure 5.2: Proton/Neutron with two sets of pion

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surface of the protons/neutrons and are outside of the docks for very short period of time. Pion become unstable when they have to be outside of their docks for longer period of time. Pion are stable and have longer life when they are in their favorable environment.

5.2. INTERACTION WITHOUT SENSING ENVIRONMENT

105

If it is assumed that docks which acts like storage of the pion does not exist, the other possibility is that the neutron/proton acts like a factory of pion, which creates pion at a very high speed at the time of need. In this case, if matter that forms the pion exists under the outer boundary of proton/neutron, the frequent creation of the pion will destroy the proton/neutron structure permanently. The other possibility is the creation of the pion by the peeling of the external layers of the neutron in the same process as thought to be used in the creation of the moon. Figure 5.3 shows the process of the creation of pion through peeling off the external layer of the neutron. The pion turns into other sub-particle through the same process in a non-friendly environment.

Figure 5.3: Creation of pion

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Figure 5.4 shows the mechanism of transfer of pion from proton to neutron in case the neutron and the proton does not have docks structure and pion is created each time the strong force need to be mediated between proton and neutron. • A sheet is peeled off from the surface of the neutron. • The sheet travels toward the proton with full speed. • As the purpose of pion is transfer of energy, the sheet does not need to join its both ends to form a spherical shape. • The sheet strikes the surface of proton and thus transfer it energy. • The sheet becomes the part of the particle it strikes. • The sheet becomes spherical shape only when it has to exist for longer period of time in free space due to missing its target. Furthermore, in this model as a neutron can have maximum of six pions, any pion which is released in random direction and misses its target, needs to return to the neutron as each pion is of substantial mass. Loosing the pion means reducing the mass of the neutron substantially and thus leading to conversion of neutron into lighter particles . It is known that the particles move. Any pion that leaves the neutron need to know the position of the neutron at the time it misses its target and returns back. In the case, pion has very low speed of only 2.642 m/sec, there is a strong possibility that that the neutron is no longer at the position it was before as shown in top diagram in Figure 5.5. In this case, the neutron looses pion permanently and may convert to lighter particles. If pion travels at a very high speed, each pion which miss to hit any proton returns back to the neutron as shown in the lower diagram in Figure 5.5. Neutron needs energy to push pion at a very high speed from an external source. This book suggests that light carrying gravitons becomes the source of such energy. In short, it can be said that there is a possibility that particles interact with other particles without sensing them first, by releasing the field particles in random direction. However, to be able to do so, particle needs external energy to be able to travel at a high speed. It is very uncommon in nature around us that interactions happen without sensing the target first.

5.2. INTERACTION WITHOUT SENSING ENVIRONMENT

107

Figure 5.4: Pion transferring force without converting into spherical shape

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Figure 5.5: Pion speed and stability of neutron

5.3. INTERACTION INVOLVING SENSING ENVIRONMENT

5.3

109

Interaction involving sensing environment

In this type of interaction, a particle senses other particles, before releasing a field particle in the direction of interacting particle. Thus, this type of interaction involves two steps: • Particle senses other particles in nearby environment. • Once presence of the other particle is confirmed, the field particle is released. To be able to have two steps interaction, there is a need for two types of particles: • Sense particle which are used in sensing the environment. • Field particle which mediate the force. Figure 5.6 the functions that will be required by the particle to have the capability of sensing the environment, before starting the process of interaction. These are the capabilities that are typically present in sophisticated robots.

Figure 5.6: Particle with ability to sense environment

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The modern particle physics says that charge particle exchange virtual photon when they repel each other. The top of Figure 5.7 shows interaction between two charged particles such as two electrons. It is thought the interchange of a virtual photon leads to the repulsion between them. Based on extension of this concepts, the bottom diagram of Figure 5.7 shows the attraction between the two charged particles. Assume two types of particles with charge p+ and p− , which have equal but opposite charge. Two charged particle p− and p− will repel each other with force F , while two particle p+ and p− will attract each other force F . The only difference between the repulsion and attraction will be the direction of the force.

Figure 5.7: Exchange of field particle between charged particle

5.3. INTERACTION INVOLVING SENSING ENVIRONMENT

111

Refer to Figure 5.8, which shows the interaction between two charged particles. At time t1 the first particle senses the second particle. After sensing the second particle , the field particle is released at t2 . The time difference between sensing and the release of the field particle is given as: ∆t = t2 − t1

(5.6)

Figure 5.8: Exchange of field particle between charged particle Assume an interaction between two charged particles A and B in which a virtual photon travels from particle A to particle B. The information that particle A requires to be able to send a virtual photon to particle B is: • Position of particle A at time t1 • Velocity of particle A at time t1

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• Direction of motion of particle A at time t1 • Position of particle B at time t1 • Velocity of particle B at time t1 • Direction of motion of particle B at time t1 The above information particle B can use to calculate its own and the particle B position at time t2 . In other words, there is need to know velocity and the position at the same time for both particles A and B. If Heisenberg’s Law of Uncertainty is valid, position and the velocity cannot be determined accurately at the same time. The possible solution to this problem is: • Sense particles travel at a very high speed and acts as a bond creation messages. • Time spent to prepare field particle (∆t) is zero or fixed. • The sense and the field particles are able to tunnel through the barriers which come into the way to the destination.

5.3.1

Zero field particle preparation time

For any particle, requiring zero time to prepare and send a field particle which in is some cases quite massive is unthinkable. Any mechanical system around us is expected to spend some time to prepare and target a force toward a specific direction. The only possibility is that the both particle who wants to interact remain in a fixed position for a fixed duration t, which is sum of : • Time required to prepare a field particle. • Energizing the field particle. • Setting its direction. • Releasing the particle. The fixed position here can refer to two types of different situation: • Both particles are in fixed state at rest. • Both particles move with a fixed momentum in a fixed direction, which is universal value for all interacting particles.

5.3. INTERACTION INVOLVING SENSING ENVIRONMENT

113

Figure 5.9 shows the Feynman diagram showing the suspended position during which the particles remain in a fixed position, until the field particle is exchanged. For both particles to remain in a fixed position is a simpler solution compared to the second possibility in which each particle moves with a fixed momentum and the new position need to be calculated by particles. Furthermore, the particle cannot remain in a fixed time duration unless there is a common time system being used by the both particles. The life on the earth is adjusted according to the duration of day and night on the earth. The motion of the earth around its own axis and around the sun creates day and night. If human being is considered a collection of particles, the body working is synchronized with the body clock and the body clock is synchronized with the motion of earth around the sun and also around its own axis. This book extends this observation and suggests that the particles uses the motion of the cosmological bodies in their proximity to coordinate their actions as shown in Figure 5.10. So it is suggested here that the cosmological bodies have two very important roles in the functioning of the particles: • Cosmological bodies act as a reflector of gravitons to the particle. • Cosmological bodies become the path of the time signals which help the particles synchronized their actions. How the cosmological bodies distribute time signals is unknown. However, the time signals in the electronics system are generated by an oscillating crystal. If this model is applied to the particles, it can be said that all the particles that show a distinct behavior, oscillates a small part of their matter and uses it as a time clock. The oscillating part is synchronized with the time signals coming from the cosmological body in proximity to which they exist. It can be said that the reason all bodies have a vibrating motion is due to the reason that they need a common clock to synchronize their actions. However, vibrating the whole mass to have a time signal can be regarded as a low energy efficiency solution. Only a small part vibration can also act as a clock with less energy consumption.

5.3.2

Very high speed of sense particles

According to Heisenberg’s Law of Uncertainty, the particle position and the velocity cannot be determined accurately at the same time. The sense particle travels toward the target and returns back, thus making two equal distance trips. If the sense particle has limited speed, the time spent in such trips will not be zero and the both particles which are interacting will move to new locations, which cannot be accurately determined. Thus, the first

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Figure 5.9: Particles in suspended state before exchange of field particle

5.3. INTERACTION INVOLVING SENSING ENVIRONMENT

Figure 5.10: Universal distribution of reference time signal

115

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condition for the successful working mechanism is that the sense particles travel at very high speed. As discussed in the previous section, both the particles need to be in a rest position for a limited period of time. To be able to do so, both the particles need to form a bond with at least these steps: • Once a sense particle strikes a target, it needs to tell the target that it needs to stay in its position for a specific period of time and wait for the field particle. Or when a particle is stricken by a sense particle, it decides to stay in its present location for a fixed period of time. • The sense particle once returned to its origin, tells the origin that a particle has been sensed and is waiting for the field particle. • All above is only possible, when the sense particle is not just carrier of mass but also acts like an information message. In other words, the particles are interacting with complex messages, before mediating force through the field particles. The possibility of the intelligent messages playing a role in the exchange of the field particles will be discussed in the next chapter.

5.3.3

Tunneling through barriers

Based on the concepts of the particle physics, it is believed that the force between two charged particles is mediated through exchange of virtual photons. Refer to Figure 5.11, the virtual photon need to travel between the proton and the electron. In larger atoms, the proton and the neutron are confined to a limited three dimensional space. The neutron can become the obstacle between the proton and electron, preventing the flow of virtual photon. The virtual photon should be able to tunnel through the mass that exists between its origin and the target. It can happen only when the photon is aware of its target and avoids being absorbed by other neutron. Virtual photon need to have following capabilities: • Virtual photon is a carrier of energy. • Virtual photon is aware of its destination or in other words contain the destination address. • Virtual photon is capable of distinguish between target and non-target particles. • Virtual photon is capable of controlling where to deliver the energy it contains.

5.3. INTERACTION INVOLVING SENSING ENVIRONMENT Therefore, field particle can be treated as: • Traditional field particle AND • Information possessing capability of the field particle.

Figure 5.11: Field particles passing through the neutron

117

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Chapter 6 Intelligent communication This chapter discusses the group behavior of particles and possible mechanism of communication among particles to realize the group behavior.

6.1

Group behavior of particles

There are several observations that indicates group behavior by particles. No group behavior by multiple particles is feasible unless there exists a mean the particles can use to communicate with one another. If nature around us is observed, animals communicate with one another. Similarly the plants also communicate with one another. Animal or plant can be regarded as a collection of large number of particles arranged in specific order. Communication between animals or between plants can be regarded as communication among multiple group of particles which are arranged in specific order and confined within a three dimensional space. If communication can happen between groups of particles, it can also happen within the particles which form each group. This section discusses several groups behavior exhibited by groups of particles.

6.1.1

Magnetic lines extending from the bar magnet

Particle physics says that the four identified particle interactions are realized by flow of field particles. Based on this theory, it can be claimed that magnetic field is also formed by the flow of field particles. Modern science says that the spin of the electron creates a magnetic field in a perpendicular direction of the flow of the electrons. As the bar magnet is the collection of the multiple atoms, as shown in Figure 6.1, the field particles forms magnetic field by grouping together and then travel in curved path toward the other 119

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CHAPTER 6. INTELLIGENT COMMUNICATION

end of the magnetic bar. This behavior of the field particle is not possible without: • Field particles sensing one another. • Field particles communicating with one another. • Field particles changing their paths together while moving.

Figure 6.1: Group behavior of field particle resulting in magnetic lines

6.1. GROUP BEHAVIOR OF PARTICLES

6.1.2

121

Different amplitude of waves with equal frequency

Assume that the particle is a boat with a motor. Now let’s consider two boats A and B. Power of the engine of boat A FA = F Power of the engine of boat B FB = 2F Weight of boat A WA = W Weight of boat B WB = W Blade size of boat A SA = s Blade size of boat B SB = 2s Rotational speed of motor in boat A = fA Rotational speed of motor in boat B = fB Assume both boats are traveling in the same density medium with exactly the same motor blade rotation speed, then the intensity (amplitude) of waves created in the water by the two boats will have relations: IA = 0.5IB

(6.1)

Now let’s assume that the boats in the above example are photons, then according to Einstein (6.2) fA = fB EA = EB

(6.3)

In other words, if boat is considered a photon then it can be said that according to Einstein: • All boats (photon) in the universe are equipped with the same capacity motors. • Engine blade of all the boats (photons) have exactly the same diameters. • All engines of the boats (photon) have exactly the same fuel efficiency. • Boat motor efficiency never degrades over time. • If the motor efficiency degrades over time, all the motor have the same time dependent efficiency degradation curve. Furthermore, all the motors were created exactly at the same instance and all have been working exactly the same time since their creation. Figure 6.2 shows a single boat (photon) according to Einstein thoughts. The boat creates a wave of amplitude I. To have a wave of amplitude 2I as shown in Figure 6.2, the basic requirements are:

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• 2 boats positions themselves side by side to one another • Engine blades of both boats have complete synchronized motion. It means that both the blades start rotating from the exactly same 3 dimensional point at exactly the same time. Such behavior is only possible when: • Photons can sense one another. • Photons can communicate with one another. • Photons can take a group action.

Figure 6.2: Group of particles forming wave of variable amplitude Figure 6.3, shows group of photons moving toward a surface while synchronizing their movements in the same way as a group of migrating birds. In this case, multiple photons communicate with one another.

6.1.3

Diffraction of particles

Electrons diffract as they pass through a slit as illustrated in Figure 6.4. The electron diffraction and diffraction of other particles with non-zero mass is regarded as the most important argument advocating the concept of the wave-particle duality. The electron diffraction can be described as a physical effect due to which:

6.1. GROUP BEHAVIOR OF PARTICLES

123

Figure 6.3: Group of photons flying together

• Electrons organize themselves into specific distribution pattern when they are forced to pass through a slit. Such behavior can be observed in daily life. For example, pressing the end of water hose makes water spread in horizontal directions with pressure. Electrons can bend their path, in the existence of a an electric field as shown in Figure 6.4. The slit acts as an obstacle to the flow of the electrons in different directions. There can be two possible reasons which can realize the electron diffraction. • The accumulation of the charge around the slit creates organized deposits of charge which acts like the charged plate. Electrons need to adopt a group behavior to form any patterns of the electric field near the slit to deflect the electrons. • As free path of the electrons is obstructed, the electrons cooperate with one another and try to go through the slit by organizing their direction of motions. Above behaviors are only possible, when • Electrons can sense one another.

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• Electrons can communicate with one another. • Electrons can take a group action.

6.1. GROUP BEHAVIOR OF PARTICLES

Figure 6.4: Wave-particle duality

125

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6.1.4

CHAPTER 6. INTELLIGENT COMMUNICATION

Light splitting

Let’s assume a light source which emits one photon at a time as shown in Figure 6.5. Each photon travels in straight line and strikes the splitter. Due to the photon being a quanta, the photon is not expected to split into two parts. Photon goes toward right or left. If the flow of the photons from the source continues, half of the photons go toward right and half of them go toward left. If the splitting is a real random process, the photons should not split into two almost equal groups. One side could have only 10% of the photon, while the other with 90% of the photons. At other occasion, photons could have been split into two groups of 30% or 70%. If each photon which strikes the splitter is observed, it cannot be determined whether it will go toward right or toward left. However, when looked at the total number of photons, it is equally divided into two equal groups. This observation indicates that • The group of photons have a group target to split between two groups. • Each individual photon tries to accomplish the group target. Such behavior is only possible when: • Photons can sense one another. • Photons can communicate with one another. • Photons can take a group action.

6.1. GROUP BEHAVIOR OF PARTICLES

Figure 6.5: Photons working together to split into two equal groups

127

128

6.2

CHAPTER 6. INTELLIGENT COMMUNICATION

Messages exchange mechanism

Group behavior by particles is only feasible when particles are equipped with a mean to exchange information. This section discusses two possible means for messages exchange among particles. Figure 6.6 shows the first type of message exchange mechanism. In this first type message exchange mechanism, the message and the field particles are two different entities. With each group of field particles, travels a message containing instructions about how to use the field particles. This mechanism suits better a situation in which there are involved large numbers of particles with somewhat similar behavior. Here, this book uses the term Message Particle for message as the message here is an independent entity and is able to travel with group of field particles.

Figure 6.6: Message exchange involving Message Particle

Figure 6.7 shows another possible message exchange mechanism. In this message exchange mechanism the field particle itself contains the information about how the field particle is to be used. It suits best to the situations where there are only limited numbers of field particles are exchanged , as in the case of pion used in the realization of strong interaction. In modern science, field particles are treated like billiard balls without giving any consideration to the well developed capabilities of particles to sense and react to the environment. All kind of particle behavior are linked

6.2. MESSAGES EXCHANGE MECHANISM

129

Figure 6.7: Message exchange without Message Particle

to the rearrangement of electrons in the atoms. Assuming that the particles really interact with one another using messages, the role of messages in the changed behaviors of the particle cannot be excluded. Formation of semiconductor materials when silicon and the impurity metals are combined is an example of changed behavior of silicon. This book suggests that the messages also play a significant role in the changed behavior of the material, beside the rearrangement of the electrons. The behavior of matter is influenced by content of message. For example, silicon and the impurity metal have individual behavior controlled by the Message Type 1 and Message Type 2 respectively. When the two metals are mixed, new messages are formed with the conversion of existing messages. These new generated messages give the metal new behavior. Let’s assume that the message type 1 and message type 2 are in equal number before merging. After merging, the new message type 3 and 4 may not be in equal numbers. Figure 6.8 shows a unique key-hole mechanism, which may help particles identify one another, while interacting.

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Figure 6.8: Identification mechanism of targets

6.3. INTERACTION BETWEEN LIGHT AND MATTER

6.3

131

Interaction between light and matter

Photoelectric Effect can be regarded as a physical effect involving matter (electron) and light (photon). This book treats both electron and photons as particles with mass and regards photoelectric effect as an intelligent interaction between two types of particles with mass. The intelligent interaction between photon and electron needs to involve information exchange. Figure 6.9 shows the three different steps to explore the possibility of existence of message interaction among particles. Step 1: Light source 1 emits light with frequency f1 resulting in the photoelectric current I1 . Step 2: Light source 2 with frequency f2 generates photoelectric current equal to I2 . Step 3: Light source 1 and light source 2 emit lights with frequency f1 and f2 respectively, at the same time resulting in the photoelectric current I3 . The light source 1 and light source 2 emits light toward the metallic plate from different angles so that there is no inference between the light beams from two sources. As photons with two frequencies f1 and f2 creates different quantity of current I1 and I2 respectively, one can assume that the content of the message that accompanied photon with frequency f1 is different from the content of the message that accompanied the photons with frequency f2 . There is a possibility that the sum of two different information contents is not the linear sum of individual contents, thus there should exist a pair of frequencies which satisfies the relationship: I3 (f1 , f2 ) 6= I1 (f1 ) + I2 (f2 )

(6.4)

This book predicts the existence of combination of such frequencies f1 ,f2 and f3 , thus indicating the possibility of existence of message exchange among particles.

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Figure 6.9: Non-linear sum of photoelectric current

6.3. INTERACTION BETWEEN LIGHT AND MATTER

133

Figure 6.10 shows another approach to explore the possibility of the existence of the message communication between particles. Step 1: Light with frequency f1 falling on the metallic emitter for duration t1 generates current with intensity I1 . Step 2: No light falls on the metallic emitter for duration t2 . Step 3: Light with frequency f2 falls on the metallic emitter for duration t3 and generates photoelectric current I2 . It is expected that the message that accompany the light has contents depending on the frequency as the behavior of the metallic plate is different at different frequencies. The different behavior here means that the amount of energy exchange that takes place between photon and the emitter metal is different at different frequencies. In the example of Figure 6.10, it is expected that the contents of the message accompanying the photons will be different at frequencies f1 , f3 and f5 . If the validity period of the message accompanying the photons is larger than t2 , then photoelectric current generated during t3 will be different or in other words: I2 6= I4 6= I6

(6.5)

This book predicts the existence of a combination of f1 , f2 , f3 , f5 and t2 satisfying the above relationship. If the message exchanged between the interaction of particles, are not immediately consumed/annihilated but have a limited validity life, it indicates the possibility of existence of capacity of the storing information within the particles. Figure 6.11 describes the steps that can be executed to explore the capacity of the particles to store information. Each step is executed with small gaps t2 . Step 1: Light with frequency f1 falls on the metallic emitter for interval t1 and generates photoelectric current with intensity I1 . Step 2: Light with frequency f2 falls on the metallic emitter for interval t1 and generates photoelectric current with intensity I2 . Step 3: Light with frequency fi falls on the metallic emitter for interval t1 and generates photoelectric current with intensity Ii . Step 4: The frequency fi is incremented with ∆f for n times and each of this light is incident for interval t1 . There is a gap of t2 between each of these steps.

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Step 5: Now the incremental increase is disrupted. Light with frequency f1 falls on the metallic emitter for duration t1 and generates photoelectric current Ix . After interval of t2 the light with frequency f2 falls on the metallic emitter for duration of t3 and generates photoelectric current Iy . Assuming that the particle has a fixed capacity permanent memory area to store information contained in the messages that accompany the photons in the photoelectric effect, the memory contents changes as: • Each step will store the message content accompanying the photons of specific frequency in the fixed memory storage within the particle. • Each message content can be of variable length. • It is expected that the memory storage area within the particle, which stores the information accompanying the photons is of limited size, some of the memory sub areas will be overwritten forming a completely new information when different kind of information of variable length is repetitively written after small intervals. • If the stored information is used in defining the behavior of the particle, it is expected that the particle will behave differently compared to the time the process of storing different types of information started. This book predicts the existence of a combination of t1 ,t2 ,t3 ,f1 ,f2 ,fi ,∆f and n, which satisfies the following relationship, thus showing strong possibility of particle having memory storage capability: I1 6= Ix

(6.6)

I2 6= Iy

(6.7)

Figure 6.12 shows another approach to verify the possibility of existence of memory storage capability in the particles. The proposed verification process consists of three steps: Step 1: Light with frequency f1 falls on the metallic emitter for interval t1 and generates photoelectric current with intensity I1 . Step 2: No light falls on the metallic emitter for interval t2 . Step 3: Light with frequency f2 falls on the metallic emitter for interval t3 and generates photoelectric current with intensity I2 .

6.3. INTERACTION BETWEEN LIGHT AND MATTER

135

Step 4: Step 1 to Step 3 are repeated by increasing the intensity of the light with frequency f1 during duration t1 . The photoelectric current that is obtained during t3 is I4 . This book predicts the existence of a combination of f1 , f2 , t1 , t2 , t3 satisfying the relationship, thus showing the strong indication of existence of messages exchange and the memory storage within particles: I2 6= I4

(6.8)

As according to Einstein E = hf , the change in the photoelectric current due to intensity of the incident light shows that the matter change their behavior according to the content of messages. Figure 6.13 shows another approach in which rather then the intensity of I1 , the duration t1 is modified. Figure 6.14 shows a proposed to probe the possibility of existence of the group behavior. The metallic emitter has two areas A and B, which are fairly separated from one another. I(f1 ) is the amount of the photoelectric current that will be generated if only photons with frequency f1 falls on the surface area A of metallic emitter. I(f2 ) is the amount of the photoelectric current that will be generated if only photons with frequency f2 falls on the surface area B of metallic emitter. In the case, photons with frequency f1 on the area A and at the same photons with frequency f2 on the area B. Theoretically, the photoelectric current with amount I(f1 + f2 ) should be created for all frequencies. However, if any combination of f1 and f2 which does not satisfy the relationship below is found, it indicates the strong possibility of existence of group behavior using interaction through messages.

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Figure 6.10: Message contents depending on the frequency

6.3. INTERACTION BETWEEN LIGHT AND MATTER

Figure 6.11: Memory functions in particles

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Figure 6.12: Photons as messages for particles

6.3. INTERACTION BETWEEN LIGHT AND MATTER

Figure 6.13: Photons as messages for particles

139

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Figure 6.14: Group behavior

6.3. INTERACTION BETWEEN LIGHT AND MATTER

141

Thomas Wedgewod discovered in year 1792 that all objects regardless of their type and shape becomes red at the same temperature. This led to the discovery of blackbody spectrum. All bodies at higher temperature shows this continuous spectrum as shown in the upper diagram of Figure 6.15. However, the matter shows discrete lines at the lower temperature as shown in bottom diagram of Figure 6.15. These discrete lines in the spectrum are used as an argument to support the claim that the electrons in the matter exist in the discrete states. It means that the matter shows different behavior at different ranges of temperature. If behavior of the matter is assessed from the information processing point of view, it indicates that different logics are active in the particles in different environmental conditions. It is a common trend throughout the world for several last centuries that physical effects are modeled as a single mathematical relationship. Any developed model that does not fit some part of the curve is discarded as incorrect. However, in real observations, the behavior of the matter is different under different conditions. For example, the matter shows discrete spectrum lines at the lower temperature and the higher temperature, the spectrum becomes continuous. If we pay attention to the ability of the particles to interact with their environment, modern science need to reassess traditional method of expressing the behavior of particles in a single step and try to understand that a behavior of a particle is best described by different mathematical expressions, each of which are valid under certain conditions. Even if some mathematical model does meet the whole experimental curve, it still need to be considered as valid. There is also a strong trend to to show that everything is quantized. Quantized means that each observed value is a multiple of an integer. This book suggests that discrete and continues are the different aspects of the same thing. This book further suggests the presence of reference time signals, whom particles use to synchronize their behavior. Figure 6.16 shows the discrete and continuous behavior. The discrete behavior starts at one specific time signal and continues for a fixed period of time. In case of continuous phenomena, an action starts at a time signal and continues until another time signal. Discrete behavior has only start condition, while the continuous behavior has both start and the end conditions. According to this book, the past approach and the modern approach both complements each other in the nature.

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Figure 6.15: Multi step behavior

6.3. INTERACTION BETWEEN LIGHT AND MATTER

Figure 6.16: Multi step behavior

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Pattern of interaction through messages

This section describes different types of message interaction patterns between the particles, under the assumption that there is a strong possibility of particles using message communication to exhibit a well coordinated group behavior. Figure 6.17 illustrated different interaction patterns. Messages from source to target In this pattern, the message flows from the particle which is the source of the field particle toward the target particle. In Figure 6.17 only one target particle is shown. In the real situation, there can be large number of target particles. Messages from target to source interaction pattern In this pattern, the message flows from the particle which receives the field particle to the source of the field particle. It can be useful in cases such as: • Target particle informs the source particle that it does not need more field particles. • Particle which needs field particles send message to other particles informing their need for field particles. Figure 6.17 illustrates message flowing from one single target to a single source. In real situations, a target particle may send messages to multiple source particles.

6.4. PATTERN OF INTERACTION THROUGH MESSAGES

Figure 6.17: Patterns of interaction by particles

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Message processing in nature

It is a common observation that the flat structure falls toward earth with less speed compared to the non-flat structure even when both have the same mass. Figure 6.18 illustrate this phenomena purely from the point of the information processing according to this book. To understand Figure 6.18 Let’s assume that: r: A particle in flat and non-flat structure process information from particles which exist within the radius r. m: The number of particles that form the lower layer of thickness a in the non-flat structure. n: The number of particles that form the lower layer of thickness a in the flat structure. Obviously, m In (r)

(6.10)

where, Im (r): Average information received by each particles forming the lower layer of thickness a in the non-flat structure from the surrounding particles in radius r. In (r): Average information received by each particles forming the lower layer of thickness a in the flat structure from the surrounding particles in radius r. Assuming that the total capacity of information processing of a particle in the both flat and non-flat structure is IT otal and the particles forming the flat and non-flat structure give priority to the information coming from the neighbors then: IT otal − Im (r) < IT otal − In (r) (6.11) The particles forming the lower layer of the flat structure have more capacity to process the information accompanying the gravitons coming through the earth surface compared to non-flat structure. In other words, the flat structure is in position to consume gravitons coming through the earth with better efficiency and thus need not rush toward earth with greater speed like objects with non-flat structure. Let’s another example of the phenomena of sailing of the ships as shown in Figure 6.19. Assume two ships of exactly same weight. The ship which does not have a flat bottom will sink in the water, while the ship with the flat bottom will be able to float on the surface of the water. As in the previous example, one can say that the flat structure helps process more information coming from the surface of the water and thus allow ship to remain floating

6.5. MESSAGE PROCESSING IN NATURE

147

on the surface. It is also known from the classical mechanics that the force is proportional to the mass. However, the force that the ship receives from the water is independent of the mass of water that exist beneath the ship bottom. In simple words, the ship gets the same force from the water regardless of the depth of the water. Such phenomena is not possible, without involving information processing.

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Figure 6.18: Flat structure reduce the impact of gravity

6.5. MESSAGE PROCESSING IN NATURE

Figure 6.19: Force is not dependent on the mass

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Chapter 7 Energy chain This chapter summaries the observations in the previous section and describes how different types of interactions are related to one another.

7.1

Basic Interactions

This section briefly introduces the basic four types of particle interactions. Strong Interaction Strong interaction is responsible for binding quarks together to form neutrons and protons. Strong interaction is extremely short-ranged and can be ignored for distance more than 10−15 meters. Electromagnetic Interaction Electromagnetic interaction binds electrons and the protons within atoms and molecules. Electromagnetic interaction decreases inversely with distance between the interacting particles. Weak Interaction Weak interaction is responsible for the decay of the nuclei and the decay of the heavier quarks and leptons. Gravitational Interaction Gravity holds together planets, stars and the galaxies together according to existing literature.

7.2

Electromagnetic field and gravity

According to arguments in this book, photon or any other particle can travel up to 9 × 1016 meters with the energy it can contain. However, the earth receives photons from other galaxies that exist at a distance much further 151

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than 9 × 1016 meters. This book suggests that photons bends their path toward large cosmological bodies (or rotates around the cosmological bodies) to collect gravitons. This refueling mechanism allows photons travel a distance larger than 9 × 1016 meters. There are two main concepts about light as illustrated in Figure 7.1: • Maxwell and Hertz suggests that there are continuous waves of magnetic and electric field in right direction to the travel of light. • Einstein says that the light is made of collection of photons and the momentum it exerts is in the direction of travel. This book unifies the two school of thoughts into one based on the observations made and suggests that: • The photon is like a high speed boat traveling at very high speed. • The boat carries fuel to deliver. • The boat has two oars at right angle to each other. • The boat uses a part of the fuel it carries as a fuel to push the oars of the boat. • Once the boat reaches the destination, it delivers the fuel. • The capacity of the fuel tank of the boat is limited and the fuel tank refills during long travel. Figure 7.2 illustrate such a boat resembling photon’s functions. The boat is equipped with Global Positioning System, which allows it travel long distance such as the travel from far away distances to the earth. As the photon which need to travel distance more than 9 × 1016 , does not have sufficient energy to continue the travel, it refill itself with gravitons. Photon is like an energy function, in which energy of one form EInput enters and appears as output in a different form EOutput : EOutput = F (EInput )

(7.1)

Here, F is the energy function. EOutput consists of three parts here: • Electric field generated at the right angle to the direction of travel of photon.

7.2. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD AND GRAVITY

153

• Magnetic field generated at the right angle to the direction of travel of photon. • Momentum that transferred to matter, when photon interacts with particles such as electrons. Particle physics says that the field is created by field particles and in the case of long traveling photon, the field particle the photon consumes is graviton. Based on this observation, it can be claimed that: • Magnetic field created along photon’s path is formed by gravitons, which change their behavior after passing through the photon. • Electric field created along photon’s path is formed by the gravitons, which change their behavior after passing through the photon. • Kinetic energy (momentum) is transferred from photon to electron when photon reaches electron orbiting around nucleus. This energy is used by the photon to jump from low energy state to high energy state. Photon carries the gravitons. Transfer of energy from the photon to electron, is actually the process of transfer of gravitons from photon to electron. • Potential energy and kinetic energy are interchangeable, thus it can be said that the interchange between potential energy and kinetic energy is realized by the transfer of gravitons. Thus, gravitons can be as the basic field particle of our universe. Now let’s look at the interaction between the negative and the positive charge. • Two negative charged particle repel each other. While, two opposite charge particle attract each other. • Repulsion and attraction between two negative charged particle is evident from the increase in the velocity of the two particles in opposite directions for a limited interval of time. • Increase in velocity is change in the kinetic energy of the particle. • Kinetic energy is realized by the transfer of gravitons. • Particle physics says that a photon is exchanged between the two charged particles when they come near to each other.

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• Photon can act like a carrier of gravitons. • Thus, it can be said that the gravitons are stored in a photon and are sent from one charged particle to another particle, in the process of attraction and repulsion between charged particles. The only issue, here is why gravitons need to be encapsulated into photon before being transfer from one charged particle to another charged particle. The possible reasons can be: • The gravitons may have tendency to spread out in specific path directions as evident from the magnetic lines extending from the one end of the magnetic bar to another end. • The enclosing of gravitons in three dimensional space boundary of a photon, help gravitons delivered to a specific destination with limited quantity. The next very basic question is what are positive and negative charge and why they attract one another. The answer is that: • One particle contains surplus gravitons of specific form A. • Another particle needs gravitons of specific form A. • When one particle in need finds the particle with surplus graviton of specific form A, it jumps toward it to meet its need of gravitons. • When one particle in need finds another particle with the same need, it moves away from it to avoid reducing chances of competition for gravitons. • Particles who do not need gravitons are particles without charge and do not move toward each other.

7.2. ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD AND GRAVITY

Figure 7.1: Traveling lights

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Figure 7.2: Boat

7.3. GRAVITY AND STRONG INTERACTION

7.3

157

Gravity and strong interaction

In section 5.1, it is shown that the • Pion needs to travel at very high speed to realize a bond between proton and neutron. • Neutron needs energy to be to push pions to very high speed. Gravitons can be used as the source of energy for realizing such high speed. • Photons can carry these gravitons to neutrons. If above theory is true, breaking atom near moon should require less compared to breaking atom on the surface of the earth.

7.4

Strong and weak interaction

In beta decay, mass of nucleus changes and one type of element changes into another type of element. The typical beta decays are: 14 6C

→ 147 N + e− + ν

(7.2)

12 7N

→ 126 C + e+ + ν

(7.3)

Here, ν stands for neutrino which was proposed by Pauli in 1930. Photon and three bosons are the field particles realizing weak interaction. The mass of bosons is given as: • W ± has mass 85 times that of proton. • Z 0 has mass of 97 times that of proton. As evident from Equation 7.2 and 7.3, the field particles which are thought to mediate in the weak interaction are larger than the mass of carbon and nitrogen. If nature around us is observed, there are two patterns of objects breaking down in smaller pieces: • Objects are hit by something powerful. • Internal structure of the object become unstable. Lets assume that • Neutron/proton has six pions which stays in docks near the surface of protons.

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• If neutron/proton stays without pions for extended period of time, their structure can become unstable and collapse. This process can resulting in smaller particles. • Under such circumstances, decay of particles is a side effect of strong interaction. It means strong interaction and weak interaction are the two aspects of one type of energy transfer. • W ± and Z 0 can be formed when unstable neutron and proton group together.

7.5

Energy flow in universe

According to this book, universe has a very well organized energy distribution system: • Larger particles are energized by smaller particles. • Smaller particles are energized by photons. • Photons are energized by gravitons. • Gravitons are energized by something modern science is unable to detect.

Chapter 8 Basics of modern science In this section, basics of the modern science is revisited based on the concepts presented in this book.

8.1

Basic concepts of modern science

This section summarizes the very basic concepts of modern science based on concepts presented in this book.

8.1.1

What is matter?

Matter is a container of photons. Some of the photons contained in mass act like coded instruction and control the behavior of other contained photons.

8.1.2

What is photon?

Photon is a container of gravitons. Some of the gravitons contained in photon act like coded instruction and control the behavior of other contained gravitons. Gravitons use photon to move from one location to another.

8.1.3

What is conversion of mass into energy?

Matter is a container of photons. Conversion of mass into energy is simply a process through which photons contained in the matter are released.

8.1.4

Why heavy objects can release more energy?

Matter contains docks to accommodate photons. According to this book, mass energy conversion process is simply a process through which photons 159

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contained in docks of matter are released. The only difference between heavy object and light object is the number of docks to accommodate the photons.

8.1.5

Can objects control the intake of photons?

Object can reduce the intake of photons by reducing the number of docks that accommodate the photons. Object can reduce the number of docks by hiding the surface which contains these docks to accommodate the photons.

8.1.6

Why matter do not travel more than speed of light?

Matter is a container of photons. Matter can speed up only to the speed which is the speed of the particles (photons) it contains.

8.1.7

Why light bends?

Photon is a carrier of gravitons. It collects gravitons and deliver them at their destination. Bending of light increase the time, photon uses in exchange of gravitons.

8.1.8

Why gravity travels at the same speed as light?

Photon is the transportation means for gravitons. Thus, speed of photons is the speed of gravitons.

8.1.9

Why gravitons are particle?

Let’s assume photon is a machine hammer and the free space is a nail. The electro-magnetic field photon creates while traveling is like machine hammer hitting a nail. Machine hammer has three characteristics which define its capability to hit a nail: • Power of each hit. • Number of hits in a minute. • The direction of hit. According to Einstein, photon is a special type of hammer where • Power of each hit is fixed

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161

• Number of hits in a minute (frequency of photon) can be adjusted. • Direction of hit (direction of electric and magnetic field) is fixed. As power of each hit is always fixed, it can be claimed that • Fixed amount of energy is transfered at the same speed for all the hits. This can happen only when fixed amount of energy can travel at a fixed speed. • As fixed amount of energy travels at a fixed speed, it can be regarded as a field particle.

8.1.10

Is speed of light is constant?

This book treats matter as a container of photons. Figure 8.1 shows photons contained in a falling object. These photons increase their speed while traveling toward the earth’s surface. It is believed that photons which are not contained in matter travel at the fixed speed and only their frequency increases while they fall. Falling photon experiment only confirmed the increase in the frequency of falling photon. Falling photons experiments are not conducted yet to confirm in the speed of falling photons. There is need for conducting falling photons experiments and confirm falling photons also accelerate while falling. In subsection 8.1.9, it has been assumed that power of each hit is fixed. If proposed experiment in this subsection, proves that the speed of falling photon is not constant, it can be claimed that the amount of energy a photon contains is not only indicated by the frequency of photon but by also its speed. Any observed increase in the speed of falling photon, does not contradict claim by Einstein that photon travel at constant speed in free space. The space surrounding our earth is not a free space. Similarly, most of the universe is not a free space but is a region which is filled with dark and anti dark matter. Let’s discuss another logic to indicate that there is a very limited possibility of speed of light being constant. As shown in Figure 3.11, this book suggests that two photons couple together to exchange gravitons. Let’s assume two photons A and B as shown in Figure 8.2 which are at coordinate (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) respectively at time t1 . Let’s further assume that the speed of both photons is c which is a constant value and photon A and B couple together at t2 on coordinate (x3 , y3 , z3 ). Photon A and B can be coupled together, only when coordinates (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) are at fixed distance from (x3 , y3 , z3 ).

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Figure 8.1: Photons accelerating while falling

8.1. BASIC CONCEPTS OF MODERN SCIENCE

163

Figure 8.2: Coupling of two photons

Let’s assuming A and B are independent entities where are not capable to coordinate their actions through a mutually agreed protocol. In this case, there should be fixed paths on which A and B travel. As coupling of photons is an event that has already happened countless time successfully, it can be said that there are paths in the universe on which photon travel to increase their chance of meeting one another. Figure 8.3 shows a mesh of such paths. Photons travel only on the shown paths (lines) of the mesh and couple together at the points where two paths meet. All photons need to be synchronized by a universal clock and be at the crossing point of two paths at time which is integral multiple of a fixed value. If photon really travel on such paths, photons should be allowed to change direction at fixed angles (in this case at 90 degree) only. This cannot be true as photons can strike a mirror at any angle. Photons which are capable to sense one another and can move at variable speed do not need to travel on fixed paths as shown in Figure 8.3. In the era of Einstein, there were no computers and there was no concept that group of particles (semiconductor devices) can process logic. In the absence of capability to process logic, all photons need to be uniform and behave according to rigid rules.

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Figure 8.3: Paths of traveling photons

8.1. BASIC CONCEPTS OF MODERN SCIENCE

8.1.11

165

How all objects fall at the same speed?

These are the few observations made in this book. • Energy transfer is a controlled mechanism under which particle accepts only a limited number of field particles in a unit time. • Surface of particle have docks to accommodate field particles. Let’s assume two objects X and Y made of same element where object X’s mass is n times that of object Y. X will have n times number of docks to accommodate field particle compared to object Y, as X has n times number of particles compared to Y. • A particle lose energy while traveling. A particle can travel up to 9∗101 6 meters with the energy it can contain. The amount of energy a particle lose (or use in traveling) depends on the distance traveled. Object X will lose n times of energy compared to object Y, as the number of particles contained in object X are n times that of object Y. Let’s consider an example of two objects C and D, which are made of same type of material with equal molecular concentration in both objects. Let’s assume object C has half of mass of object D. Object C and D has following characteristics: Number of docks on the surface of object C to capture gravitons: 1000 Number of docks on the surface of object D to capture gravitons: 2000 Number of gravitons a single dock of object C accepts in one second: 4 Number of gravitons a single dock of object D accepts in one second: 4 Gravitons used by object C in traveling one meter: 20 Gravitons used by object D in traveling one meter: 40 Let’s suppose object C and D fall from the same height. Distance traveled for object C: 490 meters Distance traveled for object D: 490 meters Time of fall for object C: 10 seconds Time of fall for object D: 10 seconds Number of gravitons captured by object C during its fall: 40000 (=1000*4*10) Number of gravitons captured by object D during its fall: 80000 (=2000*4*10) Number of gravitons used by object C during its fall: 9800 (=490*20) Number of gravitons used by object D during its fall: 19600 (=490*40) Number of gravitons object C deliver when it arrives at surface of earth=30200 (=40000-9800) Number of gravitons object D deliver when it arrives at surface of earth=60400 (=80000-19600) The above calculation matches our general observation that object D deliver

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twice the energy compared to object C when it strikes the earth. It has been believed that earth pulls the objects toward it. According to this book, objects might be flying in an energy field (flying) for the purpose of capturing energy on their own discretion rather than being pulled the earth.

8.2

Electron’s energy level and radius of orbit

This section describes the relationship between the energy level of the electron and the radius of the orbit according to this book. • Bohr’s atomic model is modeled after our solar system. Bohr Model assumes that the electrons jump from one orbit to another when their energy changes. However, in our solar system, the planets and the moon do not jump from one orbit to another. • According to this book, the particle are made of sheet like structure, which can change themselves to different dimensions and shapes like an origami. Changing the surface area that faces the field particles, can adjust the energy of the particle without the need of moving to other orbit. • The radius of the orbit, does not necessarily indicate the energy of the particle. The electron in the most external orbit can increase their surface area that faces the field particles and can have the same energy as the the electron which exist in the most inner orbit.

8.3

Energy bands in metals

This section describes the energy bands in metals according to this book. • Energy band of a electron is defined by a minimum and maximum energy level. • According to this book, the energy of particle is defined by the surface area that faces the flow of field particles. • Energy band can be realized by a particle changing the surface area that faces the field particles within a specific range. If the particle is assumed to be a spherical shape, then there is a range of radius in which the particle changes its radius as shown in Figure 8.4.

8.3. ENERGY BANDS IN METALS

167

• Forbidden band corresponds to the range of radius in which the particle does not keeps its radius for significant period of time. In Figure 8.4 the white space between two ranges representing conduction and valence band is the forbidden state. The holes which are thought to exist in the semiconductor are excluded from explanation as: • A number of electrons need to exist in proximity to each other over extended period of time. In other words position and velocity of electrons remain deterministic over a period of time. • Heisenberg principle of uncertainty tells that the position and the velocity cannot be determined at the same time. • Thus, the concept of hole is against the general understanding of the Heisenberg’s law of uncertainty. Change in energy bands happen when an impurity is added to a metal. According to this book, the merging of messages from the metal and impurity leads to the change in behavior. This change in behavior becomes evident as change in the range of allowed radius in the conduction and valence band.

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Figure 8.4: Relationship between shape and energy bands

8.4. TUNNELING PHENOMENA

8.4

169

Tunneling Phenomena

Tunneling Phenomena is the physical effect which helps particles penetrate through the barrier. Tunneling Phenomena is thought to be the underlying mechanism behind field emission, alpha decay and particle escaping from black holes. This section discusses the underlying mechanism in Tunneling Phenomena according to concepts developed in this book. • The particle reduce the surface area that face the streams of field particles. • Reducing surface area facing the field particle, reduces the external force on the particle. • This allows the particle to penetrate the barriers as shown in Figure 8.5. The remaining question is why only a part of the particles are able to penetrate. The reason can be that the nature has created diversity in nature and not all are trained in exactly the same manner.

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Figure 8.5: Tunneling Phenomena

8.5. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

8.5

171

Superconductivity

Superconductivity is the phenomena due to which current pass through a material without losing much energy. Superconductivity can be explained due repetition of following two mechanisms according to this book: • Electrons in the superconductor expand when it needs field particle as source of energy. • After gaining energy, it contracts its dimension and thus reduce chances of collision with other particles. • When it has ran out of energy it again repeats the above two steps.

8.6

Pushing particles beyond c

The particle’s inability to travel at a speed more that c can be contributed to reasons below: • As evident from understanding of the Photoelectric Effect, transfer of energy between the particles is a controlled mechanism under which a particle gains only limited amount of energy from field particles coming from charged plates within a unit time. Particle accelerator provides huge amount of energy within unit time, however the charged particle are not designed to acquire energy more than a specific limit from charged plates. • Ability of the particle to reduce its surface area under in the presence of strong external force, is one of the mechanism through which particles avoids acquiring energy more than a certain limit from charged plates. Now this work describes concepts which can be used to push particles beyond c.

8.6.1

Apply a huge force on the particle instantly

The only reason that is identified for a particle being unable to deviate its speed more than c is their inability to be able to receive energy more than a fixed limit in any unit time. The particle has a kind of intelligent behavior that enables it to receive field particle only up to a certain level. Like other living organisms, particle may have a reacting time, after which it is able to stop the influx of field particles from charged plates. If very large quantity of force is applied to the particle, in a very short time, the particle may not be able to control the flow of filed particles. .

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8.6.2

CHAPTER 8. BASICS OF MODERN SCIENCE

Using the appropriate source of energy

The maximum speed of particle is the maximum speed of photons that it accommodates. In the era of Einstein, there were no computing devices (semiconductor devices) and it was impossible to think that group of particles can process a logic. The only way the universe can work as a well coordinated system is that all particles follow are identical and follow rigid rules. As every leaf of a tree is unique, so are the particles according to this book. There can be photons which travel at much higher speed than c. If matter can accommodate this very fast photons, it can travel at a much higher speed.

8.7

Special Theory of Relativity

It is a well known fact that objects resist change. Objects ability to resist a change is known as inertia. Special Theory of Relativity presents several concepts such as increase in mass, time dilation and length contraction when object which are normally at rest are forced to travel at very high speed. The change behavior of objects at high speed can be also due to inertia. Such change is due to inertia or due to special theory of relativity can be verified by repeating time dilation experiments for different traveled distance. If inertia has any contribution in time dilation phenomena, when distance traveled at high speed is increased, the extent of time dilation should decrease.

8.7. SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

Figure 8.6: Time Dilation

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