Indian History

Wikipedia is sustained by people like you. Please donate today. The Wikimedia Board of Trustees election has started. Please vote. [Hide] [Help us with translations!] History of India From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search History of South Asia Stone Age before 3300 BCE • Mehrgarh Culture • 7000–3300 BCE Indus Valley Civilization 3300–1700 BCE • Late Harappan Culture • 1700–1300 BCE Vedic Civilization 2000–600 BCE Iron Age 1200–1 BCE • Maha Janapadas • 700–300 BCE • Magadha Empire • 684–424 BCE • Nanda Empire • 424-321 BCE • Maurya Empire • 321–184 BCE • Sunga Empire • 185-73 BCE • Kanva Empire • 75-26 BCE • Kharavela Empire • 209–170 BCE • Kuninda Kingdom • 200s BCE–300s CE • Indo-Scythian Kingdom • 200 BC–400 CE • Chera Kingdom • 300 BCE–1200 CE • Chola Empire • 300 BCE–1279 CE • Pandyan Kingdom • 250 BCE–1345 CE • Satavahana Empire • 230 BCE–220 CE • Indo-Greek Kingdom • 180 BCE–10 CE Middle Kingdoms 1CE–1279 CE • Indo-Parthian Kingdom • 21–130s CE • Western Satrap Empire • 35–405 CE • Kushan Empire • 60–240 CE

• Indo-Sassanid Kingdom • 230–360 CE • Vakataka Empire • 250–500 CE • Kalabhras Kingdom • 250–600 CE • Gupta Empire • 280–550 CE • Pallava Kingdom • 275–800 CE • Kadamba Empire • 345–525 CE • Western Ganga Kingdom • 350–1000 CE • Vishnukundina Empire • 420-624 CE • Huna Kingdom • 475-576 CE • Chalukya Empire • 543–753 CE • Harsha Empire • 590-647 CE • Shahi Kingdom • 565-670 CE • Eastern Chalukya Kingdom • 624-1075 CE • Pratihara Empire • 650–1036 CE • Pala Empire • 750–1174 CE • Rashtrakuta Empire • 753–982 CE • Paramara Kingdom • 800–1327 CE • Yadava Empire • 850–1334 CE • Solanki Kingdom • 942–1244 CE • Western Chalukya Empire • 973–1189 CE • Hoysala Empire • 1040–1346 CE • Sena Empire • 1070–1230 CE • Eastern Ganga Empire • 1078–1434 CE • Kakatiya Kingdom • 1083–1323 CE • Kalachuri Empire • 1130–1184 CE Islamic Sultanates 1206–1596 CE • Delhi Sultanate • 1206–1526 CE • Deccan Sultanates • 1490–1596 CE Ahom Kingdom 1228–1826 CE

Vijayanagara Empire 1336–1646 CE Mysore Kingdom 1399–1947 CE Mughal Empire 1526–1858 CE Madurai Nayak Kingdom 1559 –1736 CE Thanjavur Nayak Kingdom 1572–1918 CE Maratha Empire 1674–1818 CE Sikh Confederacy 1716–1799 CE Sikh Empire 1799–1849 CE Company rule in India 1757–1858 CE British India 1858–1947 CE Partition of India 1947 CE Nation histories Afghanistan • Bangladesh • Bhutan • India Maldives • Nepal • Pakistan • Sri Lanka Regional histories Assam • Bihar • Balochistan • Bengal Himachal Pradesh • Orissa • Pakistani Regions Punjab • South India • Tibet Specialised histories Coinage • Dynasties • Economy Indology • Language • Literature • Maritime Military • Science and Technology • Timeline This box: view • talk • edit This article is about the history of the Indian Subcontinent prior to the Partition of India in 1947. For the history of the modern Republic of India, see History of the Republic of India. For the histories of Pakistan and Bangladesh see History of Pakistan and History of Bangladesh. Also for South India see History of South India. The known history of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization, which spread and flourished in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent, from c. 3300 to 1300 BCE. Its Mature Harappan period lasted from 2600-1900 BCE. This Bronze Age civilization collapsed at the beginning of the second millennium BCE and was followed by the Iron Age Vedic period, which extended over much of the IndoGangetic plains and which witnessed the rise of major kingdoms known as the Mahajanapadas. In one of these kingdoms Magadha, Mahavira and Gautama Buddha were born in the 6th century BCE, who propagated their Shramanic philosophies among the masses. Later, successive empires and kingdoms ruled the region and enriched its culture from the Achaemenid Persian empire[1] around 543 BCE, to Alexander the Great[2] in 326 BCE. The Indo-Greek Kingdom, founded by Demetrius of Bactria, included Gandhara and Punjab from 184 BCE; it reached its greatest extent under Menander, establishing the Greco-Buddhist period with advances in trade and culture. The subcontinent was united under the Maurya Empire during the 4th and 3rd

centuries BCE. It subsequently became fragmented, with various parts ruled by numerous Middle kingdoms for the next ten centuries. Its northern regions were united once again in the 4th century CE, and remained so for two centuries thereafter, under the Gupta Empire. This period, of Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known among its admirers as the "Golden Age of India." During the same time, and for several centuries afterwards, Southern India, under the rule of the Chalukyas, Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas, experienced its own golden age, during which Indian civilization, administration, culture, and religion (Hinduism and Buddhism) spread to much of Asia. Kerala had maritime business links with the Roman Empire from around AD 77. Muslim rule in the subcontinent began in 712 CE when the Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh and Multan in southern Punjab,[3] setting the stage for several successive invasions between the 10th and 15th centuries CE from Central Asia, leading to the formation of Muslim empires in the Indian subcontinent such as the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. Mughal rule came to cover most of the northern parts of the subcontinent. Mughal rulers introduced middle-eastern art and architecture to India. In addition to the Mughals, several independent Hindu states, such as the Vijayanagara Empire, the Maratha Empire, the Ahom Kingdom and various Rajput kingdoms, flourished contemporaneously, in Western, Southern and North-Eastern India respectively. The Mughal Empire suffered a gradual decline in the early eighteenth century, which provided opportunities for the Afghans, Balochis and Sikhs to exercise control over large areas in the northwest of the subcontinent until the British East India Company[4] gained ascendancy over South Asia. Beginning in the mid-18th century and over the next century, India was gradually annexed by the British East India Company. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the First War of Indian Independence, after which India was directly administered by the British Crown and witnessed a period of both rapid development of infrastructure and economic decline. During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress, and later joined by the Muslim League. The subcontinent gained independence from Great Britain in 1947, after being partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan. Contents [hide] • 1 Pre-Historic Era o 1.1 Stone Age o 1.2 Bronze Age o 1.3 Vedic period o 1.4 Maha Janapadas o 1.5 Persian and Greek invasions • 2 Maurya Period • 3 Early Middle Kingdoms — The Golden Age • 4 Northwestern hybrid cultures o 4.1 Roman trade with India o 4.2 Gupta Dynasty • 5 Late Middle Kingdoms — The Classical Age • 6 The Islamic Sultanates o 6.1 Delhi Sultanate o 6.2 The Mughal era • 7 Post-Mughal Regional Kingdoms • 8 Colonial era o 8.1 The British Raj • 9 The Indian Independence movement • 10 Independence and Partition • 11 See also • 12 References • 13 Further reading

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14 External links

Pre-Historic Era Stone Age Main article: South Asian Stone Age Further information: Mehrgarh, Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, and Edakkal Caves Bhimbetka rock painting, Madhya Pradesh, India. Stone age writings of Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India. Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley in Central India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the Middle Pleistocene era, somewhere between 200,000 to 500,000 years ago.[5][6] Most traces of the out of Africa migration along the shores of the Indian Ocean seem to have been lost. Due to flooding in the post-Ice Age period, recent finds in Tamil Nadu (at c. 75,000 years ago, before and after the explosion of the Toba volcano) indicate the presence of the first anatomically modern humans in the area. The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent covered a timespan of around 25,000 years, starting around 30,000 years ago. More extensive settlement of the subcontinent occurred after the end of the last Ice Age, or approximately 12,000 years ago. The first confirmed permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka in modern Madhya Pradesh, India. Early Neolithic culture in South Asia is represented by the Mehrgarh findings (7000 BCE onwards) in present day Balochistan, Pakistan. Traces of a Neolithic culture have been found submerged in the Gulf of Khambat in India, radiocarbon dated to 7500 BCE.[7] The Edakkal Caves has one of the earliest exmples of stone age writing. Late Neolithic cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region between 6000 and 2000 BCE and in southern India between 2800 and 1200 BCE. The north-western part of the Subcontinent has been inhabited continuously for at least two million years.[8][9] The ancient history of the region includes some of South Asia's oldest settlements[10] and some of its major civilizations.[11][12] The earliest archaeological site in the Subcontinent is the palaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley.[13] Village life began with the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh,[14] while the first urban civilization of the region began with the Indus Valley Civilization.[15][16] Bronze Age Main article: Indus Valley Civilization See also: Economic history of India and Timeline of the economy of India Ancient Lothal as envisaged by the Archaeological Survey of India. "Priest King" of Indus Valley Civilization The Bronze Age on the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE with the beginning of the Indus Valley Civilization. It was centered on the Indus River and its tributaries which extended into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley,[11] the GangesYamuna Doab,[17] Gujarat,[18] and northern Afghanistan.[19] The civilization is primarily located in modern day India (Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan provinces) and today's Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab, and Balochistan provinces). Historically part of Ancient India, it is one of the world's earliest urban civilizations along with Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead and tin. The civilization flourished from about 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE marked the beginning of the urban civilization on the subcontinent. The ancient civilization included

urban centers such as Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Lothal in modern day India and Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-daro in modern day Pakistan. The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, road-side drainage system and multi-storied houses. Vedic period Main article: Vedic period See also: Vedas and Indo-Aryans Map of North India in the late Vedic period. The Vedic period is characterized by Indo-Aryan culture associated with the texts of Vedas, sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts, next to those of Egypt and Mesopotamia. The Vedic period lasted from about 1500 BCE to 500 BCE, laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society. The Aryas established Vedic civilization all over North India, and increasingly so in the Gangetic Plain. This period succeeded the prehistoric Late Harappan during which immigrations of Indo-Aryan speaking tribes overlaid the existing civilizations of local people whom they called Dasyus. Early Vedic society consisted of largely pastoral groups, with late Harappan urbanization having been abandoned.[20] After the Rigveda, Aryan society became increasingly agricultural, and was socially organized around the four Varnas. In addition to the principal texts of Hinduism the Vedas, the core themes of the Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are said to have their ultimate origins during this period.[21] Early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the presence of Ochre Coloured Pottery in archaeological findings.[22] Vaishali was the capital of "Licchavi," world's second republic only after Arwad.[23] The kingdom of the Kurus[24] corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted Gray Ware culture and the beginning of the Iron Age in Northwestern India, around 1000 BCE with the composition of the Atharvaveda, the first Indian text to mention iron, as śyāma ayas, literally "black metal." The Painted Grey Ware culture spanning much of Northern India was prevalent from about 1100 to 600 BCE.[22] The Vedic Period also established republics (such as Vaishali) which existed as early as the sixth century BC and persisted in some areas until the fourth century AD. The later part of this period corresponds with an increasing movement away from the prevalent tribal system towards establishment of kingdoms, called Maha Janapadas. Maha Janapadas Gautama Buddha undertaking extreme ascetic practices before his enlightenment on the bank of river Falgu in Bodh Gaya, Bihar, India. Detail of a leaf with, The Birth of Mahavira (the 24th Jain Tirthankara), from the Kalpa Sutra, c.1375-1400. Adi Shankara, an Indian philosopher who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta by using the Upanishads for reference. The Mahajanapadas were the sixteen most powerful kingdoms and republics of the era, located mainly across the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains, however there were a number of smaller kingdoms stretching the length and breadth of Ancient India.

Nalanda University is considered "one of the first great universities in recorded history." It was the center of Buddhist learning and research in the world from 450–1193 CE. Main articles: Mahajanapadas and Magadha Empire Main articles: History of Hinduism, History of Buddhism, and History of Jainism See also: Adi Shankara, Siddhartha Gautama, and Mahavira Further information: Upanishads, Indian Religions, Indian philosophy, and Ancient universities of India In the later Vedic Age, a number of small kingdoms or city states had covered the subcontinent, many mentioned during Vedic, early Buddhist and Jaina literature as far back as 1000 BCE. By 500 BCE, sixteen monarchies and 'republics' known as the Mahajanapadas — Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala, Machcha (or Matsya), Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, Kamboja — stretched across the Indo-Gangetic plains from modern-day Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharastra. This period was that of the second major urbanisation in India after the Indus Valley Civilization. Many smaller clans mentioned within early literature seem to have been present across the rest of the subcontinent. Some of these kings were hereditary; other states elected their rulers. The educated speech at that time was Sanskrit, while the dialects of the general population of northern India are referred to as Prakrits. Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced to four major ones by 500/400 BCE, by the time of Siddhartha Gautama. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha.[25] Hindu rituals at that time were complicated and conducted by the priestly class. It is thought that the Upanishads, late Vedic texts dealing mainly with incipient philosophy, were composed in the later Vedic Age and early in this period of the Mahajanapadas (from about 600 - 400 BCE). Upanishads had a substantial effect on Indian philosophy, and were contemporary to the development of Buddhism and Jainism, indicating a golden age of thought in this period. It is believed that in 537 BCE, that Siddhartha Gautama attained the state of "enlightenment", and became known as the 'Buddha' - the elightened one. Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Jain Tirthankara according to Jains) propagated a similar theology, that was to later become Jainism.[26] However, Jain orthodoxy believes it predates all known time. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Jain Tirthankars, and an ascetic order similar to the sramana movement.[27] The Buddha's teachings and Jainism had doctrines inclined toward asceticism, and were preached in Prakrit, which helped them gain acceptance amongst the masses. They have profoundly influenced practices that Hinduism and Indian spiritual orders are associated with namely, vegetarianism, prohibition of animal slaughter and ahimsa (non-violence). While the geographic impact of Jainism was limited to India, Buddhist nuns and monks eventually spread the teachings of Buddha to Central Asia, East Asia, Tibet, Sri Lanka and South East Asia. Persian and Greek invasions See also: Achaemenid Empire, Greco-Buddhism, Alexander the Great, Nanda Empire, and Gangaridai Asia in 323BC, the Nanda Empire and Gangaridai Empire in relation to Alexander's Empire and neighbors. Much of the northwestern Indian Subcontinent (present day Eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire in c. 520 BCE during the reign of Darius the Great, and remained so for two centuries thereafter.[28] In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Empire, reaching the north-west frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. There, he defeated King Puru in the Battle of the Hydaspes (near modern-day Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab.[29] Alexander's march East put

him in confrontation with the Nanda Empire of Magadha and Gangaridai Empire of Bengal. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies at the Ganges River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, was convinced that it was better to return. The Persian and Greek invasions had important repercussions on Indian civilization. The political systems of the Persians was to influence future forms of governance on the subcontinent, including the administration of the Mauryan dynasty. In addition, the region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan and north-west Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, Greco-Buddhism, which lasted until the 5th century CE and influenced the artistic development of Mahayana Buddhism. ________________________________________ Maurya Period Main article: Maurya Empire Further information: Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, and Ashoka the Great Maurya Empire under Ashoka the Great The Maurya Empire (322–185 B.C), ruled by the Mauryan dynasty, was geographically extensive, powerful, and a political military empire in ancient India. The great Maurya empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya and this empire was flourished by Ashoka the Great. At its greatest extent, the Empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now Assam. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, annexing Balochistan and much of what is now Afghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces. The Empire was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it excluded a big portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions near Kalinga which was won by Ashoka the Great. ________________________________________ Early Middle Kingdoms — The Golden Age Ancient India during the rise of Sunga Empire and Satavahana Empire. Kushan Empire of Ancient India. Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola c. 1030 C.E. Badami Chalukya Empire Main article: Middle Kingdoms of India See also: Satavahanas, Sunga Empire, Kuninda Kingdom, Pallava, Kushan Empire, Kharavela, Western Satraps, Pandyan Kingdom, Chola Empire, Chera dynasty, Kadamba Dynasty, Western Ganga Dynasty, Gurjara Kingdom, Vishnukundina, and Chalukya Empire The middle period was a time of notable cultural development. The Satavahanas, also known as the Andhras, was a dynasty which ruled in Southern and Central India starting from around 230 BCE. Satakarni, the sixth ruler of the Satvahana dynasty, defeated the Sunga dynasty of North India. Gautamiputra Satakarni was another notable ruler of the dynasty. Kuninda Kingdom was a small Himalayan state that survived from around the 2nd century BCE to roughly the 3rd century CE. The Kushanas invaded north-western India about the middle of the 1st century CE, from Central Asia, and founded an empire that eventually stretched from Peshawar to the

middle Ganges and, perhaps, as far as the Bay of Bengal. It also included ancient Bactria (in the north of modern Afghanistan) and southern Tajikistan. The Western Satraps (35-405 CE) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India. They were the successors of the Indo-Scythians (see below) and contemporaneous with the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, and the Satavahana (Andhra) who ruled in Central India. Different empires such as the Pandyan Kingdom, Chola Dynasty, Chera Dynasty, Kadamba Dynasty, Western Ganga Dynasty, Pallavas and Chalukya Dynasty dominated the southern part of the Indian peninsula, at different periods of time. Several southern kingdoms formed overseas empires that stretched across South East Asia. The kingdoms warred with each other and Deccan states, for domination of the south. Kalabhras, a Buddhist kingdom, briefly interrupted the usual domination of the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in the South. Northwestern hybrid cultures The founder of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, Demetrius I "the Invincible" (205–171 BCE). See also: Indo-Greek kingdom, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthian Kingdom, and IndoSassanids The north-western hybrid cultures of the subcontinent included the Indo-Greeks, the Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians, and the Indo-Sassinids. The first of these, the Indo-Greek Kingdom, founded when the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius invaded the region in 180 BCE, extended over various parts of present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan. Lasting for almost two centuries, it was ruled by a succession of more than 30 Greek kings, who were often in conflict with each other. The Indo-Scythians was a branch of the Indo-European Sakas (Scythians), who migrated from southern Siberia first into Bactria, subsequently into Sogdiana, Kashmir, Arachosia, Gandhara and finally into India; their kingdom lasted from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. Yet another kingdom, the Indo-Parthians (also known as Pahlavas) came to control most of present-day Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, after fighting many local rulers such as the Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises, in the Gandhara region. The Sassanid empire of Persia, who were contemporaries of the Guptas, expanded into the region of present-day Pakistan, where the mingling of Indian and Persian cultures gave birth to the Indo-Sassanid culture. Roman trade with India Main article: Roman trade with India Coin of the Roman emperor Augustus found at the Pudukottai, South India. Roman trade with India started around 1 CE following the reign of Augustus and his conquest of Egypt, theretofore India's biggest trade partner in the West. The trade started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE kept increasing, and according to Strabo (II.5.12.[30]), by the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India. So much gold was used for this trade, and apparently recycled by the Kushans for their own coinage, that Pliny (NH VI.101) complained about the drain of specie to India: "India, China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million sesterces from our empire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is what our luxuries and women cost us. For what percentage of these imports is intended for sacrifices to the gods or the spirits of the dead?" —Pliny, Historia Naturae 12.41.84.[31] These trade routes and harbour are described in detail in the 1st century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Gupta Dynasty Main article: Gupta Empire See also: Chandra Gupta I, Samudragupta, Chandra Gupta II, Kumaragupta I, and Skandagupta

Further information: Kalidasa, Aryabhatta, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana Further information: Meghadūta, Abhijñānaśākuntala, Kumārasambhava, Panchatantra, Aryabhatiya, Indian numerals, and Kama Sutra The Gupta Empire Kalidasa's Sanskrit play Abhijñānaśākuntala is one of the Legacy of the Gupta Empire. In the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Dynasty unified northern India. During this period, known as India's Golden Age of Hindu renaissance, Hindu culture, science and political administration reached new heights. Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II were the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty. The earliest available Puranas are also thought to have been written around this period. The empire came to an end with the attack of the Huns from central Asia. After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms. A minor line of the Gupta clan continued to rule Magadha after the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by the Vardhana king Harsha, who established an empire in the first half of the seventh century. The White Huns, who seem to have been part of the Hephthalite group, established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the fifth century, with their capital at Bamiyan. They were responsible for the downfall of the Gupta dynasty, and thus brought an end to what historians consider a golden age in northern India. Nevertheless, much of the Deccan and southern India were largely unaffected by this state of flux in the north. Late Middle Kingdoms — The Classical Age Main article: Middle Kingdoms of India See also: Harsha, Western Chalukya Empire, Pratihara, Ahom Kingdom, Pala Empire, Eastern Ganga dynasty, Rashtrakuta Empire, Sena dynasty, Hoysala Empire, Kalachuri, Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, Kakatiya dynasty, Madurai Nayak Dynasty, Shahi, and Vijayanagara Empire

Pala Empire under Dharmapala Pala Empire under Devapala The classical age in India began with the Guptas and the resurgence of the north during Harsha's conquests around the 7th century, and ended with the fall of the Vijayanagar Empire in the South, due to pressure from the invaders to the north in the 13th century. This period produced some of India's finest art, considered the epitome of classical development, and the development of the main spiritual and philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. King Harsha of Kannauj succeeded in reuniting northern India during his reign in the 7th century, after the collapse of the Gupta dynasty. His kingdom collapsed after his death. The Kanauj Triangle was the focal point of empires - the Rashtrakutas of Deccan, the Pratiharas of Malwa, and the Palas of Bengal. From the 7th to the 9th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the Pratiharas of Malwa, the Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of Deccan. The Sena dynasty would later assume control of the Pala Empire, and the Pratiharas fragmented into various states. These were the first of the Rajputs, a series of kingdoms which managed to survive in some form for almost a millennium

until Indian independence from the British. The first recorded Rajput kingdoms emerged in Rajasthan in the 6th century, and small Rajput dynasties later ruled much of northern India. One Rajput of the Chauhan clan, Prithvi Raj Chauhan, was known for bloody conflicts against the encroaching Islamic Sultanates. The Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-seventh century to the early eleventh century. Whilst the northern concept of a pan-Indian empire had collapsed at the end of Harsha's empire, the ideal instead shifted to the south. The Chalukya Empire ruled parts of southern and central India from 550 to 750 from Badami, Karnataka and again from 970 to 1190 from Kalyani, Karnataka. The Pallavas of Kanchi were their contemporaries further to the south. With the decline of the Chalukya empire, their feudatories, Hoysalas of Halebidu, Kakatiya of Warangal, Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri and a southern branch of the Kalachuri divided the vast Chalukya empire amongst themselves around the middle of 12th century. Later during the middle period, the Chola kingdom emerged in northern Tamil Nadu, and the Chera kingdom in Kerala. By 1343, all these kingdoms had ceased to exist giving rise to the Vijayanagar empire. Southern Indian kingdoms of the time expanded their influence as far as Indonesia, controlling vast overseas empires in Southeast Asia. The ports of South India were involved in the Indian Ocean trade, chiefly involving spices, with the Roman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the east.[32][33] Literature in local vernaculars and spectacular architecture flourished till about the beginning of the 14th century when southern expeditions of the sultan of Delhi took their toll on these kingdoms. The Hindu Vijayanagar dynasty came into conflict with Islamic rule (the Bahmani Kingdom) and the clashing of the two systems, caused a mingling of the indigenous and foreign culture that left lasting cultural influences on each other. The Vijaynagar Empire eventually declined due to pressure from the first Delhi Sultanates who had managed to establish themselves in the north, centered around the city of Delhi by that time. The Islamic Sultanates Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia. Main article: Islamic Empires in India See also: Bahmani Sultanate and Deccan Sultanates After the Arab invasion of India's ancient western neighbour Persia, expanding forces in that area were keen to invade India, which was the richest classical civilization, with a flourishing international trade and the only known diamond mines in the world. After resistance for a few centuries by various north Indian kingdoms, short lived Islamic empires (Sultanates) were established and spread across the northern subcontinent over a period of a few centuries. But, prior to Turkic invasions, Muslim trading communities had flourished throughout coastal South India, particularly in Kerala, where they arrived in small numbers, mainly from the Arabian peninsula, through trade links via the Indian Ocean. However, this had marked the introduction of an Abrahamic Middle Eastern religion in Southern India's pre-existing dharmic Hindu culture, often in puritanical form. Later, the Bahmani Sultanate and Deccan Sultanates flourished in the south. Delhi Sultanate Qutub Minar is the world's tallest brick minaret, commenced by Qutb-ud-din Aybak of the Slave dynasty. Main article: Delhi Sultanate In the 12th and 13th centuries, Turkics and Pashtuns invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate at the beginning of the 13th century, in the former Rajput holdings.[34] The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximate to the ancient extent of the

Guptas, while the Khilji Empire was also able to conquer most of central India, but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting most of the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the inter-mingling of the local speakers of Sanskritic prakrits with the Persian, Turkic and Arabic speaking immigrants under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only IndoIslamic empire to stake a claim to enthroning one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultan (1236-1240). A Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur began a trek starting in 1398 to invade the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi.[35] The Sultan's army was defeated on December 17, 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins. The Mughal era Approximate extent of the Mughal Empire in the 17th century. Taj Mahal, built by the Mughals Main articles: Mughal era and Mughal Empire See also: Babur, Humayun, Akbar the Great, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb In 1526, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, which lasted for over 200 years.[36] The Mughal Dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600; it went into a slow decline after 1707 and was finally defeated during the 1857 War of Independence also called the Indian Rebellion of 1857. This period marked vast social change in the subcontinent as the Hindu majority were ruled over by the Mughal emperors, most of them showed religious tolerance, liberally patronising Hindu culture. The famous emperor Akbar, who was the grandson of Babar, tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus. However, later emperors such as Aurangazeb tried to establish complete Muslim dominance and as a result several historical temples were destroyed during this period and taxes imposed on nonMuslims. During the decline of the Mughal Empire, which at its peak occupied an area similar to the ancient Maurya Empire, several smaller empires rose to fill the power vacuum or themselves were contributing factors to the decline. The Mughals were perhaps the richest single dynasty to have ever existed. In 1739, Nader Shah defeated the Mughal army at the huge Battle of Karnal. After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne.[37] During the Mughal era, the dominant political forces consisted of the Mughal Empire and its tributaries and, later on, the rising successor states - including the Maratha confederacy - who fought an increasingly weak and disfavoured Mughal dynasty. The Mughals, while often employing brutal tactics to subjugate their empire, had a policy of integration with Indian culture, which is what made them successful where the short-lived Sultanates of Delhi had failed. Akbar the Great was particularly famed for this. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the Jazia Tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal Emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local Maharajas, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating unique Indo-Saracenic architecture. It was the erosion of this tradition coupled with increased brutality and centralization that played a large part in their downfall after Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively nonpluralistic policies on the general population, that often inflamed the majority Hindu population. Post-Mughal Regional Kingdoms

Main articles: Maratha Empire, Kingdom of Mysore, Hyderabad State, Sikh Empire, Rajputs, and Durrani Empire See also: History of Sikhism Further information: Shivaji, Tippu Sultan, Nizam, Ranjit Singh, and Ahmad Shah Abdali The Maratha Empire in 1760. The last Hindu empire of India. Harmandir Sahib or The Golden Temple is culturally the most significant place of worship for the Sikhs. The post-Mughal era was dominated by the rise of the Maratha suzerianity as other small regional states (mostly post-Mughal tributary states) emerged, and also by the increasing activities of European powers (see colonial era below). The Maratha Kingdom was founded and consolidated by Shivaji. By the 18th century, it had transformed itself into the Maratha Empire under the rule of the Peshwas. By 1760, the Empire had stretched across practically the entire subcontinent. This expansion was brought to an end by the defeat of the Marathas by an Afghan army led by Ahmad Shah Abdali at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). The last Peshwa, Baji Rao II, was defeated by the British in the Third Anglo-Maratha War. Mysore was a kingdom of southern India, which was founded around 1400 CE by the Wodeyar dynasty. The rule of the Wodeyars was interrupted by Hyder Ali and his son Tippu Sultan. Under their rule Mysore fought a series of wars sometimes against the combined forces of the British and Marathas, but mostly against the British with some aid or promise of aid from the French. Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad declaring himself Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1724. It was ruled by a hereditary Nizam from 1724 until 1948. Both Mysore and Hyderabad became princely states in British India. The Punjabi kingdom, ruled by members of the Sikh religion, was a political entity that governed the region of modern day Punjab. This was among the last areas of the subcontinent to be conquered by the British. The Anglo-Sikh wars marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire. Around the 18th century modern Nepal was formed by Gorkha rulers, and the Shahs and the Ranas very strictly maintained their national identity and integrity. Colonial era Main article: Colonial India Vasco da Gama's maritime success to discover for Europeans a new sea route to India in 1498 paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce.[38] The Portuguese soon set up trading-posts in Goa, Daman, Diu and Bombay. The next to arrive were the Dutch, the British—who set up a trading-post in the west-coast port of Surat[39] in 1619—and the French. The internal conflicts among Indian Kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Although these continental European powers were to control various regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they would eventually lose all their territories in India to the British islanders, with the exception of the French outposts of Pondicherry and Chandernagore, the Dutch port of Travancore, and the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman, and Diu. The British Raj Main article: British Raj The British East India Company had been given permission by the Mughal emperor Jahangir in 1617 to trade in India.[40] Gradually their increasing influence led the de-jure Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar to grant them dastaks or permits for duty free trade in Bengal in 1717.[41] The Nawab of Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah, the de

facto ruler of the Bengal province, opposed British attempts to use these permits. This led to the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the 'army' of East India Company, led by Robert Clive, defeated the Nawab's forces. This was the first political foothold with territorial implications that the British acquired in India. Clive was appointed by the Company as its first 'Governor of Bengal' in 1757.[42] After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the Company acquired the civil rights of administration in Bengal from the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II; it marked the beginning of its formal rule, which was to engulf eventually most of India and extinguish the Moghul rule and dynasty itself in a century.[43] The East India Company monopolized the trade of Bengal. They introduced a land taxation system called the Permanent Settlement which introduced a feudal like structure (See Zamindar) in Bengal. By the 1850s, the East India Company controlled most of the Indian sub-continent, which included present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh. Their policy was sometimes summed up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage of the enmity festering between various princely states and social and religious groups. During the British Raj, famines in India, often attributed to failed government policies, were some of the worst ever recorded, including the Great Famine of 1876–78, in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died[44] and the Indian famine of 1899– 1900, in which 1.25 to 10 million people died.[44] The Third Plague Pandemic started in China in the middle of the 19th century, spreading plague to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone.[45] Despite persistent diseases and famines, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at about 125 million in 1750, had reached 389 million by 1941.[46] The first major movement against the British Company's high handed rule resulted in the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the "Indian Mutiny" or "Sepoy Mutiny" or the "First War of Independence". After a year of turmoil, and reinforcement of the East India Company's troops with British soldiers, the British overcame the rebellion. The nominal leader of the uprising, the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, was exiled to Burma, his children were beheaded and the Moghul line abolished. In the aftermath all power was transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown, which began to administer most of India as a colony; the Company's lands were controlled directly and the rest through the rulers of what it called the Princely states. There were 565 princely states when the Indian subcontinent became independent from Britain in August 1947.[47] The Indian Independence movement Main article: Indian independence movement See also: Mahatma Gandhi Further information: Freedom fighters of India Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru in 1937. Rabindranath Tagore is Asia's first Nobel laureate and composer of India's national anthem. The first step toward Indian independence and western-style democracy was taken with the appointment of Indian councilors to advise the British viceroy,[48] and with the establishment of provincial Councils with Indian members the councillors' participation was subsequently widened in legislative councils.[49] From 1920 leaders such as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi began mass movements to campaign against the British Raj. Subash Chandara Bose was another freedom fighter who formed army forces against British rule. Bhagat Singh was also an Indian freedom fighter, considered to be one of the most influential revolutionaries of the Indian independence movement. He is often referred to as Shaheed Bhagat Singh (the word shaheed means "martyr"). Veerapandiya Kattabomman was also another freedom fighter who started his freedom movement against British rule by refusing to pay tax to British Government. Revolutionary activities against the British rule also took place throughout the Indian sub-continent, and these movements succeeded in

bringing Independence to the Indian sub-continent in 1947. One year later, Gandhi was assassinated. However, he did live long enough to free his homeland. Independence and Partition Main articles: Partition of India and History of the Republic of India See also: Jawaharlal Nehru, Rabindranath Tagore, and Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar' Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the years. The Muslims had always been a minority, and the prospect of an exclusively Hindu government made them wary of independence; they were as inclined to mistrust Hindu rule as they were to resist the Raj. In 1915, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi came onto the scene, calling for unity between the two groups in an astonishing display of leadership that would eventually lead the country to independence. The profound impact Gandhi had on India and his ability to gain independence through a totally non-violent mass movement made him one of the most remarkable leaders the world has ever known. He led by example, wearing homespun clothes to weaken the British textile industry and orchestrating a march to the sea, where demonstrators proceeded to make their own salt in protest against the British monopoly. Indians gave him the name Mahatma, or Great Soul, first suggested by the Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore. The British promised that they would leave India by 1947. British Indian territories gained independence in 1947, after being partitioned into the Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan. Following the division of prepartition Punjab and Bengal provinces, rioting broke out between Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in several parts of India, including Punjab, Bengal and Delhi, leaving some 500,000 dead.[50] Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations ever recorded in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan.[50] See also • History of South Asia • History of the Republic of India • History of Pakistan • History of Bangladesh • Indianized kingdom • Contributions of Indian Civilization • Economic history of India • Religion in India • Indian Religions • History of Buddhism • History of Hinduism • History of Jainism • History of Sikhism • Indian philosophy • Science and technology in ancient India • List of Indian inventions and discoveries • Indian maritime history • Military history of India • Kingdoms of Ancient India • Timeline of Indian history • Timeline of the economy of India • Historic figures of ancient India • Indian nationalism • Harappan mathematics • Negationism in India - Concealing the Record of Islam • Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent • Imperialism in Asia#The British in India References India portal

1. ^ "Achaemenians". Jona Lendering, Livius.org. http://www.livius.org/aaac/achaemenians/achaemenians.html. Retrieved on 2008-01-09. 2. ^ Plutarchus, Mestrius; Bernadotte Perrin (trans.) (1919). Plutarch's Lives. London: William Heinemann. pp. Ch. LX. ISBN 0674991109. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plut.+Caes.+60.1. Retrieved on 2008-01-09. 3. ^ "History in Chronological Order". Government of Pakistan. http://www.infopak.gov.pk/History.aspx. Retrieved on 2008-01-09. 4. ^ "Pakistan". Library of Congress. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/pktoc.html. Retrieved on 2008-01-09. 5. ^ Mudur, G.S (March 21, 2005). "Still a mystery". KnowHow (The Telegraph). http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050321/asp/knowhow/story_4481256.asp. Retrieved on 2007-05-07. 6. ^ "The Hathnora Skull Fossil from Madhya Pradesh, India". Multi Disciplinary Geoscientific Studies. Geological Survey of India. 20 September 2005. http://www.gsi.gov.in/homonag.htm. Retrieved on 2007-05-07. 7. ^ Gaur, A. S.; K. H. Vora (July 10, 1999). "Ancient shorelines of Gujarat, India, during the Indus civilization (Late Mid-Holocene): A study based on archaeological evidences". Current India Science 77 (1): 180–185. ISSN 0011-3891. http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jul10/articles29.htm. Retrieved on 2007-05-06. 8. ^ "Palaeolithic and Pleistocene of Pakistan". Department of Archaeology, University of Sheffield. http://www.shef.ac.uk/archaeology/research/pakistan. Retrieved on 2007-12-01. 9. ^ Murray, Tim (1999). Time and archaeology. London; New York: Routledge. pp. 84. ISBN 0415117623. http://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=k3z9iXo_Uq8C&oi=fnd&pg=PP3&dq=%22Time +and+Archaeology%22&ots=vvWqvaJHik&sig=17HcKQWGCxkHycTaYqfJb_ZzGAo. 10. ^ Coppa, A.; L. Bondioli, A. Cucina, D. W. Frayer, C. Jarrige, J. F. Jarrige, G. Quivron, M. Rossi, M. Vidale, R. Macchiarelli (6 April 2006). "Palaeontology: Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry" (PDF). Nature 440: 755– 756. doi:10.1038/440755a. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v440/n7085/pdf/440755a.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-11-22. 11. ^ a b Possehl, G. L. (October 1990). "Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization". Annual Review of Anthropology 19: 261–282. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.19.100190.001401. http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/toc/anthro/19/1?cookieSet=1. Retrieved on 2007-05-06. 12. ^ Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark; Kimberley Heuston (May 2005). The Ancient South Asian World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195174224. OCLC 56413341. http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryWorld/Ancient/Other/~~/dmlldz 11c2EmY2k9OTc4MDE5NTE3NDIyOQ==. 13. ^ Rendell, H. R.; Dennell, R. W. and Halim, M. (1989). Pleistocene and Palaeolithic Investigations in the Soan Valley, Northern Pakistan. British Archaeological Reports International Series. Cambridge University Press. pp. 364. ISBN 0860546918. OCLC 29222688. 14. ^ Jarrige, C.; J.-F. Jarrige, R. H. Meadow and G. Quivron (1995). Mehrgarh Field Reports 1975 to 1985 - from the Neolithic to the Indus Civilization. Dept. of Culture and Tourism, Govt. of Sindh, and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, France. 15. ^ Feuerstein, Georg; Subhash Kak; David Frawley (1995). In search of the cradle of civilization: New light on ancient India. Wheaton, Illinois: Quest Books. pp. 147. ISBN 0835607208. http://books.google.com/books?id=kbx7q0gxyTcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=In+Search+of+ the+Cradle+of+Civilization&sig=ie6cTRBBjV2enHRPO6cBXNbd0qE. 16. ^ Kenoyer, J. Mark (1998). The Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195779401. OCLC 231832104 38469514. 17. ^ Indian Archaeology, A Review. 1958-1959. Excavations at Alamgirpur. Delhi:

Archaeol. Surv. India, pp. 51–52. 18. ^ Leshnik, Lawrence S. (October 1968). "The Harappan "Port" at Lothal: Another View". American Anthropologist, New Series, 70 (5): 911–922. doi:10.1525/aa.1968.70.5.02a00070. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=00027294(196810)2%3A70%3A5%3C911%3ATH%22ALA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-2. Retrieved on 2007-05-06. 19. ^ Kenoyer, Jonathan (15 September 1998). Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. USA: Oxford University Press. pp. p96. ISBN 0195779401. 20. ^ India: Reemergence of Urbanization. Retrieved on May 12, 2007. 21. ^ Valmiki (March 1990). Goldman, Robert P. ed. The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India, Volume 1: Balakanda. Ramayana of Valmiki. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 23. ISBN 069101485X. 22. ^ a b Krishna Reddy (2003). Indian History. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. pp. A11. ISBN 0070483698. 23. ^ http://p2.www.britannica.com/eb/article-9074639/Vaisali Vaisali, Encyclopedia Britannica. 24. ^ M. WItzel, Early Sanskritization. Origins and development of the Kuru State. B. Kölver (ed.), Recht, Staat und Verwaltung im klassischen Indien. The state, the Law, and Administration in Classical India. München : R. Oldenbourg 1997, 27-52 = Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, vol. 1,4, December 1995, [1] 25. ^ Krishna Reddy (2003). Indian History. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. pp. A107. ISBN 0070483698. 26. ^ Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths I.B.Tauris : London ISBN 1860641482 - Jainism's major teacher is the Mahavira, a contemporary of the Buddha, and who died approximately 526 BCE. Page 114 27. ^ Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths I.B.Tauris : London ISBN 1860641482 - “The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira.” Page 115 28. ^ Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art (October 2004). "The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 B.C.E)". Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. http://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/hd/acha/hd_acha.htm. Retrieved on 2007-05-19. 29. ^ Fuller, J.F.C. (February 3, 2004). "Alexander's Great Battles". The Generalship of Alexander the Great (Reprint ed.). New York: Da Capo Press. pp. 188–199. ISBN 0306813300. 30. ^ "At any rate, when Gallus was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the Nile as far as Syene and the frontiers of Ethiopia, and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos to India, whereas formerly, under the Ptolemies, only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise." Strabo II.5.12. Source 31. ^ "minimaque computatione miliens centena milia sestertium annis omnibus India et Seres et paeninsula illa imperio nostro adimunt: tanti nobis deliciae et feminae constant. quota enim portio ex illis ad deos, quaeso, iam vel ad inferos pertinet?" Pliny, Historia Naturae 12.41.84. 32. ^ Miller, J. Innes. (1969). The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641. Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books. 1998. ISBN 0-19-814264-1. 33. ^ Search for India's ancient city. BBC News. Retrieved on June 22, 2007. 34. ^ Battuta's Travels: Delhi, capital of Muslim India 35. ^ Timur - conquest of India 36. ^ The Islamic World to 1600: Rise of the Great Islamic Empires (The Mughal Empire) 37. ^ Iran in the Age of the Raj 38. ^ "Vasco da Gama: Round Africa to India, 1497-1498 CE". Internet Modern History Sourcebook. Paul Halsall. June 1998.

http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1497degama.html. Retrieved on 2007-05-07. From: Oliver J. Thatcher, ed., The Library of Original Sources (Milwaukee: University Research Extension Co., 1907), Vol. V: 9th to 16th Centuries, pp. 26-40. 39. ^ "Indian History - Important events: History of India. An overview". History of India. Indianchild.com. http://www.indianchild.com/history_of_india.htm. Retrieved on 2007-05-07. 40. ^ "The Great Moghul Jahangir: Letter to James I, King of England, 1617 A.D.". Indian History Sourcebook: England, India, and The East Indies, 1617 CE. Internet Indian History Sourcebook, Paul Halsall. June 1998. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/india/1617englandindies.html. Retrieved on 2007-0507. From: James Harvey Robinson, ed., Readings in European History, 2 Vols. (Boston: Ginn and Co., 1904-1906), Vol. II: From the opening of the Protestant Revolt to the Present Day, pp. 333–335. 41. ^ "KOLKATA (CALCUTTA) : HISTORY". Calcuttaweb.com. http://www.calcuttaweb.com/history.shtml. Retrieved on 2007-05-07. 42. ^ Rickard, J. (1 November 2000). "Robert Clive, Baron Clive, 'Clive of India', 1725-1774". Military History Encyclopedia on the Web. historyofwar.org. http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/people_cliveofindia.html. Retrieved on 200705-07. 43. ^ Prakash, Om. "The Transformation from a Pre-Colonial to a Colonial Order: The Case of India" (PDF). Global Economic History Network. Economic History Department, London School of Economics. 3–40. http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/economicHistory/GEHN/GEHN%20PDF/Transformation%20 from%20a%20Pre-Colonial%20-%20Om%20Prakash.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-05-07. 44. ^ a b Davis, Mike. Late Victorian Holocausts. 1. Verso, 2000. ISBN 1859847390 pg 7 45. ^ Plague. World Health Organization. 46. ^ Reintegrating India with the World Economy. Peterson Institute for International Economics. 47. ^ Kashmir: The origins of the dispute, BBC News, January 16, 2002 48. ^ Mohsin, K.M.. "Canning, (Lord)". Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/C_0035.htm. Retrieved on 2007-0507. "Indian Council Act of 1861 by which non-official Indian members were nominated to the Viceroy's Legislative Council." 49. ^ "Minto-Morley Reforms". storyofpakistan.com. Jin Technologies. June 1 2003. http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A119. Retrieved on 2007-05-07. 50. ^ a b Symonds, Richard (1950). The Making of Pakistan. London: Faber and Faber. pp. 74. ASIN B0000CHMB1. OCLC 1462689. "at the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless" Further reading • R.S. Sharma, Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India, (Motilal Banarsidass, Fifth Revised Edition, Delhi, 2005), ISBN 8120808983. Translated into Hindi and Tamil. • R.S. Sharma, Sudras in Ancient India: A Social History of the Lower Order Down to Circa A D 600(Motilal Banarsidass, Third Revised Edition, Delhi, 1990; Reprint, Delhi, 2002). Translated into Bengali, Hindi, Telugu, Kannada, Urdu and Marathi (two volumes). • R.S. Sharma, Perspectives in Social and Economic History of Early India, paperback edn., (Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, 2003). Translated into Hindi, Russian and Bengali. Gujrati, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil and Telugu translations projected. • R.S. Sharma, Material Culture and Social Formations in Ancient India, (Macmillan Publishers, Delhi, 1985). Translated into Hindi, Russian and Bengali. Gujrati, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil and Telugu translations projected. • R.S. Sharma, Urban Decay in India (c.300-1000), (Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, 1987). Translated into Hindi and Bengali. • R.S. Sharma, Advent of the Aryans in India (Manohar Publishers, Delhi,

2003). • R.S. Sharma, Early Medieval Indian Society: A Study in Feudalisation (Orient Longman Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, 2003). • R.S. Sharma, Looking for the Aryans, (Orient Longman, Madras, 1995, ISBN 8125006311). • R.S. Sharma, India's Ancient Past, (Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 9780195687859). • R.S. Sharma, Indian Feudalism (Macmillan Publishers India Ltd., 3rd Revised Edition, Delhi, 2005). • R.S. Sharma, The State and Varna Formations in the Mid-Ganga Plains: An Ethnoarchaeological Vew (New Delhi, Manohar, 1996). • R.S. Sharma, Origin of the State in India (Dept. of History, University of Bombay, 1989) • R.S. Sharma, Land Revenue in India: Historical Studies, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1971. • R.S. Sharma, Light on Early Indian Society and Economy, Manaktala, Bombay, 1966. • R.S. Sharma, Survey of Research in Economic and Social History of India: a project sponsored by Indian Council of Social Science Research, Ajanta Publishers, 1986. • R.S. Sharma, Communal History and Rama's Ayodhya, People's Publishing House (PPH), 2nd Revised Edition, September, 1999, Delhi. Translated into Bengali, Hindi, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu. Two versions in Bengali. • R.S. Sharma, Social Changes in Early Medieval India (Circa A.D.500-1200), People's Publishing House, Delhi. • R.S. Sharma, In Defence of "Ancient India", People's Publishing House, Delhi. • R.S. Sharma, Rahul Sankrityayan and Social Change, Indian History Congress, 1993. • R.S. Sharma, Indo-European languages and historical problems (Symposia papers), Indian History Congress, 1994. • R.S. Sharma, Some economic aspects of the caste system in ancient India, Patna, 1952. • R.S. Sharma, Ancient India, a Textbook for Class XI, National Council of Educational Research and Training, 1980. Translated into Bengali, Hindi, Japanese, Korean, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu. Italian and German translations projected. Revised and enlarged book as India's Ancient Past, (Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 978-0195687859). • R.S. Sharma, Transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages in India (K. P. Jayaswal memorial lecture series), Kashi Prasad Jayaswal Research Institute, Patna, 1992. • R.S. Sharma, A Comprehensive History of India: Volume Four, Part I: the Colas, Calukyas and Rajputs (Ad 985-1206), sponsored by Indian History Congress, People's Publishing House, 1992, Delhi. • R.S. Sharma, Rethinking India's Past, (Oxford University Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0195697872). • Allan, J. T. Wolseley Haig, and H. H. Dodwell, The Cambridge Shorter History of India (1934) • Chandavarkar, Raj. The Origins of Industrial Capitalism in India: Business Strategies and the Working Class in Bombay 1900-1940 (1994) • Cohen, Stephen P. India: Emerging Power (2002) • Daniélou, Alain. A Brief History of India (2003) • Das, Gurcharan. India Unbound: The Social and Economic Revolution from Independence to the Global Information Age (2002) • Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner

Company 1867–1877 - This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List) • Keay, John. India: A History (2001) • Kishore, Prem and Anuradha Kishore Ganpati. India: An Illustrated History (2003) • Kulke, Hermann and Dietmar Rothermund. A History of India. 3rd ed. (1998) • Mahajan, Sucheta. Independence and partition: the erosion of colonial power in India, New Delhi [u.a.] : Sage 2000, ISBN 0-7619-9367-3 • R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, and Kaukinkar Datta. An Advanced History of India London: Macmillan. 1960. ISBN 0-333-90298-X • R.C. Majumdar, The History and Culture of the Indian People, New York: The Macmillan Co., 1951. • Mcleod, John. The History of India (2002) • Rothermund, Dietmar. An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991 (1993) • Smith, Vincent. The Oxford History of India (1981) • Spear, Percival. The History of India Vol. 2 (1990) • Thapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 (2004) • von Tunzelmann, Alex. Indian Summer (2007). Henry Holt and Company, New York. ISBN 0-8050-8073-2 • Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India 6th ed. (1999) External links • History of India at the Open Directory Project [hide] v • d • e History of Asia Sovereign states Afghanistan • Armenia1 • Azerbaijan1 • Bahrain • Bangladesh • Bhutan • Brunei • Burma2 • Cambodia • People's Republic of China • Cyprus1 • East Timor3 • Egypt4 • Georgia4 • India • Indonesia • Iran • Iraq • Israel • Japan • Jordan • Kazakhstan4 • North Korea • South Korea • Kuwait • Kyrgyzstan • Laos • Lebanon • Malaysia • Maldives • Mongolia • Nepal • Oman • Pakistan • Philippines • Qatar • Russia4 • Saudi Arabia • Singapore • Sri Lanka • Syria • Tajikistan • Republic of China5 • Thailand • Turkey4 • Turkmenistan • United Arab Emirates • Uzbekistan • Vietnam • Yemen Dependencies, autonomies, other territories Aceh • Adjara1 • Abkhazia1 • Akrotiri and Dhekelia • Altai • British Indian Ocean Territory • Buryatia • Christmas Island • Cocos (Keeling) Islands • Guangxi • Hong Kong • Inner Mongolia • Iraqi Kurdistan • Jakarta • Khakassia • Macau • NagornoKarabakh • Nakhchivan • Ningxia • Northern Cyprus • Palestine (Gaza Strip • West Bank) • Papua • Sakha • South Ossetia1 • Tibet • Tuva • West Papua • Xinjiang • Yogyakarta Italics indicates an unrecognised or partially recognised country. 1 Sometimes included in Europe, depending on the border definitions. 2 Officially known as Myanmar. 3 Sometimes included in Oceania, and also known as Timor-Leste. 4 Transcontinental country. 5 Commonly known as Taiwan.

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• This page was last modified on 28 July 2009 at 23:20. • Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a nonprofit organization. • Privacy policy • About Wikipedia • Disclaimers South Asian Stone Age From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search History of South Asia Stone Age before 3300 BCE • Mehrgarh Culture • 7000–3300 BCE Indus Valley Civilization 3300–1700 BCE • Late Harappan Culture • 1700–1300 BCE Vedic Civilization 2000–600 BCE Iron Age 1200–1 BCE • Maha Janapadas • 700–300 BCE • Magadha Empire • 684–424 BCE • Nanda Empire • 424-321 BCE • Maurya Empire • 321–184 BCE

• Sunga Empire • 185-73 BCE • Kanva Empire • 75-26 BCE • Kharavela Empire • 209–170 BCE • Kuninda Kingdom • 200s BCE–300s CE • Indo-Scythian Kingdom • 200 BC–400 CE • Chera Kingdom • 300 BCE–1200 CE • Chola Empire • 300 BCE–1279 CE • Pandyan Kingdom • 250 BCE–1345 CE • Satavahana Empire • 230 BCE–220 CE • Indo-Greek Kingdom • 180 BCE–10 CE Middle Kingdoms 1CE–1279 CE • Indo-Parthian Kingdom • 21–130s CE • Western Satrap Empire • 35–405 CE • Kushan Empire • 60–240 CE • Indo-Sassanid Kingdom • 230–360 CE • Vakataka Empire • 250–500 CE • Kalabhras Kingdom • 250–600 CE • Gupta Empire • 280–550 CE • Pallava Kingdom • 275–800 CE • Kadamba Empire • 345–525 CE • Western Ganga Kingdom • 350–1000 CE • Vishnukundina Empire • 420-624 CE • Huna Kingdom • 475-576 CE • Chalukya Empire • 543–753 CE • Harsha Empire • 590-647 CE • Shahi Kingdom • 565-670 CE • Eastern Chalukya Kingdom • 624-1075 CE • Pratihara Empire • 650–1036 CE • Pala Empire • 750–1174 CE

• Rashtrakuta Empire • 753–982 CE • Paramara Kingdom • 800–1327 CE • Yadava Empire • 850–1334 CE • Solanki Kingdom • 942–1244 CE • Western Chalukya Empire • 973–1189 CE • Hoysala Empire • 1040–1346 CE • Sena Empire • 1070–1230 CE • Eastern Ganga Empire • 1078–1434 CE • Kakatiya Kingdom • 1083–1323 CE • Kalachuri Empire • 1130–1184 CE Islamic Sultanates 1206–1596 CE • Delhi Sultanate • 1206–1526 CE • Deccan Sultanates • 1490–1596 CE Ahom Kingdom 1228–1826 CE Vijayanagara Empire 1336–1646 CE Mysore Kingdom 1399–1947 CE Mughal Empire 1526–1858 CE Madurai Nayak Kingdom 1559 –1736 CE Thanjavur Nayak Kingdom 1572–1918 CE Maratha Empire 1674–1818 CE Sikh Confederacy 1716–1799 CE Sikh Empire 1799–1849 CE Company rule in India 1757–1858 CE British India 1858–1947 CE Partition of India 1947 CE Nation histories Afghanistan • Bangladesh • Bhutan • India Maldives • Nepal • Pakistan • Sri Lanka Regional histories Assam • Bihar • Balochistan • Bengal Himachal Pradesh • Orissa • Pakistani Regions Punjab • South India • Tibet

Specialised histories Coinage • Dynasties • Economy Indology • Language • Literature • Maritime Military • Science and Technology • Timeline This box: view • talk • edit The South Asian Stone Age covers the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods in South Asia. In Mehrgarh, in what is today western Pakistan, the Neolithic begins ca. 7000 and lasts until 3300 BCE and the first beginnings of the Bronze Age. In South India, the Mesolithic lasts until 3000 BCE, and the Neolithic until 1400 BCE, followed by a Megalithic transitional period mostly skipping the Bronze Age. The Iron Age begins roughly simultaneously in North and South India, around 1200 to 1000 BCE (Painted Grey Ware culture, Hallur). Contents [hide] • 1 Paleolithic o 1.1 Homo erectus o 1.2 The coming of Homo sapiens • 2 Neolithic • 3 References • 4 See also • 5 External links [edit] Paleolithic [edit] Homo erectus Further information: Acheulian, Soanian, and Riwat Homo erectus lived on the Pothohar Plateau, in upper Punjab, Pakistan along the Soan River (nearby Rawalpindi) during the Pleistocene Epoch. Biface handaxe and cleaver traditions may have originated in the middle Pleistocene.[1] The beginning of the use of Acheulian and chopper-chopping tools of lower paleolithic may be dated to approximately the middle Pleistocene.[2] [edit] The coming of Homo sapiens Bhimbetka rock painting, Madhya Pradesh, India. Stone age writing of Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India. Analysis of mtDNA dates the immigration of Homo sapiens to South Asia to 70,000 to 50,000 years ago.[3] An analysis of Y chromosome haplogroups found one man in a village west of Madurai to be a direct descendant of these migrators.[4] These populations spread further to Southeast Asia, reaching Australia by 40,000 years ago. Cave sites in Sri Lanka have yielded the earliest record of modern homo sapiens in South Asia. They were dated to 34,000 years ago. (Kennedy 2000: 180). For finds from the Belan in southern Uttar Pradesh radio carbon data have indicated an age of 18-17kya. Palaeolithic rock art is also well-known. At the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka humans lived throughout the Upper Paleolithic (10th to 8th millennia BC), revealing cave paintings dating to ca. 7000 BC; the Sivaliks and the Potwar (Pakistan) region also exhibit many vertebrate fossil remains and paleolithic tools. Chert, jasper and quartzite were often used by humans during this period. [edit] Neolithic Further information: Mehrgarh and Neolithic Tamil Nadu The aceramic Neolithic (Mehrgarh I,Baluchistan, Pakistan, also dubbed "Early Food Producing Era") lasts ca. 7000 - 5500 BC. The ceramic Neolithic lasts up to 3300 BC, blending into the Early Harappan (Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age) period.

One of the earliest Neolithic sites in India is Lahuradewa, at Middle Ganges region, C14 dated around 7th millennium BC.[5]. Recently another site near the confluence of Ganges and Yamuna rivers called Jhusi yielded a C14 dating of 7100 BC for its Neolithic levels.[6] In South India the Neolithic began by 3000 BC and lasted until around 1400 BC.South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ashmounds since 2500 BC in Karnataka region, expanded later to Tamil Nadu. Comparative excavations carried out in Adichanallur in Thirunelveli District and in Northern India have provided evidence of a southward migration of the Megalithic culture[7] The earliest clear evidence of the presence of the megalithic urn burials are those dating from around 1000 BC, which have been discovered at various places in Tamil Nadu, notably at Adichanallur, 24 km from Tirunelveli, where archaeologists from the Archaeological Survey of India unearthed 12 urns with Tamil Brahmi script on them containing human skulls, skeletons and bones, plus husks, grains of rice, charred rice and Neolithic celts, giving evidence confirming it of the Neolithic period 2800 years ago. This proved that Tirunelveli area has been the abode for human habituation since the Neolithic period about 3,000 years ago. Adhichanallur has been announced as an archaeological site for further excavation and studies.[8][9] [edit] References • Kennedy, Kenneth Adrian Raine (2000). God-Apes and Fossil Men: Palaeoanthropology of South Asia. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. • James, Hannah V. A.; Petraglia, Michael D. (December 2005). "Modern Human Origins and the Evolution of Behavior in the Later Pleistocene Record of South Asia" (PDF). Current Anthropology 46 (Supplement): S3. doi:10.1086/444365. http://www.human-evol.cam.ac.uk/Members/Petraglia/pubs/JamesPetraglia(CA2005).pdf. • Misra, V. N. (November 2001). "Prehistoric human colonization of India" (PDF). Journal of Biosciences 26 (4): 491–531. doi:10.1007/BF02704749. http://www.ias.ac.in/jbiosci/nov2001/491.pdf. 1. ^ (Kennedy 2000: p. 136) 2. ^ (Kennedy 2000: p. 160) 3. ^ Petraglia 2005, S6 4. ^ Spencer Wells, The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey. Random House, ISBN 0-8129-7146-9 5. ^ Fuller, Dorian 2006. "Agricultural Origins and Frontiers in South Asia: A Working Synthesis" in Journal of World Prehistory 20, p.42 "Ganges Neolithic" 6. ^ Tewari, Rakesh et al. 2006. "Second Preliminary Report of the excavations at Lahuradewa,District Sant Kabir Nagar, UP 2002-2003-2004 & 2005-06" in Pragdhara No. 16 "Electronic Version p.28" 7. ^ Sastri, Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta. A History of South India. pp. 49– 51. 8. ^ Subramanian, T. S. (2004-05-26). "Skeletons, script found at ancient burial site in Tamil Nadu". The Hindu. http://www.hindu.com/2004/05/26/stories/2004052602871200.htm. Retrieved on 200707-31. 9. ^ Zvelebil, Kamil A. (1992). Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature. Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 21–22. ISBN 9004093656. "The most interesting pre-historic remains in Tamil India were discovered at Adichanallur.There is a series of urn burials. seem to be related to the megalithic complex." Mehrgarh From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Holocene epoch This box: view • talk • edit ↑ Pleistocene

Holocene Preboreal (10.3 ka – 9 ka), Boreal (9 ka – 7.5 ka), Atlantic (7.5 ka – 5 ka), Subboreal (5 ka – 2.5 ka) Subatlantic (2.5 ka – present) Mehrgarh, (Urdu: ‫ ) مﮩرگڑھ‬one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC) sites in archaeology, lies on what is now the "Kachi plain" of today's Balochistan, Pakistan. It is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in South Asia."[1]. Located near the Bolan Pass, to the west of the Indus River valley and between the present-day Pakistani cities of Quetta, Kalat and Sibi, Mehrgarh was discovered in 1974 by an archaeological team directed by French archaeologist Jean-François Jarrige, and was excavated continuously between 1974 and 1986. The earliest settlement at Mehrgarh—in the northeast corner of the 495-acre (2.00 km2) site—was a small farming village dated between 7000 BC–5500 BC. Contents [hide] • 1 Lifestyle and technology • 2 Archaeological significance • 3 Mehrgarh Period I • 4 Mehrgarh Period VII • 5 Common variant spellings • 6 See also • 7 Notes • 8 External links [edit] Lifestyle and technology Early farming village in Mehrgarh, c. 7000 BC, with houses built with mud bricks. (Musée Guimet, Paris). Early Mehrgarh residents lived in mud brick houses, stored their grain in granaries, fashioned tools with local copper ore, and lined their large basket containers with bitumen. They cultivated six-row barley, einkorn and emmer wheat, jujubes and dates, and herded sheep, goats and cattle. Residents of the later period (5500 BC to 2600 BC) put much effort into crafts, including flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and metal working. The site was occupied continuously until about 2600 BC.[2] In April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence in human history for the drilling of teeth in vivo (i.e. in a living person) was found in Mehrgarh.[3] [edit] Archaeological significance A relief map of Pakistan showing Mehrgarh. Mehrgarh is now seen as a precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization. "Discoveries at Mehrgarh changed the entire concept of the Indus civilization," according to Ahmad Hasan Dani, professor emeritus of archaeology at Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad, "There we have the whole sequence, right from the beginning of settled village life."[4] According to Catherine Jarrige of the Centre for Archaeological Research Indus Balochistan, Musée Guimet, Paris …the Kachi plain and in the Bolan basin (are) situated at the Bolan peak pass, one of the main routes connecting southern Afghanistan, eastern Iran, the Balochistan hills and the Indus valley. This area of rolling hills is thus located on the western edge of the Indus valley, where, around 2500 BC, a large urban

civilization emerged at the same time as those of Mesopotamia and the ancient Egyptian empire. For the first time in the Indian subcontinent, a continuous sequence of dwelling-sites has been established from 7000 BC to 500 BC, (as a result of the) explorations in Pirak from 1968 to 1974; in Mehrgarh from 1975 to 1985; and of Nausharo from 1985 to 1996.[5] The chalcolithic people of Mehrgarh also had contacts with contemporaneous cultures in northern Afghanistan, northeastern Iran and southern central Asia.[6] [edit] Mehrgarh Period I A figurine from Mehrgarh, c. 3000 BCE. (Musée Guimet, Paris) [hide]History of South Asia Stone Age before 3300 BCE Indus Valley Civilization 3300–1700 BCE Vedic Civilization 2000–600 BCE Iron Age 1200–1 BCE Maurya Empire • 321–184 BCE Chola Empire • 300 BCE–1279 CE Satavahana Empire • 230 BCE–220 CE Middle Kingdoms 1CE–1279 CE Gupta Empire • 280–550 CE Chalukya Empire • 543–753 CE Pala Empire • 750–1174 CE Islamic Sultanates 1206–1596 Mughal Empire 1526–1858 Sikh Empire 1733–1849 British India 1858–1947 Modern States since 1947 Timeline This box: view • talk • edit Archaeologists divide the occupation at the site into several periods. Mehrgarh Period I 7000 BC–5500 BC, was Neolithic and aceramic (i.e., without the use of pottery). The earliest farming in the area was developed by semi-nomadic people using plants such as wheat and barley and animals such as sheep, goats and cattle. The settlement was established with simple mud buildings with four internal subdivisions. Numerous burials have been found, many with elaborate goods such as baskets, stone and bone tools, beads, bangles, pendants and occasionally animal sacrifices, with more goods left with burials of males. Ornaments of sea shell, limestone, turquoise, lapis lazuli, sandstone and polished copper have been found,

along with simple figurines of women and animals. Sea shells from far sea shore and lapis lazuli found far in Badakshan, Afghanistan shows good contact with those areas. A single ground stone axe was discovered in a burial, and several more were obtained from the surface. These ground stone axes are the earliest to come from a stratified context in the South Asia. In 2001, archaeologists studying the remains of two men from Mehrgarh made the discovery that the people of the Indus Valley Civilization, from the early Harappan periods, had knowledge of proto-dentistry. Later, in April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence for the drilling of human teeth in vivo (i.e. in a living person) was found in Mehrgarh. According to the authors, their discoveries point to a tradition of proto-dentistry in the early farming cultures of that region. "Here we describe eleven drilled molar crowns from nine adults discovered in a Neolithic graveyard in Pakistan that dates from 7,500 to 9,000 years ago. These findings provide evidence for a long tradition of a type of proto-dentistry in an early farming culture."[3] [edit] Mehrgarh Period VII Somewhere between 2600 BC and 2000 BC, the city seems to have been largely abandoned, which is when the Indus Valley Civilisation was in its middle stages of development. It has been surmised that the inhabitants of Mehrgarh migrated to the fertile Indus valley as the Balochistan became more arid due to climatic changes. [edit] Common variant spellings • Mehrgarh is also spelled as Mehrgahr, Merhgarh or Merhgahr. • Kachi plain is also spelled as Kacchi plain, Katchi plain. Indus Valley Civilization From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search The extent of Indus Valley Civilization. [hide]History of South Asia Stone Age before 3300 BCE Indus Valley Civilization Vedic Civilization 2000–600 BCE Iron Age 1200–1 BCE Maurya Empire • 321–184 BCE Chola Empire • 300 BCE–1279 CE Satavahana Empire • 230 BCE–220 CE Middle Kingdoms 1CE–1279 CE Gupta Empire • 280–550 CE Chalukya Empire • 543–753 CE Pala Empire • 750–1174 CE Islamic Sultanates 1206–1596 Mughal Empire 1526–1858 Sikh Empire

3300–1700 BCE

1733–1849 British India 1858–1947 Modern States since 1947 Timeline This box: view • talk • edit Bronze Age This box: view • talk • edit ↑ Neolithic Near East (3300-1200 BC) Caucasus, Anatolia, Levant, Ugarit, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Elam, Sistan China (3100-700 BC) List of Bronze Age sites South Asia (3000-1200 BC) Pontic-Caspian steppe (5500-1200 BC) Europe (3000-600 BC) Aegean civilization Beaker culture Unetice culture Tumulus culture Urnfield culture Apennine culture Terramare culture Atlantic Bronze Age Bronze Age Britain Nordic Bronze Age Korea (800-400 BC) Copper Age, Bronze, Arsenical bronze, Writing, Literature, Sword, Axe, Chariot, Boat, Gold hat, Collapse ↓Iron age The Indus Valley Civilization (mature period 2600–1900 BCE), abbreviated IVC, was an ancient civilization in South Asia that flourished around the Indus River basin. Primarily centered along the Indus river, the civilization encompassed most of what is now Pakistan, mainly the provinces of Sindh, Punjab and Balochistan, as well as extending into modern day Indian states of Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan. Remains have been excavated from Afghanistan, Turkmenistan and Iran, as well. The mature phase of this civilization is known as the Harappan Civilization as the first of its cities to be unearthed was from Harappa in Pakistan.[1] Excavation of IVC sites have been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999.[2] The civilization is sometimes referred to as the Indus Ghaggar-Hakra civilization[3] or the Indus-Sarasvati civilization. The appellation IndusSarasvati is based on the possible identification of the Ghaggar-Hakra River with the Sarasvati River mentioned in the Rig Veda,[4] but this usage is disputed on linguistic and geographical grounds.[5] Contents [hide] • 1 Discovery and excavation • 2 Periodisation • 3 Geography

• • • o o o o o o o • o • • • • •

4 Origins 5 Early Harappan 6 Mature Harappan 6.1 Cities 6.2 Science 6.3 Arts and culture 6.4 Trade and transportation 6.5 Agriculture 6.6 Writing or symbol system 6.7 Religion 7 Late Harappan 7.1 Legacy 8 Historical context 9 See also 10 Notes 11 Bibliography 12 External links

Discovery and excavation The ruins of Harrappa were first described in 1842 by Charles Masson in his Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan and the Punjab, where locals talked of an ancient city extending "thirteen cosses" (about 25 miles), but no archaeological interest would attach to this for nearly a century.[6] In 1856, British engineers John and William Brunton were laying the East Indian Railway Company line connecting the cities of Karachi and Lahore. John wrote: "I was much exercised in my mind how we were to get ballast for the line of the railway." They were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines, called Brahminabad. Visiting the city, he found it full of hard well-burnt bricks, and "convinced that there was a grand quarry for the ballast I wanted," the city of Brahminabad was reduced to ballast.[7] A few months later, further north, John's brother William Brunton's "section of the line ran near another ruined city, bricks from which had already been used by villagers in the nearby village of Harappa at the same site. These bricks now provided ballast along 93 miles (150 km) of the railroad track running from Karachi to Lahore."[7] Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan. In 1872–75 Alexander Cunningham published the first Harappan seal (with an erroneous identification as Brahmi letters).[8] It was half a century later, in 1912, that more Harappan seals were discovered by J. Fleet, prompting an excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert Marshall in 1921–22 and resulting in the discovery of the hitherto unknown civilization at Harappa by Sir John Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vats, and at Mohenjo-daro by Rakhal Das Banerjee, E. J. H. MacKay, and Sir John Marshall. By 1931, much of Mohenjo-Daro had been excavated, but excavations continued, such as that led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, director of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1944. Among other archaeologists who worked on IVC sites before the partition of the subcontinent in 1947 were Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc Aurel Stein. Following the Partition of India, the bulk of the archaeological finds were inherited by Pakistan where most of the IVC was based, and excavations from this time include those led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler in 1949, archaeological adviser to the Government of Pakistan. Outposts of the Indus Valley civilization were excavated as far west as Sutkagan Dor in Baluchistan, as far north as at Shortugai on the Amudarya or Oxus River in current Afghanistan. Periodisation Main article: Periodization of the Indus Valley Civilization The mature phase of the Harappan civilization lasted from c. 2600 to 1900 BCE.

With the inclusion of the predecessor and successor cultures—Early Harappan and Late Harappan, respectively—the entire Indus Valley Civilization may be taken to have lasted from the 33rd to the 14th centuries BCE. Two terms are employed for the periodization of the IVC: Phases and Eras.[9][10] The Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, and Late Harappan phases are also called the Regionalisation, Integration, and Localisation eras, respectively, with the Regionalization era reaching back to the Neolithic Mehrgarh II period. "Discoveries at Mehrgarh changed the entire concept of the Indus civilization," according to Ahmad Hasan Dani, professor emeritus at Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad. "There we have the whole sequence, right from the beginning of settled village life."[11] Date range (BCE) Phase Era 5500-3300 Mehrgarh II-VI (Pottery Neolithic) Regionalisation Era 3300-2600 Early Harappan (Early Bronze Age) 3300-2800 Harappan 1 (Ravi Phase) 2800-2600 Harappan 2 (Kot Diji Phase, Nausharo I, Mehrgarh VII) 2600-1900 Mature Harappan (Middle Bronze Age) Integration Era 2600-2450 Harappan 3A (Nausharo II) 2450-2200 Harappan 3B 2200-1900 Harappan 3C 1900-1300 Late Harappan (Cemetery H, Late Bronze Age) Localisation Era 1900-1700 Harappan 4 1700-1300 Harappan 5 Geography Extent and major sites of the Indus Valley Civilization. The shaded area does not include recent excavations such as Rupar, Balakot, Shortughai in Afghanistan, Manda in Jammu, etc. See[1] for a more detailed map. The Indus Valley Civilization encompassed most of Pakistan, extending from Balochistan to Sindh, and extending into modern day Indian states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab, with an upward reach to Rupar on the upper Sutlej. Recently, Indus sites have been discovered in Pakistan's northwestern Frontier Province as well. Other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan while smaller isolated colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Gujarat. Coastal settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor[12] in Western Baluchistan to Lothal[13] in Gujarat. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan,[14] in the Gomal River valley in northwestern Pakistan,[15] at Manda on the Beas River near Jammu,[16] India, and at Alamgirpur on the Hindon River, only 28 km from Delhi.[17] Indus Valley sites have been found most often on rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast,[18] for example, Balakot,[19] and on islands, for example, Dholavira.[20] There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with the Hakra channel in Pakistan and the seasonal Ghaggar River in India. Many Indus Valley (or Harappan) sites have been discovered along the Ghaggar-Hakra beds.[21] Among them are: Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Sothi, Kalibangan, and Ganwariwala.[22] According to J. G. Shaffer and D. A. Lichtenstein,[23] the Harappan Civilization "is a fusion of the Bagor, Hakra, and Koti Dij traditions or 'ethnic groups' in the Ghaggar-Hakra valley on the borders of India and Pakistan."[21] According to some archaeologists, over 500 Harappan sites have been discovered along the dried up river beds of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries,[24] in contrast to only about 100 along the Indus and its tributaries;[25] consequently, in their opinion, the appellation Indus Ghaggar-Hakra civilisation or Indus-Saraswati civilisation is justified. However, these politically inspired arguments are disputed by other archaeologists who state that the Ghaggar-Hakra

desert area has been left untouched by settlements and agriculture since the end of the Indus period and hence shows more sites than found in the alluvium of the Indus valley; second, that the number of Harappan sites along the Ghaggar-Hakra river beds have been exaggerated and that the Ghaggar-Hakra, when it existed, was a tributary of the Indus, so the new nomenclature is redundant.[26] "Harappan Civilization" remains the correct one, according to the common archaeological usage of naming a civilization after its first findspot. Origins See also: Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit There are several theories as to the origin of the Indus Valley civilization. The earliest hypothesis was that it was an early form of a Vedic civilization which would come to dominate most of South Asia, which was presumed to have been characterized by influence from Indo-European migrations. However, this theory began to be rejected when no signs of the traditional culture associated with the Vedas was uncovered in that of the Indus Valley. The absence of horses amongst the many realistic representations of animals was also considered significant, considering the importance of horses and chariots to the culture described in the Vedas. Detailed bone analysis has revealed that the horse itself was introduced to the subcontinent only at the beginning of the second millennium B.C., which contributes to the chronological problem with this theory.[27][28] Finally, the concept of urban life which dominates the Indus Valley civilization is foreign to the more rural lifestyle which is described in the Vedas.[29] The next theory put forward was that the civilization was of proto-Dravidian origin.[30] This theory was first proposed by researchers from Russia and Finland who attempted to show that Indus valley symbols could be derived from the Dravidian language group. Today, the Dravidian language family is concentrated mostly in southern India and northern Sri Lanka, but pockets of it still remain throughout the rest of India and Pakistan (the Brahui language), which lends credence to the theory. Finnish Indologist Asko Parpola concludes that the uniformity of the Indus inscriptions precludes any possibility of widely different languages being used, and that an early form of Dravidian language must have been the language of the Indus people. However, the proto-Dravidian origin theory is far from being confirmed due to an emphasis on linguistic connection while evidence of a broader cultural connection remains to be found.[29] Early Harappan The Early Harappan Ravi Phase, named after the nearby Ravi River, lasted from circa 3300 BCE until 2800 BCE. It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley to the west, and predates the Kot Diji Phase (2800-2600 BCE, Harappan 2), named after a site in northern Sindh, Pakistan, near Mohenjo Daro. The earliest examples of the Indus script date from around 3000 BCE.[31] The mature phase of earlier village cultures is represented by Rehman Dheri and Amri in Pakistan.[32] Kot Diji (Harappan 2) represents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan, with the citadel representing centralised authority and an increasingly urban quality of life. Another town of this stage was found at Kalibangan in India on the Hakra River.[33] Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials, including lapis lazuli and other materials for beadmaking. Villagers had, by this time, domesticated numerous crops, including peas, sesame seeds, dates and cotton, as well as various animals, including the water buffalo. Early Harappan communities turned to large urban centres by 2600 BCE, from where the mature Harappan phase started. Mature Harappan By 2600 BCE, the Early Harappan communities had been turned into large urban centers. Such urban centers include Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-daro in modern day Pakistan and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, Lothal in modern day India. In total, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Indus Rivers and their tributaries. Cities

So-called "Priest King" statue, Mohenjo-daro, late Mature Harappan period, National Museum, Karachi, Pakistan A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus Valley Civilization making them the first urban centers in the region. The quality of municipal town planning suggests the knowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal governments which placed a high priority on hygiene, or, alternately, accessibility to the means of religious ritual. As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and the recently partially excavated Rakhigarhi, this urban plan included the world's first urban sanitation systems. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. The house-building in some villages in the region still resembles in some respects the house-building of the Harappans.[34] The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today. The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms and protective walls. The massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected the Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts.[citation needed] The purpose of the citadel remains debated. In sharp contrast to this civilization's contemporaries, Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, no large monumental structures were built. There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or temples—or of kings, armies, or priests. Some structures are thought to have been granaries. Found at one city is an enormous well-built bath, which may have been a public bath. Although the citadels were walled, it is far from clear that these structures were defensive. They may have been built to divert flood waters. Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with others pursuing the same occupation in well-defined neighborhoods. Materials from distant regions were used in the cities for constructing seals, beads and other objects. Among the artifacts discovered were beautiful glazed faïence beads. Steatite seals have images of animals, people (perhaps gods) and other types of inscriptions, including the yet un-deciphered writing system of the Indus Valley Civilization. Some of the seals were used to stamp clay on trade goods and most probably had other uses as well. Although some houses were larger than others, Indus Civilization cities were remarkable for their apparent, if relative, egalitarianism. All the houses had access to water and drainage facilities. This gives the impression of a society with relatively low wealth concentration, though clear social leveling is seen in personal adornments. Science Further information: Harappan mathematics The people of the Indus Civilization achieved great accuracy in measuring length, mass, and time. They were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures. Their measurements are said to be extremely precise; however, a comparison of available objects indicates large scale variation across the Indus territories. Their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal, was approximately 1.704 mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the Bronze Age. Harappan engineers followed the decimal division of measurement for all practical purposes, including the measurement of mass as revealed by their hexahedron weights. These chert weights were in a perfect ratio of 4:2:1 with weights of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 units, with each unit weighing approximately 28 grams, similar to the English Imperial ounce or Greek uncia, and smaller objects were weighed in similar ratios with the units of 0.871. However,

as in other cultures, actual weights were not uniform throughout the area. The weights and measures later used in Kautilya's Arthashastra (4th century BCE) are the same as those used in Lothal.[35] Unique Harappan inventions include an instrument which was used to measure whole sections of the horizon and the tidal lock. In addition, Harappans evolved some new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead and tin. The engineering skill of the Harappans was remarkable, especially in building docks after a careful study of tides, waves and currents. The function of the so-called "dock" at Lothal, however, is disputed. In 2001, archaeologists studying the remains of two men from Mehrgarh, Pakistan, made the discovery that the people of the Indus Valley Civilisation, from the early Harappan periods, had knowledge of proto-dentistry. Later, in April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence for the drilling of human teeth in vivo (i.e., in a living person) was found in Mehrgarh. Eleven drilled molar crowns from nine adults were discovered in a Neolithic graveyard in Mehrgarh that dates, from 7,500-9,000 years ago. According to the authors, their discoveries point to a tradition of protodentistry in the early farming cultures of that region.[36] A touchstone bearing gold streaks was found in Banawali, which was probably used for testing the purity of gold (such a technique is still used in some parts of India).[37] Arts and culture The "dancing girl of Mohenjo Daro." Various sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry and anatomically detailed figurines in terracotta, bronze and steatite have been found at the excavation sites. A number of gold, terra-cotta and stone figurines of girls in dancing poses reveal the presence of some dance form. Also, these terra-cotta figurines included cows, bears, monkeys, and dogs. Sir John Marshall is known to have reacted with surprise when he saw the famous Indus bronze statuette of a slender-limbed dancing girl in Mohenjo-daro: … When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were prehistoric; they seemed to completely upset all established ideas about early art, and culture. Modeling such as this was unknown in the ancient world up to the Hellenistic age of Greece, and I thought, therefore, that some mistake must surely have been made; that these figures had found their way into levels some 3000 years older than those to which they properly belonged. … Now, in these statuettes, it is just this anatomical truth which is so startling; that makes us wonder whether, in this all-important matter, Greek artistry could possibly have been anticipated by the sculptors of a far-off age on the banks of the Indus. Many crafts "such as shell working, ceramics, and agate and glazed steatite bead making" were used in the making of necklaces, bangles, and other ornaments from all phases of Harappan sites and some of these crafts are still practiced in the subcontinent today.[38] Some make-up and toiletry items (a special kind of combs (kakai), the use of collyrium and a special three-in-one toiletry gadget) that were found in Harappan contexts still have similar counterparts in modern India.[39] Terracotta female figurines were found (ca. 2800-2600 BCE) which had red color applied to the "manga" (line of partition of the hair).[39] Seals have been found at Mohenjo-daro depicting a figure standing on its head, and another sitting cross-legged in what some call a yoga-like pose (see image, the so-called Pashupati, below). A harp-like instrument depicted on an Indus seal and two shell objects found at Lothal indicate the use of stringed musical instruments. The Harappans also made various toys and games, among them cubical dice (with one to six holes on the faces), which were found in sites like Mohenjo-Daro.[40] Trade and transportation

Computer-aided reconstruction of Harappan coastal settlement at Sokhta Koh near Pasni on the westernmost outreaches of the civilization Further information: Lothal and Meluhha The Indus civilization's economy appears to have depended significantly on trade, which was facilitated by major advances in transport technology. These advances included bullock carts that are identical to those seen throughout South Asia today, as well as boats. Most of these boats were probably small, flat-bottomed craft, perhaps driven by sail, similar to those one can see on the Indus River today; however, there is secondary evidence of sea-going craft. Archaeologists have discovered a massive, dredged canal and what they regard as a docking facility at the coastal city of Lothal in western India (Gujarat state). An extensive canal network, used for irrigation, has however also been discovered by H.-P. Francfort. During 4300–3200 BCE of the chalcolithic period (copper age), the Indus Valley Civilization area shows ceramic similarities with southern Turkmenistan and northern Iran which suggest considerable mobility and trade. During the Early Harappan period (about 3200–2600 BCE), similarities in pottery, seals, figurines, ornaments, etc., document intensive caravan trade with Central Asia and the Iranian plateau.[41] Judging from the dispersal of Indus civilisation artifacts, the trade networks, economically, integrated a huge area, including portions of Afghanistan, the coastal regions of Persia, northern and western India, and Mesopotamia. There was an extensive maritime trade network operating between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations as early as the middle Harappan Phase, with much commerce being handled by "middlemen merchants from Dilmun" (modern Bahrain and Failaka located in the Persian Gulf).[42] Such long-distance sea trade became feasible with the innovative development of plank-built watercraft, equipped with a single central mast supporting a sail of woven rushes or cloth. Several coastal settlements like Sotkagen-dor (astride Dasht River, north of Jiwani), Sokhta Koh (astride Shadi River, north of Pasni) and Balakot (near Sonmiani) in Pakistan along with Lothal in India testify to their role as Harappan trading outposts. Shallow harbors located at the estuary of rivers opening into the sea allowed brisk maritime trade with Mesopotamian cities. Agriculture Some post-1980 studies indicate that food production was largely indigenous to the Indus Valley. It is known that the people of Mehrgarh used domesticated wheats and barley,[43] and the major cultivated cereal crop was naked six-row barley, a crop derived from two-row barley (see Shaffer and Liechtenstein 1995, 1999). Archaeologist Jim G. Shaffer (1999: 245) writes that the Mehrgarh site "demonstrates that food production was an indigenous South Asian phenomenon" and that the data support interpretation of "the prehistoric urbanization and complex social organization in South Asia as based on indigenous, but not isolated, cultural developments." Others, such as Dorian Fuller, however, indicate that it took some 2000 years before Middle Eastern wheat was acclimatised to South Asian conditions. Writing or symbol system Main article: Indus script Ten Indus characters discovered near the northern gate of Dholavira, c. 2000 BCE Well over 400 distinct Indus symbols (some say 600)[44] have been found on seals, small tablets, or ceramic pots and over a dozen other materials, including a "signboard" that apparently once hung over the gate of the inner citadel of the Indus city of Dholavira. Typical Indus inscriptions are no more than four or five characters in length, most of which (aside from the Dholavira "signboard") are exquisitely tiny; the longest on a single surface, which is less than 1 inch (2.54

cm) square, is 17 signs long; the longest on any object (found on three different faces of a mass-produced object) has a length of 26 symbols. While the Indus Valley Civilization is often characterized as a literate society on the evidence of these inscriptions, this description has been challenged on linguistic and archaeological grounds: it has been pointed out that the brevity of the inscriptions is unparalleled in any known premodern literate society. Based partly on this evidence, a controversial paper by Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel (2004)[45] argues that the Indus system did not encode language, but was instead similar to a variety of non-linguistic sign systems used extensively in the Near East and other societies. Others have claimed on occasion that the symbols were exclusively used for economic transactions, but this claim leaves unexplained the appearance of Indus symbols on many ritual objects, many of which were massproduced in molds. No parallels to these mass-produced inscriptions are known in any other early ancient civilizations.[46] In a 2009 study published in Science, computer scientists, comparing the pattern of symbols to various linguistic scripts and nonlinguistic systems, including DNA and a computer programming language, found that the Indus script's pattern is closer to that of spoken words, supporting the hypothesis that it codes for an as-yet-unknown language.[47][48] Photos of many of the thousands of extant inscriptions are published in the Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions (1987, 1991), edited by A. Parpola and his colleagues. Publication of a final third volume, which will reportedly republish photos taken in the 1920s and 1930s of hundreds of lost or stolen inscriptions, along with many discovered in the last few decades, has been announced for several years, but has not yet found its way into print. For now, researchers must supplement the materials in the Corpus by study of the tiny photos in the excavation reports of Marshall (1931), Mackay (1938, 1943), Wheeler (1947), or reproductions in more recent scattered sources. Religion Further information: Prehistoric religion and History of Hinduism In view of the large number of figurines[49] found in the Indus valley, it has been widely suggested that the Harappan people worshipped a Mother goddess symbolizing fertility. However, this view has been disputed by S. Clark.[50] Some Indus valley seals show swastikas which are found in later religions and mythologies, especially in Indian religions such as Hinduism and Jainism. The earliest evidence for elements of Hinduism are present before and during the early Harappan period[51][52]. Phallic symbols resembling the Hindu Siva lingam have been found in the Harappan remains.[53][54] Many Indus valley seals show animals. One famous seal shows a figure seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position and surrounded by animals was named after Pashupati (lord of cattle), an epithet of Shiva and Rudra.[55][56].[57] In the earlier phases of their culture, the Harappans buried their dead; however, later, especially in the Cemetery H culture of the late Harrapan period, they also cremated their dead and buried the ashes in burial urns, a transition notably also alluded to in the Rigveda, where the forefathers "both cremated (agnidagdhá-) and uncremated (ánagnidagdha-)" are invoked (RV 10.15.14). Late Harappan Main article: Late Harappan Around 1800 BCE, signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. However, the Indus Valley Civilization did not disappear suddenly, and many elements of the Indus Civilization can be found in later cultures. Current archaeological data suggests that material culture classified as Late Harappan may have persisted until at least c. 1000-900 BCE and was partially contemporaneous with the Painted Grey Ware culture.[58] Archaeologists have emphasised that, just as in most areas of the world, there was a continuous series of cultural developments. These link "the so-called two major phases of urbanisation in South Asia".[58]

Indus tablets. The first one shows a Swastika A possible natural reason for the IVC's decline is connected with climate change that is also signaled for the neighboring areas of the Middle East: The Indus valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the monsoon at that time. Alternatively, a crucial factor may have been the disappearance of substantial portions of the Ghaggar Hakra river system. A tectonic event may have diverted the system's sources toward the Ganges Plain, though there is complete uncertainty about the date of this event as most settlements inside Ghaggar-Hakra river beds have not yet been dated. Although this particular factor is speculative, and not generally accepted, the decline of the IVC, as with any other civilization, will have been due to a combination of various reasons.[citation needed] New geological research is now being conducted by a group led by Peter Clift, from the University of Aberdeen, to investigate how the courses of rivers have changed in this region since 8000 years ago in order to test whether climate or river reorganizations are responsible for the decline of the Harappan. A 2004 paper indicated that the isotopes of the Ghaggar-Hakra system do not come from the Himalayan glaciers, and were rain-fed instead, contradicting a Harappan time mighty "Sarasvati' river.[59] Legacy In the aftermath of the Indus Civilization's collapse, regional cultures emerged, to varying degrees showing the influence of the Indus Civilization. In the formerly great city of Harappa, burials have been found that correspond to a regional culture called the Cemetery H culture. At the same time, the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture expanded from Rajasthan into the Gangetic Plain. The Cemetery H culture has the earliest evidence for cremation, a practice dominant in Hinduism until today. Historical context The IVC has been tentatively identified with the toponym Meluhha known from Sumerian records. It has been compared in particular with the civilizations of Elam (also in the context of the Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis) and with Minoan Crete (because of isolated cultural parallels such as the ubiquitous goddess worship and depictions of bull-leaping).[60] The mature (Harappan) phase of the IVC is contemporary to the Early to Middle Bronze Age in the Ancient Near East, in particular the Old Elamite period, Early Dynastic to Ur III Mesopotamia, Prepalatial Minoan Crete and Old Kingdom to First Intermediate Period Egypt. The language of the IVC is unknown, although there are a number of hypotheses: Proto-Dravidian,[61][31] Proto-Munda (or Para-Munda) and a "lost phylum" (perhaps related or ancestral to the Nihali language)[62] have been proposed as candidates. See also • Charles Masson - First European explorer of Harappa • Sokhta Koh - A coastal Harappan settlement • Meluhha - a place name used in Mesopotamia which may have referred to the Indus Civilization • Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures • Brahui language - a language sometimes linked to that of the (southern) Indus Civilization • Gola dhoro Notes 1. ^ Beck, Roger B.; Linda Black, Larry S. Krieger, Phillip C. Naylor, Dahia Ibo Shabaka, (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN 0-395-87274-X. 2. ^ "'Earliest writing' found". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/334517.stm. 3. ^ Ching, Francis D. K.; Jarzombek, Mark;Prakash, Vikramaditya (2006). A Global History of Architecture. Hoboken, N.J.: J. Wiley & Sons. pp. pp. 28–32. ISBN 0471268925. 4. ^ (McIntosh 2001, p.24) 5. ^ Ratnagar, Shereen (2006). Trading Encounters: From the Euphrates to the

Indus in the Bronze Age. Oxford University Press, India. ISBN 019568088X. 6. ^ Masson, Charles (1842). "Chapter 2: Haripah". Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan and the Panjab; including a residence in those countries from 1826 to 1838. London: Richard Bentley. pp. 472. "A long march preceded our arrival at Haripah, through jangal of the closest description.... When I joined the camp I found it in front of the village and ruinous brick castle. Behind us was a large circular mound, or eminence, and to the west was an irregular rocky height, crowned with the remains of buildings, in fragments of walls, with niches, after the eastern manner.... Tradition affirms the existence here of a city, so considerable that it extended to Chicha Watni, thirteen cosses distant, and that it was destroyed by a particular visitation of Providence, brought down by the lust and crimes of the sovereign." Note that the coss, a measure of distance used from Vedic period to Mughal times, is approximately 2 miles (3.2 km). 7. ^ a b Davreau, Robert (1976). "Indus Valley". in Reader's Digest. World's Last Mysteries. 8. ^ Cunningham, A., 1875. Archaeological Survey of India, Report for the Year 1872-73, 5: 105-8 and pl. 32-3. Calcutta: Archaeological Survey of India. 9. ^ Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991). "The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan and Western India". Journal of World Prehistory 5: 1–64. doi:10.1007/BF00978474. 10. ^ (Shaffer 1992, I:441-464, II:425-446.) 11. ^ Chandler, Graham (September/October 1999). "Traders of the Plain". Saudi Aramco World: 34–42. http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199905/traders.of.the.plain.htm. 12. ^ Dales, George F. (1962). "Harappan Outposts on the Makran Coast". Antiquity 36 (142): 86. 13. ^ Rao, Shikaripura Ranganatha (1973). Lothal and the Indus civilization. London: Asia Publishing House. ISBN 0210222786. 14. ^ (Kenoyer 1998, p. 96) 15. ^ Dani, Ahmad Hassan (1970-1971). "Excavations in the Gomal Valley". Ancient Pakistan (5): 1–177. 16. ^ Joshi, J. P.; Bala, M. (1982). "Manda: A Harappan site in Jammu and Kashmir". in Possehl, Gregory L. (ed.). Harappan Civilization: A recent perspective. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 185–95. 17. ^ A. Ghosh, ed. "Excavations at Alamgirpur". Indian Archaeology, A Review (1958-1959). Delhi: Archaeol. Surv. India. pp. 51–52. 18. ^ Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2003). The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 95. ISBN 0521011094. 19. ^ Dales, George F. (1979). "The Balakot Project: summary of four years excavations in Pakistan". in Maurizio Taddei (ed.). South Asian Archaeology 1977. Naples: Seminario di Studi Asiatici Series Minor 6. Instituto Universitario Orientate. pp. 241–274. 20. ^ Bisht, R. S. (1989). "A new model of the Harappan town planning as revealed at Dholavira in Kutch: a surface study of its plan and architecture". in Chatterjee, Bhaskar (ed.). History and Archaeology. New Delhi: Ramanand Vidya Bhawan. pp. 379–408. ISBN 8185205469. 21. ^ a b Possehl, Gregory L. (1990). "Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization". Annual Reviews of Anthropology 19 (19): 261–282 (Map on page 263). doi:10.1146/annurev.an.19.100190.001401. http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/toc/anthro/19/1. 22. ^ Mughal, M. R. 1982. "Recent archaeological research in the Cholistan desert". in Possehl, Gregory L. (ed.). Harappan Civilization. Delhi: Oxford & IBH & A.I.1.S.. pp. 85–95. 23. ^ Shaffer, Jim G.; Lichtenstein, Diane A. (1989). "Ethnicity and Change in the Indus Valley Cultural Tradition". Old Problems and New Perspectives in the Archaeology of South Asia. Wisconsin Archaeological Reports 2. pp. 117–126. 24. ^ (Gupta 1995, p. 183) 25. ^ e.g. Misra, Virendra Nath (1992). Indus Civilization, a special Number of

the Eastern Anthropologist. pp. 1–19. 26. ^ Ratnagar, Shereen (2006). Understanding Harappa: Civilization in the Greater Indus Valley. New Delhi: Tulika Books. ISBN 8189487027. 27. ^ Indus writing: Sanskrit or Dravidian? 28. ^ Hinduism and The Indus Valley Civilization 29. ^ a b Ancient Indus Valley Script: Dani Interview Text Only 30. ^ Indus Writing Analysis by Asko Parpola 31. ^ a b Parpola, Asko (1994). Deciphering the Indus Script. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521430798. 32. ^ Durrani, F. A. (1984). "Some Early Harappan sites in Gomal and Bannu Valleys". in Lal, B. B. and Gupta, S. P.. Frontiers of Indus Civilisation. Delhi: Books & Books. pp. 505–510. 33. ^ Thapar, B. K. (1975). "Kalibangan: A Harappan Metropolis Beyond the Indus Valley". Expedition 17 (2): 19–32. 34. ^ It has been noted that the courtyard pattern and techniques of flooring of Harappan houses has similarities to the way house-building is still done in some villages of the region. (Lal 2002, pp. 93–95) 35. ^ Sergent, Bernard (1997) (in French). Genèse de l'Inde. Paris: Payot. pp. 113. ISBN 2228891169. 36. ^ Coppa, A.; et al. (2006-04-06). "Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry: Flint tips were surprisingly effective for drilling tooth enamel in a prehistoric population". Nature 440: 755. doi:10.1038/440755a. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v440/n7085/pdf/440755a.pdf. 37. ^ Bisht, R. S. (1982). "Excavations at Banawali: 1974-77". in Possehl, Gregory L. (ed.). Harappan Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.. pp. 113–124. 38. ^ Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1997). "Trade and Technology of the Indus Valley: New Insights from Harappa, Pakistan". World Archaeology 29 (2: "High-Definition Archaeology: Threads Through the Past"): 262–280. 39. ^ a b (Lal 2002, p. 82) 40. ^ (Lal 2002, p. 89) 41. ^ (Parpola 2005, pp. 2–3) 42. ^ Neyland, R. S. (1992). "The seagoing vessels on Dilmun seals". in Keith, D.H.; Carrell, T.L. (eds.). Underwater archaeology proceedings of the Society for Historical Archaeology Conference at Kingston, Jamaica 1992. Tucson, AZ: Society for Historical Archaeology. pp. 68–74. 43. ^ Jarrige, J.-F. (1986). "Excavations at Mehrgarh-Nausharo". Pakistan Archaeology 10 (22): 63–131. 44. ^ Wells, B. An Introduction to Indus Writing. Early Sites Research Society (West) Monograph Series, 2, Independence MO 1999 45. ^ Farmer, Steve; Sproat, Richard; Witzel, Michael. The Collapse of the Indus-Script Thesis: The Myth of a Literate Harappan Civilization. http://www.safarmer.com/fsw2.pdf. 46. ^ These and other issues are addressed in (Parpola 2005) 47. ^ "Entropic Evidence for Linguistic Structure in the Indus Script.". Science 324 (5931): 1165. May 2009. doi:10.1126/science.1170391. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/1170391. Retrieved on 2009-06-05. 48. ^ Indus Script Encodes Language, Reveals New Study of Ancient Symbols Newswise, Retrieved on Jun 5, 2009. 49. ^ Photos: http://www.harappa.com/figurines/index.html 50. ^ Clark, Sharri R. (2007). The social lives of figurines: recontextualizing the third millennium BC terracotta figurines from Harappa, Pakistan.. Harvard PhD. 51. ^ "Rigveda". The Hindu Universe. HinduNet Inc. http://www.hindunet.org/vedas/rigveda/. Retrieved on 2007-06-25. 52. ^ "Hindu History". http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/history/history_1.shtml. The BBC names a bath and phallic symbols of the Harappan civilization as features of the

"Prehistoric religion (3000-1000BCE)". 53. ^ (Basham 1967) 54. ^ Frederick J. Simoons (1998). Plants of life, plants of death. pp. 363. 55. ^ Ranbir Vohra (2000). The Making of India: A Historical Survey. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 15. 56. ^ Grigoriĭ Maksimovich Bongard-Levin (1985). Ancient Indian Civilization. Arnold-Heinemann. pp. 45. 57. ^ Steven Rosen, Graham M. Schweig (2006). Essential Hinduism. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 45. 58. ^ a b Shaffer, Jim (1993). "Reurbanization: The eastern Punjab and beyond". in Spodek, Howard; Srinivasan, Doris M.. Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times. 59. ^ Tripathi, Jayant K.; Tripathi, K.; Bock, Barbara; Rajamani, V. & Eisenhauer, A. (2004-10-25). "Is River Ghaggar, Saraswati? Geochemical Constraints". Current Science 87 (8). http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/oct252004/1141.pdf. 60. ^ Mode, H. (1944). Indische Frühkulturen und ihre Beziehungen zum Westen. Basel. 61. ^ "Indus civilization". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9042359. Retrieved on 2007-02-16. 62. ^ Witzel, Michael (1999). "Substrate Languages in Old Indo-Aryan (Ṛgvedic, Middle and Late Vedic)". Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies 5 (1). http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0501/ejvs0501article.pdf. Bibliography • Allchin, Bridget (1997). Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early Archaeology of South Asia. New York: Viking. • Allchin, Raymond (ed.) (1995). The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States. New York: Cambridge University Press. • Aronovsky, Ilona; Gopinath, Sujata (2005). The Indus Valley. Chicago: Heinemann. • Basham, A. L. (1967). The Wonder That Was India. London: Sidgwick & Jackson. pp. 11–14. • Chakrabarti, D. K. (2004). Indus Civilization Sites in India: New Discoveries. Mumbai: Marg Publications. ISBN 81-85026-63-7. • Dani, Ahmad Hassan (1984). Short History of Pakistan (Book 1). University of Karachi. • Dani, Ahmad Hassan; Mohen, J-P. (eds.) (1996). History of Humanity, Volume III, From the Third Millennium to the Seventh Century BC. New York/Paris: Routledge/UNESCO. ISBN 0415093066. • Gupta, S. P. (1996). The Indus-Saraswati Civilization: Origins, Problems and Issues. Delhi: Pratibha Prakashan. ISBN 81-85268-46-0. • Gupta, S. P. (ed.) (1995). The lost Sarasvati and the Indus Civilisation. Jodhpur: Kusumanjali Prakashan. • Kathiroli; et al. (2004). "Recent Marine Archaeological Finds in Khambhat, Gujarat". Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology (1): 141–149. • Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998). Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-577940-1. • Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991). "The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan and Western India". Journal of World Prehistory 5: 1–64. doi:10.1007/BF00978474. • Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark; Heuston, Kimberly (2005). The Ancient South Asian World. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195174224. • Kirkpatrick, Naida (2002). The Indus Valley. Chicago: Heinemann. • Lahiri, Nayanjot (ed.) (2000). The Decline and Fall of the Indus Civilisation. Delhi: Permanent Black. ISBN 81-7530-034-5. • Lal, B. B. (1998). India 1947-1997: New Light on the Indus Civilization. New Delhi: Aryan Books International. ISBN 81-7305-129-1. • Lal, B. B. (1997). The Earliest Civilisation of South Asia (Rise, Maturity and Decline).

• Lal, B. B. (2002). The Sarasvati flows on. • McIntosh, Jane (2001). A Peaceful Realm: The Rise And Fall of the Indus Civilization. Boulder: Westview Press. ISBN 0813335329. • Mughal, Mohammad Rafique (1997). Ancient Cholistan, Archaeology and Architecture. Ferozesons. ISBN 9690013505. • Parpola, Asko (2005-05-19). "Study of the Indus Script". http://www.harappa.com/script/indusscript.pdf. (50th ICES Tokyo Session) • Possehl, Gregory (2002). The Indus Civilisation. Walnut Creek: Alta Mira Press. • Rao, Shikaripura Ranganatha (1991). Dawn and Devolution of the Indus Civilisation. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan. ISBN 81-85179-74-3. • Shaffer, Jim G. (1995). "Cultural tradition and Palaeoethnicity in South Asian Archaeology". in George Erdosy (ed.). Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia. Berlin u.a.: de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-014447-6. • Shaffer, Jim G. (1999). "Migration, Philology and South Asian Archaeology". in Bronkhorst and Deshpande (eds.). Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia.. Cambridge: Harvard University, Dept. of Sanskrit and Indian Studies. ISBN 1-888789-04-2. • Shaffer, Jim G. (1992). "The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age". in R. W. Ehrich (ed.). Chronologies in Old World Archaeology (Second ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. • Witzel, Michael (February 2000). "The Languages of Harappa". Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/IndusLang.pdf. Cemetery H culture From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Geography of the Rigveda, with river names; the extent of the Swat and Cemetery H cultures are indicated. [hide]History of South Asia Stone Age before 3300 BCE Indus Valley Civilization 3300–1700 BCE Vedic Civilization 2000–600 BCE Iron Age 1200–1 BCE Maurya Empire • 321–184 BCE Chola Empire • 300 BCE–1279 CE Satavahana Empire • 230 BCE–220 CE Middle Kingdoms 1CE–1279 CE Gupta Empire • 280–550 CE Chalukya Empire • 543–753 CE Pala Empire • 750–1174 CE Islamic Sultanates 1206–1596 Mughal Empire 1526–1858

Sikh Empire 1733–1849 British India 1858–1947 Modern States since 1947 Timeline This box: view • talk • edit The Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley Civilization around 1900 BCE, in and around western Punjab region located in present-day Pakistan. It was named after a cemetery found in "area H" at Harappa. The Cemetery H culture is part of the Punjab Phase, one of three cultural phases that developed in the Localization Era of the Indus Valley Tradition.[1] It is considered to be part of the Late Harrappan phase. The distinguishing features of this culture include:[citation needed] • The use of cremation of human remains. The bones were stored in painted pottery burial urns. This is completely different from the Indus civilization where bodies were buried in wooden coffins. The urn burials and the "grave skeletons" were nearly contemporaneous.[2] • Reddish pottery, painted in black with antelopes, peacocks etc., sun or star motifs, with different surface treatments to the earlier period. • Expansion of settlements into the east. • Rice became a main crop. • Apparent breakdown of the widespread trade of the Indus civilization, with materials such as marine shells no longer used. • Continued use of mud brick for building. The Cemetery H culture also "shows clear biological affinities" with the earlier population of Harappa.[3] The archaeologist Kenoyer noted that this culture "may only reflect a change in the focus of settlement organization from that which was the pattern of the earlier Harappan phase and not cultural discontinuity, urban decay, invading aliens, or site abandonment, all of which have been suggested in the past."[4] Remains of the culture have been dated from about 1900 BCE until about 1300 BCE. Together with the Gandhara grave culture and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture, it is considered by some scholars a nucleus of Vedic civilization.[citation needed] [edit] See also • Indus Valley Tradition • Painted Grey Ware [edit] References 1. ^ Kenoyer 1991a; Shaffer 1992 2. ^ Sarkar 1964 3. ^ Kennedy 2000, p. 312; Mallory & Adams 1997, pp. 103, 310 4. ^ Kenoyer 1991b, p. 56 • Kennedy, Kenneth A. R. (2000). God-Apes and Fossil Men: Palaeoanthropology of South Asia. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. • Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991a). "The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan and Western India". Journal of World Prehistory 5: 1–64. doi:10.1007/BF00978474. • Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991b). "Urban Process in the Indus Tradition: A preliminary model from Harappa". in Meadow, R. H. (ed.). Harappa Excavations 19861990: A multidiscipinary approach to Third Millennium urbanism. Madison, WI: Prehistory Press. pp. 29–60. • Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London and Chicago: Fitzroy-Dearborn. • Sarkar, Sasanka Sekhar (1964). Ancient Races of Baluchistan, Panjab, and Sind.

• Shaffer, Jim G. (1992). "The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age". in Ehrich, R. W.. Chronologies in Old World Archaeology (Second ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. I:441– 464, II:425–446. • http://www.harappa.com • http://pubweb.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/indus/english/3_1_01.html Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" Vedic period From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Vedic Period) Jump to: navigation, search Map of northern India in the late Vedic period The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of the Indo-Aryans, were being composed. Scholars place the Vedic period in the second and first millennia BCE continuing up to the 6th century BCE based on literary evidence. The associated culture, sometimes referred to as Vedic civilization, was centered in the northern and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent. Its early phase saw the formation of various kingdoms of ancient India. In its late phase (from ca. 600 BCE), it saw the rise of the Mahajanapadas, and was succeeded by the Maurya Empire (from ca. 320 BCE), the golden age, classical age of Sanskrit literature, and the Middle kingdoms of India. Contents [hide] • 1 Overview • 2 Rigvedic period o 2.1 Political organization o 2.2 Society and economy • 3 Vedic Religious Practices • 4 The later Vedic period o 4.1 Kingdoms • 5 Notes • 6 References • 7 Further reading • 8 See also • 9 External links Overview The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata: 1. Rigvedic: The Rigveda is by far the most archaic of the Vedic texts preserved, and it retains many common Indo-Iranian elements, both in language and in content, that are not present in any other Vedic texts. Its creation must have taken place over several centuries, and apart from that of the youngest books (first part of 1 and all of 10), would have been complete by 1000(?) BCE. Archaeologically, this period may correspond with the Gandhara Grave Culture, the Cemetery H culture of the Punjab and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP) further east. There is no widely accepted archaeological or linguistic evidence of direct cultural continuity from the Indus Valley civilization. 2. Mantra language: This period includes both the mantra and prose language of the Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda Khilani, the Samaveda Samhita (containing some 75 mantras not in the Rigveda), and the mantras of the Yajurveda. Many of these texts are largely derived from the Rigveda, but have undergone certain changes, both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation. Conspicuous changes include change of vishva "all" by sarva, and the spread of the kuru-

verbal stem (for Rigvedic krno-). This is the time of the early Iron Age in northwestern India, corresponding to the Black and Red Ware (BRW) culture, and the kingdom of the Kurus, dating from ca. the 10th century BCE. 3. Samhita prose: This period marks the beginning of the collection and codification of a Vedic canon. An important linguistic change is the complete loss of the injunctive. The Brahmana part ('commentary' on mantras and ritual) of the Black Yajurveda (MS, KS, TS) belongs to this period. Archaeologically, the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture from ca. 900 BCE corresponds, and the shift of the political center from the Kurus to the Pancalas on the Ganges. 4. Brahmana prose: The Brahmanas proper of the four Vedas belong to this period, as well as the Aranyakas, the oldest of the Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB) and the oldest Shrautasutras (BSS, VadhSS). 5. Sutra language: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit leading up to c. 500 BCE, comprising the bulk of the Śrauta and Grhya Sutras, and some Upanishads (e.g. KathU, MaitrU). All but the five prose Upanishads are post-Buddhist[1]). Videha (N. Bihar) as a third political center is established. 6. Epic and Paninian Sanskrit: The language of the Mahabharata and Ramayana epics, and the Classical Sanskrit described by Panini is considered post-Vedic, and belongs to the time after 500 BCE. Archaeologically, the rapid spread of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP) over all of northern India corresponds to this period. The earliest Vedanta, Gautama Buddha, and the Pali Prakrit dialect of Buddhist scripture belong to this period. Historical records set in only after the end of the Vedic period, and remain scarce throughout the Indian Middle Ages. The end of Vedic India is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of Panini marks a final apex in the codification of Sutra texts, and at the same time the beginning of Classical Sanskrit. The invasion of Darius I of the Indus valley in the early 6th century BCE marks the beginning of outside influence, continued in the kingdoms of the Indo Greeks, new waves of immigration from 150 BCE (Abhira, Shaka), Kushan and ultimately the Islamic Sultans. The most important historical source of the geography of post-Vedic India is the 2nd century Greek historian Arrian whose report is based on the Mauryan time ambassador to Patna, Megasthenes. Rigvedic period See also Rigvedic tribes The origin of the Vedic civilization and its relation to the Indus Valley civilization, Indo-Aryan migration and Gandhara Grave culture related cultures remains controversial and politically charged in Indian society, often leading to disputes on the history of Vedic culture. The Rigveda is primarily a collection of religious hymns, and allusions to, but not explanation of, various myths and stories, mainly in the younger books 1 and 10. The oldest hymns, probably in books 2–7, although some hold book 9, the Soma Mandala, to be even more ancient, contain many elements inherited from pre-Vedic, common Indo-Iranian society. Therefore, it is difficult to define the precise beginning of the "Rigvedic period", as it emerges seamlessly from the era preceding it. Also, due to the semi-nomadic nature of the society described, it cannot be easily localized, and in its earliest phase describes tribes that were essentially on the move. RigVedic Aryans have a lot in common with the Andronovo culture and the Mittanni kingdoms as well as with early Iranians. The Andronovo culture is believed to be the site of the first horse-drawn chariots. Political organization The grama (wagon train), vis and jana were political units of the early Vedic Aryans. A vish was a subdivision of a jana or "krishti", and a grama was a smaller unit than the other two. The leader of a grama was called gramani and that of a vish was called vishpati. The rashtra (polity) was governed by a rajan (chieftain, 'king'). The king is often referred to as gopa (protector) and occasionally as samrat (supreme ruler). He governed the people with their consent and approval. He was elected from a restricted class of 'royals' (rajanya). There were various types of meetings such

as the vidhata or "Sabha". Gana was the non-monarchial assembly that is a parallel one to the monarchial assemblies of that period headed by Jyestha the same was referred in Buddhist text named Jettaka. The Sabha, sitated outside of settlement, was restricted to the Vratyas, bands of roving Brahmins and Kshatriyas in search of cattle, with a common woman (pumscali) [2] while the vidatha was the potlatchlike ritual distribution of bounty [3]. The main duty of the king was to protect the tribe. He was aided by several functionaries, including the purohita (chaplain) and the senani (army chief; sena: army). The former not only gave advice to the ruler but also was his chariot driver and practiced spells and charms for success in war. Soldiers on foot (pattis) and on chariots (rathins), armed with bow and arrow, were common. The king employed spaś (spies) and dutas (messengers). He collected taxes (originally ceremonial gifts, bali), from the people which he had to redistribute. Society and economy Ceramic goblet from Navdatoli, Malwa, 1300 BCE. The concept of varna (class) and the rules of marriage were rigid as is evident from Vedic verses (RV 10.90, W. Rau 1957). The status of the Brahmins and Kshatriyas was higher than that of the Vaishyas and Shudras. The Brahmins were specialized in creating poetry, preserving the sacred texts, and carrying out various types of rituals. Functioning as intellectual leadership, they also restricted social mobility between the varnas, as in the fields of science, war, literature, religion and the environment. The proper enunciation of verses in ritual was considered essential for prosperity and success in war and harvests. Kshatriyas amassed wealth (cattle), and many commissioned the performance of sacrifices. Kshatriyas helped in administering the polity, maintained the structure of society and the economy of a tribe, and helped in maintaining law and order. In the Early Vedic Period all the three upper classes Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas were considered as —relatively— equal Arya, but in the Later Vedic Age the Brahmins and Kshatriyas became upper class. The Vaishyas were pastoralists and farmers; the Shudras were the lower class; they included artisans and were meant to serve the upper three classes [4]. As the caste system became deep-rooted there were many restrictions and rules which were to be followed. Cattle were held in high esteem and frequently appear in Rigvedic hymns; goddesses were often compared to cows, and gods to bulls. Agriculture grew more prominent with time as the community gradually began to settle down in post-Rigvedic times. The economy was based on bartering with cattle and other valuables such as salt or metals. Families were patrilineal, and people prayed for the abundance of sons. The Society was strictly organized in a system of four varna (classes, to be distinguished from caste, jati) Vedic Religious Practices Main articles: Historical Vedic religion, Vedic astrology The Vedic forms of belief are the precursor to modern Hinduism. Texts considered to date to the Vedic period are mainly the four Vedas, but the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the older Upanishads as well as the oldest Shrautasutras are also considered to be Vedic. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17 Shrauta priests and the purohitas. The rishis, the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda, were considered inspired poets and seers (in post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally existing Veda, Śrauta means "what is heard"). The mode of worship was performance of sacrifices which included the chanting of Rigvedic verses (see Vedic chant), singing of Samans and 'mumbling' of offering mantras (Yajus) . The priests executed rituals for the three upper classes (varna) of Vedic society, strictly excluding the Sudras. People offered for abundance of rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining 'heaven'.

The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra, Agni (the sacrificial fire), and Soma and some deities of social order such as Mitra-Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga and Amsa, further nature deities such as Surya (the Sun), Vayu (the wind), Prithivi (the earth). Goddesses included Ushas (the dawn), Prithvi and Aditi (the mother of the Aditya gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially Saraswati, were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship between humans and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common Indo-Iranian religion remain visible, especially in the Soma cult and the fire worship, both of which are preserved in Zoroastrianism. The Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) has parallels in the 2nd millennium BC Andronovo culture, in Rome and old Ireland, was continued in India until at least the 4th century AD and revived under Jay Singh in 1740 AD. Vedic religion evolved into the Hindu paths of Yoga and Vedanta, a religious path considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas, interpreting the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman. These post-Vedic systems of thought, along with later texts like Upanishads, epics (namely Gita of Mahabharat), have been fully preserved and form the basis of modern Hinduism. The ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are preserved in the conservative Śrauta tradition, in part with the exception of animal sacrifice, which was mostly abandoned by the higher castes by the end of the Vedic period, partly under the influence of the Buddhist and Jain religions, and their criticism of such practices[citation needed]. The later Vedic period The transition from the early to the later Vedic period was marked by the emergence of agriculture as the dominant economic activity and a corresponding decline in the significance of cattle rearing. Several changes went hand in hand with this. For instance, several large kingdoms arose because of the increasing importance of land and long distance trade. The late Vedic period, from ca. 500 BCE onward, more or less seamlessly blends into the period of the Middle kingdoms of India known from historical sources. Kingdoms The late Vedic period was marked by the rise of the sixteen Mahajanapadas referred to in some of the literature. The power of the king and the Kshatriyas greatly increased. Rulers gave themselves titles like ekarat (the one ruler), sarvabhauma (ruler of all the earth) and chakravartin ('who moves the wheel'). The kings performed sacrifices like rajasuya (royal consecration), vajapeya (including a chariot race) and, for supreme dominance over other kings, the ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). The coronation ceremony was a major social occasion. Several functionaries, in addition to the purohita and the senani, took part. The role of the people in political decision making and the status of the Vaishyas as such was greatly decreased. Notes 1. ^ V.A. Gunasekara, http://www.budsas.org/ebud/ebdha255.htm 2. ^ H.Falk, Bruderschaft udn Würfelspiel, Freiburg 1986 3. ^ F.B.J. Kuiper, Selected Writings on Indian Linguistics and Philology, pp. 406-417 4. ^ W. Rau, Staat und Gesellschaft, 1957 References • Bokonyi, S. 1997b. "Horse Remains from the Prehistoric Site of Surkotada, Kutch, Late 3rd Millennium BC.", South Asian Studies 13: 297-307. • Kocchar, Rajesh, The Vedic people: their history and geography, Hyderabad: Orient Longmans (1999). • Lal, B.B. 2005. The Homeland of the Aryans. Evidence of Rigvedic Flora and Fauna & Archaeology, New Delhi, Aryan Books International. • Michael Witzel, Tracing the Vedic dialects in Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97–265.

• Michael Witzel, The Pleiades and the Bears viewed from inside the Vedic texts, EVJS Vol. 5 (1999), issue 2 (December) [1]. Further reading • R. C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker (editors): The History and Culture of the Indian People. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951 • R.C. Majumdar et al. An Advanced History of India, MacMillan, 1967. • Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak "The Arctic Home in the Vedas", Messrs Tilak Bros., 1903 • Ankerl, Guy. Global communication without universal civilization. INU societal research. Vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2-88155-004-5. See alsoIron Age India From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search [hide]History of South Asia Stone Age before 3300 BCE Indus Valley Civilization 3300–1700 BCE Vedic Civilization 2000–600 BCE Iron Age 1200–1 BCE Maurya Empire • 321–184 BCE Chola Empire • 300 BCE–1279 CE Satavahana Empire • 230 BCE–220 CE Middle Kingdoms 1CE–1279 CE Gupta Empire • 280–550 CE Chalukya Empire • 543–753 CE Pala Empire • 750–1174 CE Islamic Sultanates 1206–1596 Mughal Empire 1526–1858 Sikh Empire 1733–1849 British India 1858–1947 Modern States since 1947 Timeline This box: view • talk • edit Ancient history This box: view • talk • edit ↑ Prehistory Ancient Near East Sumer • Akkad • Egypt • Babylonia • Hittite Empire • Syro-Hittite states • Neo-

Assyrian Empire • Urartu Classical Antiquity Archaic Greece • Median Empire . Achaemenid Empire • Classical Greece • Dacia • Thrace • Scythia • Macedon • Hellenism • Roman Republic • Roman Empire • Parthia . Arsacid Empire • Sassanid Empire • Late Antiquity East Asia Hồng Bàng Dynasty • Gojoseon • Shang China • Qin Dynasty • Han Dynasty • Jin Dynasty South Asia Vedic India • Maha Janapadas • Mauryan India • Chola India • Satavahana India • Gupta India Pre-Columbian Americas Aztecs • Incas • Mayas • Olmecs • Teotihuacan see also: World history • Ancient maritime history • Protohistory • Axial Age • Iron Age • Historiography • Ancient literature • Ancient warfare • Cradle of civilization ↓Middle Ages The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery H) culture, also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition. There has been fresh evidence for even earlier iron-working in India. Technical studies on materials dated c. 1000 BCE at Komaranhalli (Karnataka) showed that the smiths of this site could deal with large artifacts, implying that they had already been experimenting for centuries (Agrawal et al. 1985: 228-29). Sahi (1979: 366) drew attention to the presence of iron in Chalcolithic deposits at Ahar, and suggested that “the date of the beginning of iron smelting in India may well be placed as early as the sixteenth century BCE” and “by about the early decade of thirteenth century BCE iron smelting was definitely known in India on a bigger scale”. [1] The earliest Iron Age sites in South India are Hallur, Karnataka and Adichanallur, Tamil Nadu[2] at around 1000 BC. [edit] References • Kenoyer, J.M. 1998 Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Oxford University Press and American Institute of Pakistan Studies, Karachi. • Kenoyer, J. M. 1991a The Indus Valley Tradition of Pakistan and Western India. In Journal of World Prehistory 5(4): 331-385. • Kenoyer, J. M. 1995a Interaction Systems, viara is the one writing for ancient India and her project grade need to be a 80- or higher Specialized Crafts and Culture Change: The Indus Valley Tradition and the IndoGangetic Tradition in South Asia. In The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, edited by G. Erdosy, pp. 213-257. Berlin, W. DeGruyter. • Shaffer, J. G. 1992 The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age. In Chronologies in Old Worlsfgagd Archaeology (3rd Edition), edited by R. Ehrich, pp. 441-464. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. • Chakrabarti, D.K. o 1974. Beginning of Iron in India: Problem Reconsidered, in A.K. Ghosh (ed.), Perspectives in Palaeoanthropology: 345-356. Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay. o 1976. The Beginning of Iron in India. Antiquity 4: 114-124. o 1992. The Early Use of Iron in India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. o 1999. India An Archaeological History. Delhi: Oxford University Press Mahajanapadas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please

improve this article if you can. (January 2009) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2008)

Map of the Mahajanapadas Mahajanapadas (Sanskrit: मिाजनपद, Mahājanapadas), literally "Great realms," (from Maha, "great", and Janapada "foothold of a tribe", "country") were Ancient Indian kingdoms or countries. Ancient Buddhist texts like Anguttara Nikaya [1] make frequent reference to sixteen great kingdoms and republics (Solas Mahajanapadas) which had evolved and flourished in the northern/north-western parts of the Indian subcontinent prior to the rise of Buddhism in India.[2] Contents [hide] • 1 Overview • 2 Kasi • 3 Kosala • 4 Anga • 5 Magadha • 6 Vajji or Vriji • 7 Malla • 8 Chedi or Cheti • 9 Vamsa or Vatsa • 10 Kuru • 11 Panchala • 12 Machcha or Matsya • 13 Surasena • 14 Assaka or Ashmaka • 15 Avanti • 16 Gandhara • 17 Kamboja • 18 See also • 19 References [edit] Overview The political structure of the ancient Indians appears to have started with seminomadic tribal units called Jana (meaning subjects). Early Vedic texts attest several Janas or tribes of the Aryans, living in semi-nomadic tribal state, fighting among themselves and with other Non-Aryan tribes for cows, sheep and green pastures. These early Vedic Janas later coalesced into Janapadas of the Epic Age. The term "Janapada" literally means the foothold of a tribe. The fact that Janapada is derived from Jana points to an early stage of land-taking by the Jana tribe for a settled way of life. This process of first settlement on land had completed its final stage prior to the times of Buddha and Panini. The PreBuddhist North-west region of Indian sub-continent was divided into several Janapadas demarcated from each other by boundaries. In Panini, Janapada stands for country and Janapadin for its citizenry. Each of these Janapadas was named after the Kshatriya tribe (or the Kshatriya Jana) who had settled there-in.[3][4] The Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations (Solasa Mahajanapadas) which were in existence before the time of Buddha. They do not give any connected history except in the case of Magadha. The Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya, at several places,[5] gives a list of sixteen great nations:

1. Kasi 2. Kosala 3. Anga 4. Magadha 5. Vajji (or Vriji) 6. Malla 7. Chedi 8. Vatsa (or Vamsa) 9. Kuru 10. Panchala 11. Machcha (or Matsya) 12. Surasena 13. Assaka 14. Avanti 15. Gandhara 16. Kamboja Another Buddhist text Digha Nikaya mentions only first twelve Mahajanapadas and omits the last four in the above list.[6] Chulla-Niddesa, another ancient text of the Buddhist canon, adds Kalinga to the list and substitutes Yona for Gandhara, thus listing the Kamboja and the Yona as the only Mahajanapadas from Uttarapatha.[7][8] The Jaina Bhagvati Sutra gives slightly different list of sixteen Mahajanapadas viz: Anga, Banga (Vanga), Magadha, Malaya, Malavaka, Accha, Vaccha, Kochcha (Kachcha?), Padha, Ladha (Lata), Bajji (Vajji), Moli (Malla), Kasi, Kosala, Avaha and Sambhuttara. Obviously, the author of Bhagvati has a focus on the countries of Madhydesa and of far east and south only. He omits the nations from Uttarapatha like the Kamboja and Gandhara. The more extended horizon of the Bhagvati and the omission of all countries from Uttarapatha "clearly shows that the Bhagvati list is of later origin and therefore less reliable."[9] The main idea in the minds of those who drew up the Janapada lists was basically more tribal than geographical, since the lists include names of the people and not the countries. As the Buddhist and Jaina texts only casually refer to the Mahajanapadas with no details on history, the following few isolated facts, at best, are gleaned from them and other ancient texts about these ancient nations. [edit] Kasi Main article: Kasi This detailed map shows the locations of Kingdoms mentioned in the Indian epics. The Kasis were Aryan people who had settled in the region around Varanasi (modern Banaras). The capital of Kasi was at Varanasi. The city was bounded by rivers Varuna and Asi on north and south which gave Varanasi its name. Before Buddha, Kasi was the most powerful of the sixteen Mahajanapadas. Several Jatakas bear witness to the superiority of its capital over other cities of India and speaks high of its prosperity and opulence. The Jatakas speak of long rivalry of Kasi with Kosala, Anga and Magadha. A struggle for supremacy went on among them for a time.King Brihadratha of Kasi had conquered Kosala but Kasi was later incorporated into Kosala by King Kansa during Buddha's time. The Kasis along with the Kosalas and Videhans find mention in Vedic texts and appear to have been a closely allied people. Matsya Purana and Alberuni read Kasi as Kausika and Kaushaka respectively. All other ancient texts read Kasi. [edit] Kosala Main article: Kosala The country of Kosalas was located to the north-west of Magadha with its capital at Savatthi (Sravasti). It was located about 70 miles to north-west of Gorakhpur and comprised territory corresponding to the modern Awadh (or Oudh) in Uttar Pradesh. It had river Ganga for its southern, river Gandhak for its eastern and the Himalaya mountains for its northern boundaries. The kingdom was ruled by king

Prasenjit followed by his son Vidudabha. There was struggle for supremacy between king Pasenadi (Prasenjit) and king Ajatasatru of Magadha which was finally settled once the confederation of Lichchavis became aligned with Magadha. Kosala was ultimately merged into Magadha when Vidudabha was Kosala's ruler. Ayodhya, Saketa, Benares and Sravasti were the chief cities of Kosala. [edit] Anga Ancient Cities of India during the time of Ramayana, Mahabharata and Buddha. Main article: Anga The first reference to the Angas is found in the Atharva-Veda where they find mention along with the Magadhas, Gandharis and the Mujavats apparently as a despised people. The Jaina Prajnapana ranks Angas and Vangas in the first group of Aryan peoples. Based on Mahabharata evidence, the country of Anga roughly corresponded to the region of Bhagalpur and Monghyr in Bihar and parts of Bengal. River Champa formed the boundaries between the Magadha in the west and Anga in the east. Anga was bounded by river Ganga on the north. Its capital Champa, formerly known as Malini, was located on the right bank of river Ganga, near its junction with river Champa. It was one of the very flourishing cities and is referred to as one of six principal cities of ancient India (Digha Nikaya). It was also a great center of trade and commerce and its merchants regularly sailed to distant Suvarnabhumi. Anga was annexed by Magadha in the time of Bimbisara. [edit] Magadha Main article: Magadha The first reference to the Magadhas occurs in the Atharva-Veda where they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis and the Mujavats as a despised people. The bards of Magadha are, however, referred to in early Vedic literature and are spoken of in terms of contempt. The Vedic dislike of the Magadhas in early times was due to the fact that the Magadhas were not yet wholly Brahmanised. Rigveda mentions a king Pramaganda as a ruler of Kikata. Yasaka declares that Kikata was a non-Aryan country. Later literature refers to Kikata as synonym of Magadha. With the exception of the Rigvedic Pramaganda, whose connection with Magadha is very speculative, no other king of Magadha is mentioned in Vedic literature. According to the Mahabharata and the Puranas, the earliest ruling dynasty of Magadha was founded by king Brihadratha, but Magadha came into prominence only under king Bimbisara and his son Ajatasatru. In the war of supremacy which went on for long between the nations of Majjhimadesa, kingdom of Magadha finally emerged victorious and became a predominant empire in Mid India. The kingdom of the Magadhas roughly corresponded to the modern districts of Patna and Gaya in southern Bihar, and parts of Bengal in the east. It was bounded on the north by river Ganga, on the east by the river Champa, on the south by Vindhya mountains and on the west by river Sona. During Buddha's time, its boundaries included Anga. Its earliest capital was Girivraja or Rajagriha modern Rajgir in Patna district of Bihar. The other names for the city were Magadhapura, Brihadrathapura, Vasumati, Kushagrapura and Bimbisarapuri. It was an active center of Jainism in ancient times. The first Buddhist Council was held in Rajagriha in the Vaibhara Hills. Later on, Pataliputra became the capital of Magadha. [edit] Vajji or Vriji Main article: Vajji The Vajjians or Virijis included eight or nine confederated clans of whom the Licchhavis, the Videhans, the Jnatrikas and the Vajjis were the most important. Mithila (modern Janakpur in district of Tirhut) was the capital of Videha which became the important center of political and cultural activities of northern India. It was in the time of king Janaka that Videha came into prominence. The last king of Videha was Kalara who is said to have perished along with his kingdom on account of his attempt on a Brahmin maiden. On the ruins of his kingdom arose the republics of Lichchhavis, Videhans and seven other small republics. The

Lichchhavis were very independent people. Mother of Mahavira was a Lichchhavi princess. Vaishali (modern Basarh in Vaishali District of North Bihar) was the capital of Licchhavis and the political headquarters of powerful Varijian confederacy. Vaishali was located 25 miles north of river Ganga and 38 miles from Rajagriha and was a very prosperous town. The Second Buddhist Council was held at Vaishali. The Licchhavis were followers of Buddha. Buddha is said to have visited the Licchavis on many occasions. The Licchhavis were closely related by marriage to the Magadhas and one branch of Lichhavis dynasty ruled Nepal until start of the Middle Ages but have nothing to do with current ruling shah dynasty in Nepal. The Licchavis are represented as (Vratya) Kshatriyas in Manusmriti. Vaishali, the headquarters of the powerful Vajji republic and the capital of Lichchavis was defeated by king Ajatasatru of Magadha. [edit] Malla Main article: Malla (India) The Mallas are frequently mentioned in Buddhist and Jain works. They were a powerful people dwelling in Eastern India. Panduputra Bhimasena is said to have conquered the chief of the Mallas in course of his expedition of Eastern India. Mahabharata mention Mallas along with the Angas, Vangas, and Kalingas as eastern tribes. The Mallas were republican people with their dominion consisting of nine territories (Kalpa Sutra; Nirayavali Sutra), one of each of the nine confederated clans. Two of these confederations...one with Kuśināra (modern Kasia near Gorakhpur) as its capital, second with Pava (modern Padrauna, 12 miles from Kasia) as the capital, had become very important at the time of Buddha. Kuśināra and Pava are very important in the history of Buddhism since Buddha took his last meal and was taken ill at Pava and died at Kusinara. The Mallas, like the Lichchhavis, are mentioned by Manusmriti as Vratya Kshatriyas. They are called Vasishthas (Vasetthas) in the Mahapparnibbana Suttanta. The Mallas originally had a monarchical form of government but later they switched to Samgha (republic) of which the members called themselves rajas. The Mallas were a brave and warlike people. Jainism and Buddhism found many followers among the Mallas. The Mallas appeared to have formed alliance with Lichchhavis for self defense. They however, lost their independence not long after Buddha's death and their dominions were annexed to the Magadhan empire. [edit] Chedi or Cheti Main article: Chedi Kingdom The Chedis, Chetis or Chetyas had two distinct settlements of which one was in the mountains of Nepal and the other in Bundelkhand near Kausambi. According to old authorities, Chedis lay near Yamuna midway between the kingdom of Kurus and Vatsas. In the mediaeval period, the southern frontiers of Chedi extended to the banks of river Narmada. Sotthivatnagara, the Sukti or Suktimati of Mahabharata, was the capital of Chedi. The Chedis were an ancient peoples of India and are mentioned in the Rigveda. A branch of Chedis found a royal dynasty in the kingdom of Kalinga according to the Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharvela. [edit] Vamsa or Vatsa Main article: Vatsa The Vatsas, Vamsas or Vachchas are stated to be an offshoot from the Kurus. The Vatsa or Vamsa country corresponded with territory of modern Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh. It had monarchical form of government with its capital at Kausambi (identified with village Kosam, 38 miles from Allahabad). Kausambi had been a very prosperous city where large number of millionaire merchants resided. It was the most important entreport of goods and passengers from north-west and south. Udayana was the ruler of Vatsa in sixth century BCE at the time of Buddha. He was very powerful, warlike and fond of hunting. Initially king Udayana was opposed to Buddhism but later on he became follower of Buddha and made Buddhism the state religion. [edit] Kuru Main article: Kuru (India) The Puranas trace the origin of Kurus from the Puru-Bharata family. Aitareya

Brahmana locates the Kurus in Madhyadesha and also refers to the Uttarakurus as living beyond the Himalayas. According to Buddhist text Sumangavilasini (II. p 481), the people of Kururashtra (the Kurus) came from the Uttarakuru. Vayu Purana attests that Kuru, son of Samvarsana of the Puru lineage, was the eponymous ancestor of the Kurus and the founder of Kururashtra (Kuru Janapada) in Kurukshetra. The country of the Kurus roughly corresponded to the modern Thaneswer, union territory of Delhi and Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh. According to Jatakas, the capital of Kurus was Indraprastha (Indapatta) near modern Delhi which extended on seven leagues. At Buddha's time, the Kuru country was ruled by a titular chieftain (king consul) named Korayvya. The Kurus of Buddhist period did not occupy the same position as they did in the Vedic period but they continued to enjoy their ancient reputation for deep wisdom and sound health. The Kurus had matrimonial relations with Yadavas, the Bhojas and the Panchalas. There is a Jataka reference to king Dhananjaya introduced as prince from the race of Yudhishtra. Though a well known monarchical people in earlier period, the Kurus are known to have switched to republic form of government during sixth/fifth century BCE. Fourth century BCE Kautiliya's Arthashastra also attests the Kurus following the Rajashabdopajivin (king consul) constitution. [edit] Panchala Main article: Panchala The Panchalas occupied the country to the east of the Kurus between the mountains and river Ganga. It roughly corresponded to modern Budaun, Farrukhabad and the adjoining districts of Uttar Pradesh. The country was divided into Uttara-Panchala and Dakshina-Panchala. The northern Panchala had its capital at Adhichhatra or Chhatravati (modern Ramnagar in the Bareilly District), while southern Panchala had it capital at Kampilya or Kampil in Farrukhabad District. The famous city of Kanyakubja or Kanauj was situated in the kingdom of Panchala. Originally a monarchical clan, the Panchals appear to have switched to republican corporation in the sixth and fifth century BCE. Fourth century BCE Kautiliya's Arthashastra also attests the Panchalas as following the Rajashabdopajivin (king consul) constitution. [edit] Machcha or Matsya Main article: Matsya Kingdom Country of Matsya or Machcha tribe lied to south of the Kurus and west of the Yamuna which separated them from the Panchalas, It roughly corresponded to former state of Jaipur in Rajasthan, and included the whole of Alwar with portions of Bharatpur. The capital of Matsya was at Viratanagara (modern Bairat) which is said to have been named after its founder king Virata. In Pali literature, the Matsyas are usually associated with the Surasenas. The western Matsya was the hill tract on the north bank of Chambal. A branch of Matsya is also found in later days in Vizagapatam region. The Matsyas had not much political importance of their own during the times of Buddha. King Sujata ruled over both the Chedis and Matsyas thus showing that Matsya once formed a part of Chedi kingdom. [edit] Surasena Main article: Surasena Country of the Surasenas lied to south-west of Matsya and west of Yamuna. It had its capital at Madhura or Mathura. Avantiputra, the king of Surasena was the first among the chief disciples of Buddha through whose help, Buddhism gained ground in Mathura country. The Andhakas and Vrishnis of Mathura/Surasena are referred to in the Ashtadhyayi of Panini. In Kautiliya's Arthashastra, the Vrishnis are described as Samgha or republic. The Vrishnis, Andhakas and other allied tribes of the Yadavas formed a Samgha and Vasudeva (Krishna) is described as the Samgha-mukhya. Mathura, the capital of Surasena was also known at the time of Megasthenes as the centre of Krishna worship. The Surasena kingdom had lost its independence on annexation by Magadhan empire. [edit] Assaka or Ashmaka Main article: Assaka The Country of Assaka or Ashmaka tribe was located in Dakshinapatha or southern

India. In Buddha's time, Assakas were located on the banks of river Godavari (south of Vindhya mountains). The capital of Assakas was Potana or Potali which corresponds to Paudanya of Mahabharata. The Ashmakas are also mentioned by Panini. They are placed in the north-west in the Markendeya Purana and the Brhat Samhita. River Godavari separated the country of Assakas from that of the Mulakas (or Alakas). The commentator of Kautiliya's Arthashastra identifies Ashmaka with Maharashtra. The country of Assaka lay outside the pale of Madhyadesa. It was located on a southern high road, the Dakshinapatha. At one time, Assaka included Mulaka and their country abutted with Avanti (Dr Bhandarkaar). [edit] Avanti Main article: Avanti (India) Country of the Avantis was an important kingdom of western India and was one of the four great monarchies in India when Buddhism arose, the other three being Kosala, Vatsa and Magadha. Avanti was divided into north and south by river Vetravati. Initially, Mahissati (Sanskrit Mahishamati) was the capital of Southern Avanti, and Ujjaini (Sanskrit Ujjayini) was of northern Avanti, but at the times of Mahavira and Buddha, Ujjaini was the capital of integrated Avanti. The country of Avanti roughly corresponded to modern Malwa, Nimar and adjoining parts of the Madhya Pradesh. Both Mahishmati and Ujjaini stood on the southern high road called Dakshinapatha which extended from Rajagriha to Pratishthana (modern Paithan). Avanti was an important center of Buddhism and some of the leading theras and theirs were born and resided there. King Nandivardhana of Avanti was defeated by king Shishunaga of Magadha. Avanti later became part of Magadhan empire. [edit] Gandhara Main article: Gandhara The wool of Gandharis is referred to in the Rigveda. The Gandharis, along with the Mujavantas, Angas and the Magadhas, are also mentioned in the Atharvaveda, but apparently as a despised people. Gandharas are included in the Uttarapatha division of Puranic and Buddhistic traditions. Aitareya Brahmana refers to king Naganajit of Gandhara who was contemporary of raja Janaka of Videha. According to Dr Zimmer, Gandharas were settled since the Vedic times on the south bank of river Kubha (Kabol) up to its mouth into Indus itself. Later the Gandharas crossed Indus and expanded into parts of north-west Panjab. Gandharas and their king figure prominently as strong allies of the Kurus against the Pandavas in Mahabharata war. The Gandharas were a furious people, well trained in the art of war. According to Puranic traditions, this Janapada was founded by Gandhara, son of Aruddha, a descendant of Yayati. The princes of this country are said to have come from the line of Druhyu who was a famous king of Rigvedic period. The river Indus watered the lands of Gandhara. Taksashila and Pushkalavati, the two cities of this Mahajanapada, are said to have been named after Taksa and Pushkara, the two sons of Bharata, a prince of Ayodhya. According to Vayu Purana (II.36.107), the Gandharas were destroyed by Pramiti aka Kalika, at the end of Kaliyuga. Panini has mentioned both Vedic form Gandhari as well as the later form Gandhara in his Ashtadhyayi. The Gandhara kingdom sometimes also included Kashmira.[10] Hecataeus of Miletus (549-468) refers to Kaspapyros (Kasyapura i.e Kashmira) as Gandharic city. According to Gandhara Jataka, at one time, Gandhara formed a part of the kingdom of Kashmir. Jataka also gives another name Chandahara for Gandhara. Gandhara Mahajanapada of Buddhist traditions included territories of east Afghanistan, and north-west of the Panjab (modern districts of Peshawar (Purushapura) and Rawalpindi). Its capital was Takshasila (Prakrit Taxila). The Taxila University was a renowned center of learning in ancient times, where scholars from all over the world came to seek higher education. Panini, the Indian genius of grammar and Kautiliya are the world renowned products of Taxila University. King Pukkusati or Pushkarasarin of Gandhara in middle of sixth century BCE was the contemporary of king Bimbisara of Magadha. Gandhara was located on the grand northern high road (Uttarapatha) and was a centre of international commercial activities. It was an important channel of communication with ancient Iran and Central Asia. According to one school of scholars, the Gandharas and

Kambojas were cognate people.[11][12][13] It is also contended that the Kurus, Kambojas, Gandharas and Bahlikas were cognate people and all had Iranian affinities.[14] According to Dr T. L. Shah, the Gandhara and Kamboja were nothing but two provinces of one empire and were located coterminously hence influencing each others language.[15] Naturally, they may have once been a cognate people.[16][17][18][19] Gandhara was often linked politically with the neighboring regions of Kashmir and Kamboja.[20] [edit] Kamboja Main article: Kambojas Kambojas are also included in the Uttarapatha. In ancient literature, the Kamboja is variously associated with the Gandhara, Darada and the Bahlika (Bactria). Ancient Kamboja is known to have comprised regions on either side of the Hindukush. The original Kamboja was located in eastern Oxus country as neighbor to Bahlika, but with time, some clans of Kambojas appear to have crossed Hindukush and planted colonies on its southern side also. These latter Kambojas are associated with the Daradas and Gandharas in Indian literature and also find mention in the Edicts of Ashoka. The evidence in Mahabharata and in Ptolemy's Geography distinctly supports two Kamboja settlements.[21] The cis-Hindukush region from Nurestan up to Rajauri in southwest of Kashmir sharing borders with the Daradas and the Gandharas constituted the Kamboja country.[22] The capital of Kamboja was probably Rajapura (modern Rajori) in south-west of Kashmir. The Kamboja Mahajanapada of the Buddhist traditions refers to this cis-Hindukush branch of ancient Kambojas.[23] The trans-Hindukush region including Pamirs and Badakhshan which shared borders with the Bahlikas (Bactria) in the west and the Lohas and Rishikas of Sogdiana/Fergana in the north, constituted the Parama-Kamboja country.[24] The trans-Hindukush branch of the Kambojas remained pure Iranian but a large section of the Kambojas of cis-Hindukush appears to have come under Indian cultural influence. The Kambojas are known to have had both Iranian as well as Indian affinities.[25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32] [33][34][35] The Kambojas were also a well known republican people since Epic times. Mahabharata refers to several Ganah (or Republics) of the Kambojas.[36] Kautiliya's Arthashastra [37] and Ashoka's Edict No. XIII also attest that the Kambojas followed republican constitution. Panini's Sutras,[38] though tend to convey that the Kamboja of Panini was a Kshatriya Monarchy, but "the special rule and the exceptional form of derivative" he gives to denote the ruler of the Kambojas implies that the king of Kamboja was a titular head (king consul) only.[39] According to Buddhist texts, the first fourteen of the above Mahajanapadas belong to Majjhimadesa (Mid India) while the last two belong to Uttarapatha or the northwest division of Jambudvipa. In a struggle for supremacy that followed in the sixth/fifth century BCE, the growing state of Magadhas emerged as the most predominant power in ancient India annexing several of the Janapadas of the Majjhimadesa. A bitter line in the Brahmin Puranas laments that Magadhan emperor Mahapadma Nanda exterminated all Kshatriyas, none worthy of the name Kshatrya being left thereafter. This obviously refers to the Kasis, Kosalas, Kurus, Panchalas, Vatsyas and other neo-Vedic tribes of the east Panjab of whom nothing was ever heard except in the legend and poetry. The Kambojans and Gandharans, however, never came into direct contact with Magadhan state until Chandragupta and Kautiliya arose on the scene. But these nations also fell a prey to the Achaemenids of Persia during the reign of Cyrus (558-530 BCE) or in the first year of Darius. Kamboja and Gandhara formed the twentieth and richest strapy of Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus I is said to have destroyed the famous Kamboja city called Kapisi (modern Begram) in Paropamisade. [edit] See also • Iron Age India • Kingdoms of ancient India [edit] References

1. ^ Anguttara Nikaya I. p 213; IV. pp 252, 256, 261. 2. ^ http://www.iloveindia.com/history/ancient-india/16-mahajanapadas.html 3. ^ India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī, 1963, p 427, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala - India; India in the Time of Patañjali, 1968, p 68, Dr B. N. Puri - India; Socio-economic and Political History of Eastern India, 1977, p 9, Y. K Mishra - Bihar (India); Tribes of Ancient India, 1977, p 18, Mamata Choudhury - Ethnology; Tribal Coins of Ancient India, 2007, p xxiv, Devendra Handa - Coins, Indic - 2007; The Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, 1972, p 221, Numismatic Society of India - Numismatics . 4. ^ A History of Pāli Literature, 2000 Edition, p 648 B. C. Law & Some Ksatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, pp 230-253, Dr B. C. Law. 5. ^ Anguttara Nikaya: Vol I, p 213, Vol IV, pp 252, 256, 260 etc. 6. ^ Digha Nikaya, Vol II, p 200. 7. ^ Chulla-Niddesa (P.T.S.), p 37. 8. ^ Lord Mahāvīra and his times, 1974, p 197, Dr Kailash Chand Jain; The History and Culture of the Indian People, 1968, p lxv, Dr Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bhāratīya Itihāsa Samiti; Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 7, K. D. Sethna. 9. ^ Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 86; History & Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Unity, p 15-16 10. ^ Jataka No 406. 11. ^ Revue des etudes grecques 1973, p 131, Ch-Em Ruelle, Association pour l'encouragement des etudes grecques en France. 12. ^ Early Indian Economic History, 1973, pp 237, 324, Rajaram Narayan Saletore. 13. ^ Myths of the Dog-man, 199, p 119, David Gordon White; Journal of the Oriental Institute, 1919, p 200; Journal of Indian Museums, 1973, p 2, Museums Association of India; The Pāradas: A Study in Their Coinage and History, 1972, p 52, Dr B. N. Mukherjee - Pāradas; Journal of the Department of Sanskrit, 1989, p 50, Rabindra Bharati University, Dept. of Sanskrit- Sanskrit literature; The Journal of Academy of Indian Numismatics & Sigillography, 1988, p 58, Academy of Indian Numismatics and Sigillography - Numismatics; Cf: Rivers of Life: Or Sources and Streams of the Faiths of Man in All Lands, 2002, p 114, J. G. R. Forlong. 14. ^ Journal of the Oriental Institute, 1919, p 265, Oriental Institute (Vadodara, India) - Oriental studies; For Kuru-Kamboja connections, see Dr Chandra Chakraberty's views in: Literary history of ancient India in relation to its racial and linguistic affiliations, pp 14,37, Vedas; The Racial History of India, 1944, p 153, Chandra Chakraberty - Ethnology; Paradise of Gods, 1966, p 330, Qamarud Din Ahmed - Pakistan. 15. ^ Ancient India, History of India for 1000 years, four Volumes, Vol I, 1938, pp 38, 98 Dr T. L. Shah. 16. '^ IMPORTANT NOTE: Ancient Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya's list of Mahajanapadas includes the Gandhara and the Kamboja as the only two salient Mahajanapadas in the Uttarapatha. However, the Chulla-Niddesa list (5th c BCE), which is one of the most ancient Buddhist Commentaries, includes the Kamboja and Yona but no Gandhara (See: Chulla-Niddesa, (P.T.S.), p.37). This shows that when Chulla-Niddesa Commentary was written, the Kambojas in the Uttarapatha were a predominant people and that the Gandharans, in all probability, formed part of the Kamboja Mahajanapada around this time---thus making them a one people. Kautiliya's Arthashastra (11.1.1-4) (4th c BCE) refers only to clans of the Kurus, Panchalas, Madrakas, Kambojas etc but it does not mention the Gandharas as separate people from the Kambojas. The Mudrarakshasa Drama by Visakhadatta also refer to the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, Bahlikas and Kiratas but again it does not include the Gandharas in Chandragupta's army list. The well known Puranic legend (told in numerous Puranas) of king Sagara's war with the invading tribes from the north-west includes the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, and Paradas but again the Gandharas are not included in Haihayas's army (Harivamsa 14.1-19; e.g Vayu Purana 88.127-43; Brahma Purana (8.35-51); Brahmanda Purana (3.63.123-141); Shiva

Purana (7.61.23); Vishnu Purana (5.3.15-21), Padma Purana (6.21.16-33) etc etc). Again, the Valmiki Ramayana --(a later list) includes Janapadas of Andhras, Pundras, Cholas, Pandyas, Keralas, Mekhalas, Utkalas, Dasharnas, Abravantis, Avantis, Vidarbhas, Mlecchas, Pulindas, Surasenas, Prasthalas, Bharatas, Kurus, Madrakas, Kambojas, Daradas, Yavanas, Sakas (from Saka-dvipa), Rishikas, Tukharas, Chinas, Maha-Chinas, Kiratas, Barbaras, Tanganas, Niharas, Pasupalas etc (Ramayana 4.43). Yet at another place in the Ramayana (I.54.17; I.55.2 seq ), the northwestern martial tribes of the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, Kiratas, Haritas/Tukharas, Barbaras and Mlechchas etc joined the army of sage Vasishtha during the battle of Kamdhenu against Aryan king Viswamitra of Kanauj. In both the references in the Ramayana, the Kambojas are conspicuously mentioned in the lists of north-western frontier peoples, but no reference is made to the Gandharas or the Daradas. Yaska in his Nirukta (II.2) refers to the Kambojas but not to the Gandharas. Among the several unrighteous barbaric hordes (opposed to Aryan king Vikarmaditya), Brhat Katha of Kshmendra (10.1.285-86) and Kathasaritsagara of Somadeva (18.1.76-78) each list the Sakas, Mlechchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Neechas, Hunas, Tusharas, Parasikas etc but they do not mention the Gandharas. Vana Parva of Mahabharata states that the Andhhas, Pulindas, Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Valhikas, Aurnikas and Abhiras etc will become rulers in Kaliyuga and will rule the earth (India) un-righteously(MBH 3.187.28-30). Here there is no mention of Gandhara since it is included amongst the Kamboja. Sabha Parava of Mahabharata enumerates numerous kings from the north-west paying gifts to Pandava king Yudhistra at the occasion of Rajasuya amongs whom it mentions the Kambojas, Vairamas, Paradas, Pulindas, Tungas, Kiratas, Pragjyotisha, Yavanas, Aushmikas, Nishadas, Romikas, Vrishnis, Harahunas, Chinas, Sakas, Sudras, Abhiras, Nipas, Valhikas, Tukharas, Kankas etc etc (Mahabharata 2.50-1.seqq). The lists does not include the Gandharas since they are counted as the same people as the Kambojas. In context of Krsna digvijay, the Mahabharata furnishes a key list of twenty-five ancient Janapadas viz: Anga, Vanga, Kalinga, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Vatsa, Garga, Karusha, Pundra, Avanti, Dakshinatya, Parvartaka, Dasherka, Kashmira, Ursa, Pishacha, Mudgala, Kamboja, Vatadhana, Chola, Pandya, Trigarta, Malava, and Darada (MBH 7/11/15-17). Besides, there were Janapadas of Kurus and Panchalas also. Interestingly, no mention is made to Gandhara in this list. Again in another of its well known Shlokas, the Mahabharata (XIII, 33.20-23; XIII, 35, 17-18), lists the Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Dravidas, Kalingas, Pulindas, Usinaras, Kolisarpas, Mekalas, Sudras, Mahishakas, Latas, Kiratas, Paundrakas, Daradas etc as the Vrishalas/degraded Kshatriyas (See also: Comprehensive History of India, 1957, p 190, K. A. N. Sastri). It does not include the Gandharas in the list though in yet another similar shloka (MBH 12.207.43-44), the same epic now brands the Yavanas, Kambojas, Gandharas, Kiratas and Barbaras (Yauna Kamboja Gandharah Kirata barbaraih) etc as Mlechcha tribes living the lives of the Dasyus or the Barbarians. Thus in the first shlokas, the Gandharas and the Kambojas are definitely treated as one people. The Assalayana-Sutta of Majjima Nakaya says that in the frontier lands of the Yonas a, Kambojas and other nations, there are only two classes of People...Arya and Dasa where an Arya could become Dasa and vicevarsa (Majjima Nakayya 43.1.3). Here again, the Gandharas are definitively included among the Kambojas as if the two people are same. Rajatarangini of Kalhana, a Sanskrit text from the north, furnishes a list of northern nations which king Lalitaditya Muktapida (Kashmir) (8th c AD) undertakes to reduce in his dig-vijaya expedition. The list includes the Kambojas, Tukharas, Bhauttas (in Baltistan in western Tibet), Daradas, Valukambudhi, Strirajya, Uttarakurus and Pragjyotisha respectively, but no mention of Gandharas (Rajatarangini: 4.1644.175). Apparently the Gandharas are counted among the Kambojas. Sikanda Purana (Studies in the Geography, 1971, p 259-62, Sircar, Hist of Punjab, 1997, p 40, Dr L. M. Joshi and Dr Fauja Singh (Editors)), contains a list of 75 countries among which it includes Khorasahana, Kuru, Kosala, Bahlika, Yavana, Kamboja, Siva, Sindhu, Kashmira, Jalandhara (Jullundur), Hariala (Haryana), Bhadra (Madra), Kachcha, Saurashtra, Lada, Magadha, Kanyakubja, Vidarbha, Kirata, Gauda, Nepala

etc but no mention of Gandhara in this list of 75 countries. Kavyamimasa of Rajasekhara (880-920 AD) also lists 21 north-western countries/nations of the Saka, Kekaya, Vokkana, Huna, Vanayuja, Kamboja, Vahlika, Vahvala, Lampaka, Kuluta, Kira, Tangana, Tushara, Turushaka, Barbara, Hara-hurava, Huhuka, Sahuda, Hamsamarga (Hunza), Ramatha and Karakantha etc but no mention of Gandhara or Darada (See: Kavyamimasa, Rajashekhara, Chapter 17; also: Kavyamimasa Editor Kedarnath, trans. K. Minakshi, pp 226-227).. Here in both the lists, the Daradas and Gandharas are also treated as the Kambojas. The Satapancasaddesavibhaga of Saktisagama Tantra (Book III, Ch VII, 1-55) lists Gurjara, Avanti, Malava, Vidarbha, Maru, Abhira, Virata, Pandu, Pancala, Kamboja, Bahlika, Kirata, Khurasana, Cina, Maha-Cina, Nepala, Gauda, Magadha, Utkala, Huna, Kaikeya, Surasena, Kuru Saindhava, Kachcha among the 56 countries but the list does not include the Gandharas and Daradas. Similarly, Sammoha Tantra list also contains 56 nations and lists Kashmira, Kamboja, Yavana, Sindhu, Bahlika, Parsika, Barbara, Saurashtra, Malava, Maharashtra, Konkana, Avanti, Chola, Kamarupa, Kerala, Simhala etc but no mention of Daradac and Gandhara (See quotes in: Studies in Geography, 1971, p 78, D. C. Sircar; Studies in the Tantra, pp 97-99, Dr P. C. Bagchi). Obviously, the Daradas and Gandharaa are included among the Kambojas. Raghu Vamsa by Kalidasa refers to numerous tribes/nations of the east (including the Sushmas, Vangas, Utkalas, Kalingas and those on Mt Mahendra), then of the south (including Pandyas, Malaya, Dardura, and Kerals), then of the west (Aprantas), and then of the north-west (like the Yavanas, the Parasikas, the Hunas, the Kambojas) and finally those of the north Himalayan (like the Kirats, Utsavasketas, Kinnaras, Pragjyotishas) etc etc (See: Raghuvamsa IV.60 seq). Here again no mention of the Gandharas though Raghu does talk of the Kambojas. And last but not the least, even the well known Manusmriti, the Hindu Law Book, refers to the Kambojas, Yavanas, Shakas, Paradas, Pahlavas, Chinas, Kiratas, Daradas and Khasha besides also the Paundrakas, Chodas, Dravidas but surprisingly enough, it does not make any mention of the Gandharas in this very elaborate list of the Vrishalah Ksatriyas (Manusamriti X.43-44). The above references amply demonstrate that the Gandharas were many times counted among the Kambojas themselves as if the were one and the same people. Thus, the Kambojas and the Gandhara do seem to have been a cognate people. 17. ^ There are also several instances in the ancient literature where the reference has been made only to the Gandharas and not to the Kambojas. In these cases, the Kambojas have obviously been counted among the Gandharas themselves. 18. ^ Kalimpur Inscriptions of Pala king Dharmapala of Bengal (770-810 AD) lists the nations around his kingdom as the Bhoja (Gurjara), Matsya, Madra, Kuru, Avanti, Gandhara and the Kira (Kangra) which he boasts of as if they are his vassal states. From Monghyr inscriptions of king Devapala (810 - 850AD) the successor of king Dharmapalal, we get the list of the nations as Utkala (Kalinga), Pragjyotisha (Assam), Dravida, Gurjara (Bhoja), Huna and the Kamboja. These are the nations which cavalry of Pala king Devapala is said to have scoured during his war expeditions against these people. Obviously the Kamboja of the Monghyr inscriptions of king Devapala here is none else than the Gandhara of the Kalimpur inscription of king Dharamapala. Hence, the Gandhara and the Kamboja are used interchangeably in the records of the Pala kings of Bengal, thus indicating them to be same group of people. 19. ^ James Fergusson observes: "In a wider sense, name Gandhara implied all the countries west of Indus as far as Candhahar"(The Tree and Serpent Worship, 2004, p 47, James Fergusson). 20. ^ Encyclopedia Americana, 1994, p 277, Encylopedias and Dictionaries. 21. ^ Ptolemy's Geography mentions Tambyzoi located in eastern Bactria (Ancient India as Described by Ptolemy: Being a Translation of the Chapters ... 1885, p 268, John Watson McCrindle - Geography, Ancient; Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, History - 2000, p 99,(Editors) Richard J.A. Talbert) and Ambautai people located to south of Hindukush Mountains(Geography 6.18.3; See map in McCrindle, p 8). Dr S Levi has identified Tambyzoi with Kamboja (Indian Antiquary,

1923, p 54; Pre Aryan and Pre Dravidian in India, 1993, p 122, Dr Sylvain Lévi, Dr Jean Przyluski, Jules Bloch, Asian Educational Services) while land of Ambautai has also been identified by Dr Michael Witzel (Harvard University) with Sanskrit Kamboja (Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, Vol. 5,1999, issue 1 (September), Dr. M. Witzel; Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History, 2005, p 257, Laurie L. Patton, Edwin Bryant; The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: : Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, 1995, p 326, George Erdosy. 22. ^ MBH VII.4.5; II.27.23. 23. ^ See: Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 5-6; cf: Geographical Data in the Early Puranas, p 168. 24. ^ MBH II.27.27. 25. ^ Vedic Index I, p 138, Dr Macdonnel, Dr Keith. 26. ^ Ethnology of Ancient Bhārata – 1970, p 107, Dr Ram Chandra Jain. 27. ^ The Journal of Asian Studies – 1956, p 384, Association for Asian Studies, Far Eastern Association (U.S.). 28. ^ Balocistān: siyāsī kashmakash, muz̤mirāt va rujḥānāt – 1989, p 2, Munīr Aḥmad Marrī. 29. ^ India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī – 1953, p 49, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala. 30. ^ Afghanistan, p 58, W. K. Fraser, M. C. Gillet. 31. ^ Afghanistan, its People, its Society, its Culture, Donal N. Wilber, 1962, p 80, 311 etc. 32. ^ Iran, 1956, p 53, Herbert Harold Vreeland, Clifford R. Barnett. 33. ^ Geogramatical Dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic): 700 Complete Revisions of the Best Books..., 1953, p 49, Dr Peggy Melcher, Dr A. A. McDonnel, Dr Surya Kanta, Dr Jacob Wackmangel, Dr V. S. Agarwala. 34. ^ Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, p 33, Dr Moti Chandra - India. 35. ^ A Grammatical Dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic): 700 Complete Reviews of the ..., 1953, p 49, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala, Surya Kanta, Jacob Wackernagel, Arthur Anthony Macdonell, Peggy Melcher - India. 36. ^ MBH 7/91/39. 37. ^ Arthashastra 11/1/4. 38. ^ Ashtadhyayi IV.1.168-175. 39. ^ Hindu Polity: A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times, Parts I and II., 1955, p 52, Dr Kashi Prasad Jayaswal - Constitutional history; Prācīna Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja - Kamboja (Pakistan). Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajanapadas" Magadha From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Magadha Empire) Jump to: navigation, search The approximate extent of the Magadha state in the 5th century BC History of South Asia Stone Age before 3300 BC • Mehrgarh Culture • 7000–3300 BC Indus Valley Civilization 3300–1700 BC • Late Harappan Culture • 1700–1300 BC Vedic Civilization 2000–600 BC

Iron Age 1200–1 BC • Maha Janapadas • 700–300 BC • Magadha Empire • 684–424 BC • Nanda Empire • 424-321 BC • Maurya Empire • 321–184 BC • Sunga Empire • 185-73 BC • Kanva Empire • 75-26 BC • Kharavela Empire • 209–170 BC • Kuninda Kingdom • 200s BC–300s AD • Indo-Scythian Kingdom • 200 BC–400 AD • Chera Kingdom • 300 BC–1200 AD • Chola Empire • 300 BC–1279 AD • Pandyan Kingdom • 250 BC–1345 AD • Satavahana Empire • 230 BC–220 AD • Indo-Greek Kingdom • 180 BC–10 AD Middle Kingdoms 1AD–1279 AD • Indo-Parthian Kingdom • 21–130s AD • Western Satrap Empire • 35–405 AD • Kushan Empire • 60–240 AD • Indo-Sassanid Kingdom • 230–360 AD • Vakataka Empire • 250–500 AD • Kalabhras Kingdom • 250–600 AD • Gupta Empire • 280–550 AD • Pallava Kingdom • 275–800 AD • Kadamba Empire • 345–525 AD • Western Ganga Kingdom • 350–1000 AD • Vishnukundina Empire • 420-624 AD • Huna Kingdom • 475-576 AD • Chalukya Empire • 543–753 AD

• Harsha Empire • 590-647 AD • Shahi Kingdom • 565-670 AD • Eastern Chalukya Kingdom • 624-1075 AD • Pratihara Empire • 650–1036 AD • Pala Empire • 750–1174 AD • Rashtrakuta Empire • 753–982 AD • Paramara Kingdom • 800–1327 AD • Yadava Empire • 850–1334 AD • Solanki Kingdom • 942–1244 AD • Western Chalukya Empire • 973–1189 AD • Hoysala Empire • 1040–1346 AD • Sena Empire • 1070–1230 AD • Eastern Ganga Empire • 1078–1434 AD • Kakatiya Kingdom • 1083–1323 AD • Kalachuri Empire • 1130–1184 AD Islamic Sultanates 1206–1596 AD • Delhi Sultanate • 1206–1526 AD • Deccan Sultanates • 1490–1596 AD Ahom Kingdom 1228–1826 AD Vijayanagara Empire 1336–1646 AD Mysore Kingdom 1399–1947 AD Mughal Empire 1526–1858 AD Madurai Nayak Kingdom 1559 –1736 AD Thanjavur Nayak Kingdom 1572–1918 AD Maratha Empire 1674–1818 AD Sikh Confederacy 1716–1799 AD Sikh Empire 1799–1849 AD Company rule in India 1757–1858 AD British India 1858–1947 AD

Partition of India 1947 AD Nation histories Afghanistan • Bangladesh • Bhutan • India Maldives • Nepal • Pakistan • Sri Lanka Regional histories Assam • Bihar • Balochistan • Bengal Himachal Pradesh • Orissa • Pakistani Regions Punjab • South India • Tibet Specialised histories Coinage • Dynasties • Economy Indology • Language • Literature • Maritime Military • Science and Technology • Timeline This box: view • talk • edit Magadha (Sanskrit: मगध) formed one of the sixteen Mahājanapadas (Sanskrit "Great Countries") or regions in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges; its first capital was Rajagaha (modern Rajgir) then Pataliputra (modern Patna). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of Licchavi and Anga respectively,[1] followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is mentioned in the Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas. It is also heavily mentioned in Buddhist and Jain texts. The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharva-Veda where they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis, and Mujavats as despised peoples. Two of India's major religions started from Magadha; two of India's greatest empires, the Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire, originated from Magadha. These empires saw advancements in ancient India's science, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy and were considered the Indian "Golden Age". The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community of Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions. Contents [hide] • 1 Geography • 2 History • 3 Magadha Dynasties o 3.1 Brihadratha dynasty o 3.2 Pradyota dynasty o 3.3 Haryanka dynasty o 3.4 Nanda dynasty o 3.5 Maurya dynasty o 3.6 Sunga dynasty o 3.7 Kanva dynasty o 3.8 Gupta dynasty • 4 Kings of Magadha o 4.1 Brihadratha Dynasty o 4.2 Pradyota dynasty o 4.3 Hariyanka dynasty (545 BC-346 BC) o 4.4 Shishunaga dynasty (430-364 BC) o 4.5 Nanda Dynasty (424-321 BC) o 4.6 Maurya Dynasty (324-184 BC) o 4.7 Shunga Dynasty (185-73 BC) o 4.8 Kanva Dynasty (73-26 BC)

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4.9 Gupta Dynasty (c. 240-550 AD) 5 References 6 See also [edit] Geography

The Magadha state circa 600 BC, before it expanded The kingdom of the Magadha roughly corresponds to the modern districts of Patna and Gaya in southern Bihar, and parts of Bengal in the east. It was bounded on the north by the river Ganga, on the east by the river Champa, on the south by the Vindhya mountains and on the west by the river Sona. During the Buddha’s time and onward, its boundaries included Anga. [edit] History There is little certain information available on the early rulers of Magadha. The most important sources are the Puranas, the Buddhist Chronicles of Sri Lanka, and other Jain and Buddhist texts, such as the Pali Canon. Based on these sources, it appears that Magadha was ruled by the Haryanka dynasty for some 200 years, c. 684 BC - 424 BC. Siddhartha Gautama himself was born a prince of Kapilavastu in Kosala around 563 BC, during the Haryanka dynasty. As the scene of many incidents in his life, including his enlightenment, Magadha is often considered a blessed land. King Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty led an active and expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now West Bengal. The death of King Bimbisara was at the hands of his son, Prince Ajatashatru. King Pasenadi, king of neighboring Kosala and brother-in-law of King Bimbisara, retook the gift of the Kashi province and a war was triggered between Kosala and Magadha. Ajatashatru was trapped by an ambush and captured with his army. However, King Pasenadi allowed him and his army return to Magadha, and restored the province of Kashi. King Pasendi also gave his daughter in marriage to the new young king. Accounts differ slightly as to the cause of King Ajatashatru's war with the Licchavi republic, an area north of the river Ganges. It appears that Ajatashatru sent a minister to the area who for three years worked to undermine the unity of the Licchavis. To launch his attack across the Ganga River (Ganges), Ajatashatru built a fort at the town of Pataliputra. Torn by disagreements the Licchavis with many tribes that fought with Ajatshatru. It took fifteen years for Ajatshatru to defeat them. Jain texts tell how Ajatashatru used two new weapons: a catapult, and a covered chariot with swinging mace that has been compared to a modern tank. Pataliputra began to grow as a center of commerce and became the capitol of Magadha after Ajatashatru's death. The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shishunaga dynasty. The last ruler of Shishunaga Dynsty, Kalasoka was assainated by Mahapadma Nanda in 424 BC, the first of the so-called Nine Nandas (Mahapadma and his eight sons). The Nanda Dynasty ruled for about 100 years. In 326 BC, the army of Alexander the Great approached the boundaries of the Magadha. The army, exhausted and frightened at the prospect of facing another giant Indian army at the Ganges, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, was persuaded that it was better to return and turned south, conquering his way down the Indus to the Ocean. Around 321 BC, the Nanda Dynasty ended and Chandragupta became the first king of the great Mauryan Dynasty and Mauryan Empire with the help of Vishnugupta. The Empire later extended over most of Southern Asia under King Asoka, who was at first known as 'Asoka the Cruel' but later became a disciple of Buddhism and became known as 'Dhamma Asoka'. Later, the Mauryan Empire ended and the Gupta Empire began. The capital of the Gupta Empire remained Pataliputra, in Magadha. [edit] Magadha Dynasties Brihadratha Dynasty, Pradyota Dynasty, Śiśunāga Dynasty ruled Magadha from 684 -

424 BC. Afterwards the Nanda Dynasty, Maurya Dynasty, Sunga Dynasty, Kanva Dynasty, Gupta Dynasty expanded beyond Magadha. Amongst the sixteen Mahajanapadas, Magadha rose to prominence under a number of dynasties that peaked with the reign of Asoka Maurya, one of India's most legendary and famous emperors. [edit] Brihadratha dynasty Main article: Legendary Kings of Magadha According to the Puranas,the Magadha Empire was established by the Brihadratha Dynasty, who was the sixth in line from Emperor Kuru of the Bharata dynasty through his eldest son Sudhanush. The first prominent Emperor of the Magadhan branch of Bharathas was Emperor Brihadratha. His son Jarasandha appears in popular legend and is slain by Bhima in the Mahabharatha. Vayu Purana mentions that the Brihadrathas ruled for 1000 years. [edit] Pradyota dynasty Main article: Pradyota dynasty The Brihadrathas were succeeded by the Pradyotas who according to the Vayu Purana ruled for 138 years. One of the Pradyota traditions was for the prince to kill his father to become king. During this time, it is reported that there was high crimes in Magadha. The people rose up and elected Haryanka to become the new king, which destroyed the power of the Pradyotas and created the Haryanka dynasty. Due in part to this bloody dynastic feuding, it is thought that a civil revolt led to the emergence of the Haryanka dynasty [edit] Haryanka dynasty Main article: Haryanka dynasty According to tradition, the Haryanka dynasty founded the Magadha Empire in 684 BC, whose capital was Rajagriha, later Pataliputra, near the present day Patna. This dynasty lasted till 424 BC, when it was overthrown by the Nanda dynasty. This period saw the development of two of India's major religions that started from Magadha. Gautama Buddha in the 6th or 5th century BC was the founder of Buddhism, which later spread to East Asia and South-East Asia, while Mahavira revived and propagated the ancient sramanic religion of Jainism. Bimbisara was responsible for expanding the boundaries of his kingdom through matrimonial alliances and conquest. The land of Kosala fell to Magadha in this way. Bimbisara (543-493 BCE ) was imprisoned and killed by his son Ajatashatru (ruled 491-461 BCE) who then became his successor, and under whose rule the dynasty reached its largest extent. Licchavi was an ancient republic which existed in what is now Bihar state of India, since the before the birth of Mahavira (b. 599 BC),[2][3] Vaishali was the capital of the Licchavis and the Vajjian Confederacy. Its courtesan, Ambapali, was famous for her beauty, and helped in large measure in making the city prosperous[4]. Ajatashatru went to war with the Licchavi several time. Ajatashatru, is thought to have ruled from 491-461 BCE and moved his capital of the Magadha kingdom from Rajagriha to Patliputra. Udayabhadra eventually succeeded his father, Ajatashatru, under him Patliputra became the largest city in the world. [edit] Nanda dynasty Main article: Nanda Dynasty The Nanda Empire at its greatest extent The Nanda dynasty was established by an illegitimate son of the king Mahanandin of the previous Shishunaga dynasty. Mahapadma Nanda died at the age of 88, ruling the bulk of this 100-year dynasty. The Nandas are sometimes described as the first empire builders of India. They inherited the large kingdom of Magadha and wished to extend it to yet more distant frontiers. The greatest extent of the empire was led by Dhana Nanda. The Nandas were followed by the Maurya dynasty. [edit] Maurya dynasty Main article: Maurya Empire

The Maurya Empire at its greatest extent(Asoka's empire) In 321 BC, exiled general Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya dynasty after overthrowing the reigning Nanda king Dhana Nanda to establish the Maurya Empire. During this time, most of the subcontinent was united under a single government for the first time. Capitalising on the destabilization of northern India by the Persian and Greek incursions, the Mauryan empire under Chandragupta would not only conquer most of the Indian subcontinent, but also push its boundaries into Persia and Central Asia, conquering the Gandhara region. Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara, who expanded the kingdom over most of present day India, barring the extreme south and east. The Buddhist stupa at Sanchi, built during the Mauryan period The only region that was not under the Mauryan's were present day Tamil Nadu and Kerala (which was a Tamil kingdom then). There are references in one of the oldest Tamil Sangam literature, Purananuru, that a Mauryan army was driven out by a unified Tamil army under the leadership of Ilanchetchenni, a Chola King. This unified Tamil force is supposed to be broken by King Kharavela, a Kalinga ruler, as per one of his inscriptions. The kingdom was inherited by his son Ashoka The Great who initially sought to expand his kingdom. In the aftermath of the carnage caused in the invasion of Kalinga, he renounced bloodshed and pursued a policy of non-violence or ahimsa after converting to Buddhism. The Edicts of Ashoka are the oldest preserved historical documents of India, and from Ashoka's time, approximate dating of dynasties becomes possible. The Mauryan dynasty under Ashoka was responsible for the proliferation of Buddhist ideals across the whole of East Asia and South-East Asia, fundamentally altering the history and development of Asia as a whole. Ashoka the Great has been described as one of the greatest rulers the world has seen. Extent of the Sunga Empire [edit] Sunga dynasty Main article: Sunga Empire The Sunga dynasty was established in 185 BC, about fifty years after Ashoka's death, when the king Brihadratha, the last of the Mauryan rulers, was assassinated by the then commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honour of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga then ascended the throne. [edit] Kanva dynasty Main article: Kanva dynasty The Kanva dynasty replaced the Sunga dynasty, and ruled in the eastern part of India from 71 BC to 26 BC. The last ruler of the Sunga dynasty was overthrown by Vasudeva of the Kanva dynasty in 75 BC. The Kanva ruler allowed the kings of the Sunga dynasty to continue to rule in obscurity in a corner of their former dominions. Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulers. In 30 BC, the southern power swept away both the Kanvas and Sungas and the province of Eastern Malwa was absorbed within the dominions of the conqueror. Following the collapse of the Kanva dynasty, the Satavahana dynasty of the Andhra kingdom replaced the Magandhan kingdom as the most powerful Indian state. [edit] Gupta dynasty Main article: Gupta Empire The Gupta Empre under Chandragupta II (ruled 375-415) The Gupta dynasty ruled from around 240 to 550 AD. The Gupta Empire was one of the largest political and military empires in ancient India. The Gupta age is referred

to as the Classical age of India by most historians. The time of the Gupta Empire was an Indian "Golden Age" in science, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy. They had their capital at Pataliputra. The difference between Gupta and Mauryan administration was that the in the Mauryan administration power was centralised but in the Gupta administration power was more decentralised. The king occupied a powerful and important position and often took titles to assert his supremacy. A council of ministers and some officials helped him. The empire was divided into provinces and provinces were further divided into districts. Villages were the smallest units. The kingdom covered Gujarat, North-east India, southeastern Pakistan, Orissa, northern Madhya Pradesh and eastern India. Art and architecture flourished during the Gupta age. People were mostly Vaishnavas. Temples devoted to Shiva and Vishnu were built during this period. Early temples had a large room where the idol of god was kept. Today these can be found in Deogarh in Jhansi. Temples were mostly made of brick or stone. The doorways were very decorative. Wall murals flourished during this age.These can be seen in Ajanta caves which are about 100 km from Aurangabad. These murals depict the life of Buddha.Yajnas were performed by Brahmins. All forms of worship were carried out in Sanskrit. Astronomy made rapid strides. Aryabhatta and Varahamihira were two great Astronomers and Mathematicians. Aryabhatta stated that the earth moved round the sun and rotated on its own Axis. Metallurgy too made rapid strides. Proof is the Iron Pillar near Mehrauli on the outskirts of Delhi. Ayurveda was known to the people of Gupta age. People lived in a happy and prosperous life. Most people lived in villages and led a simple life. Rest houses and hospitals were set up. Laws were simple and punishments were not very harsh. However there was a serious flaw. The bad, inhuman treatment of the Chandalas or Untouchables. They were made to live outside the city and even their shadows were considered capable of polluting. The material sources of this age were Kalidasa's works i.e Raghuvamsa, Meghdoot, Malavikagnimitram and Abhinjnana Shakuntalam, works of Fa-hein,the Chinese buddhist scholar, Allahabad pillar inscription called Prayag Prashsti, Books by Harisena and others. [edit] Kings of Magadha [edit] Brihadratha Dynasty Semi-legendary rulers in Purana accounts. • Brihadratha • Jarasandha • Sahadeva • Somapi (1678-1618 BC) • Srutasravas (1618-1551 BC) • Ayutayus (1551-1515 BC) • Niramitra (1515-1415 BC) • Sukshatra (1415-1407 BC) • Brihatkarman (1407-1384 BC) • Senajit (1384-1361 BC) • Srutanjaya (1361-1321 BC) • Vipra (1321-1296 BC) • Suchi (1296-1238 BC) • Kshemya (1238-1210 BC) • Subrata (1210-1150 BC) • Dharma (1150-1145 BC) • Susuma (1145-1107 BC) • Dridhasena (1107-1059 BC) • Sumati (1059-1026 BC) • Subhala (1026-1004 BC) • Sunita (1004-964 BC) • Satyajit (964-884 BC) • Biswajit (884-849 BC) • Nipunjaya (849-799 BC) [edit] Pradyota dynasty

Ruling 799-684 BC according to calculations based on the Vayu Purana[citation needed]. • Pradyota • Palaka • Visakhayupa • Ajaka • Varttivarddhana [edit] Hariyanka dynasty (545 BC-346 BC) • Bimbisara (545-493 BC), founder of the first Magadhan empire[5][6] • Ajatashatru (493-461 BC) • Darshaka (from 461 BC) • UdayBhadra • Anurudhra • Mund • NagDasak [edit] Shishunaga dynasty (430-364 BC) • Shishunaga (430 BC), established the kingdom of Magadha • Kakavarna (394-364 BC) • Kshemadharman (618-582 BC) • Kshatraujas (582-558 BC) • Kalasoka • Mahanandin (until 424 BC), his empire is inherited by his illegitimate son Mahapadma Nanda [edit] Nanda Dynasty (424-321 BC) • Mahapadma Nanda (from 424 BC), illegitimate son of Mahanandin, founded the Nanda Empire after inheriting Mahanandin's empire • Pandhuka • Panghupati • Bhutapala • Rashtrapala • Govishanaka • Dashasidkhaka • Kaivarta • Dhana (Agrammes, Xandrammes) (until 321 BC), lost his empire to Chandragupta Maurya after being defeated by him [edit] Maurya Dynasty (324-184 BC) • Chandragupta Maurya (Sandrakottos) (324-301 BC), founded the Mauryan Empire after defeating both the Nanda Empire and the Macedonian Seleucid Empire • Amritrochates (301-273 BC) • Ashoka Vardhana (Ashoka the Great) (273-232 BC), considered the greatest ancient Indian emperor, first emperor to unify India (after conquering most of South Asia and Afghanistan), adopt Buddhism, grant animal rights and promote nonviolence, a secular administrator,often called the emperor of all ages. • Dasaratha (232-224 BC) • Samprati (224-215 BC) • Salisuka (215-202 BC) • Devavarman (202-195 BC) • Satadhanvan (195-187 BC), the Mauryan Empire had shrunk by the time of his reign • Brihadrata (187-184 BC), assassinated by Pusyamitra Shunga [edit] Shunga Dynasty (185-73 BC) • Pusyamitra Shunga (185-149 BC), founded the dynasty after assassinating Brihadrata • Agnimitra (149-141 BC), son and successor of Pusyamitra • Vasujyeshtha (141-131 BC) • Vasumitra (131-124 BC) • Andhraka (124-122 BC) • Pulindaka (122-119 BC)

• Ghosha • Vajramitra • Bhagabhadra, mentioned by the Puranas • Devabhuti (83-73 BC), last Sunga king [edit] Kanva Dynasty (73-26 BC) • Vasudeva (from 73 BC) • Successors of Vasudeva (until 26 BC) [edit] Gupta Dynasty (c. 240-550 AD) • Sri-Gupta I (c. 240-290) • Ghatotkacha (290-305) • Chandra Gupta I (305-335), founder of the Gupta Empire, which is often regarded as the golden age of Indian culture • Samudra Gupta (335-370) • Rama Gupta (370-375) • Chandra Gupta II (Chandragupta Vikramaditya) (375-415), son of Samudra Gupta, the Gupta Empire achieved its zenith under his reign, the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien describes Indian culture during his reign • Kumara Gupta I (415-455) • Skanda Gupta (455-467) • Kumara Gupta II (467-477) • Buddha Gupta (477-496) • Chandra Gupta III (496-500) • Vainya Gupta (500-515) • Narasimha Gupta (510-530) • Kumara Gupta III (530-540) • Vishnu Gupta (c. 540-550) [edit] References 1. ^ Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (1977). Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 81-208-0436-8. 2. ^ "Licchavi", Encyclopedia Britannica Online 3. ^ Vaishali, Encyclopedia Britannica Online 4. ^ Vin.i.268 5. ^ Rawlinson, Hugh George. (1950) A Concise History of the Indian People, Oxford University Press. p. 46. 6. ^ Muller, F. Max. (2001) The Dhammapada And Sutta-nipata, Routledge (UK). p. xlvii. ISBN 0-7007-1548-7. [edit] See also • Śiśunāga dynasty • Nanda dynasty Middle kingdoms of India Timeline:

Northern Empires

6th century BCE 5th century BCE 4th century BCE 3rd century BCE 2nd century BCE 1st century BCE 1st century CE 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

century century century century

Southern Dynasties

Northwestern Kingdoms

6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th • • • • •

century century century century century century • Magadha Shishunaga dynasty Nanda empire Kalinga Maurya Empire Sunga Empire

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Kuninda Kingdom

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Western Satraps

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Gupta Empire

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Harsha

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Pala Empire Solanki Sena dynasty

• • • •

Satavahana empire Pandyan Cholas Chera

• • • •

Kalabhras Kadamba Dynasty Pallava Chalukya

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Rashtrakuta

• Western Chalukyas • Hoysala Empire • Gandhara (Persian rule) (Greek conquests) •

Indo-Greeks

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Indo-Scythians Indo-Parthians Kushan Empire

• • •

Indo-Sassanids Kidarite Kingdom Indo-Hephthalites

(Islamic invasions) • Shahi (Islamic empires

Nanda Dynasty From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Nanda Empire) Jump to: navigation, search The Nanda Empire at its greatest extent under Dhana Nanda circa 323 BC. The Nanda Empire originated from the kingdom of Magadha in Ancient India during the 5th and 4th centuries BC. At its greatest extent, the Nanda Empire extended from Bihar and Bengal in the East to Sindh and Balochistan in the West.[1] The Nanda Empire was later conquered by Chandragupta Maurya, who founded the Maurya Empire. Contents [hide] • 1 Establishment of the dynasty • 2 Nanda Rule • 3 The Fall • 4 List of Nanda rulers • 5 See Also • 6 Footnotes [edit] Establishment of the dynasty Mahapadma Nanda has been described as the destroyer of all the Kshatriyas. He defeated the Ikshvaku dynasty, Panchalas, Kasis, Haihayas, Kalingas, Asmakas, Kurus, Maithilas, Surasenas, Vitihotras, etc. He expanded his territory till south of Deccan. Mahapadma Nanda died at the age of 88 and, therefore, he ruled the bulk of the period of this dynasty, which lasted 100 years. The Nandas who usurped the throne of the Shishunaga dynasty were of low origin. Some sources state that the founder, Mahapadma, was the son of a Shudra mother, others that he was born of a union of a barber with a courtesan. Nandas were the first of a number of dynasties of northern India who were of non-kshatriya origin.[citation needed] [edit] Nanda Rule The Nandas are sometimes described as the first empire builders of India. They inherited the large kingdom of Magadha and wished to extend it to yet more distant frontiers. To this purpose they built up a vast army consisting of 200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 2,000 war chariots and 3,000 war elephants (at the lowest estimates).[2] According to Plutarch however, the size of the Nanda army was even larger, numbering 200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 8,000 war chariots, and 6,000 war elephants. However, the Nandas never had the opportunity to see their army up against Alexander, who invaded India at the time of Dhana Nanda, since Alexander had to confine his campaign to the plains of Punjab, for his forces, frightened by the prospect of facing a formidable foe, mutinied at the Hyphasis River (the modern Beas River) refusing to march any further. This river thus marks the eastern-most extent of Alexander's conquests: Asia in 323BC, showing borders of the Nanda Empire in relation to Alexander's Empire and neighbors. "As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs, its depth a hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand

fighting elephants."[3]. The Nandas made the methodical collection of taxes by regularly appointed officials a part of their administrative system. The treasury was continually replenished, the wealth of the Nandas being well-known. The Nandas also built canals and carried out irrigation projects. The possibility of an imperial structure based on an essentially agrarian economy began to germinate in the Indian mind. [edit] The Fall The last of the Nandas was Dhana Nanda (called Xandrames or Aggrammes in ancient Greek and Latin sources). Dhana Nanda was dethroned after he was defeated by Chandragupta Maurya, a young adventurer born of a Nanda prince and a maid named "Mura". He had a great potential to rule. Dhana Nanda was murdered which finally signaled the advent of the Maurya Empire in 321 BC. Plutarch records that Chandragupta Maurya had stated that he was able to overthrow Dhana Nanda since he was hated and despised by his subjects on account of the wickedness of his disposition: "Sandrocottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth."[4] [edit] List of Nanda rulers • Mahapadma Nanda (c. 424 BC – ?) • Pandhuka • Panghupati • Bhutapala • Rashtrapala • Govishanaka • Dashasidkhaka • Kaivarta • Dhana Nanda (Argames) (? – c. 321 BC) The Puranas describe the duration of the Nanda dynasty as 100 years. Preceded by Shishunaga dynasty Magadha dynasties Succeeded by Maurya dynasty [edit] See Also Middle kingdoms of India Timeline:

Northern Empires

6th century BCE 5th century BCE 4th century BCE 3rd century BCE 2nd century BCE 1st century BCE 1st century CE 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th

century century century century century

Southern Dynasties

Northwestern Kingdoms

7th 8th 9th 10th 11th • • • • •

century century century century century • Magadha Shishunaga dynasty Nanda empire Kalinga Maurya Empire Sunga Empire

•

Kuninda Kingdom

•

Western Satraps

•

Gupta Empire

•

Harsha

• • •

Pala Empire Solanki Sena dynasty

• • • •

Satavahana empire Pandyan Cholas Chera

• • • •

Kalabhras Kadamba Dynasty Pallava Chalukya

•

Rashtrakuta

• Western Chalukyas • Hoysala Empire • Gandhara (Persian rule) (Greek conquests) •

Indo-Greeks

• • •

Indo-Scythians Indo-Parthians Kushan Empire

• • •

Indo-Sassanids Kidarite Kingdom Indo-Hephthalites

(Islamic invasions) • Shahi (Islamic empires) Maurya Empire

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search "Ancient India" redirects here. For other uses, see Ancient India (disambiguation). Maurya Empire The Maurya Dynasty at its largest extent under Ashoka the Great. Imperial Symbol: The Lion Capital of Ashoka Founder

Chandragupta Maurya

Preceding State(s) The Mahajanapadas

The Nanda Dynasty of Magadha

Languages Sanskrit Magadhi Prakrit Pali Prakrit Other Prakrits Religions Historical Vedic religion Buddhism Jainism Ājīvika Cārvāka Local Deities Capital Pataliputra Head of State Samraat (Emperor) First Emperor

Chandragupta Maurya

Last Emperor

Brhadrata

Government Centralized Absolute Monarchy with Divine Right of Kings as described in the Arthashastra Divisions 4 provinces: Tosali Ujjain Suvarnagiri Taxila Semi-independent tribes Administration Inner Council of Ministers (Mantriparishad) under a Mahamantri with a larger assembly of ministers (Mantrinomantriparisadamca). Extensive network of officials from treasurers (Sannidhatas) to collectors (Samahartas) and clerks (Karmikas). Provincial administration under regional viceroys (Kumara or Aryaputra) with their own Mantriparishads and supervisory officials (Mahamattas). Provinces divided into districts run by lower officials and similar stratification

down to individual villages run by headmen and supervised by Imperial officials (Gopas). Area 5 million km² [1] (Southern Asia and parts of Central Asia) Population 50 million [2] (one third of the world population [3]) Currency Silver Ingots (Panas) Existed 322–185 BCE Dissolution Military coup by Pusyamitra Sunga Succeeding state

Sunga Empire

The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive and powerful empire in ancient India, ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 BC. Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic plains (modern Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bengal) in the eastern side of the Indian subcontinent, the empire had its capital city at Pataliputra (near modern Patna). The Empire was founded in 322 BC by Chandragupta Maurya, who had overthrown the Nanda Dynasty and rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India taking advantage of the disruptions of local powers in the wake of the withdrawal westward by Alexander the Great's Greek and Persian armies. By 320 BC the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the satraps left by Alexander. At its greatest extent, the Empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now Assam. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, annexing Balochistan and much of what is now Afghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces. The Empire was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it excluded a small portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions near Kalinga (modern Orissa). The Mauryan Empire was one of the largest empires to rule the Indian subcontinent. Its decline began fifty years after Ashoka's rule ended, and it dissolved in 185 BC with the foundation of the Sunga Dynasty in Magadha. Under Chandragupta, the Mauryan Empire conquered the trans-Indus region, which was under Macedonian rule. Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by Seleucus I, a Greek general from Alexander's army. Under Chandragupta and his successors, both internal and external trade, and agriculture and economic activities, all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single and efficient system of finance, administration and security. After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced half a century of peace and security under Ashoka: India was a prosperous and stable empire of great economic and military power whose political influence and trade extended across Western and Central Asia and Europe. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism was the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across all of India. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia and Mediterranean Europe. Chandragupta's minister Kautilya Chanakya wrote the Arthashastra, one of the greatest treatises on economics, politics, foreign affairs, administration, military arts, war, and religion ever produced in the India. Archaeologically, the

period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are primary sources of written records of the Mauryan times. The Mauryan empire is considered one of the most significant periods in Indian history. The Lion Capital of Asoka at Sarnath, is the emblem of India. Contents [hide] • 1 Background o 1.1 Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya o 1.2 Conquest of Magadha o 1.3 Chandragupta Maurya o 1.4 Bindusara o 1.5 Asoka the Great • 2 Administration • 3 Economy • 4 Religion o 4.1 Jainism o 4.2 Buddhism o 4.3 Brahmanism • 5 Architectural remains • 6 Natural history in the times of the Mauryas • 7 Contacts with the Hellenistic world o 7.1 Foundation of the Empire o 7.2 Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 310 BCE) o 7.3 Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE) 7.3.1 Marital alliance 7.3.2 Exchange of ambassadors 7.3.3 Exchange of presents o 7.4 Greek populations in India o 7.5 Buddhist missions to the West (c.250 BCE) o 7.6 Subhagsena and Antiochos III (206 BCE) • 8 Decline o 8.1 Sunga coup (185 BCE) o 8.2 Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE) • 9 See Also • 10 Notes • 11 References • 12 External links [edit] Background Alexander set up a Greek-Macedonian garrison and satrapies (vassal states) in the trans-Indus region of modern day Pakistan, ruled previously by kings Ambhi of Taxila and Porus of Pauravas (modern day Jhelum). [edit] Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya Main articles: Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya The court of Chandragupta Maurya, especially Chanakya, played an important part in the foundation and governance of the Maurya dynasty. Following Alexander's advance into the Punjab, a brahmin named Chanakya (real name Vishnugupt, also known as Kautilya) traveled to Magadha, a kingdom that was large and militarily-powerful and feared by its neighbors, but was dismissed by its king Dhana, of the Nanda Dynasty. However, the prospect of battling Magadha deterred Alexander's troops from going further east: he returned to Babylon, and redeployed most of his troops west of the Indus river. When Alexander died in Babylon, soon after in 323 BCE, his empire fragmented, and local kings declared their independence, leaving several smaller satraps in a disunited state. Chandragupta Maurya deposed Dhana. The Greek generals Eudemus, and Peithon, ruled

until around 316 BCE, when Chandragupta Maurya (with the help of Chanakya, who was now his advisor) surprised and defeated the Macedonians and consolidated the region under the control of his new seat of power in Magadha. Chandragupta Maurya's rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy. On the one hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the drama Mudrarakshasa (Poem of Rakshasa - Rakshasa was the prime minister of Magadha) by Visakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and even link him with the Nanda family. A kshatriya tribe known as the Maurya's are referred to in the earliest Buddhist texts, Mahaparinibbana Sutta. However, any conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as "Sandrokottos". As a young man he is said to have met Alexander.[4] He is also said to have met the Nanda king, angered him, and made a narrow escape.[5] Chanakya's original intentions were to train a guerilla army under Chandragupta's command. The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, sometimes identified with Porus (Sir John Marshall "Taxila", p18, and al.) This Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite and powerful army made up of Yavanas (Greeks), Kambojas, Shakas (Scythians), Kiratas (Nepalese), Parasikas (Persians) and Bahlikas (Bactrians)[6] [7] [8]. With the help of these frontier martial tribes from Central Asia, Chandragupta was able to defeat the Nanda/Nandin rulers of Magadha and found the powerful Maurya empire in northern India. [edit] Conquest of Magadha Main articles: Chandragupta Maurya, Nanda Dynasty, and Magadha Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take over the throne of Magadha. Using his intelligence network, Chandragupta gathered many young men from across Magadha and other provinces, men upset over the corrupt and oppressive rule of king Dhana, plus resources necessary for his army to fight a long series of battles. These men included the former general of Taxila, other accomplished students of Chanakya, the representative of King Porus of Kakayee, his son Malayketu, and the rulers of small states. Preparing to invade Pataliputra, Maurya hatched a plan. A battle was announced and the Magadhan army was drawn from the city to a distant battlefield to engage Maurya's forces. Maurya's general and spies meanwhile bribed the corrupt general of Nanda. He also managed to create an atmosphere of civil war in the kingdom, which culminated in the death of the heir to the throne. Chanakya managed to win over popular sentiment. Ultimately Nanda resigned, handing power to Chandragupta, and went into exile and was never heard of again. Chanakya contacted the prime minister, Rakshasas, and made him understand that his loyalty was to Magadha, not to the Magadha dynasty, insisting that he continue in office. Chanakya also reiterated that choosing to resist would start a war that would severely affect Magadha and destroy the city. Rakshasa accepted Chanakya's reasoning, and Chandragupta Maurya was legitimately installed as the new King of Magadha. Rakshasa became Chandragupta's chief advisor, and Chanakya assumed the position of an elder statesman. The approximate extent of the Magadha state in the 5th century BCE. The Nanda Empire at its greatest extent under Dhana Nanda circa 323 BCE. The Maurya Empire when it was first founded by Chandragupta Maurya circa 320 BCE, after conquering the Nanda Empire when he was only about 20 years old. Chandragupta extended the borders of the Maurya Empire towards Seleucid Persia after defeating Seleucus circa 305 BCE.[9] Chandragupta extended the borders of the empire southward into the Deccan Plateau circa 300 BC.[10] Ashoka the Great extended into Kalinga during the Kalinga War circa 265 BCE, and

established superiority over the southern kingdoms. [edit] Chandragupta Maurya Main article: Chandragupta Maurya Approximate Dates of Mauryan Dynasty Emperor

Reign start Reign end

Chandragupta Maurya 322 BCE 298 BCE Bindusara 297 BCE 272 BCE Asoka The Great 273 BCE 232 BCE Dasaratha 232 BCE 224 BCE Samprati 224 BCE 215 BCE Salisuka 215 BCE 202 BCE Devavarman 202 BCE 195 BCE Satadhanvan 195 BCE 187 BCE Brihadratha 187 BCE 185 BCE

Indian postage stamp depicting Chandragupta Maurya Chandragupta was again in conflict with the Greeks when Seleucus I, ruler of the Seleucid Empire, tried to reconquer the northwestern parts of India, during a campaign in 305 BCE, but failed. The two rulers finally concluded a peace treaty: a marital treaty (Epigamia) was concluded, implying either a marital alliance between the two dynastic lines or a recognition of marriage between Greeks and Indians, Chandragupta received the satrapies of Paropamisade (Kamboja and Gandhara), Arachosia (Kandhahar) and Gedrosia (Balochistan), and Seleucus I received 500 war elephants that were to have a decisive role in his victory against western Hellenistic kings at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE. Diplomatic relations were established and several Greeks, such as the historian Megasthenes, Deimakos and Dionysius resided at the Mauryan court. Chandragupta established a strong centralized state with a complex administration

at Pataliputra, which, according to Megasthenes, was "surrounded by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and 570 towers— (and) rivaled the splendors of contemporaneous Persian sites such as Susa and Ecbatana." Chandragupta's son Bindusara extended the rule of the Mauryan empire towards southern India. He also had a Greek ambassador at his court, named Deimachus (Strabo 1–70). Megasthenes describes a disciplined multitude under Chandragupta, who live simply, honestly, and do not know writing: " The Indians all live frugally, especially when in camp. They dislike a great undisciplined multitude, and consequently they observe good order. Theft is of very rare occurrence. Megasthenes says that those who were in the camp of Sandrakottos, wherein lay 400,000 men, found that the thefts reported on any one day did not exceed the value of two hundred drachmae, and this among a people who have no written laws, but are ignorant of writing, and must therefore in all the business of life trust to memory. They live, nevertheless, happily enough, being simple in their manners and frugal. They never drink wine except at sacrifices. Their beverage is a liquor composed from rice instead of barley, and their food is principally a rice-pottage." Strabo XV. i. 53-56, quoting Megasthenes[11] [edit] Bindusara Main article: Bindusara [edit] Asoka the Great Main article: Ashoka the Great Emperor Ashoka The Great Chandragupta's grandson was Ashokavardhan Maurya, better known as Ashoka the Great (ruled 273- 232 BCE). As a young prince, Ashoka was a brilliant commander who crushed revolts in Ujjain and Taxila. As monarch he was ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the Empire's superiority in southern and western India. But it was his conquest of Kalinga which proved to be the pivotal event of his life. Although Ashoka's army succeeded in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and civilian units, an estimated 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious warfare, including over 10,000 of Ashoka's own men. Hundreds of thousands of people were adversely affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally witnessed the devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse, and he cried 'what have I done?'. Although the annexation of Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the teachings of Gautama Buddha, and renounced war and violence. For a monarch in ancient times, this was an historic feat. Ashoka implemented principles of ahimsa by banning hunting and violent sports activity and ending indentured and forced labor (many thousands of people in warravaged Kalinga had been forced into hard labor and servitude). While he maintained a large and powerful army, to keep the peace and maintain authority, Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states across Asia and Europe, and he sponsored Buddhist missions. He undertook a massive public works building campaign across the country. Over 40 years of peace, harmony and prosperity made Ashoka one of the most successful and famous monarchs in Indian history. He remains an idealized figure of inspiration in modern India. The Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, are found throughout the Subcontinent. Ranging from as far west as Afghanistan and as far south as Andhra (Nellore District), Ashoka's edicts state his policies and accomplishments. Although predominantly written in Prakrit, two of them were written in Greek, and one in both Greek and Aramaic. Ashoka's edicts refer to the Greeks, Kambojas, and Gandharas as peoples forming a frontier region of his empire. They also attest to Ashoka's having sent envoys to the Greek rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts precisely name each of the rulers of the Hellenic world at the time such as Amtiyoko (Antiochus), Tulamaya (Ptolemy), Amtikini (Antigonos), Maka (Magas) and Alikasudaro (Alexander) as recipients of Ashoka's proselytism. The Edicts also accurately locate their territory "600 yojanas away" (a yojanas being about 7 miles), corresponding to the distance between the center of India and Greece

(roughly 4,000 miles).[12] A representation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka, which was erected around 250 BCE. It is the emblem of India. Statuettes of the Maurya period, 4th-3rd century BCE. Musée Guimet. The distribution of the Edicts of Ashoka.[13] is a concrete indication of the extent of Ashoka's rule. To the West, it went as far as Kandahar (where the Edicts were written in Greek and Aramaic), and bordered the contemporary Hellenistic metropolis of Ai Khanoum. [edit] Administration Mauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century BCE. British Museum. The Empire was divided into four provinces, which one of the four, look like a giant crescents. with the imperial capital at Pataliputra. From Ashokan edicts, the names of the four provincial capitals are Tosali (in the east), Ujjain in the west, Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the north). The head of the provincial administration was the Kumara (royal prince), who governed the provinces as king's representative. The kumara was assisted by Mahamatyas and council of ministers. This organizational structure was reflected at the imperial level with the Emperor and his Mantriparishad (Council of Ministers). Historians theorize that the organization of the Empire was in line with the extensive bureaucracy described by Kautilya in the Arthashastra: a sophisticated civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. The expansion and defense of the empire was made possible by what appears to have been the largest standing army of its time[citation needed]. According to Megasthenes, the empire wielded a military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants. A vast espionage system collected intelligence for both internal and external security purposes. Having renounced offensive warfare and expansionism, Ashoka nevertheless continued to maintain this large army, to protect the Empire and instill stability and peace across West and South Asia. [edit] Economy Silver punch mark coin of the Mauryan empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century BCE. For the first time in South Asia, political unity and military security allowed for a common economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity. The previous situation involving hundreds of kingdoms, many small armies, powerful regional chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave way to a disciplined central authority. Farmers were freed of tax and crop collection burdens from regional kings, paying instead to a nationally-administered and strict-but-fair system of taxation as advised by the principles in the Arthashastra. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, and a network of regional governors and administrators and a civil service provided justice and security for merchants, farmers and traders. The Mauryan army wiped out many gangs of bandits, regional private armies, and powerful chieftains who sought to impose their own supremacy in small areas. Although regimental in revenue collection, Maurya also sponsored many public works and waterways to enhance productivity, while internal trade in India expanded greatly due to newfound political unity and internal peace. Mauryan cast copper coin. Late 3rd century BCE. British Museum.

Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty, and during Ashoka's reign, an international network of trade expanded. The Khyber Pass, on the modern boundary of Pakistan and Afghanistan, became a strategically-important port of trade and intercourse with the outside world. Greek states and Hellenic kingdoms in West Asia became important trade partners of India. Trade also extended through the Malay peninsula into Southeast Asia. India's exports included silk goods and textiles, spices and exotic foods. The Empire was enriched further with an exchange of scientific knowledge and technology with Europe and West Asia. Ashoka also sponsored the construction of thousands of roads, waterways, canals, hospitals, rest-houses and other public works. The easing of many overly-rigorous administrative practices, including those regarding taxation and crop collection, helped increase productivity and economic activity across the Empire. In many ways, the economic situation in the Maurya Empire is comparable to the Roman Empire several centuries later, which both had extensive trade connections and both had organizations similar to corporations. While Rome had organizational entities which were largely used for public state-driven projects, Mauryan India had numerous private commercial entities which existed purely for private commerce. This was due to the Mauryas having to contend with pre-existing private commercial entities hence they were more concerned about keeping the support of these pre-existing organizations, while the Romans did not have such pre-existing entities to contend with hence they were able to prevent such entities from developing.[14] (See also Economic history of India.) [edit] Religion Buddhist stupas during the Mauryan period were simple mounds without decorations. Butkara stupa, 3rd century BCE.[15] Buddhist proselytism at the time of king Ashoka (260-218 BCE). Balarama, holding mace and conch (lower right) on a Maurya coin. Balarama was originally a powerful independent deity of Hinduism, and later became an avatar of Vishnu. 3rd-2nd century CE. British Museum. Mauryan architecture in the Barabar Mounts. Grottoe of Lomas Richi. 3rd century BCE. [edit] Jainism Emperor Chandragupta Maurya became the first major Indian monarch to initiate a religious transformation at the highest level when he embraced Jainism, a religious movement resented by orthodox Hindu priests who usually attended the imperial court. At an older age, Chandragupta renounced his throne and material possessions to join a wandering group of Jain monks. Chandragupta was a disciple of Acharya Bhadrabahu. It is said that in his last days, he observed the rigorous but self purifying Jain ritual of santhara i.e. fast unto death, at Shravana Belagola in Karnataka. However, his successor, Emperor Bindusara, preserved Hindu traditions and distanced himself from Jain and Buddhist movements. Samprati, the grandson of Ashoka also embraced Jainism. Samrat Samprati was influenced by the teachings of Jain monk Arya Suhasti Suri and he is known to have built 125,000 Jain Temples across India. Some of them are still found in towns of Ahmedabad, Viramgam, Ujjain & Palitana. It is also said that just like Ashoka, Samprati sent messengers & preachers to Greece, Persia & middle-east for the spread of Jainism. But till date no research has been done in this area. Thus, Jainism became a vital force under the Mauryan Rule. Chandragupta & Samprati, are credited for spread of Jainism in Southern India. Lakhs of Jain Temples & Jain Stupas were erected during their reign. But due to lack of royal patronage & its strict principles, along

with rise of Shankaracharya & Ramanujacharya, Jainism, once the major religion of southern India, declined. [edit] Buddhism But when Ashoka embraced Buddhism, following the Kalinga War, he renounced expansionism and aggression, and the harsher injunctions of the Arthashastra on the use of force, intensive policing, and ruthless measures for tax collection and against rebels. Ashoka sent a mission led by his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta to Sri Lanka, whose king Tissa was so charmed with Buddhist ideals that he adopted them himself and made Buddhism the state religion. Ashoka sent many Buddhist missions to West Asia, Greece and South East Asia, and commissioned the construction of monasteries, schools and publication of Buddhist literature across the empire. He is believed to have built as many as 84,000 stupas across India i.e. Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple, and he increased the popularity of Buddhism in Afghanistan,Thailand and north Asian countries. Ashoka helped convene the Third Buddhist Council of India and South Asia's Buddhist orders, near his capital, a council that undertook much work of reform and expansion of the Buddhist religion. [edit] Brahmanism While himself a Buddhist, Ashoka retained the membership of Brahmana priests and ministers in his court, and he maintained religious freedom and tolerance although the Buddhist faith grew in popularity with his patronage. Brahmanic society began embracing the philosophy of ahimsa, and given the increased prosperity and improved law enforcement, crime and internal conflicts reduced dramatically. Also greatly discouraged was the caste system and orthodox discrimination, as Brahmanism began to absorb the ideals and values of Jain and Buddhist teachings. Social freedom began expanding in an age of peace and prosperity. [edit] Architectural remains Main article: Edicts of Ashoka Architectural remains of the Maurya period are rather few. Remains of a hypostyle building with about 80 columns of a height of about 10 meters have been found in Kumhrar, 5 km from Patna Railway station, and is one of the very few site that has been connected to the rule of the Mauryas in that city. The style is rather reminiscent of Persian Achaemenid architecture.[16] The grottoes of Barabar Caves, are another example of Mauryan architecture, especially the decorated front of the Lomas Rishi grotto. These were offered by the Mauryas to the Buddhist sect of the Ajivikas.[17] The most widespread example of Maurya architecture are the Pillars of Ashoka, often exquisitely decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout the subcontinent. [edit] Natural history in the times of the Mauryas The protection of animals in India became serious business by the time of the Maurya dynasty; being the first empire to provide a unified political entity in India, the attitude of the Mauryas towards forests, its denizens and fauna in general is of interest. The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as a resource. For them, the most important forest product was the elephant. Military might in those times depended not only upon horses and men but also battle-elephants; these played a role in the defeat of Seleucus, Alexander's governor of the Punjab. The Mauryas sought to preserve supplies of elephants since it was cheaper and took less time to catch, tame and train wild elephants than to raise them. Kautilya's Arthashastra contains not only maxims on ancient statecraft, but also unambiguously specifies the responsibilities of officials such as the Protector of the Elephant Forests:[18] On the border of the forest, he should establish a forest for elephants guarded by foresters. The Superintendent should with the help of guards...protect the elephants whether along on the mountain, along a river, along lakes or in marshy tracts...They should kill anyone slaying an elephant. —Arthashastra The Mauryas also designated separate forests to protect supplies of timber, as

well as lions and tigers, for skins. Elsewhere the Protector of Animals also worked to eliminate thieves, tigers and other predators to render the woods safe for grazing cattle. The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in strategic or economic terms and instituted curbs and control measures over them. They regarded all forest tribes with distrust and controlled them with bribery and political subjugation. They employed some of them, the food-gatherers or aranyaca to guard borders and trap animals. The sometimes tense and conflict-ridden relationship nevertheless enabled the Mauryas to guard their vast empire.[19] When Ashoka embraced Buddhism in the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant changes in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even relinquished the royal hunt. He was the first ruler in history to advocate conservation measures for wildlife and even had rules inscribed in stone edicts. The edicts proclaim that many followed the king's example in giving up the slaughter of animals; one of them proudly states:[19] Our king killed very few animals. —Edict on Fifth Pillar However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events; the mention of a 100 'panas' (coins) fine for poaching deer in royal hunting preserves shows that rule-breakers did exist. The legal restrictions conflicted with the practices freely exercised by the common people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests.[19] [edit] Contacts with the Hellenistic world Mauryan Statuette, 2nd Century BCE. [edit] Foundation of the Empire Relations with the Hellenistic world may have started from the very beginning of the Maurya Empire. Plutarch reports that Chandragupta Maurya met with Alexander the Great, probably around Taxila in the northwest: "Sandrocottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth". Plutarch 62-3[20] [edit] Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 310 BCE) Chandragupta ultimately occupied Northwestern India, in the territories formerly ruled by the Greeks, where he fought the satraps (described as "Prefects" in Western sources) left in place after Alexander (Justin), among whom may have been Eudemus, ruler in the western Punjab until his departure in 317 BCE or Peithon, son of Agenor, ruler of the Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure for Babylon in 316 BCE. "India, after the death of Alexander, had assassinated his prefects, as if shaking the burden of servitude. The author of this liberation was Sandracottos, but he had transformed liberation in servitude after victory, since, after taking the throne, he himself oppressed the very people he has liberated from foreign domination" Justin XV.4.12-13[21] "Later, as he was preparing war against the prefects of Alexander, a huge wild elephant went to him and took him on his back as if tame, and he became a remarkable fighter and war leader. Having thus acquired royal power, Sandracottos possessed India at the time Seleucos was preparing future glory." Justin XV.4.19[22] [edit] Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE) Silver coin of Seleucus I Nicator, who fought Chandragupta Maurya, and later made an alliance with him. Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian satrap of the Asian portion of Alexander's former empire, conquered and put under his own authority eastern territories as

far as Bactria and the Indus (Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55), until in 305 BCE he entered in a confrontation with Chandragupta: "Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he [Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus". Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55[23] Though no accounts of the conflict remain, it is clear that Seleucus fared poorly against the Indian Emperor as he failed in conquering any territory, and in fact, was forced to surrender much that was already his. Regardless, Seleucus and Chandragupta ultimately reached a settlement and through a treaty sealed in 305 BCE, Seleucus, according to Strabo, ceded a number of territories to Chandragupta, including southern Afghanistan and parts of Persia. Accordingly, Seleucus obtained five hundred war elephants, a military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE. [edit] Marital alliance It is generally thought that an alliance was made, and that a Greek Seleucid princess was bethrothed to the Maurya Dynasty.[9][24][25] A matrimonial alliance was also agreed upon (called Epigamia in ancient sources, meaning either the recognition of marriage between trans-Indus inhabitants and Greeks, or a dynastic alliance): "He (Seleucus) crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship". Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55[23] The treaty on "Epigamia" implies lawful marriage between Greeks and Indians was recognized at the State level, although it is unclear whether it occurred among dynastic rulers or common people, or both. [edit] Exchange of ambassadors Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (Modern Patna in Bihar state). Later Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka, is also recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.[26] [edit] Exchange of presents Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus: "And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters [as to make people more amorous]. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish love" Athenaeus of Naucratis, "The deipnosophists" Book I, chapter 32[27] His son Bindusara 'Amitraghata' (Slayer of Enemies) also is recorded in Classical sources as having exchanged present with Antiochus I: "But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men (for really, as Aristophanes says, "There's really nothing nicer than dried figs"), that even Amitrochates, the king of the Indians, wrote to Antiochus, entreating him (it is Hegesander who tells this story) to buy and send him some sweet wine, and some dried figs, and a sophist; and that Antiochus wrote to him in answer, "The dry figs and the sweet wine we will send you; but it is not lawful for a sophist to be sold in Greece" Athenaeus, "Deipnosophistae" XIV.67[28] [edit] Greek populations in India Greek populations apparently remained in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Ashoka's rule. In his Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, some of them written

in Greek, Ashoka describes that Greek populations within his realm converted to Buddhism: "Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma". Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika). Bilingual edict (Greek and Aramaic) by king Ashoka, from Kandahar. Kabul Museum. (Click image for translation). Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a full Edict, written in both Greek and Aramaic has been discovered in Kandahar. It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical terms. In this Edict, Ashoka uses the word Eusebeia ("Piety") as the Greek translation for the ubiquitous "Dharma" of his other Edicts written in Prakrit: "Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made known (the doctrine of) Piety (εὐσέβεια, Eusebeia) to men; and from this moment he has made men more pious, and everything thrives throughout the whole world. And the king abstains from (killing) living beings, and other men and those who (are) huntsmen and fishermen of the king have desisted from hunting. And if some (were) intemperate, they have ceased from their intemperance as was in their power; and obedient to their father and mother and to the elders, in opposition to the past also in the future, by so acting on every occasion, they will live better and more happily". (Trans. by G.P. Carratelli [1]) [edit] Buddhist missions to the West (c.250 BCE) Front view of the single lion capital in Vaishali. Also, in the Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as a recipient of his Buddhist proselytism, although no Western historical record of this event remain: "The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (5,400-9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka)." (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika). Ashoka also claims that he encouraged the development of herbal medicine, for men and animals, in their territories: "Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's [Ashoka's] domain, and among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni and where the Greek king Antiochos rules, and among the kings who are neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-of-theGods, King Piyadasi, made provision for two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for humans and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported and grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them imported and grown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of humans and animals". 2nd Rock Edict The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek ("Yona") Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (the Mahavamsa, XII[29]). [edit] Subhagsena and Antiochos III (206 BCE) Sophagasenus was an Indian Mauryan ruler of the 3rd century BCE, described in ancient Greek sources, and named Subhagsena or Subhashsena in Prakrit. His name is mentioned in the list of Mauryan princes[citation needed], and also in the list of the Yadava dynasty, as a descendant of Pradyumna. He may have been a grandson of Ashoka, or Kunala, the son of Ashoka. He ruled an area south of the Hindu Kush,

possibly in Gandhara. Antiochos III, the Seleucid king, after having made peace with Euthydemus in Bactria, went to India in 206 BC and is said to have renewed his friendship with the Indian king there: "He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus and descended into India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him". Polybius 11.39 [edit] Decline Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker kings. Brhadrata, the last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, held territories that had shrunk considerably from the time of emperor Ashoka, although he still upheld the Buddhist faith. [edit] Sunga coup (185 BCE) Brihadrata was assassinated in 185 BCE during a military parade, by the commanderin-chief of his guard, the Brahmin general Pusyamitra Sunga, who then took over the throne and established the Sunga dynasty. Buddhist records such as the Asokavadana write that the assassination of Brhadrata and the rise of the Sunga empire led to a wave of persecution for Buddhists,[30] and a resurgence of Hinduism. According to Sir John Marshall,[31] Pusyamitra may have been the main author of the persecutions, although later Sunga kings seem to have been more supportive of Buddhism. Other historians, such as Etienne Lamotte[32] and Romila Thapar,[33] among others, have argued that archaeological evidence in favor of the allegations of persecution of Buddhists are lacking, and that the extent and magnitude of the atrocities have been exaggerated. [edit] Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE) Main article: Indo-Greek kingdom The fall of the Mauryas left the Khyber Pass unguarded, and a wave of foreign invasion followed. The Greco-Bactrian king, Demetrius, capitalized on the breakup, and he conquered southern Afghanistan and Pakistan around 180 BC, forming the Indo-Greek Kingdom. The Indo-Greeks would maintain holdings on the trans-Indus region, and make forays into central India, for about a century. Under them, Buddhism flourished, and one of their kings Menander became a famous figure of Buddhism, he was to establish a new capital of Sagala, the modern city of Sialkot. However, the extent of their domains and the lengths of their rule are subject to much debate. Numismatic evidence indicates that they retained holdings in the subcontinent right up to the birth of Christ. Although the extent of their successes against indigenous powers such as the Sungas, Satavahanas, and Kalingas are unclear, what is clear is that Scythian tribes, renamed Indo-Scythians, brought about the demise of the Indo-Greeks from around 70 BCE and retained lands in the trans-Indus, the region of Mathura, and Gujarat. Sunga Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For other uses of the term Sunga see Shunga (disambiguation) Shunga Empire ← 185 BC–75 BC →

Approximate greatest extent of the Sunga empire (circa 185 BCE). Capital Pataliputra Vidisa Language(s) Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali

Religion Hinduism/Buddhism Government Monarchy King - 185-151 BC

Pusyamitra Sunga

- 83-75 BC Devabhuti Historical era

Antiquity

- Established 185 BC - Disestablished 75 BC The Shunga Empire (Sanskrit: शुग ं राजवश ं ) or Sunga Empire is a Magadha dynasty that controlled North-central and Eastern India as well as parts of the northwest (now Pakistan) from around 185 to 73 BCE. It was established after the fall of the Indian Maurya Empire. The capital of the Sungas was Pataliputra. Later kings such as Bhagabhadra also held court at Vidisha, modern Besnagar in Eastern Malwa. [1] The Sunga Empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. Although very much isn't known, the Mathura school of art and the works of Patanjali colored North India during this empire. Contents [hide] • 1 Origins • 2 Buddhism o 2.1 Support given • 3 Wars of the Sungas • 4 Cultural Contributions • 5 Script • 6 List of Sunga kings • 7 See Also • 8 Notes • 9 References • 10 See also • 11 References • 12 External links [edit] Origins Balustrade-holding Yaksa, Madhya Pradesh (?), Sunga period (2nd-1st century BCE). Musee Guimet. The Shunga dynasty was established in 185 BCE, about 50 years after Ashoka's death, when the king Brhadrata, the last of the Mauryan rulers, was assassinated by the then commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga [2], while he was taking the Guard of Honour of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga then ascended the throne. Pushyamitra Sunga became the ruler of the Magadha and neighbouring territories. The kingdom of Pushyamitra was extended up to Narmada in the south, and controlled Jalandhar and Sialkot in the Punjab in the north-western regions, and the city of Ujjain [3] in central India. The Kabul Valley and much of the Punjab passed into the hands of the Indo-Greeks and the Deccan to the Satavahanas.

Pushyamitra died after ruling for 36 years (187-151 BCE). He was succeeded by son Agnimitra. This prince is the hero of a famous drama by one of India's greatest playwrights, Kalidasa. Agnimitra was viceroy of Vidisha when the story takes place. The power of the Sungas gradually weakened. It is said that there were ten Sunga kings. The Sungas were succeeded by the Kanva dynasty around 73 BCE. [edit] Buddhism Yaksa reliefs. Bharhut, 2nd century BCE. Main article: Pusyamitra Sunga See also: Decline of Buddhism in India Following the Mauryans, the first Brahmin king was Pusyamitra Sunga, is believed by some writers with the persecution of Buddhists and a resurgence of Brahmanism that forced Buddhism outwards to Kashmir, Gandhara and Bactria.[4] However, there is doubt as to whether he did persecute Buddhists actively.[4] According to the 2nd century Ashokavadana: "Then King Pusyamitra equipped a fourfold army, and intending to destroy the Buddhist religion, he went to the Kukkutarama. (...) Pusyamitra therefore destroyed the sangharama, killed the monks there, and departed. After some time, he arrived in Sakala, and proclaimed that he would give a hundred dinara reward to whomever brought him the head of a Buddhist monk" (Shramanas) Ashokavadana, 133, trans. John Strong. [edit] Support given Later Sunga kings were seen as amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building of the stupa at Bharhut.[5] Some writers believe that Brahmanism competed in political and spiritual realm with Buddhism[4] in the gangetic plains. Buddhism flourished in the realms of the Bactrian kings. [6] Some Indian scholars are of the opinion that the orthodox Sunga kings were not intolerant towards Buddhism and that Buddhism prospered during the time of the Sunga kings. The existence of Buddhism in Bengal in the Sunga period can also be inferred from a terracotta tablet that was found at Tamralipti and is on exhibit at the Asutosh Museum, University of Calcutta. An inspriction at Bodh Gaya at the Mahabodhi Temple records the construction of the temple as follows: "The gift of Nagadevi the wife of King Brahmamitra." So then this further means that the Sungas were in support of Buddhism (Barua, B.M., 'Old Buddhist Shrines at Bodh-Gaya Inscriptions). Another inscription reads: "The gift of Kurangi, the mother of living sons and the wife of King Indragnimitra, son of Kosiki. The gift also of Srima of the royal palace shrine (Barua, B.M., 'Old Buddhist Shrines at Bodh-Gaya Inscriptions). "[2] Cunningham has regretted the loss of the latter part of these important records. As regards the first coping inscription, he has found traces of eleven Brahmi letters after "Kuramgiye danam", the first nine of which read "rajapasada-cetika sa". Bloch reads these nine letters as "raja-pasada-cetikasa" and translates this expression in relation to the preceding words: "(the gift of Kurangi, the wife of Indragnimitra and the mother of living sons), "to the caitya (cetika) of the noble temple", taking the word raja before pasada as an epithet on ornans, distinguishing the temple as a particularly large and stately building similar to such expressions as rajahastin 'a noble elephant', rajahamsa `a goose (as distinguished from hamsa 'a duck'), etc." Cunningham has translated the expression by "the royal palace, the caitya", suggesting that "the mention of the raja-pasada would

seem to connect the donor with the king's family," Luders doubtfully suggests "to the king's temple" as a rendering of "raja-pasada-cetikasa." [edit] Wars of the Sungas Vedika pillar with Greek warrior. Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh, Sunga Period, c.10080BC. Reddish brown sandstone.[7]Indian Museum, Calcutta (drawing). War and conflict characterized the Sunga period. They are known to have warred with the Kalingas, Satavahanas, the Indo-Greeks, and possibly the Panchalas and Mathuras. The Shunga Empire's wars with the Indo-Greek Kingdom figure greatly in the history of this period. From around 180 BCE the Greco-Bactrian ruler Demetrius, conquered the Kabul Valley and is theorized to have advanced into the trans-Indus. The Indo Greek Menander is credited with either joining or leading a campaign to Pataliputra with other Indian Kings; however, very little is know about the exact nature and success of the campaign. The net result of these wars remains uncertain. Some interpretations of the Mahabharata and Yuga Purana have attempted to account for this: The Anushasanaparava of the Mahabharata affirms that the city of Mathura was under the joint control of the Yavanas and the Kambojas.[8] Also the Hindu text of the Yuga Purana, which describes Indian historical events in the form of a prophecy,[9] relates the attack of the Indo-Greeks on the capital Pataliputra, a magnificent fortified city with 570 towers and 64 gates according to Megasthenes,[10] and describes the ultimate destruction of the city's walls: "Then, after having approached Saketa together with the Panchalas and the Mathuras, the Yavanas, valiant in battle, will reach Kusumadhvaja ("The town of the flower-standard", Pataliputra). Then, once Puspapura (another name of Pataliputra) has been reached and its celebrated mud[-walls] cast down, all the realm will be in disorder." (Yuga Purana, Paragraph 47-48, 2002 edition.) Bronze coin of the Sunga period, Eastern India. 2nd-1st century BCE. Pushyamitra is recorded to have performed two Ashvamedha Yagnas and Sunga imperial inscriptions have extended as far as Jalandhar. Scriptures such as the Divyavadhana note that his rule extended even farther to Sialkot, in the Punjab. Moreover, if it was lost, Mathura was regained by the Sungas around 100 BCE (or by other indigenous rulers: the Arjunayanas (area of Mathura) and Yaudheyas mention military victories on their coins ("Victory of the Arjunayanas", "Victory of the Yaudheyas"), and during the 1st century BCE, the Trigartas, Audumbaras and finally the Kunindas also started to mint their own coins). Accounts of battles between the Greeks and the Sunga in Northwestern India are also found in the Mālavikāgnimitram, a play by Kālidāsa which describes a battle between Greek cavalrymen and Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra, on the Indus river, in which the Indians defeated the Greeks and Pushyamitra successfully completed the Ashvamedha Yagna.[11] Nevertheless, very little can be said with great certainty. However, what does appear clear is that the two realms appeared to have established normalized diplomatic relations in the succeeding reigns of their respective rulers. The Indo-Greeks and the Sungas seem to have reconciled and exchanged diplomatic missions around 110 BCE, as indicated by the Heliodorus pillar, which records the dispatch of a Greek ambassador named Heliodorus, from the court of the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas, to the court of the Sunga king Bhagabhadra at the site of Vidisha in central India. [edit] Cultural Contributions

A relief from Bharhut. While there is much debate on the religious politics of the Sunga dynasty, it is recognized for a number of contributions. Art, education, philosophy, and other learning flowered during this period. Most notably, Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and Mahabhasya were composed in this period. It is also noted for its subsequent mention in the Malavikaagnimitra. This work was composed by Kalidasa in the later Gupta period, and romanticized the love of Malavika and King Agnimitra, with a background of court intrigue. Artistry on the subcontinent also progressed with the rise of the Mathura school, which is considered the indigenous counterpart to the more Hellenistic Gandhara school of Afghanistan and Pakistan. During the historical Sunga period (185 to 73 BCE), Buddhist activity also managed to survive somewhat in central India (Madhya Pradesh) as suggested by some architectural expansions that were done at the stupas of Sanchi and Barhut, originally started under King Ashoka. It remains uncertain whether these works were due to the weakness of the control of the Sungas in these areas, or a sign of tolerance on their part. The last of the Sunga kings was Devabhuti (83-73 BCE). He was assassinated by his minister (Vasudeva Kanva) and is said to have been overfond of the company of women. The Sunga dynasty was then replaced by the subsequent Kanvas. Sunga Sunga Sunga Sunga

Yakshi, 2nd-1st century BCE. masculine figurine (molded plate). 2nd-1st century BCE. woman with child. 2nd-1st century BCE. Yaksa. 2nd-1st century BCE.

Sunga fecundity deity. 2nd-1st century BCE. Sunga fecundity deity. 2nd-1st century BCE. [edit] Script The script used by the Sunga was a variant of Brahmi, and was used to write the Sanskrit language. The script is thought to be an intermediary between the Maurya and the Kalinga brahmi scripts.[12] [edit] List of Sunga kings • Pusyamitra Sunga (185 - 149 BCE) • Agnimitra (149 - 141 BCE) • Vasujyeshtha (141 - 131 BCE) • Vasumitra (131 - 124 BCE) • Andhraka (124 - 122 BCE) • Pulindaka (122 - 119 BCE) • Ghosha (?) • Vajramitra (?) • Bhagabhadra (?) • Devabhuti (83 - 73 BCE) Kanva dynasty From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search The Kanva dynasty replaced the Sunga dynasty in Magadha, and ruled in the eastern part of India from 75 BCE to 26 BCE. The last ruler of the Sunga dynasty was overthrown by Vasudeva of the Kanva dynasty in 75 BC. The Kanva ruler allowed the kings of the Sunga dynasty to continue to rule in obscurity in a corner of their former dominions. Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulers. Little is known about the Kanvas; however, their dynasty was brought to an end by the Satavahanas of the south. [edit] Rulers • Vasudeva (c. 75 - c. 66 BCE) • Bhumimitra (c. 66 - c. 52 BCE) • Narayana (c. 52 - c. 40 BCE) • Susarman (c. 40 - c. 26 BCE)

Kharavela From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search

Maximum extent of Kharavela (ଖାରେେଳ) Kalingan Empire: 2nd century B.C.E Hathigumpha on Udayagiri Hills, Bhubaneswar Hathigumpha inscription of King Khāravela at Udayagiri Hills Khandagiri caves Kharavela (ଖାରେେଳ) (IAST: Khāravela, Devanagari: खारवेल, Oriya: ଖାେରେଳ) (?209 – after 170 BCE) was the greatest Oriya emperor of Kalinga, the ancient name of Orissa state of India. The Chedi dynasty of Kalinga under the kingship of Khāravela ascended to eminence and restored the lost power and glory of Kalinga, which was subdued since the devastating Kalinga war with Ashoka. All these happened within a century of Ashokan era. The Kalingan military might was reinstated by Kharavela. Under Kharavela's generalship, the Kalinga kingdom had a formidable maritime reach with trade routes linking it to the then Simhala (Sri Lanka), Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Borneo, Bali, Sumatra and Jabadwipa (Java). On religion side, though extremely liberal, Emperor Khāravela patronised Jainism. Emperor Kharavela (ଖାେରେଳ) led many successful campaigns against Kingdoms of Magadha, Anga, Satavahanas and the then South Indian regions of Pandya kingdom, present Tamil Nadu state, and expanded Kalinga till the river Ganga in North and river Kaveri in South, with full West to East coverage. Kharavela (ଖାେରେଳ) was the third king of the Mahameghavahana dynasty. The main source of information about Kharavela is his famous seventeen line rock-cut Hathigumpha inscription in a cave in Udayagiri hills near Bhubaneswar in Orissa . Contents [hide] • 1 Introduction • 2 Hathigumpha Inscription o 2.1 Salient features of the Hathigumpha Inscription • 3 Minor Inscriptions of Kharavela • 4 Period • 5 Wars & Expeditions • 6 Dynasty • 7 Queens of Kharavela • 8 Remembering Kharavela • 9 See also • 10 External links • 11 References [edit] Introduction The chief source of information about emperor Kharavela is the Hathigumpha inscription at Udayagiri caves, near present Bhubaneswar city. According to the inscription, Kharavela belonged to the Chedi clan, and was a lineal descendant of the sage king Vasu. Apart from this eulogic descent amounting to a myth, several historians have tried to speculate the origin of Kharavela. However, in absence of any material evidence to the converse, Kharavela has been accepted as being from an Odia descent.

Etymologically, the name Kharavela is the prakrit transformation of Sanskrit word Ksharavela (Devanagari:कारवेल). The first syllable Khāra (Devanagari:खार) is the corrupt form of Kshāra (Devanagari:कार) meaning 'saltish'. The letter Khā (Devanagari:खा) in the Hathigumpha inscription is the transformed corrupt (Apabhramsha) form of kshā (Devanagari:का). The second syllable, Vela means 'wave' or 'shore'. Incidentally, in north-western part of India, there is a clan of Jats having the clan name Khārvel, which claims descent from the Emperor Kharavela, originated during the north-western conquest of the emperor. Similarly, in history books Air (ऐर) has been stated as a clan that originated from Nagavanshi ruler named Airawat. [1] However, deep and multi-disciplinary research is required to arrive at the exact origin of Kharavela. [edit] Hathigumpha Inscription This inscription, consisting of seventeen lines has been incised in deep cut Brahmi script on the overhanging brow of a natural cavern called Hathigumpha (Oriya: ହାତିଗୁଂଫା) (Meaning in English: The Elephant’s Cave) in the southern side of the Udayagiri hills near present day Bhubaneswar. The inscriptions date back to the 1st Century BCE. It faces straight towards the rock Edicts of Asoka at Dhauli, which is situated at a distance of about six miles. The inscription was first discovered/noticed by A. Stirling in 1820 who published an eye copy of it in Asiatic Researches, XV , as well as , in his book titled “An Account, Geographical , Statistical and Historical of Orissa or Cuttack”. Thereafter, indologist and linguist James Princep succeeded in deciphering the inscription. Subsequently, Princep’s reading along with a facsimile prepared by Kittoe was published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society Bengal, VI (1837). According to Princep, the referred personality in the Hatigumpha inscription was a king named ‘Aira’. Towards the end of 1871 A.D., a plaster cast of the inscription was prepared by H. Locke, which is now preserved in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. Later, Alexander Cunningham published this inscription in 1877 in the Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarrum Vol. I and in 1880 R.L. Mitra published a slightly modified version in the book Antiquities of Orissa, Vol. II. The first authentic reading of the inscription is credited to historian Bhagwan Lal Indraji. Indraji presented the novel approach before the Sixth International Congress of Orientalists in 1885, which was widely accepted. Pandit Indraji was the first scholar to declare that the King referred to and eulogised in the Hathigumpha inscription was named Kharavela' and not Aira. However, there are a large number of lacunae and faults (Both syntactical and physical deformities) in the inscription, which obstruct its correct reading and the mutilated condition of the inscription has given the space for rival claims and given rise to controversies. [edit] Salient features of the Hathigumpha Inscription The Hathigumpha inscription starts with a version of the auspicious Jain Namokar ं ानं [।।] णमो सविसधानं [।।] for in Jainism. Mantra: नमो अरित The body-text mentions that: • In the very first year of his coronation, (His Majesty) caused to be repaired the gate, rampart and structures of the fort of Kalinga Nagari, which had been damaged by storm, and caused to be built flight of steps for the cool tanks and laid all gardens at the cost of thirty five hundred thousand mudra (coins) and thus pleased all his subjects. • In the second year, without caring for Satakarni, (His Majesty) sent to the west a large army consisting of horses, elephants, infantry and chariots, and struck terror to Asikanagara with that troop that marched up to the river Kanhavemna.

• Then in the fourth year, (His Majesty] .... the Vidhadhara tract, that had been established by the former kings of Kalinga and had never been crossed before. The Rathika and Bhojaka chiefs with their crown cast off, their umbrella and royal insignia thrown aside, and their Jewelry and wealth confiscated, were, made to pay obeisance at the feet (of His Majesty). • And in the fifth year, (His Majesty) caused the aqueducts that had been excavated by king Nanda three hundred years before, to flow into Kalinga Nagri through Tanasuli. • And in the seventh year of his reign [the Queen] of Vajiraghara, blessed with a son attained motherhood. • In the 8th year of his reign, (His Majesty) attacked Rajagriha in Magadha and forced the Indo-Greek king Demetrius (described as the Yavana king ("Yavanaraja") named Dimi{ta}) to retreat to Mathura. • In the 12th year of his reign, he attacked the king of Uttarapatha. Then brought back the holy idols of Kalinga's Jain Gods (The Blessed Tirthankars) which earlier Magadha rulers had carried away with them after Kalinga war in Past. Tirthankar’s idol was brought back with its crown and endowment and the jewels plundered by king Nanda from the Kalinga royal palace, along with the treasures of Anga and Magadha were regained. • (His Majesty) then attacked and vanquished the kingdom of Magadha, and Pataliputra, the then capital of the Sunga, and made king "Bahasatimita" (May be a Sunga king Bruhaspatimitra, or Pusyamitra himself) bow at his (His Majesty’s) feet. The inscription states that the Emperor Kharvela had a liberal religious spirit. Kharavela describes himself as: “ सव पासंड पूजको सवदेवायतन संकार कारको ” (Prakrit Language, Devanagari script) Translation: The worshipper of all religious orders, the restorer of shrines of all gods. [edit] Minor Inscriptions of Kharavela Main article: Minor Inscriptions of Kharavela Besides the celebrated Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela, there are several other minor inscriptions in the twin hills of Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, which were deciphered earlier by Prof. R. D. Banerjee during the years 1915-16 (Epigraphic Indica - XIII) and subsequently by B. M Barua (Indian Historical Quarterly-XIV). These minor inscriptions pertaining to Emperor Kharavela have been engraved in Brahmi script, prakrit language. Shri Sadananda Agrawal, historian, has given details and clarifications about those. [edit] Period The dating of Kharavela's period has been highly debatable and controversial. It has been a formidable challenge to ascertain the correct date of Kharavela’s ascendancy and reign within a definite chronological frame work. The internal evidence from the Hathigumpha inscription, reasonably places the date of emperor Kharavela’s reign in second half of the first century BC. An exact time bracketing has been unachievable at present. The exact time bracket of Kalingan emperor Kharavela will continue to be controversial so long any other corroborative evidences have not been discovered. The Indian numismatist P.L. Gupta has suggested that the Hatigumpha inscription is from the 2nd century CE:[2]: "The Hâthîgumphâ inscription refers in line 8 to a yavana-râja, who fled to Mathura when he realized the might of Khâravela. The name of the yavana-râja bears three letters, of which the second letter may be fairly read as ma or mi. It has been doubtfully restored as Dimita, meaning Demetrius the Indo-Greek king. But as early as 1951, I thought it to be Vimaka, meaning Vima Kadphises. The Patna Museum has a plaster cast of this inscription, which I personally examined when I was there as Curator. It confirms my suggestion." There are some issues with this interpretation, since the stated facts are that the name consists of three letters, of which the second is mi or ma, and that the king is categorized as yavana, not kushan or tukhara, nor saka or pahlava. It is

otherwise unknown for a Kushan king to have been referred to as a yavana, and for Vima Kadphises to be referred to as Vimaka (expanded from Vema/Vima). Also, there are palaeographic problems with dating the Hâthîgumphâ text so late as Wema Kadphises (Reign 90s-110s CE). The period of 1st century BC, or approximately contemporary with the Sanchi inscriptions from the reign of the Satavahana Satakarni, has been preferred by Indic script specialists. [edit] Wars & Expeditions It is revealed from Line-4 of the Hathigumpha inscription that Kharavela in the second year of his reign dispatched a strong force comprising cavalry, elephants, infantry and chariots to the western quarter without caring for or bothering about Sātakarnī, and the kingdom of Asikanagara was frightened of its (Kharavela’s army) reaching the river Kanhavemṇā. Some scholars prefer to read Masikanagara instead of Asikanagara and locate it in the coastal region of Andhra Pradesh. An article about Emperor Kharavela mentions about the rule of Kaswan in 2nd century of Vikram samvat. It has been mentioned in ‘Hathi Gumpha and three other inscriptions’ (page 24) in Sanskrit as under: Sanskrit - कुसवानाम् किियाना च सिाययतावता पापत मिसक नगरम् IAST - “Kusawānāṃ kshatriyānāṃ ca Sahāyyatāvatāṃ prāpt masika nagaraṃ”. Translation: The city of 'Masiknagara' was captured with the help of 'Kuswan' Kshatriyas. According to Sadananda Agrawal, interpretation of the city as Masikanagara is not well-supported. Kanhavemṇā is commonly equated with the river Krishna coastal flowing in Andhra Pradesh. However, Krishna lies much to the south of Kalinga, and not west as averred in the epigraph (Devanagari: पििमिदसं). But there is another stream flowing to the west of Kalinga in Vidarbha and known locally at present as Kanhan which flows about 17 km northwest of Nagpur and joins the river Vena (Wainganga), and it is the combined flow of these two streams that is spoken as Kanhavemṇā in our records. The recent find of a seal belonging to the Asikajanapada in course of intensive archaeological excavations at Adam (Nagpur district) has solved also the problem of locating the historical Asikanagara whose king or and people became frightful at the arrival of Kharavela's army at Kanhavemṇā, as per the Hatigumpha inscription. In view of the evidence of a highly prosperous city unearthed at Adam, Prof. A. M. Shastri is of the opinion that Adam itself represents the Asikanagara of Hathigumpha inscription. It is worth noting in the present context that a terracotta sealing having a legend, has been discovered from Adam, situated on the right bank of the river Wainganga, which reads Asakajanapadasa (Devanagari: असकजनपदस). The Hathigumpha inscription tells us that again in his fourth regnal year Kharavela directed his invasion against the Satavahana territory. In course of the campaign the army of Kalinga marched headlong against the Rathikas and Bhojakas who inhabited the western Deccan and whose chiefs might have been subordinates or vassals under Satavahana king Satakarni. It is quite likely that the Rathikas are to be located in southern Maharashtra region and adjoining Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh where a large number of coins of some chiefs styled Mahārathi have been found in excavations. Likewise , as regards the Bhojakas, it is not impossible that they flourished in the region of Goa and adjoining parts of Karnataka where the Bhoja Kings are found a few centuries later. As a result of this victory Kharavela’s suzerainty spread over the land from the eastern sea to western sea. The eighth regnal year of Kharavela, three years after his war in western India, heard the war trumpets of Kalinga blowing in direction of the north. Kharavela entered into the territory of Magadha and fought out important engagement with the army of that empire at Gorathagiri and stormed that outlying fortress which guarded Rajagrha, the former capital of Magadha. The strong fort was demolished and Rajagrha was put to great trouble.

Gorathagiri has been identified with the modern Barabar hill in the Gaya district in Bihar state. In the Sabhaparva of the Mahabharata this hill has been referred to by the name Gorathagiri wherefrom Girivraja (Rajagrha) the capital of Magadha was surveyed by Krishna, Bhima and Arjuna on the way of their campaign against Jarasandha. It is worth nothing here that two small inscriptions are found engraved in that hill, which read Gorathgiri and Goradhagiri respectively. While the former belongs to Asokan period the latter seems to be incised by one of the men who had accompanied Kharavela in this campaign. It was by that critical time that one Yavana King (Indo-Greek) who was then in occupation of Mathura was advancing against Magadha. The king's name has been read extremely doubtfully as "Dimita", and has been identified by many scholars with the famous Indo-Greek King Demetrius, son and successor of Euthydemus belonging to 2nd century BC. In commemoration of this victory over the Indo-Greeks and age old enemy Magadha, Kharavela constructed the great victory palace in Kalinganagari at a cost of thirty eight hundred thousand coins which stood to personify in all its grandeur the great victory a great conqueror. The tenth year witnessed another expedition towards north. According to Hathigumpha inscription that year he caused his army much towards Bharatavarsha. Dr Sahu remarks: “In the epigraphic records of India the name Bharatavarsha appears for the first time in Hathigumpha inscription. This name however, denoted to Northern India by that time.” When the twelfth year of his reign dawned Kharavela marched against Uttarapatha (Northwest India) with a vast army. This was his third onslaught against North India, forcing several chiefs to submission, who were very likely the Indo-Greeks. On his return from Uttarapatha Kharavela planned for the final encounter against Magadha and the Kalingan army encamped on the banks of the Ganges not far off Pataliputra. The people of Magadha were struck with terror at the sight of the elephants and horses and Brhaspatimitra, the king of Magadha was humbled by Kharavela and made the Magadhan king touch his feet. Many renowned scholars equate Brhaspatimitra with Pushyamitra, the founder of Sunga dynasty. It is worth nothing in the present context that for recording the events of his reign Kharavela chose the Hathigumpha in the southern side of Udayagiri hill which faces straight towards the Dhauli hill bearing Rock Edicts of Ashoka. In the former hill we find the inscription of the victory of Magadha and in the latter that of the victory of Kalinga. Kharavela’s inscription seems to have been intended to counter affect Asoka’s inscription. Before his home ward march the monarch brought back from Magadha the greatest and by far the most significant war trophy to his home land was the Original Idol of Kalinga's Jain Tirthankars (Gods) Idol that adorned the spiritual realm of Magadha. This Kalinga Tirthankars (Jain God) was once the invaluable religious property of Kalinga but was carried away from Kalinga during the first wave of the northern invasion under Mahapadmananda emperor of Magadha. Dr. N.K.Sahu aptly remarks about his expeditions: “Thus within a short span of ten years (form his 2nd to 12th regnal years.) Kharavela could achieve a series of brilliant victories extending his suzerainty from the North-Western part of India to the farthest extend in the South. “ The political and military performances of Kharavela have, in fact, no parallel in history and this great monarch fully justifies the epithet Chakravarti given to him in the inscription of his chief queen. He seems to have abandoned his throne in the 13th year of his reign, and was succeeded by his son Kudepasiri. [edit] Dynasty In the first line of Hathigumpha inscription Kharavela styles himself as IAST-Airena Mahārājena Mahāmeghavāhana Chetarāja vasa Vadhanena xxx Kalimgādhipatinā Siri Khāravelan

े किलंगािधपितना िसिर ं लुठन गुणउपेनत (Devanagari:ऐरेण मिाराजेन मिामेघवािनने चेतराज वस वधनने पसथ सुभलखलेन चतुरत खारवेलेन) While the earliest scholar J. Princep and R. L. Mitra take the word Aira as the name of the king of Kalinga eulogised in the inscription, other few scholars are inclined to take the word as dynastic name and connected the ancestry of Kharavela with the puranic Aila belonging to the lunar Kshatriya dynasty. Bhagwan Lal Indraji is the first scholar to assert that the King whose activities are glorified in the inscription in named Kharavela. It is a significant to note here that there is also no direct evidence in Hathigumpha inscription to show that Kharavela belongs to Cedi Dynasty. The only meaning conveyed by this expression is that Kharavela was the son of Cetarāja (Devanagari:चेतराज). There is a small crack in the stone above the letter ta (त) giving the impression of medial i. this crack misled some eminent scholars like R.D. Banerji and D.C. Sircar to decipher the word as Ceti (Devanagari:चेित) and this conjectural reading led the renowned scholars to hold the view that Kharavela belongs to Cedi dynasty. But in no way this can be accepted. It is pertinent to note in this context that a small inscription is found engraved in the Mancapuri Cave where King Kudepasiri (one of the successor of Kharavela) styled himself as Aira Maharaja Kalingadhipati Mahameghavahana (Devanagari:ऐरे मिाराजा किलंगािधपितना मिामेघवािन). The King Sada has also been styled himself as Maharaja Kalinga Mahisika Adhipati Mahameghavahana. Both Kudepasiri and Sada, happen to be the successors of Kharavela, have never been stated in their respective inscription to be belonging to Cedi dysasty. It is significant that the word Aira has not been prefixed with the name of Sada. The Vahana ending dynastic (and personal) names were quite popular during the few centuries preceding. The meaning of Mahameghavahana is the great one riding on clouds. Dr. Sahu takes Maha as the prefix of Megha and opines: “ Mahameghavahana literary means one whose vehicle is great cloud”. In line 17 of the Hathigumpha inscription Kharavela claims to have been descended from Rajarsi Vasu Kula. King Vasu recorded in Hathigumpha inscription can not be taken as Cedi king. It is pertinent to note in the context that in Mahabharata, Meghavahana as a dynastic name is found mentioned (Sabha Parva, XIV, 13) while the same epic preserves detailed accounts regarding the activities of Cedi dynasty. Cedi and Meghavahana have been flourished as two distinct dynasties since the early times, so both the dynasties should not be equated. Cetaraja was the father of Kharavela and it seems probable that he was the immediate predecessor of Kharavela, belonging to be the second king in the Mahameghavahana line in Kalinga. The line-7 of the Hathigumpha inscription indicates that the Queen of Vajiraghara (Chief Queen of Kharavela ?) gave birth to a son. Another inscription in the lower storey of the same caves informs us that it had been executed by the Aira Maharaja Kalingadhipati Mahameghavahana Kudepasiri. In this cave another inscription is incised which reveals the name of Kumara Badukha. It is to be noted here that Kumara Badukha has not assumed any royal title. However, it is difficult to be sure of the relationship between Kharavela and Kudepasir. As no available record speaks any thing more about prince Badukha, he stands an obscure figures, in history but seems to be the son or brother Kudepasiri. Mahiska country denoted the modern coastal Andhra (Guntur – Krishna region) which was apparently added to the Mahameghavahana kingdom at least during the reign of Maharaja Sada. The Sada rule came to an end during end first century / early second century A.D. On basis of above discussion we can say that Kharavela belonged to Mahameghavahana

dynasty and the Genealogical chart of can be given as under: 1- Mahameghavahana 2- Cetaraja 3- Kharavela 4- Kudepasiri 5- Badukha 6- Mahasada 7- Sada’s successors. [edit] Queens of Kharavela The Hathigumpha inscription mentions that in the seventh year of his reign [the Queen] of Vajiraghara was blessed with a son attained motherhood. Sometime before his coronation the prince very probably married chief queen as per presence was essentially required in anointation ceremony. The chief queen, whose record has been engraved in the upper storey of Mancapuri Cave, was the great-grand daughter of Hastisimha and the daughter of king Lalaka or Lalarka. It is to be pointed out here that not much is known about Hastisimha and Lalarka from any other source. We find mention of Lal (लल) as a gotra of Jats living in Muzaffarnagar district in Uttar Pradesh, India, who originated from mahapurusha Lala (लल). The famous Panjtar stone inscription, now in (Pakistan), written in the year 122 of Saka ara, referse to one “ Lala, the protector of the Kushana dynasty of Maharaja Kanishka”. This Lala, was a Lalli “Jat” It also refers to the gift of two trees by one Moika in the eastern region of “ Kasua”. That last word Kasua is the same as Kasuan the name of the Kushana clan (and territory) which is still existing. [3][4] R. D. Banerjee has identified Vayiraghara with Wairagarh in present Chanda district of Maharastra, because in some medieval inscription this place is found referred to as Vayirakara. However, Dr. M. K. Sahu identifies this place with Vajradantadesa mentioned in the Kamasutra of Vatsyayana. King Kharavela is known to have two queens. Line-15 of the Haithgumpha inscription refers to the queen of Simhapatha, who was very likely his second queen. Simhapatha may be same as Simhapura which was the capital of Kalinga during the rule of the Matharas in the 4th century A.D. The place is identified with modern Singupuram in Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh. [edit] Remembering Kharavela Kharavela Nagar is an important commercial district of Bhubaneswar and home to the city's first mall. With the rise of industry, in particular IT and higher education, the history of ancient Kalinga and in particular Kharavela is being revived as Orissa's golden age. Kuninda Kingdom From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Silver coin of the Kuninda Kingdom, c. 1st century BCE. Obv: Deer standing right, crowned by two cobras, attended by Lakshmi holding a lotus flower. Legend in Prakrit (Brahmi script, from left to right): Rajnah Kunindasya Amoghabhutisya maharajasya ("Great King Amoghabhuti, of the Kunindas"). Rev: Stupa surmounted by the Buddhist symbol triratna, and surrounded by a swastika, a "Y" symbol, and a tree in railing. Legend in Kharoshti script, from righ to left: Rana Kunidasa Amoghabhutisa Maharajasa, ("Great King Amoghabhuti, of the Kunindas"). The Kingdom of Kuninda (or Kulinda in ancient literature) was an ancient central Himalayan kingdom from around the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century, located in the modern state of Uttarakhand and southern areas of Himachal in northern India. The history of the kingdom is documented from around the 2nd century BCE. They are mentioned in Indian epics and puranas. The Mahabharata relates they were defeated by Arjuna. One of the first kings of the Kuninda was Amoghbhuti, who ruled in the mountainous valley of the Jamuna and Sutlej rivers (in today's Uttarakhand and southern Himachal in northern India). The Greek historian Ptolemy linked the origin of the Kuninda to the country where the rivers Ganges, Yamuna, and Sutlej originate.[1]

One the Edicts of Ashoka on a pillar is also present at Kalsi, in the region of Garhwal, indicating the spread of Buddhism to the region from the 4th century BCE. The Kuninda kingdom disappeared around the 3rd century, and from the 4th century, it seems the region shifted to Shaivite beliefs. Contents [hide] • 1 Coinage • 2 Rulers • 3 See also • 4 External links • 5 Notes [edit] Coinage There are two types of Kuninda coinage, the first one issued around the 1st century BCE, and the second around the 2nd century CE. The first coins of the Kuninda were influenced by the numismatic model of their predecessor Indo-Greek kingdoms, and incorporated Buddhist symbolism such as the triratna. These coins typically follow the Indo-Greek weight and size standards (drachms, of about 2.14g in weight and 19 mm in diameter), and their coins are often found together with Indo-Greek coins in hoards, such as those of the Yaudheyas, or the Audumbaras. They represent the first effort by an Indian to produce coins that could compare with those of the Indo-Greeks. [edit] Rulers • Amoghabhuti (late 2nd century-1st century BCE) Indo-Scythians From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Indo-Scythian Kingdom ← 200 BCE–400 CE →

Territories (full line) and expansion (dotted line) of the Indo-Scythians Kingdom at its greatest extent. Capital Sigal Taxila Mathura Language(s) Scythian language Persian language Pali (Kharoshthi script) Sanskrit, Prakrit (Brahmi script) Possibly Aramaic Religion Buddhism Ancient Greek religion Hinduism Zoroastrianism Government Monarchy King - 85-60 BCE

Maues

- 10s CE

Hajatria

Historical era

Antiquity

- Established 200 BCE - Disestablished 400 CE The Indo-Scythians are a branch of Sakas (Scythians), who migrated from southern Siberia into Bactria, Sogdiana, Arachosia, Gandhara, Kashmir, Punjab, and into parts of Western and Central India, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan, from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE. The first Saka king in India was Maues or Moga who established Saka power in Gandhara and gradually extended supremacy over north-western India. Indo-Scythian rule in India ended with the last Western Satrap Rudrasimha III in 395 CE. The invasion of India by Scythian tribes from Central Asia, often referred to as the Indo-Scythian invasion, played a significant part in the history of India as well as nearby countries. In fact, the Indo-Scythian war is just one chapter in the events triggered by the nomadic flight of Central Asians from conflict with Chinese tribes which had lasting effects on Bactria, Kabol, Parthia and India as well as far off Rome in the west. The Scythian groups that invaded India and set up various kingdoms, included besides the Sakas[1] other allied tribes, such as the Medii[2], Xanthii[3][4], Massagetae[5], Getae[6], Parama Kambojas, Avars, Bahlikas, Rishikas and Paradas. Contents [hide] • 1 Origins o 1.1 Yuezhi expansion • 2 Settlement in Sakastan • 3 Indo-Scythian kingdoms o 3.1 Abiria to Surastrene o 3.2 Gandhara and Punjab 3.2.1 Sculpture 3.2.2 Bimaran casket o 3.3 Mathura area ("Northern Satraps") o 3.4 Pataliputra o 3.5 Kushan and Indo-Parthian conquests o 3.6 Western Kshatrapas legacy • 4 Indo-Scythian coinage • 5 Depiction of Indo-Scythians o 5.1 Buner reliefs o 5.2 Stone palettes • 6 The Indo-Scythians and Buddhism o 6.1 Butkara Stupa o 6.2 Gandharan sculptures o 6.3 Mathura lion capital • 7 Indo-Scythians in Western sources • 8 Indo-Scythians in Indian literature • 9 Sai-Wang Scythian hordes of Chipin or Kipin • 10 Establishment of Mlechcha Kingdoms in Northern India • 11 Evidence about joint invasions • 12 Main Indo-Scythian rulers o 12.1 Northwestern India o 12.2 Kshaharatas o 12.3 Apracarajas (Bajaur area) o 12.4 Paratarajas o 12.5 "Northern Satraps" (Mathura area) o 12.6 Minor local rulers

o o o o

• • • • •

12.7 Western Satraps 12.8 "Degraded Kshatriyas" from the northwest 12.9 Military actions 12.9.1 Ancient wars (1500–500 BC) 12.10 Military alliance with Chandragupta (c 320 BC) 12.10.1 Invasion of India (c 180 BC) 12.10.2 Extinction 12.10.3 Relation between the descendants of Indo-Scythians 13 Descendants of the Indo-Scythians 14 See also 15 Footnotes 16 References 17 External links

[edit] Origins Main article: Sakas A Scythian horseman from the general area of the Ili river, Pazyryk, c 300 BCE. The treasure of the royal burial Tillia tepe is attributed to 1st century BCE Sakas in Bactria. Bearded man with cap, probably Scythian, Bamiyan, 3rd–4th centuries. The ancestors of the Indo-Scythians are thought to be Sakas (Scythian) tribes, originally settled in southern Siberia, in the Ili river area. [edit] Yuezhi expansion In the second century BCE, a fresh nomadic movement started among the Central Asian tribes, producing lasting effects on the history of Rome in Europe and Bactria, Kabul, Parthia and India in the east. Recorded in the annals of the Han dynasty and other Chinese records, this great tribal movement began after the Yuezhi tribe was defeated by the Xiongnu, fleeing westwards after their defeat and creating a domino effect as they displaced other central Asian tribes in their path. According to these ancient sources Mao-tun of the Hsiung-nu tribe of Mongolia attacked the Yuezhi and evicted them from their homeland Kansu (Nan-shan).[7] Leaving behind a remnant of their number, most of the population moved westwards, and following the route north of Takla Makan, entered the lands of the Haumavarka Sakas of Issyk-kul Lake through the passes of Tien-shan. Unable to withstand the assault, the Haumavarka Sakas allowed the Yue-chi to settle in their lands. In the years to come, the Haumavarka Sakas (Sakas of Wu-sun?) sought the help of the Hsiung-nu people and evicted the Yue-chi. Even so, the initial clash with the invading Yue-chi caused a large group of the Haumavarka Shakas to leave their ancestral home. These Sakas journeyed through Tashkent and Ferghana (Sogdiana) (inhabited by the Sugud or Shulik tribe of the Iranians) and occupied the Doab of Oxus and Jaxartes, also overrunning the western parts of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom.[8] Others suggest Tukhara (India and Central Asia, 1955, p 125, P. C. Bagchi). D. C. Sircar reconciles the difference by suggesting that Ta-hia referred to Tukhara and the eastern parts of Bactria.[9] After being defeated and evicted by the joint forces of the Wu-sun and Hsiung-nu people, the Ta Yue-chis also moved southwards, overrunning in their path the Rishikas, Parama-Kambojas, Lohas and other allied Scythian clans living in the Transoxian regions as far as Fargana. Many fled in a southwesterly direction and joined the Haumavarka Sakas in Bactria. The Yue-chi followed behind. Once again under extreme pressure, the Sakas and other allied Scythian groups including the Kambojas were forced to leave Bactria.

They first tried to enter India via the Kabul valley but were vigorously opposed by the Indo-Greek powers there. Rebuffed, the clans turned westwards to Herat and then took a southerly direction, reaching Helmund valley (Sigal) in south-west Afghanistan, the region later called Sakasthan or Seistan. Some scholars believe that this Indo-Scythian migration through Herat to Drangiana was accompanied by groups of Kambojas (Parama-Kambojas), Rishikas and other allied tribes from Transoxiana that were also displaced by the Yuezhi.[10][11] Around 175 BCE, the Yuezhi tribes (probable related to the Tocharians) who lived in eastern Tarim Basin area, were defeated by the Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu or Hun) tribes, and fled west into the Ili river area. There, they displaced the Sakas, who migrated south into Ferghana and Sogdiana. According to the Chinese historical chronicles (who call the Sakas, "Sai" 塞): "The Yuezhi attacked the king of the Sai who moved a considerable distance to the south and the Yuezhi then occupied his lands" (Han Shu 61 4B). Sometime after 155 BCE, the Yuezhi were again defeated by an alliance of the Wusun and the Xiongnu, and were forced to move south, again displacing the Scythians, who migrated south towards Bactria, and south-west towards Parthia and Afghanistan. The Sakas seem to have entered the territory of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom around 145 BCE, where they burnt to the ground the Greek city of Alexandria on the Oxus. The Yuezhi remained in Sogdiana on the northern bank of the Oxus, but they became suzerains of the Sakas in Bactrian territory, as described by the Chinese ambassador Zhang Qian who visited the region around 126 BCE. In Parthia, between 138–124 BCE, the Sakas tribes of the Massagetae and Sacaraucae came into conflict with the Parthian Empire, winning several battles, and killing successively King Phraates II and King Artabanus I. The Parthian king Mithridates II finally retook control of Central Asia, first by defeating the Yuezhi in Sogdiana in 115 BCE, and then defeating the Scythians in Parthia and Seistan around 100 BCE. After their defeat, the Yuezhi tribes migrated into Bactria, which they were to control for several centuries, and from which they later conquered northern India to found the Kushan Empire. The area of Bactria they settled came to be known as Tocharistan, since the Yuezhi were called Tocharians by the Greeks. [edit] Settlement in Sakastan Map of Sakastan around 100 BCE. The Sakas settled in areas of southern Afghanistan, still called after them Sakastan. From there, they progressively expanded into the Indian subcontinent, where they established various kingdoms, and where they are known as "IndoScythians". The Arsacid emperor Mithridates II (c 123–88/87 BCE) had scored many successes against the Scythians and added many provinces to the Parthian empire,[12] and apparently the Bactrian Scythian hordes were also conquered by him. A section of these people moved from Bactria to Lake Helmond in the wake of Yue-chi pressure and settled about Drangiana (Sigal), a region which later came to be called "Sakistana of the Skythian (Scythian) Sakai",[13] towards the end of first century BCE.[14] The region is still known as Seistan. Sakistan or Seistan of Drangiana may not only have been the habitat of the Saka alone but may also have contained population of the Pahlavas and the Kambojas.[15] The Rock Edicts of King Ashoka only refer to the Yavanas, Kambojas and the Gandharas in the northwest, but no mention is made of the Sakas, who immigrated in the region more than a century later. It is thus likely that the immigrant Saka populations who settled in Afghanistan did so among or near the Kambojas and nearby Greek cities.[16] Numerous scholars believe that during centuries immediately preceding Christian era, there had occurred extensive social and cultural admixture among the Kambojas and Yavanas; the Sakas and Pahlavas; and the

Kambojas, Sakas, and Pahlavas etc.... such that their cultures and social customs had become almost identical. The presence of the Sakas in Sakastan in the 1st century BCE is mentioned by Isidore of Charax in his "Parthian stations". He explained that they were bordered at that time by Greek cities to the east (Alexandria of the Caucasus and Alexandria of the Arachosians), and the Parthian-controlled territory of Arachosia to the south: "Beyond is Sacastana of the Scythian Sacae, which is also Paraetacena, 63 schoeni. There are the city of Barda and the city of Min and the city of Palacenti and the city of Sigal; in that place is the royal residence of the Sacae; and nearby is the city of Alexandria (and nearby is the city of Alexandropolis), and six villages." Parthian stations, 18.[17] [edit] Indo-Scythian kingdoms Asia in AD 1, showing the Indo-Scythians and their neighbors. Early anepigraphic coinage of the Indo-Scythians (c 110–100 BCE). Obv: Horse walking right with her head turned back. Rev: Goddess Nike walking right. Control mark, possibly for Khandahar, Afghanistan. [edit] Abiria to Surastrene The first Indo-Scythian kingdom in the Indian subcontinent occupied the southern part of Pakistan (which they accessed from southern Afghanistan), in the areas from Abiria (Sindh) to Surastrene (Gujarat), from around 110 to 80 BCE. They progressively further moved north into Indo-Greek territory until the conquests of Maues, c 80 BCE. The 1st century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes the Scythian territories there: "Beyond this region (Gedrosia), the continent making a wide curve from the east across the depths of the bays, there follows the coast district of Scythia, which lies above toward the north; the whole marshy; from which flows down the river Sinthus, the greatest of all the rivers that flow into the Erythraean Sea, bringing down an enormous volume of water (...) This river has seven mouths, very shallow and marshy, so that they are not navigable, except the one in the middle; at which by the shore, is the market-town, Barbaricum. Before it there lies a small island, and inland behind it is the metropolis of Scythia, Minnagara."[18] The Indo-Scythians ultimately established a kingdom in the northwest, based in Taxila, with two Great Satraps, one in Mathura in the east, and one in Surastrene (Gujarat) in the southwest. In the southeast, the Indo-Scythians invaded the area of Ujjain, but were subsequently repelled in 57 BCE by the Malwa king Vikramaditya. To commemorate the event Vikramaditya established the Vikrama era, a specific Indian calendar starting in 57 BCE. More than a century later, in 78 CE the Sakas would again invade Ujjain and establish the Saka era, marking the beginning of the long-lived Saka Western Satraps kingdom.[19] [edit] Gandhara and Punjab A coin of the Indo-Scythian king Azes II. The presence of the Scythians in north-western India during the 1st century BCE was contemporary with that of the Indo-Greek Kingdoms there, and it seems they initially recognized the power of the local Greek rulers. Maues first conquered Gandhara and Taxila around 80 BCE, but his kingdom disintegrated after his death. In the east, the Indian king Vikrama retook Ujjain from the Indo-Scythians, celebrating his victory by the creation of the Vikrama Era (starting 58 BCE). Indo-Greek kings again ruled after Maues, and prospered, as

indicated by the profusion of coins from Kings Apollodotus II and Hippostratos. Not until Azes I, in 55 BCE, did the Indo-Scythians take final control of northwestern India, with his victory over Hippostratos. [edit] Sculpture A toilet tray Several stone corresponding found) in the

of the type found in the Early Saka layer at Sirkap. sculptures have been found in the Early Saka layer (Layer No4, to the period of Azes I, in which numerous coins of the latter were ruins of Sirkap, during the excavations organized by John Marshall.

The Bimaran casket, representing the Buddha surrounded by Brahma (left) and Śakra (right) was found inside a stupa with coins of Azes II inside. British Museum. Several of them are toilet trays (also called Stone palettes) roughly imitative of earlier, and finer, Hellenistic ones found in the earlier layers. Marshall comments that "we have a praiseworthy effort to copy a Hellenistic original but obviously without the appreciation of form and skill which were necessary for the task". From the same layer, several statuettes in the round are also known, in very rigid and frontal style. [edit] Bimaran casket Main article: Bimaran casket Azes II is connected to the Bimaran casket, one of the earliest representations of the Buddha. The casket was used for the dedication of a stupa in Bamiran, near Jalalabad in Afghanistan, and placed inside the stupa with several coins of Azes II. This event may have happened during the reign of Azes II (30–10 BCE), or slightly later. The Indo-Scythians are otherwise connected with Buddhism (see Mathura lion capital), and it is indeed possible they would have commended the work. [edit] Mathura area ("Northern Satraps") Coin of Rajuvula (c 10 CE), AE, Mathura. Obv: Bust of King Rajuvula, with Greek legend. Rev: Pallas standing right (crude). Kharoshthi legend. The Mathura lion capital is an important Indo-Scythian monument dedicated to the Buddhist religion (British Museum). In central India, the Indo-Scythians conquered the area of Mathura over Indian kings around 60 BCE. Some of their satraps were Hagamasha and Hagana, who were in turn followed by the Saca Great Satrap Rajuvula. The Mathura lion capital, an Indo-Scythian sandstone capital in crude style, from Mathura in Central India, and dated to the 1st century CE, describes in kharoshthi the gift of a stupa with a relic of the Buddha, by Queen Nadasi Kasa, the wife of the Indo-Scythian ruler of Mathura, Rajuvula. The capital also mentions the genealogy of several Indo-Scythian satraps of Mathura. Rajuvula apparently eliminated the last of the Indo-Greek kings Strato II around 10 CE, and took his capital city, Sagala. The coinage of the period, such as that of Rajuvula, tends to become very crude and barbarized in style. It is also very much debased, the silver content becoming lower and lower, in exchange for a higher proportion of bronze, an alloying technique (billon) suggesting less than wealthy finances. The Mathura Lion Capital inscriptions attest that Mathura fell under the control of the Sakas. The inscriptions contain references to Kharaosta Kamuio and Aiyasi Kamuia. Yuvaraja Kharostes (Kshatrapa) was the son of Arta as is attested by his own coins.[20] Arta is stated to be brother of King Moga or Maues.[21] Princess Aiyasi Kambojaka, also called Kambojika, was the chief queen of Shaka

Mahakshatrapa Rajuvula. Kamboja presence in Mathura is also verified from some verses of epic Mahabharata which are believed to have been composed around this period.[22] This may suggest that Sakas and Kambojas may have jointly ruled over Mathura/Uttara Pradesh. It is revealing that Mahabharata verses only attest the Kambojas and Yavanas as the inhabitants of Mathura, but do not make any reference to the Sakas.[23] Probably, the epic has reckoned the Sakas of Mathura among the Kambojas (J. L. Kamboj) or else have addressed them as Yavanas, unless the Mahabharata verses refer to the previous period of invasion occupation by the Yavanas around 150 BCE. The Indo-Scythian satraps of Mathura are sometimes called the "Northern Satraps", in opposition to the "Western Satraps" ruling in Gujarat and Malwa. After Rajuvula, several successors are known to have ruled as vassals to the Kushans, such as the "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara, who are known from an inscription discovered in Sarnath, and dated to the 3rd year of Kanishka (c 130 CE), in which they were paying allegiance to the Kushans.[24] [edit] Pataliputra Silver coin of Vijayamitra in the name of Azes II. Buddhist triratna symbol in the left field on the reverse. Profile of the Indo-Scythian King Azes II on one of his coins. The text of the Yuga Purana describes an invasion of Pataliputra by the Scythians sometimes during the 1st century BCE, after seven great kings had ruled in succession in Saketa following the retreat of the Yavanas. The Yuga Purana explains that the king of the Sakas killed one fourth of the population, before he was himself slain by the Kalinga king Shata and a group of Sabalas (Sabaras).[25] [edit] Kushan and Indo-Parthian conquests After the death of Azes II, the rule of the Indo-Scythians in northwestern India finally crumbled with the conquest of the Kushans, one of the five tribes of the Yuezhi who had lived in Bactria for more than a century, and were now expanding into India to create a Kushan Empire. Soon after, the Parthians invaded from the west. Their leader Gondophares temporarily displaced the Kushans and founded the Indo-Parthian Kingdom that was to last towards the middle of the 1st century CE. The Kushans ultimately regained northwestern India from around 75 CE, and the area of Mathura from around 100 CE, where they were to prosper for several centuries. [edit] Western Kshatrapas legacy Coin of the Western Kshatrapa ruler Bhratadaman (278 to 295 CE), a descendant of the Indo-Scythians. Main article: Western Kshatrapas The Indo-Scythians continued to hold the area of Seistan until the reign of Bahram II (276–293 CE), and held several areas of India well into the 1st millennium: Kathiawar and Gujarat were under their rule until the 5th century under the designation of Western Kshatrapas, until they were eventually conquered by the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II (also called Vikramaditya). The Brihat-Katha-Manjari of the Kshmendra (10/1/285-86) informs us that around 400 CE the Gupta king Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) had unburdened the sacred earth of the Barbarians like the Shakas, Mlecchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Tusharas, Parasikas, Hunas, etc. by annihilating these sinners completely. The 10th century CE Kavyamimamsa of Raj Shekhar (Ch 17) still lists the Shakas, Tusharas, Vokanas, Hunas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, Pahlavas, Tangana, Turukshas, etc. together and states them as the tribes located in the Uttarapatha division. [edit] Indo-Scythian coinage

Silver tetradrachm of the Indo-Scythian king Maues (85–60 BCE). Indo-Scythian coinage is generally of a high artistic quality, although it clearly deteriorates towards the disintegration of Indo-Scythian rule around 20 CE (coins of Rajuvula). A fairly high-quality but rather stereotypical coinage would continue in the Western Satraps until the 4th century CE. Indo-Scythian coinage is generally quite realistic, artistically somewhere between Indo-Greek and Kushan coinage. It is often suggested Indo-Scythian coinage benefited from the help of Greek celators (Boppearachchi). Indo-Scythian coins essentially continue the Indo-Greek tradition, by using the Greek language on the obverse and the Kharoshthi language on the reverse. The portrait of the king is never shown however, and is replaced by depictions of the king on horse (and sometimes on camel), or sometimes sitting cross-legged on a cushion. The reverse of their coins typically show Greek divinities. Buddhist symbolism is present throughout Indo-Scythian coinage. In particular, they adopted the Indo-Greek practice since Menander I of showing divinities forming the vitarka mudra with their right hand (as for the mudra-forming Zeus on the coins of Maues or Azes II), or the presence of the Buddhist lion on the coins of the same two kings, or the triratana symbol on the coins of Zeionises. [edit] Depiction of Indo-Scythians Azilises on horse, wearing a tunic. Besides coinage, few works of art are known to indisputably represent IndoScythians. Indo-Scythians rulers are usually depicted on horseback in armour, but the coins of Azilises show the king in a simple, undecorated, tunic. Several Gandharan sculptures also show foreigner in soft tunics, sometimes wearing the typical Scythian cap. They stand in contrast to representations of Kushan men, who seem to wear thicks, rigid, tunics, and who are generally represented in a much more simplistic manner.[26] [edit] Buner reliefs Indo-Scythian soldiers in military attire are sometimes represented in Buddhist friezes in the art of Gandhara (particularly in Buner reliefs). They are depicted in ample tunics with trousers, and have heavy straight sword as a weapon. They wear a pointed hood (the Scythian cap or bashlyk), which distinguishes them from the Indo-Parthians who only wore a simple fillet over their bushy hair,[27] and which is also systematically worn by Indo-Scythian rulers on their coins. With the right hand, some of them are forming the Karana mudra against evil spirits. In Gandhara, such friezes were used as decorations on the pedestals of Buddhist stupas. They are contemporary with other friezes representing people in purely Greek attire, hinting at an intermixing of Indo-Scythians (holding military power) and Indo-Greeks (confined, under Indo-Scythian rule, to civilian life). Another relief is known where the same type of soldiers are playing musical instruments and dancing, activities which are widely represented elsewhere in Gandharan art: Indo-Scythians are typically shown as reveling devotees. Indo-Scythians pushing along the Greek god Dyonisos with Ariadne.[28] Hunting scene. Hunting scene. Hunting scene. [edit] Stone palettes Main article: Stone palette Numerous stone palettes found in Gandhara are considered as good representatives of Indo-Scythian art. These palettes combine Greek and Iranian influences, and are often realized in a simple, archaic style. Stone palettes have only been found in archaeological layers corresponding to Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian rule, and are essentially unknown the preceding Mauryan layers or the succeeding Kushan layers.[29]

Very often these palettes represent people in Greek dress in mythological scenes, a few in Parthian dress (head-bands over bushy hair, crossed-over jacket on a bare chest, jewelry, belt, baggy trousers), and even fewer in Indo-Scythian dress (Phrygian hat, tunic and comparatively straight trousers). A palette found in Sirkap and now in the New Delhi Museum shows a winged Indo-Scythian horseman riding winged deer, and being attacked by a lion. [edit] The Indo-Scythians and Buddhism The Taxila copper plate records Buddhist dedications by Indo-Scythian rulers (British Museum). The Indo-Scythians seem to have been followers of Buddhism, and many of their practices apparently continued those of the Indo-Greeks. They are known for their numerous Buddhist dedications, recorded through such epigraphic material as the Taxila copper plate inscription or the Mathura lion capital inscription. [edit] Butkara Stupa Buddhist stupas during the late Indo-Greek/Indo-Scythian period were highly decorated structures with columns, flights of stairs, and decorative Acanthus leave friezes. Butkara stupa, Swat, 1st century BCE.[30] Possible Scythian devotee couple (extreme left and right, often described as "Scytho-Parthian"[31]), around the Buddha, Brahma and Indra. Excavation at the Butkara Stupa in Swat by an Italian archaeological team have yielded various Buddhist sculptures thought to belong to the Indo-Scythian period. In particular, an Indo-Corinthian capital representing a Buddhist devotee within foliage has been found which had a reliquary and a coins of Azes II buried at its base, securely dating the sculpture to around 20 BCE.[32] A contemporary pilaster with the image of a Buddhist devotee in Greek dress has also been found at the same spot, again suggesting a mingling of the two populations.[33] Various reliefs at the same location show Indo-Scythians with their characteristics tunics and pointed hoods within a Buddhist context, and side-by-side with reliefs of standing Buddhas.[34] [edit] Gandharan sculptures Other reliefs have been found, which show Indo-Scythian men with their characteristic pointed cap pushing a cart on which is reclining the Greek god Dionysos with his consort Ariadne. [edit] Mathura lion capital The Mathura lion capital, which associates many of the Indo-Scythian rulers from Maues to Rajuvula, mentions a dedication of a relic of the Buddha in a stupa. It also bears centrally the Buddhist symbol of the triratana, and is also filled with mentions of the bhagavat Buddha Sakyamuni, and characteristically Buddhist phrases such as: "sarvabudhana puya dhamasa puya saghasa puya" "Revere all the Buddhas, revere the dharma, revere the sangha" (Mathura lion capital, inscription O1/O2) Indo-Corinthian capital from Butkara Stupa, dated to 20 BCE, during the reign of Azes II. Turin City Museum of Ancient Art. Dancing Indo-Scythians (top) and hunting scene (bottom). Buddhist relief from Swat, Gandhara. Butkara door jamb, with Indo-Scythians dancing and reveling. On the back side is a relief of a standing Buddha[35] [edit] Indo-Scythians in Western sources

"Scythia" appears around the mouth of the river Indus and along the western coast of India, in the Roman period Tabula Peutingeriana. The presence of Scythian territory in northwestern India, and especially around the mouth of the Indus is mentioned extensively in Western maps and travel descriptions of the period. The Ptolemy world map, as well as the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mention prominently Scythia in the Indus area, as well as Roman Tabula Peutingeriana. The Periplus states that Minnagara was the capital of Scythia, and that Parthian king were fighting for it during the 1st century CE. It also distinguishes Scythia with Ariaca further east (centered in Gujarat and Malwa), over which ruled the Western Satrap king Nahapana. [edit] Indo-Scythians in Indian literature Main article: Indo-Scythians in Indian literature The Indo-Scythians were named "Shaka" in India, an extension on the name Saka used by the Persians to designate Scythians. From the time of the Mahabharata wars (4000–1500 BCE roughly[citation needed]) Shakas receive numerous mentions in texts like the Puranas, the Manusmriti, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Mahabhasiya of Patanjali, the Brhat Samhita of Vraha Mihira, the Kavyamimamsa, the BrihatKatha-Manjari, the Katha-Saritsagara and several other old texts. They are described as part of an amalgam of other war-like tribes from the northwest. [edit] Sai-Wang Scythian hordes of Chipin or Kipin Coin of Azes II, with king seated, holding a drawn sword and a whip. A section of the Central Asian Scythians (under Sai-Wang) is said to have taken southerly direction and after passing through the Pamirs it entered the Chipin or Kipin after crossing the Hasuna-tu (Hanging Pass) located above the valley of Kanda in Swat country.[36] Chipin has been identified by Pelliot, Bagchi, Raychaudhury and some others with Kashmir[37] while other scholars identify it with Kapisha (Kafirstan).[38][39] The Sai-Wang had established his kingdom in Kipin. S. Konow interprets the Sai-Wang as Saka Murunda of Indian literature, Murunda being equal to Wang i.e. king, master or lord,[40] but Bagchi who takes the word Wang in the sense of the king of the Scythians but he distinguishes the Sai Sakas from the Murunda Sakas.[41] There are reasons to believe that Sai Scythians were Kamboja Scythians and therefore Sai-Wang belonged to the Scythianised Kambojas (i.e. Parama-Kambojas) of the Transoxiana region and came back to settle among his own stock after being evicted from his ancestral land located in Scythia or Shakadvipa. King Moga or Maues could have belonged to this group of Scythians who had migrated from the Sai country (Central Asia) to Chipin.[42] The Mathura Lion Capital inscriptions attest that the members of the family of King Moga (q.v.) had last name Kamuia or Kamuio (q.v.) which Khroshthi term has been identified by scholars with Sanskrit Kamboja or Kambojaka.[43] Thus, Sai-Wang and his migrant hordes which came to settle in Kabol valley in Kapisha may indeed have been from the transoxian Parama Kambojas living in Shakadvipa or Scythian land.[44] [edit] Establishment of Mlechcha Kingdoms in Northern India Coin of Maues depicting Balarama, 1st century BCE. British Museum. The mixed Scythian hordes that migrated to Drangiana and surrounding regions, later spread further into north and south-west India via the lower Indus valley. Their migration spread into Sovira, Gujarat, Rajasthan and northern India, including kingdoms in the Indian mainland. There are important references to the warring Mleccha hordes of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas and Pahlavas in the Bala Kanda of the Valmiki Ramayana also.[45] Leading Indologists like H. C. Raychadhury glimpses in these verses the struggles between the Hindus and the invading hordes of Mlechcha barbarians from the

northwest. The time frame for these struggles is the second century BCE onwards. Raychadhury fixes the date of the present version of the Valmiki Ramayana around or after the second century CE.[46] This picture presented by the Ramayana probably refers to the political scenario that emerged when the mixed hordes descended from Sakasthan and advanced into the lower Indus valley via Bolan Pass and beyond into the Indian mainland. It refers to the hordes' struggle to seize political control of Sovira, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, Malwa, Maharashtra and further areas of eastern, central and southern India. Mahabharata too furnishes a veiled hint about the invasion of the mixed hordes from the northwest. Vanaparava by Mahabharata contains verses in the form of prophecy deploring that "......the Mlechha (barbaric) kings of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, etc. shall rule the earth (i.e. India) un-righteously in Kaliyuga..".[47] According to H. C. Ray Chaudhury, this is too clear a statement to be ignored or explained away. Mahabharata's epic reference apparently alludes to the chaotic politics which followed the collapse of the Mauryan and Sunga dynasties in northern India and the area's subsequent occupation by foreign hordes of the Saka, Yavana, Kamboja, Pahlavas, Bahlika, Shudra and Rishika tribes from the northwest. See also: Migration of Kambojas [edit] Evidence about joint invasions The Scythian groups that invaded India and set up various kingdoms, included besides the Sakas[48] other allied tribes, such as the Medii[49], Xanthii[50][51],Massagetae[52], Getae[53]. These peoples were all absorbed into the community of Kshatriyas of mainstream Indian society.[54] The Shakas were formerly a people of trans-Hemodos region---the Shakadvipa of the Puranas or the Scythia of the classical writings. Isidor of Charax (beginning of first c AD) attests them in Sakastana (modern Seistan). First century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (c AD 70–80) also attests a Scythian district in lower Indus with Minnagra as its capital. Ptolemy (c AD 140) also attests Indo-Scythia in south-western India which comprised Patalene, Abhira and the Surastrene (Saurashtra) territories. • H.S. Williams wrote: “ The extent of the Scythian invasion has been variously estimated. Some scholars believe that they virtually supplanted the previous population of the Punjab region and there seems little doubt that by far the most numerous section of the Punjab population is of Scythian origin.[55] ” The second century BCE Scythian invasion of India, was in all probability carried out jointly by the Sakas, Pahlavas, Kambojas, Paradas, Rishikas and other allied tribes from the northwest.[56] As a result, groups of these people who had originally lived in the northwest before the Christian era, were also found to have lived in southwest India in post-Christian times. All these groups of northwestern peoples apparently entered Indian mainland following the Scythian invasion of India. [edit] Main Indo-Scythian rulers [edit] Northwestern India • Maues, c 90–60 BCE • Vonones, c 75–65 BCE • Spalahores, c 75–65 BCE, satrap and brother of King Vonones, and probably the later King Spalirises. • Spalirises, c 60–57 BCE, king and brother of King Vonones. • Spalagadames c 50 BCE, satrap, and son of Spalahores. • Azes I, c 57–35 BCE • Azilises, c 57–35 BCE • Azes II, c 35–12 BCE • Zeionises, c 10 BCE – 10 CE

• Kharahostes, c 10 BCE – 10 CE • Indravarman • Hajatria [edit] Kshaharatas Main article: Kshaharatas • Liaka Kusuluka, satrap of Chuksa • Kusulaka Patika, satrap of Chuksa and son of Liaka Kusulaka • Abhiraka • Bhumaka • Nahapana (founder of the Western Satraps) [edit] Apracarajas (Bajaur area) Main article: Apracarajas • Vijayamitra (12 BCE – 15 CE) • Itravasu (c 20 CE) • Aspavarma (15–45 CE) [edit] Paratarajas Main article: Paratarajas Bi-drachm of Parataraja Bhimajhunasa. Obv: Robed bust of Bhimajhunasa left, wearing tiara-shaped diadem. Rev: Swastika with legend around. 1.70g. Senior (Indo-Scythian) 286.1 • Kuvhusuvhume • Spajhana • Spajhayam • Bhimajhuna • Yolamira, son of Bagavera (2nd century) • Arjuna, son of Yolamira (2nd century) • Karyyanapa • Hvaramira, another son of Yolamira(2nd century) • Mirahvara, son of Hvaramira (2nd century) • Miratakhma, another son of Hvaramira (2nd century) [edit] "Northern Satraps" (Mathura area) • Hagamasha (satrap, 1st century BCE) • Hagana (satrap, 1st century BCE) • Rajuvula, c 10 CE (Great Satrap) • Sodasa, son of Rajuvula • "Great Satrap" Kharapallana (c 130 CE) • "Satrap" Vanaspara (c 130 CE) [edit] Minor local rulers • Bhadayasa • Mamvadi • Arsakes [edit] Western Satraps Main article: Western Satraps • Nahapana (119–124) • Chastana (c 120), son of Ghsamotika • Jayadaman, son of Chastana • Rudradaman I (c 130–150), son of Jayadaman • Damajadasri I (170–175) • Jivadaman (175 d 199) • Rudrasimha I (175–188 d 197) • Isvaradatta (188–191) • Rudrasimha I (restored) (191–197) • Jivadaman (restored) (197–199) • Rudrasena I (200–222) • Samghadaman (222–223)

• Damasena (223–232) • Damajadasri II (232–239) with • Viradaman (234–238) • Yasodaman I (239) • Vijayasena (239–250) • Damajadasri III (251–255) • Rudrasena II (255–277) • Visvasimha (277–282) • Bhratadarman (282–295) with • Visvasena (293–304) • Rudrasimha II, son of Lord (Svami) Jivadaman (304–348) with • Yasodaman II (317–332) • Rudradaman II (332–348) • Rudrasena III (348–380) • Simhasena (380– ?) • Rudrasena IV (382–388) • Rudrasimha III (388–395) [edit] "Degraded Kshatriyas" from the northwest The Manusmriti, written about 200, groups the Shakas with the Yavanas, Kambojas, Paradas, Pahlavas, Kiratas and the Daradas, etc., and addresses them all as "degraded warriors" or Kshatriyas" (X/43-44). Anushasanaparva of the Mahabharata also views the Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas etc... in the same light. Patanjali in his Mahabhashya regards the Shakas and Yavanas as pure Shudras (II.4.10). The Vartika of the Katyayana informs us that the kings of the Shakas and the Yavanas, like those of the Kambojas, may also be addressed by their respective tribal names. The Mahabharata also associates the Shakas with the Yavanas, Gandharas, Kambojas, Pahlavas, Tusharas, Sabaras, Barbaras, etc. and addresses them all as the Barbaric tribes of Uttarapatha. In another verse, the same epic groups the Shakas and Kambojas and Khashas and addresses them as the tribes from Udichya i.e. north division (5/169/20). Also, the Kishkindha Kanda of the Ramayana locates the Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas and Paradas in the extreme north-west beyond the Himavat (i.e. Hindukush) (43/12). [edit] Military actions [edit] Ancient wars (1500–500 BC) According to numerous Puranas, the military corporations of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Pahlavas and Paradas, known as "five hordes" (pānca-ganah), had militarily supported the Haihaya and Talajunga Kshatriyas in depriving Ikshvaku king Bahu (the 7th king in descent from Harishchandra), of his Ayodhya kingdom. A generation later, Bahu's son Sagara managed to recapture Ayodhya after defeating these foreign hordes. Sagara punished them by meting out to them weird punishments. He made the Shakas shave half of their heads, the Kambojas and the Yavanas the totality, the Pahlavas to keep their beards and the Paradas to let their hair go free. The Kalika Purana, one of the Upa-Puranas of the Hindus, refers to a war between king Kalika king Kali and states the Shakas, Kambojas, Khasas, etc. as a powerful military allies of King Kali. The Purana further states that these Barbarians take the orders from their women (Ref: Kalika Purana, III(6), 22–40). The Balakanda of the Ramayana also groups the Shakas with the Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Mlechhas and refers to them as military allies of sage Vedic Vashistha against Vedic king Vishwamitra (55/2-3). The Udyogaparva of the Mahabharata (5/19/21-23) tells us that the composite army of the Kambojas, Yavanas and Shakas had participated in the Mahabharata war under the supreme command of Kamboja king Sudakshina. The epic repeatedly applauds this composite army as being very fierce and wrathful. [edit] Military alliance with Chandragupta (c 320 BC) The Buddhist drama Mudrarakshas by Visakhadutta and the Jaina works Parisishtaparvan refer to Chandragupta's alliance with Himalayan king Parvataka. This Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a powerful composite army made up of the

frontier martial tribes of the Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Parasikas, Bahlikas etc. which he utilised to defeat the Nanda rulers of Magadha, and thus establishing his Mauryan Empire in northern India (See: Mudrarakshas, II). [edit] Invasion of India (c 180 BC) The Vanaparva of the Mahabharata contains verses in the form of prophecy that the kings of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Bahlikas and Abhiras etc. shall rule unrighteously in Kaliyuga (MBH 3/188/34-36). This reference apparently alludes to the precarious political scenario following the collapse of Mauryan and Sunga dynasties in northern India and its occupation by foreign hordes of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas and Pahlavas. [edit] Extinction The Brihat-Katha-Manjari of the Kshemendra (10/1/285-86) relates that around 400 AD, the Gupta king Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) had "unburdened the sacred earth of the barbarians" like the Shakas, Mlecchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Tusharas, Parasikas, Hunas, etc., by annihilating these "sinners" completely. The 10th century Kavyamimamsa of Raj Shekhar (Ch. 17) still lists the Sakas, Tusharas, Vokanas, Hunas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, Pahlavas, Tangana, Turukshas, etc. together, and states them as the tribes located in the Uttarapatha division. [edit] Relation between the descendants of Indo-Scythians The Punjabi tribes having Indo-Scythian origin (Khatri, Jatt, Tarkhan, Gujjar, Rajput, Lohar and Kamboj) are genetically and ethnically closely related to each other.[citation needed] These tribes are said to be related to various tribes of Central Asia and Eastern Europe.[citation needed] [edit] Descendants of the Indo-Scythians There is speculation that a number of communities in South Asia, mainly in the northwestern regions, are partly descended from the Indo-Scythians. These include: • Ahirs[57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64] • Gujjars • Jats[65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79] • Kambohs • Kodavas[80][81] • Lohars • Nairs[82][83] • Bunts • Pashtuns • Tarkhan[84] • Rajputs[85] • Khatris[86][87][88][89] Chera Dynasty From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For district of Kuala Lumpur, see Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, the town in Spain, see Chera, Valencia, for the town in Selangor, see Cheras, Selangor. ேேரர் Cheras Chera territories Official language Tamil Capitals Kizhanthur-Kandallur (Vanchi Muthur , Kodungallur) Government Monarchy Preceding state

Unknown

Succeeding states Gangas, Zamorins, Kochi, Travancore, Hoysala, Vijayanagara History of South Asia Stone Age before 3300 BCE • Mehrgarh Culture • 7000–3300 BCE Indus Valley Civilization 3300–1700 BCE • Late Harappan Culture • 1700–1300 BCE Vedic Civilization 2000–600 BCE Iron Age 1200–1 BCE • Maha Janapadas • 700–300 BCE • Magadha Empire • 684–424 BCE • Nanda Empire • 424-321 BCE • Maurya Empire • 321–184 BCE • Sunga Empire • 185-73 BCE • Kanva Empire • 75-26 BCE • Kharavela Empire • 209–170 BCE • Kuninda Kingdom • 200s BCE–300s CE • Indo-Scythian Kingdom • 200 BC–400 CE • Chera Kingdom • 300 BCE–1200 CE • Chola Empire • 300 BCE–1279 CE • Pandyan Kingdom • 250 BCE–1345 CE • Satavahana Empire • 230 BCE–220 CE • Indo-Greek Kingdom • 180 BCE–10 CE Middle Kingdoms 1CE–1279 CE • Indo-Parthian Kingdom • 21–130s CE • Western Satrap Empire • 35–405 CE • Kushan Empire • 60–240 CE • Indo-Sassanid Kingdom • 230–360 CE • Vakataka Empire • 250–500 CE • Kalabhras Kingdom • 250–600 CE • Gupta Empire

• 280–550 CE • Pallava Kingdom • 275–800 CE • Kadamba Empire • 345–525 CE • Western Ganga Kingdom • 350–1000 CE • Vishnukundina Empire • 420-624 CE • Huna Kingdom • 475-576 CE • Chalukya Empire • 543–753 CE • Harsha Empire • 590-647 CE • Shahi Kingdom • 565-670 CE • Eastern Chalukya Kingdom • 624-1075 CE • Pratihara Empire • 650–1036 CE • Pala Empire • 750–1174 CE • Rashtrakuta Empire • 753–982 CE • Paramara Kingdom • 800–1327 CE • Yadava Empire • 850–1334 CE • Solanki Kingdom • 942–1244 CE • Western Chalukya Empire • 973–1189 CE • Hoysala Empire • 1040–1346 CE • Sena Empire • 1070–1230 CE • Eastern Ganga Empire • 1078–1434 CE • Kakatiya Kingdom • 1083–1323 CE • Kalachuri Empire • 1130–1184 CE Islamic Sultanates 1206–1596 CE • Delhi Sultanate • 1206–1526 CE • Deccan Sultanates • 1490–1596 CE Ahom Kingdom 1228–1826 CE Vijayanagara Empire 1336–1646 CE Mysore Kingdom 1399–1947 CE Mughal Empire 1526–1858 CE Madurai Nayak Kingdom

1559 –1736 CE Thanjavur Nayak Kingdom 1572–1918 CE Maratha Empire 1674–1818 CE Sikh Confederacy 1716–1799 CE Sikh Empire 1799–1849 CE Company rule in India 1757–1858 CE British India 1858–1947 CE Partition of India 1947 CE Nation histories Afghanistan • Bangladesh • Bhutan • India Maldives • Nepal • Pakistan • Sri Lanka Regional histories Assam • Bihar • Balochistan • Bengal Himachal Pradesh • Orissa • Pakistani Regions Punjab • South India • Tibet Specialised histories Coinage • Dynasties • Economy Indology • Language • Literature • Maritime Military • Science and Technology • Timeline This box: view • talk • edit The Chera Dynasty (Tamil: ேேரர்) was a Dravidian Tamil dynasty that ruled in southern India from before the Sangam era (300 BC - 250 AD) until the twelfth century AD. The early Cheras ruled Kerala, Kongu Nadu and Salem. Their capital was Vanchi Muthur, this have been located at present-day Kodungallur in Thrissur district of Kerala .[1]. Since they were a hill tribe, their ancient capital could not be on the plains or on the coast. Karur is on the plains and Kodungallur is on the sea coast. They cannot be considered as their ancient capital, Vanchi Muthur. Their ancient capital Vanchi Muthur is in Kanthallur-Kizhanthur region of Idukki District of Kerala, for obvious reasons.[citation needed] They moved their administrative capital to Karur (Karur Vanchi) in second century, until the first dynasty perished in 3rd Century AD.[citation needed] The second dynasty ruled from out skirts of Muziris on the banks of River Periyar [2] from 8th century CE. The other two major Tamil dynasties were the Cholas in the eastern Coromandel Coast and Pandyas in the South Central Peninsula. Chera rulers engaged in frequent warfare as well as constant intermarriage with the Pandyas and Cholas. Throughout the reign of the Cheras, trade continued to bring prosperity to the then Tamil Country (part of which was modern-day Kerala), with spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems being exported to Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Phoenicia and Arabia. Evidence of extensive foreign trade from the ancient period is available throughout the Malabar Coast, from the Greek, Roman and Arabic coins unearthed from Kollam, Kodungallur, Eyyal (near Thrissur) etc in Kerala. Muziris has been referenced by ancient writers, such as the author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea to be an inland port probably near Kodungallur. Sangam Chera coins and inscriptions are found in Pattanam, near Kodungallur in Kerala, Karur, Namakkal, Erode and Coimbatore regions of modern-day Tamil Nadu. While Cheras had their own religion (Hinduism), other religious traditions like

Buddhism came to this area during the period of the Chera Kings. Jainism came to Chera Kingdom by the second century BCE.[3] Some adhered to Islam as well, notably, Cheraman Perunal who ruled the Chera Dynasty in the late 8th century.[4] Contents [hide] • 1 Etymology • 2 History o 2.1 Sangam Cheras o 2.2 Bhakti era Cheras • 3 Notes • 4 References [edit] Etymology The word Chera is derived from the word Cheral meaning declivity of a hill or a mountain slope in classical Tamil[5]. This is supported by the fact that the Chera Kings were called Chera-alatan which means Lord of the Slopes in classical Tamil[6]. [edit] History The earliest Tamil literary works, such as the Kalittokai, mention a continent called Kumari Nadu or Kumari Kandam, which was believed to have been located to the South of the present-day Kanyakumari tens of thousands of years ago, between the then Kumari and Pahruli rivers. Pandyan kings such as Chenkon, and the Cheras supposedly ruled this country, tens of thousands of years ago. They fought and defeated the Nagas, who might have been a non-Dravidian people, or another species of living beings. Kalittokai again mentions a war between the combined forces of Villavars and the Meenavars (the Cheras and the Pandyas respectively), who fought a fierce war against the Nagas, their arch-enemies, eventually losing the war, and subsequently Central India to the Nagas. Bhil Meena of North India could be the equivalent rulers in North India. Also, the Cheras, along with the Pandyas and the Cholas, find mention as one of the three ruling dynasties of the Southern region of the then Bharatavarsha, in the very ancient [Hindu] epic of the Ramayana.[7][8] They are also mentioned in the Aitareya Aranyaka, and the Mahabharata, where they (along with the Pandyas and the Cholas) are believed to have been on the side of the Pandavas in the Great War.[9][10][11][12] Again in other early Tamil literature the great Chera rulers are referred to as Cheral, Kuttuvan, Irumporai, Kollipurai and Athan. Chera rulers were also called Kothai or Makothai. The nobility among the Cheras were called Cheraman in general. The word Kerala, of possible Prakrit origins, does not appear in Sangam Literature. Ashoka's edicts mention an independent dynasty known by the name Kedalaputho, who were outside Ashoka's empire. The unknown author of Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions Chera as Cerobothra ("Keralaputhra") whose capital is Karur, while Pliny, the Roman historian of the first century, calls it Caelobothras. It is believed that religiously the Cheras were Shaivites.[13] Some kings of the dynasty referred to themselves as Vanavaramban, Imayavaramban etc.[14] [edit] Sangam Cheras The only source available for us regarding the early Chera Kings is the anthologies of the Sangam literature. Scholars now generally agree that this literature belongs to the first few centuries AD.[15] The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled. The Sangam literature is full of names of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Despite a rich literature that depicts the life and work of these people, these are not worked into connected history so far. Their capital is stated to be modern Karur in Tamil Nadu. Pathirruppaththu, the fourth book in the Ettuthokai anthology mentions a number of Chera Kings of the Chera dynasty. Each King is praised in ten songs sung by the Court Poet and the Kings are in the following order:

1. Nedum Cheralathan 2. Palyane Chel Kezhu Kuttuvan 3. Kalankai Kanni Narmudi Cheral 4. Chenkuttuvan Cheran (Kadal Pirakottiya Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan) 5. Attu Kottu Pattu Cheralathan 6. Chelva Kadunko Azhi Athan 7. Thakadur Erintha Perum Cheral Irumporai 8. Kudako Ilam Cheral Irumporai. The first recorded King was the son of Uthiyan Cheralathan and Veliyan Nallini. The third, fourth and fifth kings were sons of Nedum Cheralathan, while the mother of fourth King (also known as Chenkuttuvan) was Chola Princess Manikilli. Chelva Kadunko Vazhiyathan was the son of Anthuvan Cheral Irumporai and Porayan Perumthevi. Perum Cheral Irumporai was the son of Vazhiyathan and Ilam Cheral Irumporai was the son of a Chera ruler Kuttuvan Irumporai (son of Mantharan Cheral Irumporai).[citation needed] Archaeology has also found epigraphic evidence regarding these early Cheras of recorded history.[16]. Some inscriptions trace the Chera Dynasty from Puranic Kings of Chandraditya Dynasty, meaning that they descended from both the Solar and Lunar Races. The most important of these is the Pugalur (Aranattarmalai) inscription. This inscription refers to three generations of Chera Rulers, namely Adam Cheral Irrumporai, his son Perumkadungo, and his son Ilamkadungo. The charter was issued when Perum Kadungo was the Ruler Monarch and Ilam Kadungo was appointed Prince. Athan refers only to a crowned King of the Chera Dynasty who accepted this title at the time of coronation. Athan Cheral Irumporai was the son of Perum Cheral Irumporai. It therefore follows that Perumkadungo was the son of a crowned King of the Chera Dynasty. Perum Kadunko means that he was the Senior Ko (Senior ruler) of Kadunadu, located in the Tamil Nadu side of the Sahya Mountains. Athan Cheral Irumporai was probably the last crowned king of the first dynasty. 'Purananuru' refers to a certain Udiyan Cheral. It is said that he fed the rival armies during the war of Mahabharata. Imayavaramban Neduncheralathan, another Sangam Age King claimed to have conquered Bharatavarsha up to the Himalayas and to have inscribed his emblem on the face of the mountains. Senguttuvan was another famous Chera, whose contemporary Gajabahu II of Lanka according to Mahavamsa visited the Chera country.[17] The early Cheras controlled a large territory of the Kongu region. They also ruled the Kodunthamizh regions of Travancore (Venadu) and the Malabar (Kuttanadu) West Coast through vassals. They were in contact with the Satavahanas in the north and with the Romans and Greeks.[18] Trade flourished overseas and there was a considerable exchange of gold and coins, as seen by archaeological evidence and literature. The Romans brought vast amounts of gold in exchange of 'Kari' (Pepper) from Malainadu. [2] [edit] Bhakti era Cheras Little is known about the Cheras between c. third century AD and the eight century AD. An obscure dynasty, the Kalabhras, invaded the Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled for around three centuries. They were displaced by the Pallavas and the Pandyas in the sixth century AD. A Pandya Ruler, Arikesari Parankusa Maravarman (c.730 – 765AD), mentioned in a number of Pandya copper-plate inscriptions, was a prominent ruler during this period. He claims to have defeated a prominent Chera King. The name of the Chera King is not known, however from the details of the battles between the Pandya and the Chera, the Chera territory ceded seems to have included the entire Malabar and Travancore (Kuttanadu and Venadu) and the Southern Pandya country from Kanyakumari to Thirunelveli, the seat of the Cheras being in Karur Kongu Nadu. The Chera kings took the title of Perumal during this period and patronised the Vaishnavite sect. Kulasekara Alwar who ruled in the 8th century became a devotional Vaishnavite poet. Pallavas also mention in their inscriptions their battles with the Cheras. Pulakesin II, in his Aihole inscription mentioned " Pulikesin II, driving the Pallava behind the forts of Kanchi, reached as far south as the Kaveri river, and there caused prosperity to

the Chola, Chera and Pandya".[19] During the reign of Pandya Parantaka Nedumjadaiyan (765 – 790), the Cheras were still in Karur and were a close ally of the Pallavas. Pallavamalla Nadivarman defeated the Pandya Varaguna with the help of a Chera king. Cultural contacts between the Pallava court and the Chera country were common.[20] The Saivite saint Cheraman Perumal and the other is the Vaishnavite saint Kulasekhara, were famous in the Hindu religious movements. Kulasekhara became one of the celebrated Alvars and his poems came to be called the Perumal Thirumozhi. Cheraman Perumal ruled around the eighth and the ninth centuries. In this Kulasekhara calls himself Kongar Kon (the king of the Kongu people) hailing from Kollinagar (Karur). Adi Shankara was his contemporary. Kongumandala Satakam also says that Cheraman Perumal went to Kayilai with Sundarar from Kongu Nadu. [edit] Notes 1. ^ Nagaswami, R. (1995). Roman Karur: A peep into Tamil's past. Brahad Prakashan, Madras.http://www.tamilartsacademy.com/books/roman%20karur/cover.html 2. ^ (Ancient name, Chully ref: Akam. 149) 3. ^ akananuru 4. ^ A social history of India, By S. N. Sadasivan, pg.306 5. ^ A Survey of Kerala History by A. Sreedhara Menon - Kerala (India) - 1967 6. ^ The Chronology of the Early Tamils - Based on the Synchronistic Tables of Their Kings, Chieftains and Poets Appearing in the Sangam Literature By Sivaraja Pillai 7. ^ http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/dutt/rama07.htm 8. ^ http://www.hinduwebsite.com/sacredscripts/hinduism/ramayana/bk07.asp 9. ^ http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/sars238/shortencybrit.html 10. ^ http://www.tamilnation.org/heritage/chera/index.htm 11. ^ http://www.bvashram.org/articles/105/1/Mahabharata-The-Great-War-andWorld-History/Page1.html 12. ^ http://www.harekrsna.com/sun/features/10-07/features806.htm 13. ^ P. 104 Indian Anthropologist: Journal of the Indian Anthropological Association By Indian Anthropological Association 14. ^ P. 15 The Ācārya, Śaṅkara of Kāladī: A Story By Savita R. Bhave, M. G. Gyaltsan, Muṣṭafá Amīn, 1933- Madugula, I S Madugula 15. ^ The age of Sangam is established through the correlation between the evidence on foreign trade found in the poems and the writings by ancient Greek and Romans such as Periplus of the Erythrian Sea. See Nilakanta Sastri, K.A., History of South India, pp 106 16. ^ See report in Frontline, June/July 2003 [1] 17. ^ See Mahavamsa – http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/. Since Senguttuvan (Kadal pirakottiya Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan) was a contemporary of Gajabahu II he was the Chera King during 170-185 AD. 18. ^ These foreigners were called Yavana in the ancient times 19. ^ See Verse 31 Aihole Inscription of Pulakesi II http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/HISTORY/primarydocs/Epigraphy/AiholeInscripti on.htm 20. ^ See A History of South India – pp 146 – 147 Chola Dynasty From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Chola Empire) Jump to: navigation, search "Chola" redirects here. For the Spanish term, see Cholo. ேேோழர் குலம் Chola Dynasty 300s BC–1279 CE

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Chola's empire and influence at the height of its power (c. 1050) Capital Early Cholas: Poompuhar, Urayur, Medieval Cholas: Pazhaiyaarai, Thanjavur Gangaikonda Cholapuram Language(s) Tamil Religion Hinduism Government Monarchy King - 848-871

Vijayalaya Chola

- 1246-1279 Historical era

Rajendra Chola III Middle Ages

- Established 300s BC - Rise of the medieval Cholas - Disestablished 1279 CE

848

The Chola Dynasty (Tamil: ேேோழர் குலம், IPA: ['t͡ʃoːɻə]) was a Dravidian Tamil dynasty that ruled primarily in southern India until the 13th century. The dynasty originated in the fertile valley of the Kaveri River. Karikala Chola was the most famous among the early Chola kings, while Aditya I, Parantaka I, Rajaraja Chola I, Rajendra Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola, Kulothunga Chola I, Vikrama Chola and Kulothunga Chola III were notable emperors of the medieval Cholas. The Cholas were at the height of their power continuously from the later half of the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th centuries.[1] Under Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in Asia.[2][3] During the period 1010–1200, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh.[4] Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of what is now Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of the Maldives.[3] Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganga and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully invaded kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago as well as expanding the empire from coastal Burma to Vietnam.[5][6] The Chola tottered at the beginning of the thirteenth century and vanished with the rise of the Pandyas and the Hoysala. [7] The Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in building temples have resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture.[3] The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity.[8][9] They pioneered a centralised form of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy. Contents [hide] • 1 Origins o 1.1 Clan o 1.2 Etymology of Chola

• o o o o • o o o o o • o o o • • • • •

2 History 2.1 Early Cholas 2.2 Interregnum 2.3 Medieval Cholas 2.4 Later Cholas 3 Government and society 3.1 Chola country 3.2 Nature of government 3.3 Local government 3.4 Foreign trade 3.5 Chola society 4 Cultural contributions 4.1 Art 4.2 Literature 4.3 Religion 5 In popular culture 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links

[edit] Origins Part of a series on History of Tamil Nadu

Chronology of Tamil history Sangam period Sources Government Society

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Early Cholas

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Medieval history Pallavas Pandyas Chola Empire Chera Dynasty Vijayanagara Empire Madurai Nayaks Tanjore Nayaks This box: view • talk • edit

An early silver coin of Uttama Chola found in Sri Lanka showing the Tiger emblem of the Cholas.In Grantha Tamil.[10][11] There is very little information available regarding the origin of the Chola Dynasty. The antiquity of this dynasty is evident from the mentions in ancient Tamil literature and in inscriptions. Later medieval Cholas also claimed a long and ancient lineage to their dynasty. Mentions in the early Sangam literature (c. 150 CE)[12] indicate that the earliest kings of the dynasty antedated 100 CE. Parimelalagar, the annotator of the Tamil classic Tirukkural, mentions that this could be the name of an ancient king. [edit] Clan The most commonly held view is that this is, like Cheras and Pandyas, the name of the ruling family or clan of immemorial antiquity.[13][14] On the history of the early Cholas there is very little authentic written evidence available. Historians during the past 150 years have gleaned a lot of knowledge on the subject from a variety of sources such as ancient Tamil Sangam literature, oral traditions, religious texts, temple and copperplate inscriptions. The main source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the Sangam Period.[15] There are also brief notices on the Chola country and its towns, ports and commerce furnished by the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei).[16] Periplus is a work by an anonymous Alexandrian merchant, written in the time of Domitian (81–96) and contains very little information of the Chola country.[17] Writing half a century later, the geographer Ptolemy gives more detail about the Chola country, its port and its inland cities.[18] Mahavamsa, a Buddhist text, recounts a number of conflicts between the inhabitants of Ceylon and the Tamil immigrants.[19] Cholas are mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273 BCE–232 BCE) inscriptions, where they are mentioned among the kingdoms which, though not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him.[20][21][22] [edit] Etymology of Chola In Tamil lexicon Chola means Soazhi or Saei denoting a newly formed kingdom, in the lines of Pandya or the old country. However Sanskrit scholars deem that the word Chola is derived from the Tamil word Sora or Chora.[23] Numerous inscriptions by Brahmin scribes mention the Dynasty as Chora or Sora but pronounced as Chozha.[24] Sora or Chozha in Tamil becomes Chola in Sanskrit and Chola or Choda in Telugu.[25] [edit] History List of Chola kings Early Cholas Ilamcetcenni Nedunkilli

Karikala Chola

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Kopperuncholan

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Killivalavan Kocengannan

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Perunarkilli

Interregnum (c.200–848) Medieval Cholas Vijayalaya Chola 848–871(?) Aditya I 871–907 Parantaka Chola I

907–950 Gandaraditya 950–957 Arinjaya Chola 956–957 Sundara Chola 957–970 Uttama Chola 970–985 Rajaraja Chola I 985–1014 Rajendra Chola I 1012–1044 Rajadhiraja Chola 1018–1054 Rajendra Chola II 1051–1063 Virarajendra Chola 1063–1070 Athirajendra Chola 1067–1070 Later Cholas Kulothunga Chola I 1070–1120 Vikrama Chola 1118–1135 Kulothunga Chola II 1133–1150 Rajaraja Chola II 1146–1163 Rajadhiraja Chola II 1163–1178 Kulothunga Chola III 1178–1218 Rajaraja Chola III 1216–1256 Rajendra Chola III 1246–1279 Chola society Chola government Chola military Chola art

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Chola Navy

Chola literature

Solesvara Temples Poompuhar

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Urayur

Gangaikonda Cholapuram Thanjavur edit

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Telugu Cholas

The history of the Cholas falls into four periods: the early Cholas of the Sangam literature, the interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the medieval Cholas under Vijayalaya (c. 848), the dynasty of Vijayalaya, and finally the Later Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the eleventh century.[26] [edit] Early Cholas Main article: Early Cholas The earliest Chola kings for whom there is tangible evidence are mentioned in the Sangam literature. Scholars generally agree that this literature belongs to the first few centuries of the common era.[12] The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled, and at present a connected account of the history of the period cannot be derived. The Sangam literature records the names of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Despite a rich literature that depicts the life and work of these people, these cannot be worked into connected history.[27] The Sangam literature also records legends about mythical Chola kings.[28][29] [30][31] These myths speak of the Chola king Kantaman, a supposed contemporary of the sage Agastya, whose devotion brought the river Kaveri into existence.[32][33] Two names stand out prominently from among those Chola kings known to have existed, who feature in Sangam literature: Karikala Chola[34][35][36] and Kocengannan.[37] There is no sure means of settling the order of succession, of fixing their relations with one another and with many other princelings of about the same period.[38][39] Urayur (now in/part-of Thiruchirapalli) was their oldest capital.[30] Kaveripattinam also served as an early Chola capital.[40] The Mahavamsa mentions that an ethnic Tamil adventurer, a Chola prince known as Elara, invaded the island around 235 BCE and that King Gajabahu visited Chera Cenguttuvan around 108 CE.[30][41] [edit] Interregnum There is not much information about the transition period of around three centuries from the end of the Sangam age (c. 300) to that in which the Pandyas and Pallavas dominate the Tamil country.[42] An obscure dynasty, the Kalabhras, invaded the Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled for around three centuries.[43][44][45] They were displaced by the Pallavas and the Pandyas in the 6th century.[35][46] Little is known of the fate of the Cholas during the succeeding three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya in the second quarter of the ninth century.[47] Epigraphy and literature provide a few faint glimpses of the transformations that came over this ancient line of kings during this long interval. What is certain is that when the power of the Cholas fell to its lowest ebb and that of the Pandyas and Pallavas rose to the north and south of them,[36][48] this dynasty was compelled to seek refuge and patronage under their more successful rivals.[2][49] The Cholas continued to rule over a diminished territory in the neighbourhood of Uraiyur, but only in a minor capacity. In spite of their reduced powers, the Pandayas and Pallavas accepted Chola princesses in marriage, possibly out of regard for their reputation.[50] Numerous inscriptions of Pallavas, Pandyas and Chalukya of this period mention conquering 'the Chola country'.[51][52] Despite this loss in influence and power, it is unlikely that the Cholas lost total grip of the territory around Uraiyur, their old capital, as Vijayalaya, when he rose to prominence hailed from this geographical area.[53][54] Around the 7th century, a Chola kingdom flourished in present-day Andhra Pradesh.[53] These Telugu Cholas (or Chodas) traced their descent to the early Sangam Cholas. However, it is not known if they had any relation to the early Cholas.[55] It is possible that a branch of the Tamil Cholas migrated north during the time of the Pallavas to establish a kingdom of their own, away from the dominating influences of the Pandyas and Pallavas.[56] The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, who spent several months in Kanchipuram during 639–640 writes about the 'kingdom of Culi-ya', in an apparent reference to the Telugu Chodas.[47][57][58] [edit] Medieval Cholas

Main article: Medieval Cholas Detail of the statue of Rajaraja Chola at Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur. While there is little reliable information on the Cholas during the period between the early Cholas and Vijayalaya dynasties, there is an abundance of materials from diverse sources on the Vijayalaya and the Later Chola dynasties. A large number of stone inscriptions by the Cholas themselves and by their rival kings, Pandyas and Chalukyas, and copper-plate grants, have been instrumental in constructing the history of Cholas of that period.[59][60] Around 850, Vijayalaya rose from obscurity to take an opportunity arising out of a conflict between Pandyas and Pallavas,[61] captured Thanjavur and eventually established the imperial line of the medieval Cholas.[62][63] The Chola dynasty was at the peak of its influence and power during the medieval period.[1] Through their leadership and vision, kings such as Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I extended the Chola kingdom beyond the traditional limits of a Tamil kingdom.[2][3] At its peak, the Chola Empire stretched from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari basin in the north.[64] The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty.[4] Chola navies invaded and conquered Srivijaya in the Malayan archipelago.[5][6][65] Throughout this period, the Cholas were constantly troubled by the ever-resilient Sinhalas, who attempted to overthrow the Chola occupation of Lanka,[66][67] Pandya princes who tried to win independence for their traditional territories, and by the growing ambitions of the Chalukyas in the western Deccan.[68] This period saw constant warfare between the Cholas and these antagonists. A balance of power existed between the Chalukyas and the Cholas, with the Chola forces penetrating deep in to the Kannada country up to Tungabhadra in Central Karnataka and controlling the Konkan coast up to Bhatkal where a Chola temple exists even today. In contrast, the Chalukyas never rose to any kind of prominence, they never were able to occupy any territory in Chola country during their entire existence, excepting mounting some invasions in and around the Chola protectorate of Vengi or hegemony during the existence of the Cholas and they predeceased the Cholas around 1198 when Kulothunga III collaborated with Veera Ballala II and his son Narasimha to sound the death-knell of the Chalukya Kingdom.[69] However, the bone of contention between these two powers was the growing Chola influence in the Vengi kingdom.[70] The Western Chalukyas mounted several unsuccessful attempts to engage the Chola emperors in war and except for a brief occupation of Vengi territories between 1118-1126, all their other attempts ended in failure with successive Chola emperors routing the armies of the Chalukyas at various places in many wars. It is also pertinent to note that even under the not so strong emperors of the Cholas like Kulothunga I, Vikrama Chola etc. the wars against the Chalukyas were mainly fought in Chalukya territories in Karnataka or in the Telugu country like Vengi, Kakinada or Anantapur or Gutti. In any case, in the internecine wars among the small Kannada kingdoms of the Kadambas, Hoysalas, Vaidumbas or Kalachuris, the Chalukya interference was to cause them dearly with these Kingdoms steadily increasing their stock and ultimately the Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas, the Kalachuris and the Seunas consuming the Chalukyas and sending them into oblivion.[71] With the Kalachuris occupying the Chalukyan capital for over 35 years sometime after 1135 and with the occupation of Dharwar in North Central Karnataka by the Hoysalas under Vishnuvardhana where he based himself with his son Narasimha I in-charge at the Hoysala capital Dorasamudra around AD 1149, the Chalukya kingdom was already starting to dissolve, mainly due to incompetency of its rulers, while the Cholas would be stable till 1215 AD, and finally getting consumed by the Pandiyan empire [72] The Cholas under Kulothunga Chola III even contributed to the downfall and dissolution of the Chalukyas by aiding Hoysalas under Veera Ballala II, the sonin-law of the Chola monarch, in a series of wars with Somesvara IV the last Chalukya king whose territories did not include the erstwhile Chalukyan capital Manyakheta, around AD 1190. That was the final dissolution of Chalukyan power[73]

though the Chalukyas existed only in name since 1135-1140. [edit] Later Cholas Main article: Later Cholas (1070-1279 AD) Chola territories during Kulothunga Chola I c. 1120 Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukyas began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi.[74] Rajaraja Chola's daughter married Chalukya prince Vimaladitya.[75] Rajendra Chola's daughter was also married to an eastern Chalukya prince Rajaraja Narendra.[76] Virarajendra Chola's son Athirajendra Chola was assassinated in a civil disturbance in 1070, and Kulothunga Chola I, the son of Rajaraja Narendra, ascended the Chola throne starting the Later Chola dynasty.[69][76][77] The Later Chola dynasty saw capable rulers in Kulothunga Chola I, his son Vikrama Chola, other successors like Rajaraja Chola II, Rajadhiraja Chola II and the great Kulothunga Chola III, who conquered Kalinga, Ilam and Kataha; however, the rule of the later Cholas was not as strong as those of the emperors up to Rajendra Chola II. While the rule of Kulothunga Chola III was stable and very prosperous up to 1215 AD, during his time itself, the decline of the Chola power started beginning with his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in1215-16 AD.[78] The Cholas lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power. Around 1118, they lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya and Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the Hoysalas. However, these were only temporary setbacks, because under king Vikrama Chola successor of Kulothunga Chola I, the Cholas lost no time shortly after his accession in recovering the province of Vengi by defeating Chalukya Somesvara III and also recovering Gangavadi from the Hoysalas. In the Pandya territories, the lack of a controlling central administration prompted a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy.[79][80] The Cholas, under Rajaraja Chola III and later, his successor Rajendra Chola III, were quite weak and therefore, experienced continuous trouble. One feudatory, the Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I, even held Rajaraja Chola III as hostage for sometime.[81][82] At the close of the 12th century, the growing influence of the Hoysalas replaced the declining Chalukyas as the main player in the Kannada country, but they too faced constant trouble from the Seunas and the Kalachuris who were occupying Chalukya capital for those empires were their new rivals. So naturally, the Hoysalas found it convenient to have friendly relations with the Cholas from the time of Kulothunga Chola III, who had defeated Hoysala Veera Ballala II but who had subsequent marital relations with the Chola monarch. This continued during the time of Rajaraja Chola III the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola III[78][83] The Pandyas in the south had risen to the rank of a great power who ultimately banished the Hoysalas who were allies of the Cholas from Tamil country and subsequently causing the demise of the Cholas themselves in AD 1279. They first steadily gained control of the Tamil country as well as territories in Sri Lanka, Chera country, Telugu country under Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II his able successor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan before inflicting several defeats on the joint forces of the Cholas under Rajaraja Chola III, his successor Rajendra Chola III and the Hoysalas under Someshwara, his son Ramanatha[78] Rajendra III tried to survive by aligning with the Kadava Pallavas and the Hoysalas in turn in order to counter the constantly rising power of the Pandiyans who were a major players in the Tamil Kingdom from AD 1215 and had intelligently consolidated their position in Madurai-Rameswaram-Ilam-Cheranadu and Kanniyakumari belt, and had been steadily increasing their territories in the Kaveri belt between Dindigul-Tiruchy-Karur-Satyamangalam as well as in the Kaveri Delta i.e. Thanjavur-Mayuram-Chidambaram-Vriddhachalam-Kanchi, finally marching all the way up to Arcot—Tirumalai-Nellore-Visayawadai-Vengi-Kalingam belt by 1250 AD. The Pandiyas steadily routed both the Hoysalas and the Cholas.[84] They also

dispossessed the Hoysalas, who had been overestimating their power by interfering in the politics of Tamil country by routing them under Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan at Kannanur Kuppam and chased the Hoysalas back to the Mysore plateau and stopped the war only thereafter. [85] At the close of Rajendra’s reign, the Pandyan empire was at the height of prosperity and had taken the place of the Chola empire in the eyes of the foreign observers.[86] The last recorded date of Rajendra III is 1279. There is no evidence that Rajendra was followed immediately by another Chola prince.[87][88] The Hoysalas were routed from Kannanur Kuppam around 1279 by Kulasekhara Pandiyan and in the same war the last Chola emperor Rajendra III was routed and the Chola empire ceased to exist thereafter. Thus the Chola empire was completely overshadowed by the Pandyan empire and sank into obscurity by the end of the 13th century.[82][88] [edit] Government and society Main article: Chola Government [edit] Chola country According to Tamil tradition, the old Chola country comprised the region that includes the modern-day Tiruchirapalli District and the Thanjavur District in Tamil Nadu. The river Kaveri and its tributaries dominate this landscape of generally flat country that gradually slopes towards the sea, unbroken by major hills or valleys. The river Kaveri, also known as Ponni (golden) river, had a special place in the culture of Cholas. The annual floods in the Kaveri marked an occasion for celebration, Adiperukku, in which the whole nation took part. Kaverippattinam on the coast near the Kaveri delta was a major port town.[30] Ptolemy knew of this and the other port town of Nagappattinam as the most important centres of Cholas.[18] These two towns became hubs of trade and commerce and attracted many religious faiths, including Buddhism.[89] Roman ships found their way into these ports. Roman coins dating from the early centuries of the common era have been found near the Kaveri delta.[90][91] The other major towns were Thanjavur, Uraiyur and Kudanthai, now known as Kumbakonam.[30] After Rajendra Chola moved his capital to Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Thanjavur lost its importance.[92] The later Chola kings moved around their capitals frequently and made cities such as Chidambaram, Madurai and Kanchipuram their regional capitals. [edit] Nature of government In the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India was, for the first time, brought under a single government,[93] when a serious attempt was made to face and solve the problems of public administration. The Cholas' system of government was monarchical, as in the Sangam age.[35] However, there was little in common between the local chiefdoms of the earlier time and the imperial-like states of Rajaraja Chola and his successors.[94] Between 980, and c. 1150, the Chola Empire comprised the entire south Indian peninsula, extending east to west from coast to coast, and bounded to the north by an irregular line along the Tungabhadra river and the Vengi frontier.[2][4][64] Although Vengi had a separate political existence, it was closely connected to the Chola Empire and, for all practical purposes, the Chola dominion extended up to the banks of the Godavari river.[95] Thanjavur, and later, Gangaikonda Cholapuram were the imperial capitals. However both Kanchipuram and Madurai were considered to be regional capitals, in which occasional courts were held. The king was the supreme commander and a benevolent dictator.[96] His administrative role consisted of issuing oral commands to responsible officers when representations were made to him.[97] A powerful bureaucracy assisted the king in the tasks of administration and in executing his orders. Due to the lack of a legislature or a legislative system in the modern sense, the fairness of king’s orders dependent on the goodness of the man and in his belief in Dharma—a sense of fairness and justice. The Chola kings built temples and endowed them with great wealth.[8][98] The temples acted not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity, benefiting their entire community.[8][99]

[edit] Local government Every village was a self-governing unit.[100] A number of villages constituted a larger entity known as a Kurram, Nadu or Kottram, depending on the area.[100][101][101][102] A number of Kurrams constituted a valanadu.[103] These structures underwent constant change and refinement throughout the Chola period.[104] Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire; minor disputes were settled at the village level.[102] Punishment for minor crimes were in the form of fines or a direction for the offender to donate to some charitable endowment. Even crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. Crimes of the state, such as treason, were heard and decided by the king himself; the typical punishment in these cases was either execution or the confiscation of property.[105] [edit] Foreign trade See also: Chola Navy Hindu temple complex at Prambanan in Java clearly showing Dravidian architectural influences [106] The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia.[107] Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity.[108][109] The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures.[110][111][112] The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire in the Malayan archipelago under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat at Bagdad were the main trading partners.[113] Chinese Song Dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached the Chinese court in the year 1077,[114][115][116] and that the king of the Chulien at the time was called Ti-hua-kia-lo.[117] It is possible that these syllables denote "Deva Kulo[tunga]" (Kulothunga Chola I). This embassy was a trading venture and was highly profitable to the visitors, who returned with '81,800 strings of copper coins in exchange for articles of tributes, including glass articles, and spices'.[118] A fragmentary Tamil inscription found in Sumatra cites the name of a merchant guild Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar (literally, "the five hundred from the four countries and the thousand directions"), a famous merchant guild in the Chola country.[109] The inscription is dated 1088, indicating that there was an active overseas trade during the Chola period.[115] [edit] Chola society There is little information on the size and the density of the population during the Chola reign.[119] The stability in the core Chola region enabled the people to lead a productive and contented life. There is only one recorded instance of civil disturbance during the entire period of Chola reign.[120] However, there were reports of widespread famine caused by natural calamities.[121][122] The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates a presence of high level of literacy and education in the society. The text in these inscriptions was written by court poets and engraved by talented artisans. Education in the contemporary sense was not considered important; there is circumstantial evidence to suggest that some village councils organised schools to teach the basics of reading and writing to children,[123] although there is no evidence of systematic educational system for the masses.[124] Vocational education was through hereditary training in which the father passed on his skills to his sons. Tamil was the medium of education for the masses; Sanskrit education was restricted to the Brahmins. Religious monasteries (matha or gatika) were centres of learning, which were supported by the government.[125][126][127] [edit] Cultural contributions

Detail of the main vimanam (tower) of the Thanjavur Temple Under the Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature.[128] In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas.[129][130] Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.[131] The Chola conquest of Kadaram (Kedah) and Srivijaya, and their continued commercial contacts with the Chinese Empire, enabled them to influence the local cultures.[132] Many of the surviving examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout the Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy of the Cholas.[133][134] [edit] Art Main article: Chola Art The Cholas continued the temple-building traditions of the Pallava dynasty and contributed significantly to the Dravidian temple design.[135] They built a number of Siva temples along the banks of the river Kaveri. These temples were not on a large scale until the end of the 10th century.[129][136][137] With heavily ornamented pillars accurate in detail and richly sculpted walls, the Airavateswara temple at Darasuram is a classic example of Chola art and architecture Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola I.[138] The maturity and grandeur to which the Chola architecture had evolved found expression in the two temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. The magnificent Siva temple of Thanjavur, completed around 1009, is a fitting memorial to the material achievements of the time of Rajaraja. The largest and tallest of all Indian temples of its time, it is at the apex of South Indian architecture.[74][139] The temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram at Gangaikondacholapuram, the creation of Rajendra Chola, was intended to excel its predecessor.[140][141] Completed around 1030, only two decades after the temple at Thanjavur and in the same style, the greater elaboration in its appearance attests the more affluent state of the Chola Empire under Rajendra.[135][142] The Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, the temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram at Gangaikondacholapuram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram were declared as World Heritage Sites by the UNESCO, and are referred to as the Great living Chola temples.[143] The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes.[144][145][146] Among the existing specimens in museums around the world and in the temples of South India may be seen many fine figures of Siva in various forms, such as Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, and the Saivaite saints.[135] Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the 11th and the 12th centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in the form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer.[147][148] Chola bronze from the Ulster Museum [edit] Literature Main article: Chola literature The age of the Imperial Cholas (850–1200) was the golden age of Tamil culture, marked by the importance of literature.[3] Chola inscriptions cite many works, the majority of which have been lost.[149] The revival of Hinduism from its nadir during the Kalabhras spurred the

construction of numerous temples and these in turn generated Saiva and Vaishnava devotional literature.[150] Jain and Buddhist authors flourished as well, although in fewer numbers than in previous centuries.[151] Jivaka-chintamani by Tirutakkatevar and Sulamani by Tolamoli are among notable by non-Hindu authors.[152][153][154] The art of Tirutakkatevar is marked by all the qualities of great poetry.[155] It is considered as the model for Kamban for his masterpiece Ramavataram.[156] Kamban flourished during the reign of Kulothunga Chola III.[157] His Ramavatharam (also referred to as Kambaramayanam) is a great epic in Tamil literature, and although the author states that he followed Valmiki's Ramayana, it is generally accepted that his work is not a simple translation or adaptation of the Sanskrit epic: Kamban imports into his narration the colour and landscape of his own time; his description of Kosala is an idealised account of the features of the Chola country.[154][158][159] Jayamkondar’s masterpiece Kalingattuparani is an example of narrative poetry that draws a clear boundary between history and fictitious conventions. This describes the events during Kulothunga Chola I’s war in Kalinga and depicts not only the pomp and circumstance of war, but the gruesome details of the field.[159][160][161] The famous Tamil poet Ottakuttan was a contemporary of Kulothunga Chola I and served at the courts of three of Kulothunga's successors.[156][159][160][162] Ottakuttan wrote Kulothunga Cholan Ula, a poem extolling the virtues of the Chola king.[163] The impulse to produce devotional religious literature continued into the Chola period and the arrangement of the Saiva canon into 11 books was the work of Nambi Andar Nambi, who lived close to the end of 10th century.[164][165] However, relatively few Vaishnavite works were composed during the later Chola period, possibly because of the apparent animosity towards the Vaishnavites by the Later Chola monarchs.[166] [edit] Religion Bronze Chola Statue of Nataraja at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City In general, Cholas were the adherents of Hinduism. Throughout their history, they were not swayed by the rise of Buddhism and Jainism as were the kings of the Pallava and Pandya dynasties. Even the early Cholas followed a version of the classical Hindu faith. There is evidence in Purananuru for Karikala Chola’s faith in the Vedic Hinduism in the Tamil country.[167] Kocengannan, another early Chola, was celebrated in both Sangam literature and in the Saiva canon as a saint.[37] Later Cholas were also staunch Saivites,[168] although there was a sense of toleration towards other sects and religions.[169] Parantaka I and Sundara Chola endowed and built temples for both Siva and Vishnu.[170] Rajaraja Chola I patronised Buddhists, and provided for the construction of the Chudamani Vihara (a Buddhist monastery) in Nagapattinam at the request of the Srivijaya Sailendra king.[29][171][172][173] While it is true that the biggest and grandest temples of the Cholas were dedicated to Lord Siva, all Chola kings especially from Aditya to Rajendra IV not only built great temples for Lord Vishnu but also gave numerous grants and gifts to them (***) In fact during the time of Aditya I (871-903 AD) the Gangas of Kannada country had recognized his superiority which he acknowledged by marrying into that family and making grant contributions to the construction of the Sri Ranganatha temple at modern Srirangapatnam. In fact it was Aditya I's dictat which was faithfully carried out by his illustrious son Parantaka I and his successors wherein it was declared in edicts that the Siva Temple of Chidambaram (at that time the grand Siva temples of Tanjore and Gangaikonda Cholapuram were not in existence) and the Sri Ranganatha Swami temple of Srirangam were the 'Kuladhanams' i.e. tutelary (deities) treasures of the Chola emperors(***) In fact this dictat was repeated around 300 years back when the last great Chola King, Kulothunga III, the builder of the great Sarabeswarar Temple at Tribhuvanam on the outskirts of Kumbakonam, hails Lord Ranganatha at Srirangam in an inscription in

the Srirangam Koil, as his 'tutelary deity' (***) As per findings of Dr. Hultzsch, the great epigraphist, in this very inscription acknowledgment is made to the earlier great Chola king Parantaka about declaring the Chidambaram (Siva) Koil and the Srirangam (Vishnu) Koil as 'Kuladhanams' of the Cholas, which is a pointer to the fact that the Cholas were secular and patronized equally all religions and sub-sects within the same religion(***) Another proof of this fact is the existence of as many as 40 Vaishnava Divyadesams out of 108 such temples in the Chola country, which are functioning and flourishing even today. In fact, Chola king Sundara (Parantaka-II) was a staunch devotee of the reclining Vishnu (Vadivu Azhagiya Nambi) at Anbil in the banks of Cauvery on the outskirts of Tiruchy, to whom he gave numerous gifts and embellishments, and prayed before him by keeping his sword before the deity, prior to his proceeding for war for regaining the territories in and around Kanchi and Arcot from the waning Rashtrakutas and while leading expeditions against both Madurai and Ilam (Sri Lanka). (***) During the period of Later Cholas, there were assumed to be instances of intolerance towards Vaishnavites,[174] especially towards Ramanuja, the acharya of the Vaishnavites.[175] Kulothunga Chola II, a staunch Saivite, is said to have removed a statue of Vishnu from the Siva temple at Chidambaram, though this is only a probability[176][177][178] [edit] In popular culture Standing Hanuman, Chola Dynasty, 11thCentury. The history of the Chola dynasty has inspired many Tamil authors to produce literary and artistic creations during the last several decades.[179] These works of popular literature have helped continue the memory of the great Cholas in the minds of the Tamil people. The most important work of this genre is the popular Ponniyin Selvan (The son of Ponni), a historical novel in Tamil written by Kalki Krishnamurthy.[180] Written in five volumes, this narrates the story of Rajaraja Chola.[181] Ponniyin Selvan deals with the events leading up to the ascension of Uttama Chola on the Chola throne. Kalki had cleverly utilised the confusion in the succession to the Chola throne after the demise of Sundara Chola.[182] This book was serialised in the Tamil periodical Kalki during the mid 1950s.[183] The serialisation lasted for nearly five years and every week its publication was awaited with great interest.[184] Kalki perhaps laid the foundations for this novel in his earlier historical romance Parthiban Kanavu, which deals with the fortunes of an imaginary Chola prince Vikraman who was supposed to have lived as a feudatory of the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I during the 7th century. The period of the story lies within the interregnum during which the Cholas were in eclipse before Vijayalaya Chola revived their fortune.[181] Parthiban Kanavu was also serialised in the Kalki weekly during the early 1950s. Raghu Kasthuri is a great descendent from the area previously ruled by the Cholas. Sandilyan, another popular Tamil novelist, wrote Kadal Pura in the 1960s. It was serialised in the Tamil weekly Kumudam. Kadal Pura is set during the period when Kulothunga Chola I was in exile from the Vengi kingdom, after he was denied the throne that was rightfully his. Kadal Pura speculates the whereabouts of Kulothunga during this period. Sandilyan's earlier work Yavana Rani written in the early 1960s is based on the life of Karikala Chola.[185] More recently, Balakumaran wrote the opus Udaiyar based on the event surrounding Rajaraja Chola's construction of the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur.[186] There were stage productions based on the life of Rajaraja Chola during the 1950s and in 1973, Shivaji Ganesan acted in a screen adaptation of this play titled Rajaraja Cholan. The Cholas are featured in the History of the World board game, produced by Avalon Hill. [edit] See also • History of Tamil Nadu • Tamil and Sanskrit inscriptions in Malaysia

[edit] Notes 1. ^ a b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 5 2. ^ a b c d Kulke and Rothermund, p 115 3. ^ a b c d e Keay, p 215 4. ^ a b c Majumdar, p 407 5. ^ a b The kadaram campaign is first mentioned in Rajendra's inscriptions dating from his 14th year. The name of the Srivijaya king was Sangrama Vijayatungavarman. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, pp 211–220 6. ^ a b Meyer, p 73 7. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 192 8. ^ a b c Vasudevan, pp 20–22 9. ^ Keay, pp 217–218 10. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 18 11. ^ Chopra et al., p 31 12. ^ a b The age of Sangam is established through the correlation between the evidence on foreign trade found in the poems and the writings by ancient Greek and Romans such as Periplus. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 106 13. ^ Tirukkural poem 955. The annotator Parimelazhagar writes "The charity of people with ancient lineage (such as the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras) are forever generous in spite of their reduced means". 14.

^ Other names in common use for the Cholas are Killi (கிள்ளி), Valavan

(வளவன்) and Sembiyan (ேேம்பியன்). Killi perhaps comes from the Tamil kil (கிள்) meaning dig or cleave and conveys the idea of a digger or a worker of the land. This word often forms an integral part of early Chola names like Nedunkilli, Nalankilli and so on, but almost drops out of use in later times. Valavan is most probably connected with 'valam' (வளம்) – fertility and means owner or ruler of a fertile country. Sembiyan is generally taken to mean a descendant of Shibi – a legendary hero whose self-sacrifice in saving a dove from the pursuit of a falcon figures among the early Chola legends and forms the subject matter of the Sibi Jataka among the Jataka stories of Buddhism. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, pp 19–20 15. ^ The period covered by the Sangam poetry is likely to extend not longer than five or six generations - K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 3 16. ^ The Periplus refers to the region of the eastern seaboard of South India as Damirica - The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Ancient History source book). 17. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 23 18. ^ a b Ptolemy mentions the town of Kaveripattinam (under the form Khaberis) - Proceedings, American Philosophical Society (1978), vol. 122, No. 6, p 414 19. ^ Mahavamsa eText - http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/ 20. ^ The Asokan inscriptions speak of the Cholas in plural, implying that, in his time, there were more than one Chola - K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 20 21. ^ The Edicts of Ashoka, issued around 250 BCE by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka, mention the Cholas as recipients of his Buddhist prozelitism: "The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (5,400– 9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka)". S. Dhammika, The Edicts of King Asoka: An English Rendering 22. ^ Smith, p viii 23. ^ Tripathi, p 456 24. ^ Archaeological News A. L. Frothingham, Jr. The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts, Vol. 4, No. 1 (Mar., 1888), pp. 69–125 25. ^ "The name Coromandel is used for the east coast of India from Cape Comorin to Nellore, or from point Calimere to the mouth of Krishna. The word is a corrupt form of Choramandala or the Realm of Chora, which is the Tamil form of the title

of the Chola dynasty". - Gupta AN, p 182 26. ^ The direct line of Cholas of the Vijayalaya dynasty came to an end with the death of Virarajendra Chola and the assassination of his son Athirajendra Chola. Kulothunga Chola I, ascended the throne in 1070. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 170–172 27. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 19–20, pp 104–106 28. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 104–116 29. ^ a b South Indian Inscriptions, Vol 3 30. ^ a b c d e Tripathi, p 457 31. ^ Manimekalai (poem 00-10) 32. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 67 33. ^ Manimekalai (poem 22-030) 34. ^ Majumdar, p 137 35. ^ a b c Kulke and Rothermund, p 104 36. ^ a b Tripathi, p 458 37. ^ a b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 116 38. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 105–106 39. ^ The only evidence for the approximate period of these early kings is the Sangam Literature and the synchronization with the history of Sri Lanka as given in the Mahavamsa. Gajabahu I who is said to be the contemporary of the Chera Senguttuvan is determined to belong to the 2nd century. This leads us to date the poems mentioning Senguttuvan and his contemporaries to belong to this period. 40. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 113 41. ^ Gnanaprakasar, Nallur Swami. "Beginnings of tamil rule in ceylon". lankalibrary.com. http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/ancient/tamil%20rule.htm. Retrieved on 2006-12-05. 42. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 130 43. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 130, 135, 137 44. ^ Majumdar, Ancient India. p 139 45. ^ Thapar, p 268 46. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 135 47. ^ a b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 130, 133. Quote:"The Cholas disappeared from the Tamil land almost completely in this debacle, though a branch of them can be traced towards the close of the period in Rayalaseema - the Telugu-Chodas, whose kingdom is mentioned by Yuan Chwang in the seventh century A.D 48. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 102 49. ^ Pandya Kadungon and Pallava Simhavishnu overthrew the Kalabhras. Acchchutakalaba is likely the last Kalabhra king - Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 102 50. ^ Periyapuranam, a Saiva religious work of 12th century tells us of the Pandya king Nindrasirnedumaran, who had for his queen a Chola princess. Chopra et al., p 95 51. ^ Copperplate grants of the Pallava Buddhavarman(late 4th century) mention that the king as the 'underwater fire that destroyed the ocean of the Chola army'. - Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, pp 104–105 52. ^ Simhavishnu (575–600) is also stated to have seized the Chola country. Mahendravarman I was called the 'crown of the Chola country' in his inscriptions. The Chalukya Pulakesin II in his inscriptions in Aihole states that he defeated the Pallavas and brought relief to the Cholas. - K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 105 53. ^ a b Chopra et al., p 95 54. ^ Tripathi, p459 55. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 4. Quote:"it is not known what relation, if any, the Telugu-Chodas of the Renadu country in the Ceded District, bore to their namesakes of the Tamil land, though they claimed descent from Karikala, the most celebrated of the early Chola monarchs of the Sangam age" 56. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri postulates that there was a live connection between

the early Cholas and the Renandu Cholas of the Andhra country. The northward migration probably took place during the Pallava domination of Simhavishnu. Sastri also categorically rejects the claims that these were the descendants of Karikala Chola - K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 107 57. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 102 58. ^ Tripathi, pp 458–459 59. ^ The Chola inscriptions followed the practice of prefacing the intended text with a historical recounting, in a poetic and ornate style of Tamil, of the main achievements of the reign and the descent of the king and of his ancestors South Indian Inscriptions, Vol 2 60. ^ Chopra et al., p 102 61. ^ The opportunity for Vijayalaya arose during the battle of Sripurambayam between the Pallava ally Ganga Pritvipati and the Pandya Varaguna. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 158 62. ^ Vijayalaya invaded Thanjavur and defeated the Muttarayar king, feudatory of the Pandyas. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 158 63. ^ Kulke and Rothermund, pp 122–123 64. ^ a b Rajendra Chola I completed the conquest of the island of Sri Lanka and captured the Sinhala king Mahinda V prisoner. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The Colas pp 194–210 65. ^ Stuart Munro-Hay, Nakhon Sri Thammarat - The Archaeology, History and Legends of a Southern Thai Town, p 18, ISBN 9747534738 66. ^ Chopra et al., p 107 67. ^ Chopra et al., p 109 68. ^ Chopra et al., pp 107–109 69. ^ a b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, 70. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 158 71. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, 72. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p.179 73. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p. 180 74. ^ a b Keay, p 216 75. ^ Majumdar, p 405 76. ^ a b Chopra et al., p 120 77. ^ Majumdar, p 372 78. ^ a b c Tripathi, p 471 79. ^ Details of the Pandyan civil war and the role played by the Cholas and Sinhalas, are present in the Mahavamsa as well as the Pallavarayanpettai Inscriptions. South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. 12 80. ^ Chopra et al., pp 128–129 81. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 194 82. ^ a b Tripathi, p 472 83. ^ Majumdar, p 410 84. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 195 85. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 196 86. ^ Tripathi, p 485 87. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 197 88. ^ a b Chopra et al., p 130 89. ^ The Buddhist work Milinda Panha dated to the early Christian era, mentions Kolapttna among the best-known sea ports on the Chola coast. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 23 90. ^ Nagaswamy, Tamil Coins - a study 91. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 107 92. ^ Chopra et al., p 106 93. ^ The only other time when peninsular India would be brought under one umbrella before the Independence was during the Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1614) 94. ^ Stein, p 26 95. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 448 96. ^ There were no legislature or controls on the executive. The king ruled by

edicts, which generally followed dharma a culturally mediated concept of 'fair and proper' practice. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, pp 451, 460–461 97. ^ For example, Rajaraja is mentioned in the Layden copperplate grant to have issued an oral order for a gift to a Buddhist vihara at Nagapattinam, and his orders were written out by a clerk - K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 461 98. ^ Keay, p 218 99. ^ Some of the output of villages throughout the kingdom was given to temples that reinvested some of the wealth accumulated as loans to the settlements. The temple served as a centre for redistribution of wealth and contributed towards the integrity of the kingdom. - Keay, pp 217–218 100. ^ a b Tripathi, pp 474–475 101. ^ a b Stein, p 20 102. ^ a b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 185 103. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 150 104. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 465 105. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 477 106. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 424–426 107. ^ Kulke and Rothermund, pp 116–117 108. ^ Kulke and Rothermund, p 12 109. ^ a b Kulke and Rothermund, p 118 110. ^ Kulke and Rothermund, p 124 111. ^ Tripathi, p 465 112. ^ Tripathi, p 477 113. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 604 114. ^ Keay, p 223 115. ^ a b Kulke and Rothermund, p 117 116. ^ See Thapar, p xv 117. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 316 118. ^ The Tamil merchants took glassware, camphor, sandalwood, rhinoceros horns, ivory, rose water, asafoetida, spices such as pepper, cloves, etc. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 173 119. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 284 120. ^ —during the short reign of Virarajendra Chola, which possibly had some sectarian roots. 121. ^ Chopra et al., p 125 122. ^ Chopra et al., p 129 123. ^ Scharfe, p 180 124. ^ 17th century Italian traveler Pietro Della Valle (1623) has given a vivid account of the village schools in South India. These accounts reflect the system of primary education in existence until the morder times in Tamil Nadu 125. ^ Rajendra Chola I endowed a large college in which more than 280 students learnt from 14 teachers - K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 293 126. ^ The students studied a number of subjects in these colleges, including philosophy (anvikshiki), Vedas (trayi – the threefold Vedas of Rigveda, Yajurveda and Samaveda. The fourth Atharvaveda was considered a non-religious text.), economics (vartta), government (dandaniti), grammar, prosody, etymology, astronomy, logic (tarka), medicine (ayurveda), politics (arthasastra) and music. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 292 127. ^ Scharfe, pp 172–173 128. ^ Mitter, p 2 129. ^ a b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 418 130. ^ Keay, p 174 131. ^ It was, however, in bronze sculptures that the Chola craftsmen excelled, producing images rivalling the best anywhere. Thapar, p 403 132. ^ Kulke and Rothermund, p 159 133. ^ The great temple complex at Prambanan in Indonesia exhibit a number of similarities with the South Indian architecture. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 709

134. ^ Kulke and Rothermund, pp 159–160 135. ^ a b c Tripathi, p 479 136. ^ Harle, p 295 137. ^ Mitter, p 57 138. ^ Vasudevan, pp 21–24 139. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 421 140. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p423 141. ^ Keay, p221 142. ^ Nagasamy R, Gangaikondacholapuram 143. ^ "Great Living Chola Temples". UNESCO. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/250. Retrieved on 2008-06-03. 144. ^ Chopra et al., p 186 145. ^ Mitter, p 163 146. ^ Thapar, pp 309–310 147. ^ Wolpert, p174 148. ^ By common consent, the finest Cola masterpieces are the bronze images of Siva Nataraja. Mitter, p 59 149. ^ , including Rajarajesvara Natakam- a work on drama, Viranukkaviyam by one Virasola Anukkar, and Kannivana Puranam, a work of popular nature. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, pp 663–664 150. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 333 151. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 339 152. ^ Chopra et al., p 188 153. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 339–340 154. ^ a b Encylopaedia of Indian literature, vol. 2, p 1195 155. ^ Chopra et al., p 196 156. ^ a b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 340 157. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 672 158. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 341–342 159. ^ a b c Chopra et al., p 116 160. ^ a b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 20 161. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 340–341 162. ^ Majumdar, p 8 163. ^ Encylopaedia of Indian literature, vol. 1, p 307 164. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 342–343 165. ^ Chopra et al., p 115 166. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 681 167. ^ Purananuru (poem 224) movingly expresses his faith and the grief caused by his passing away. 168. ^ Vasudevan, p 22 169. ^ Tripathi, p 480 170. ^ Vasudevan, p 102 171. ^ The name of the Sailendra king was Sri Chulamanivarman and the Vihara was named 'Chudamani vihara' in his honour. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 214 172. ^ Keay, pp 222–223 173. ^ Majumdar, p 406 174. ^ Stein, p 134 175. ^ Vasudevan, p 104 176. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 176 177. ^ There is an inscription from 1160 that the custodians of Siva temples who had social intercourses with Vaishnavites would forfeit their property. K.A.Nilakanta Sastri, The CōĻas, p 645 178. ^ Chopra et al., p 126 179. ^ Das, p 108 180. ^ "Versatile writer and patriot". The Hindu. http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/03/20/stories/13200178.htm. Retrieved on 2008-0529. 181. ^ a b Das, p 109

182. ^ Das, pp 108–109 183. ^ "English translation of Ponniyin Selvan". The Hindu. http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/lr/2003/01/05/stories/2003010500100100.htm. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. 184. ^ "Lines that Speak". The Hindu. http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/07/23/stories/13230766.htm. Retrieved on 2008-0529. 185. ^ Encylopaedia of Indian literature, vol. 1, pp 631–632 186. ^ "Book review of Udaiyar". The Hindu. http://www.hindu.com/br/2005/02/22/stories/2005022200101501.htm. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. (***) www.whatsindia.com/south_indian_inscriptions (Vol.24) Pandyan Kingdom From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search போண்டியர் Pandyas Extent of the Pandya Territories c. 1250 C.E. Official language Tamil Capitals Korkai Madurai Government Monarchy Preceding state

Kalabhras

Succeeding states Delhi Sultanate,Vijayanagar, Nayaks of Madurai, The Pandyan Kingdom (Tamil: போண்டியர்) was an ancient Tamil state in South India. The Pandyas, Chola, Chera and Pallava Dynasties are the four Dravidian Tamil Dynasties which ruled South India till the 15th century CE. They initially ruled from Korkai, a seaport on the Southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula, and in later times moved to Madurai. Pandyan was well known since the ancient period, with contacts, even diplomatic, reaching the Roman Empire; during the 13th century of the Christian era Marco Polo mentioned it as the richest kingdom in existence[1]. The Pandyan Kingdom of Southern India is believed to have been founded around five to six centuries before the Christian Era. Their recorded existence and mention are found in records dating to as early as 550 BC. Emperor Augustus of Rome at Antioch knew of the Pandion of Dramira and received a Pandyan ambassador with letters and gifts from this ancient Tamil Kingdom. Strabo described an ambassador to emperor Augustus Caesar from a South Indian King called Pandion. The country of the Pandyas, Pandi Mandala, was described as Pandionis Mediterranea by Periplus and Modura Regia Pandionis by Ptolemy[2]. The early Pandyan Dynasty of the Sangam Literature went into obscurity during the invasion of the Kalabhras. The dynasty revived under Kadungon in the early 6th century, pushed the Kalabhras out of the Tamil country and ruled from Madurai[3]. They again went into decline with the rise of the Cholas in the 9th century and were in constant conflict with them. The Pandyas allied themselves with the Sinhalese and the Cheras in harassing the Chola empire until they found an opportunity for reviving their fortunes during the late 13th century.

The Later Pandyas (1150-1350)entered their golden age under Maravman Sundara Pandiyan and Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (c. 1251), who expanded the empire into Telugu country, conquered Kalinga (Orissa) and invaded and conquered Sri Lanka. They also had extensive trade links with the Southeast Asian maritime empires of Srivijaya and their successors. During their history, the Pandyas were repeatedly in conflict with the Pallavas, Cholas, Hoysalas and finally the Muslim invaders from the Delhi Sultanate. The Pandyan Kingdom finally became extinct after the establishment of the Madurai Sultanate in the 16th century. The Pandyas excelled in both trade and literature from before the Christian Era. They controlled the pearl fisheries along the South Indian coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which produced some of the finest pearls known in the known ancient world. Tradition holds that the legendary Sangams were held in Madurai under their patronage, and that some of the Pandya Kings were poets themselves. Contents [hide] • 1 Etymology • 2 Sources o 2.1 Sangam Literature o 2.2 Epigraphy o 2.3 Foreign Sources • 3 History o 3.1 Early Pandyas o 3.2 First Empire o 3.3 Under the Cholas o 3.4 Pandya Revival o 3.5 Zenith followed by the end of Pandyas • 4 Government and Society o 4.1 Trade • 5 Religion • 6 Culture • 7 Notes • 8 References • 9 External links [edit] Etymology Historians have used several sources to identify the origins of the early Pandyan dynasty with the pre-Christian Era and also to piece together the names of the Pandyan kings. Pandyas were the longest ruling dynasty of Indian history. Unfortunately, the exact genealogy of these kings has not been authoritatively established yet. [edit] Sources Main article: Early Pandyan Kingdom [edit] Sangam Literature Four-armed Vishnu, Pandya Dynasty, 8-9th century CE. Various Pandya kings find mention in a number of poems in the Sangam Literature. Among them Nedunjeliyan, 'the victor of Talaiyalanganam', and Mudukudimi Peruvaludi 'of several sacrifices' deserve special mention. Beside several short poems found in the Akananuru and the Purananuru collections, there are two major works — Mathuraikkanci and the Netunalvatai (in the collection of Pattupattu) — which give a glimpse into the society and commercial activities in the Pandyan kingdom during the Sangam age. It is difficult to estimate the exact dates of these Sangam age Pandyas. The period covered by the extant literature of the Sangam is unfortunately not easy to determine with any measure of certainty. Except the longer epics Silapathikaram and Manimekalai, which by common consent belong to an age later than the Sangam age, the poems have reached us in the forms of systematic anthologies. Each

individual poem has generally attached to it a colophon on the authorship and subject matter of the poem. The name of the king or chieftain to whom the poem relates and the occasion which called forth the eulogy are also found. It is from these colophons, and rarely from the texts of the poems themselves, that we gather the names of many kings and chieftains and the poets and poetesses patronized by them. The task of reducing these names to an ordered scheme in which the different generations of contemporaries can be marked off one another has not been easy. To add to the confusions, some historians have even denounced these colophons as later additions and untrustworthy as historical documents. Any attempt at extracting a systematic chronology from these poems should take into consideration the casual nature of these poems and the wide differences between the purposes of the anthologist who collected these poems and the historian’s attempts to arrive at a continuous history. [edit] Epigraphy The earliest Pandya to be found in epigraph is Nedunjeliyan, figuring in the Minakshipuram record assigned from the second to the first centuries BCE. The record documents a gift of rock-cut beds, to a Jain ascetic. Punch marked coins in the Pandya country dating from around the same time have also been found. Pandyas are also mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273 - 232 BCE). In his inscriptions Asoka refers to the peoples of south India — the Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas and Satiyaputras — as recipients of his Buddhist proselytism.[4][5] These kingdoms, although not part of the Mauryan Empire, were on friendly terms with Asoka: "The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (5,400–9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka)." [6] Kharavela, the Kalinga king who ruled during the second century BCE, in his Hathigumpha inscription, claims to have destroyed a confederacy of Tamil states (‘’Tamiradesasanghatam’’) which had lasted 132 years, and to have acquired a large quantity of pearls from the Pandyas.[5] [edit] Foreign Sources Coin of the Roman emperor Augustus found at the Pudukottai, South India. Megasthenes knew of the Pandyan kingdom around 300 BC. He described it in Indika as occupying the portion of India which lies southward and extends to the sea. According to his account, it had 365 villages, each of which was expected to meet the needs of the royal household for one day in the year. He described the Pandyan queen at the time, Pandaia as a daughter of Heracles.[7]. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (c. 60 - 100 CE) describes the riches of a 'Pandian Kingdom': ...Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five hundred stadia, and is of another Kingdom, the Pandian. This place also is situated on a river, about one hundred and twenty stadia from the sea.... [8] According to Hiuen-Tsang, the Pandya country was a depot for sea pearls, its people were harsh and of different religions. They were very good at trade[3]. The Chinese historian Yu Huan in his 3rd century text, the Weilüe, mentions The Kingdom of Panyue: ...The kingdom of Panyue is also called Hanyuewang. It is several thousand li to the southeast of Tianzhu (Northern India)...The inhabitants are small; they are the same height as the Chinese...[9] The Roman emperor Julian received an embassy from a Pandya about 361. A Roman trading centre was located on the Pandyan coast at the mouth of the Vaigai river, southeast of Madurai). Pandyas also had trade contacts with Ptolemaic Egypt and, through Egypt, with Rome by the first century, and with China by the 3rd century. The 1st century Greek

historian Nicolaus of Damascus met, at Damascus, the ambassador sent by a king from Dramira "named Pandion or, according to others, Porus" to Caesar Augustus around 13 CE (Strabo XV.1-4, and Strabo XV.1-73).[10][11] In 1288 and again in 1293 the Venetian traveler Marco Polo visited the Pandyan kingdom and left a vivid description of the land and its people. Polo exclaimed that: "The darkest man is here the most highly esteemed and considered better than the others who are not so dark. Let me add that in very truth these people portray and depict their gods and their idols black and their devils white as snow. For they say that God and all the saints are black and the devils are all white. That is why they portray them as I have described." [edit] History The earliest Tamil literary works, such as the Kalittokai, mention a continent called Kumari Nadu or Kumari Kandam, which was believed to have been located to the South of the present-day Kanyakumari tens of thousands of years ago, between the then Kumari and Pahruli rivers. Pandyan kings such as Chenkon, and the Cheras supposedly ruled this country, tens of thousands of years ago. They fought and defeated the Nagas, who might have been a non-Dravidian people, or another species of living beings. Kalittokai again mentions a war between the combined forces of Villavars and the Meenavars (the Cheras and the Pandyas), who fought a fierce war against the Nagas, their arch-enemies, eventually losing the war, and subsequently Central India to the Nagas. Bhil Meena of North India could be the equivalent rulers in North India. Also, the Pandyas, along with the Cheras and the Cholas, find mention as one of the three ruling dynasties of the Southern region of the then Bharatavarsha, in the very ancient [Hindu] epic of the Ramayana.[12][13] They are also mentioned in the Aitareya Aranyaka, and the Mahabharata, where they are (along with the Cheras and the Cholas) believed to have been on the side of the Pandavas in the Great War.[14][15] Although there are many instances of the Pandya Kingdom being referred to in surviving ancient Hindu texts including the Mahabharata, we currently have no way of determining a cogent genealogy of these ancient kings. In order to maintain verifiability of this article, the names of these early Pandya Kings have been omitted. We have a connected history of the Pandyas from the fall of Kalabhras during the middle of the 6th century. Kalittokai mentions that many ethnically different non Tamil Naga tribes such as Maravar, Eyinar, Oliar, Oviar, Aruvalur and Parathavar migrated to the Pandyan kingdom and started living there in the Third Tamil Sangam period 2000 years ago.[16]. The Pandyan kings had the title Maran. The following lists of the Pandya kings are based on the authoritative A History of South India from the Early Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar by K.A.N. Sastri, Oxford U Press, New Delhi (Reprinted 1998). [edit] Early Pandyas Main article: Early Pandyan Kingdom The following is a partial list of Pandyan emperors who ruled during the Sangam age:[17][18][19] • Nedunj Cheliyan I ( Aariyap Padai Kadantha Nedunj Cheliyan ) • Pudappandiyan • Mudukudumi Paruvaludhi • Nedunj Cheliyan II • Nan Maran • Nedunj Cheliyan III ( Talaiyaalanganathu Seruvendra Nedunj Cheliyan ) • Maran Valudi • Musiri Mutriya Cheliyan • Ukkirap Peruvaludi [edit] First Empire After the close of the Sangam age, the first Pandyan empire was established by Kadungon in the 6th century by defeating the Kalabhras. The following

chronological list of the Pandya emperors is based on an inscription found on the Vaigai riverbeds. • Kadungon 560 - 590 A.D • Maravarman Avani Culamani 590 - 620 A.D • Cezhiyan Cendan 620 - 640 A.D • Arikesari Maravarman Nindraseer Nedumaaran 670 - 710 A.D • Kochadaiyan Ranadhiran 710 - 735 A.D. • Arikesari Parankusa Maravarman Rajasimha I 735 - 765 A.D • Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan 765 - 790 A.D • Rasasingan II 790 - 800 A.D • Varagunan I 800 - 830 A.D • Sirmara Srivallabha 830 - 862 A.D • Varagunavarman II 862 - 880 A.D • Parantaka Viranarayana 880 - 900 A.D • Maravarman Rajasimha II 900 - 920 A.D After the defeat of the Kalabhras, the Pandya kingdom grew steadily in power and territory. With the Cholas in obscurity, the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas and the Pandyas, the river Kaveri being the frontier between them. After Vijayalaya Chola conquered Thanjavur by defeating the Muttarayar chieftains around 850, the Pandyas went into a period of decline. They were constantly harassing their Chola overlords by occupying their territories. Parantaka Chola I invaded the Pandya territories and defeated Rajasinha III. However, the Pandyas reversed this defeat to regain most of their lost territories. [edit] Under the Cholas The Chola domination of the Tamil country began in earnest during the reign of Parantaka Chola II. Chola armies led by Aditya Karikala, son of Parantaka Chola II defeated Vira Pandya in battle. The Pandyas were assisted by the Sinhalese forces of Mahinda IVPandyas were driven out of their territories and had to seek refuge on the island of Sri Lanka. This was the start of the long exile of the Pandyas. They were replaced by a series of Chola viceroys with the title Chola Pandyas who ruled from Madurai from c. 1020. The following list gives the names of the Pandya kings who were active during the 10th century and the first half of 11th century. It is difficult to give their dates of accession and the duration of their rule. Nevertheless, their presence in the southern country requires recognition. • Sundara Pandya I • Vira Pandya I • Vira Pandya II • Amarabhujanga Tivrakopa • Jatavarman Sundara Chola Pandya • Maravarman Vikrama Chola Pandya • Maravarman Parakrama Chola Pandya • Jatavarman Chola Pandya • Srivallabha Manakulachala (1101 - 1124) • Maaravaramban Seervallaban (1132 - 1161) • Parakrama Pandiyan (1161 - 1162) • Kulasekara Pandyan III • Vira Pandyan III • Jatavarman Srivallaban (1175 - 1180) • Jatavarman Kulasekara Devan (1180 - 1216) [edit] Pandya Revival A Pandya sculpture The 13th century is the greatest period in the history of the Pandyan Empire. Their power reached its zenith under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan in the middle of the 13th century. The foundation for such a great empire was laid by Maravarman Sundara Pandya early in the 13th century.

• Maravarman Sundara Pandya (1216 - 1238) • Sundaravaramban Kulasekaran II (1238 - 1240) • Maaravaramban Sundara Pandiyan II (1241 - 1251) • Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (1251 - 1268) • Maaravaramban Kulasekara Pandyan I (1268 - 1308) • Sundara Pandyan IV (1309 - 1327) • Vira Pandyan IV (1309 - 1345) [edit] Zenith followed by the end of Pandyas The Pandyan kingdom was replaced by the Chola princes who assumed the title as Chola Pandyas in the 11th century. After being overshadowed by the Pallavas and Cholas for centuries, Pandyan glory was briefly revived by Maravaramban Sundara Pandyan and by (probably his younger brother or son) the much celebrated Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan in 1251. The Pandya power extended from the Telugu countries on banks of the Godavari river to the northern half of Sri Lanka. The revival of the Pandyan dynasty was to coincide with the gradual but steady decline of the Chola empire. The last two or three Chola kings who followed Kulothunga III were either very weak or incompetent. The Cholas of course did not lack valour but had been unable to stop the revival of the Pandiyan empire from the times of Maravaramban Sundara Pandyan, the revival of the Kadava Pallavas at Kanchi under Kopperinchunga I and indeed the growing power and status of the Telugu Cholas, the Renanti and the Irungola Cholas of the Telugu country; for the last three-named had been very trusted allies of the Cholas up to Kulothunga III, having helped him in conquering Kalinga. The marital alliance of Kulothunga III and one of his successors, Raja Raja III, with the Hoysalas did not yield any advantage, though (initially, at least) Kulothunga III took the help of the Hoysalas in countering the Pandiyan resurgence. Kulothunga III had even conquered Karur, Cheranadu in addition to Madurai, Ilam and Kalinga. However, his strength rested on support from Hoysalas, whose king Veera Ballala II was his son-in-law. However, Veera Ballala II himself had lost quite a bit of his territories between 1208-1212 to his local adversaries in Kannada country, like the Kalachuris, Seunas etc. The resurgent Pandiyans under Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan went to war against Kulothunga and first at Kandai and then near Manaparai on the outskirts of modern Tiruchirappalli, the Pandiyans routed the Chola army and entered Tiruchy, Srirangam and Thanjavur victorious in war. But it appears that in the Tiruchy and Srirangam areas, there was renewed control of the Cholas, presumably with the help of the Hoysalas under Vira Someswara with the Hoysalas later shifting their allegiance to the Pandyans either during the last years of Maravarman Sundara Pandyan or the early years of his successor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan. Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan was a very brave, ambitious warrior king, who wanted to completely subjugate the Cholas. He initially tolerated the presence of the Hoysalas under Vira Someshwara with his son Visvanatha or Ramanatha ruling from Kuppam near Samayapuram on the outskirts of Srirangam. This was because other feudatories of the Hoysalas were also growing in power and threatening the Hoysala kingdom itself. Besides, the Muslim invasion of the Deccan had started under Malik Kafur. The challenged Hoysalas did have a foothold in and around Tiruchy and Srirangam for a few years and seemed to have indulged in some temple building activity at Srirangam also. But Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan, who subdued Rajendra Chola III in around 1258-1260 AD was an equal antagonist of the Hoysalas whose presence he absolutely disliked in the Tamil country. He first vanquished the Kadava Pallavas under Kopperinchungan-II, who had challenged the Hoysala army stationed in and around Kanchi and killed a few of their commanders. Though Rajendra III suffered another defeat at the hands of Vira Someshwara, because of the growing power of Pandiyans being felt by both Cholas and Hoysalas, there was a political affinity between the two which was cemented also by marital relations. At the time the Pandiyans and the Kadava Pallavas,with an earlier Chola, Raja Raja III, having been held in captivity by Kopperinchunga II and his release being secured by the Hoysalas. Ultimately, the Kadava Pallavas, Hoysalas and also the Telugu Choda Timma who invaded Kanchi were all one by one vanquished by Jatavarman

Sundara Pandiyan with the Cholas finally becoming extinct after defeat of Hoysala Ramanatha as well as his ally Rajendra iii around 1279 by Maravarman Kulasekhara Pandiyan. Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan seized the opportunity with the Hoysalas being in Tiruchy and not having any ally, the rapidly weakening Cholas seeking alliance with the Kadava Pallavas who were themselves being threatened by the Telugu Cholas. In 1254 (or 1260) Jatavarman first dragged the Hoysalas into war by routing his son Ramanatha out of Tiruchy. Vira Someshwara Hoysala, who had given the control of the empire to his sons, had to come out of his slumber and tried to challenge Jatavarman. Between Samayapuram and Tiruchy, the armies of Vira Someshwara were routed with Vira Someshwara losing his life in this battle. This ended the presence of the Hoysalas in Tamil country. Jatavarman did not stop there: he went inside Kannada country after conquering Tiruchy and occupied parts of Hoysala territory up to the Konkana coast and established his son Vira Pandiyan as ruler of those territories. Temporarily, at least, the Hoysalas were in disarray in Kannada country itself. Next the Pandiyan prince Jatavarman concentrated on completely wiping out the Chola empire. Rajadhiraja III had interfered in an earlier Pandiyan war of succession and defeated a confederation of Pandiyan princes. The predecessors of Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan had suffered at the time of the Chola invasion and he wanted to take revenge. This was his opportunity. Rajendra III had been counting on Hoysala assistance in case he was challenged by the Pandiyans, keeping in mind the earlier marital alliance of the Cholas with the Hoysalas. Unfortunately for Rajendra III, the Hoysalas had lost any claim to regional power in Kannada and the Tamil countries, as they had been wiped out of Tamizhagam and indeed lost territories inside Kannada country itself to Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan. Initially, Jatavarman consodlidated the Pandiyan hold on Tiruchy and Srirangam and marched towards Tanjore and Kumbakonam. The Chola capital of Gangaikondacholapuram, too, was not far from reach. During the years 1270-1276 it appeared that Rajendra III ruled mainly in and around Gangaikondacholapuram and Tanjore. Tiruchy and Srirangam had been lost to the Cholas forever, at least from 1254 AD. Though Rajendra III had been opposed to the Hoysalas due to their alliance with the Pandiyans, with new hostilities emerging between Hoysalas and the Pandiyans, Rajendra III had hoped for renewed friendship and military alliance with the Hoysalas. When challenged by Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan, the brave but tactically naive Rajendra III marched against the Pandiyans between Tanjore and Tiruchy, hoping for assistance and participation in war from the Hoysalas. However, the already vanquished Hoysalas were in a defensive position. They did not want to go to war and risk yet another defeat by the resurgent Pandiyans. Rajendra III, hopelessly isolated, was thoroughly routed and humiliated in this war, which is variously dated as between 1268-1270. The known rule of Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan is of course, up to 1268 only. Probably Rajendra III fled the battlefield and had continued in obscurity up to 1279 but without any of the erstwhile Chola territories. By 1280 AD, the Chola empire was no more. On the death of Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I in 1308, a conflict stemming from succession disputes arose amongst his sons. Sundara Pandyan and Vira Pandyan fought each other for the throne. Sundara Pandyan however with the help of his loyal generals and Veera Ballala III was successful in supressing Vira Pandyan into a petty army chief with just 500 Maravars who was indeed supported for the throne by his father Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I and the people of madurai. Since then an uneasy truce existed between the two brothers. The Kingdom now under Sundara Pandyan revived its infrastructure and military strength to gain autonomy and drive out Hoysala Empire from its political affairs. Scenarios changed during 1311, when Alauddin Khilji of Khilji dynasty sent his favourite slave general, Malik Kafur, on a buccaneering expedition to the kingdoms of the South. Malik Khafur was not seeking to expand the borders of the Delhi Sultanate; he was merely engaging in a military treasure-hunt on the Sultan's behalf. Malik's victory over Veera Ballala III and loot of hindu temples at

Halebidu sent alarming bells to the Pandyan Kingdom. Kafur on the other hand, heard about the raised strength of the pandyan army and its defensive position within the walls of madurai was reluctant in carrying out his expedition further south. It was Alauddin Khilji himself ordered and sent reinforcements to Kafur to attack Madurai after hearing the richness of it via Veera Virupaksha Ballala who was sent to Delhi as an act of peace by his defeated father Veera Ballala III. Being a strong Saivite, Sundara Pandyan was enraged by the destruction of the hindu temples by the invading muslim armies. He assembled his army and planned to march them at once to face the invading armies of the Delhi Sultanate. This idea was however opposed by Vira Pandyan who felt that taking a defensive position might be more advantageous. Sundara Pandyan ignored his words and ordered his army to march leaving Vira Pandyan to safeguard madurai with his men. The pandyan army managed to march well intact till Melaithirukattupalli. But their reliance on the river Kaveri as the water source turned disastrous as the river ran dry during the hot summer of 1311. The already exhausted pandyan army planned to march west in search of nearby water source. Their speed was drastically reduced due to the general's decision of marching on the dried beds of River Kaveri. Kafur's forces on the other hand tactically planned on their ration and water supplies, met Sundara Pandyan much before Thiruchirapalli. The physically exhausted Pandyan infantry easily fell prey for the Sultanate's army. However, the Pandyan cavalry revived its attack on the mulsim cavalry. But, the mulsim cavaliers were well armed with turcopoles and chain mail armors while pandyan horsemen were inferiorly armored and heavily relied on heavy swords. Tactical strikes by Kafur's crossbow men over the hindu cavalry, followed by the muslim infantry's attack blocked any possible retreat for the Sundara Pandyan's army. The generals of Kafur's army took Sundara Pandyan as captive and beheaded all the others captured. Few Pandyan cavaliers managed to escape to Madurai to report their defeat to Vira Pandya. The victorious sultanate went on plundering the temples of Thiruchirapalli and Srirangam. The walled city of Madurai was now left only with the Vira pandyan's men along with the aid from maravars of Ramanathapuram. Their sole aim was to safeguard Meenakshi Sundareswarar Temple and also yield time for the safe passage of women and children to the hilly regions of present day Kerala. Understanding the fact that they were largely outnumbered, the defenders' only hope is to delay their enemies long enough for them to negotiate. Kafur's siege on Madurai continued for weeks, however, it turned futile as his army lacked any Ballistas or Trebuchets and relied on Battering Rams of inferior quality. On the other hand, continuous archery attack by Maravars and surprise cavalry attacks on the Muslim infantry during night times tremendously increased the casualties on Kafur's side. Kafur lost about half of his army, and then managed to breach the wall after weeks of siege. Vira Pandyan and his maravars still managed to hold the line, thus making Kafur to finally come down for negotiation. Kafur offered the following terms to Vira Pandyan: 1. Hand over all the treasures belonging to the Meenakshi Temple and Madurai Treasury which included 96,000 gold coins and precious stones 2. Half of the Rice rationed inside the walls of madurai 3. All the elephants and horses available with Pandyas. In return, Vira Pandyan was promised the release of his brother, Sundara Pandyan and safety of the idols in the inner sanctum of the Meenakshi Temple. Following this there were two other expeditions from the Delhi Sultanate in 1314 CE led by Khusrav Khan and in 1323 CE by Ulugh Khan. These expeditions led the already weakened Pandyas to confine around the small region of Tirunelveli. No inscriptions about Pandyas are known since then. Sayyid Jalal-ud-Din Ahsan was appointed governor of the newly created southern-most Ma'bar province of the Delhi sultanate by Muhammad bin Tughluq. In 1333 CE, Sayyid declared his independence and created Madurai Sultanate which was replaced by Vijayanagar Empire in 1378. Telugu kamma Nayak governors were appointed to rule Madurai. These Nayaks continued to govern Madurai until the arrival of British forces. [edit] Government and Society

[edit] Trade Megasthenes reported about the pearl fisheries of the Pandyas, indicating that the Pandyas derived great wealth from the pearl trade. [20][21] [edit] Religion Historical Madurai was a stronghold of Saivism. Following the invasion of Kalabhras, Jainism gained a foothold in the Pandyan kingdom. Jainism was something not new to the land of Pandyas as references to a jainist (and buddhist) past are found in ancient Tamil literature (see Civaka Cintamani). With the advent of Bhakti movements, Saivism and Vaishnavism resurfaced. The latter-day Pandyas after 600 AD were Hindus who claimed to descend from Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati. Pandyan Nedumchadayan was a staunch Vaishnavite.[22] [edit] Culture Middle kingdoms of India Timeline:

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Satavahana From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search

Northwestern Kingdoms

Satavahana Empire ← 230 BC–220 AD ↓

Territorial extent of the Satavahana Empire (continuous line), and conquests (dotted line). Capital Paithan, Junnar near Pune and Kotilingala near Godavari River at Karimnagar Language(s) Prakrit Maharashtri[1] Telugu[2] Religion Buddhism Vedic Government Monarchy King - 230-207 BC

Simuka

- 190s AD Madhariputra Svami Sakasena(?) Historical era Antiquity - Established 230 BC - Disestablished 220 AD Preceded by Succeeded by Mauryan Empire Kadamba Ikshvaku Western Satraps Chutu Pallava

The Sātavāhana Empire also known as Andhras[3][4] were a dynasty which ruled from Junnar (Pune), Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra and Kotilingala (Karimnagar) in Andhra Pradesh over Southern and Central India from around 230 BCE onward. Although there is some controversy about when the dynasty came to an end, the most liberal estimates suggest that it lasted about 450 years, until around 220 CE. The

Satavahanas are credited for establishing peace in the country, resisting the onslaught of foreigners after the decline of Mauryan empire. Contents [hide] • 1 Origins • 2 Early rulers o 2.1 Simuka (c.230-207 BCE) o 2.2 Satakarni (c.180-124 BCE) o 2.3 Kanva suzerainty (75-35 BCE) • 3 Victory over the Shakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas o 3.1 Gautamiputra Satakarni (78-106 CE) • 4 Successors o 4.1 Decline of the Satavahanas • 5 Coinage • 6 Cultural achievements o 6.1 Art of Amaravati o 6.2 Art of Sanchi • 7 List of rulers • 8 References • 9 See also • 10 External links [edit] Origins The first mention of the Satavahana is in the Aitareya Brahmana, dating back to the 8th century BCE mentioning them to be of Vishwamitra's lineage.In the Pūrānas and on their coins the dynasty is variously referred to as the Sātavāhanas, Sātakarnīs, Andhras and Andhrabhrityas. A reference to the Sātavāhanas by the Greek traveller Megasthenes indicates that they possessed 100,000 infantry, 1,000 elephants, and had more than 30 well built fortified towns: Next come the Andarae, a still more powerful race, which possesses numerous villages, and thirty towns defended by walls and towers, and which supplies its king with an army of 100,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry, and 1,000 elephants. —Plin. Hist. Nat. VI. 21. 8-23. 11., quoting Megasthenes[5] The Sātavāhanas ruled a large and powerful empire that withstood the onslaughts from Central Asia. Aside from their military power, their commercialism and naval activity is evidenced by establishment of Indian colonies in southeast Asia. The Edicts of Ashoka mention the Sātavāhanas as feudatories of Emperor Ashoka. Fragment of the 6th Pillar Edicts of Ashoka (238 BCE), in Brahmi, sandstone. British Museum. The Sātavāhanas began as feudatories to the Mauryan Empire. They seem to have been under the control of Emperor Ashoka, who claims they were in his domain, and that he introduced Buddhism among them: Here in the king's domain among the Yavanas (Greeks), the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dhamma. —Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika) The Satavahanas declared independence sometime after the death of Ashoka (232 BCE), as the Maurya Empire began to weaken. It is believed that they were Buddhistic Brahmins.[6] Some rulers like Maharaja Satakarni are believed to have performed Vedic sacrifices as well.[7] They were not only worshipers of The Buddha, but also other incarnations of Vishnu and Shiva, Gauri, Indra, the sun and moon.[8] They were mostly Buddhistic Vaishnavites. Under their reign, Buddha had been worshiped as a form of Vishnu in Amaravati[9] [edit] Early rulers The Satavahanas/ Andhras initially ruled in the area of Andhradesa, the Telugu

name for the people country between the rivers Krishna and Godavari[10], which was always their heartland. The Pūrānas list 30 Andhra rulers. Many are known from their coins and inscriptions as well. [edit] Simuka (c.230-207 BCE) After becoming independent around 230 BCE, Simuka, the founder of the dynasty, conquered Maharashtra, Malwa and part of Madhya Pradesh. He was succeeded by his brother Kanha (or Krishna) (r. 207-189 BCE), who further extended his kingdom to the west and the south. [edit] Satakarni (c.180-124 BCE) Early Satakarni issue, Maharashtra - Vidarbha type. Satavahana 1st century BCE coin inscribed in Brahmi: "(Sataka)Nisa". British Museum. His successor Sātakarnī I was the sixth ruler of the Satavahana. He is said in the Puranas to have ruled for 56 years. Satakarni defeated the Sunga dynasty of North India by wrestling Western Malwa from them, and performed several Vedic sacrifices at huge cost, including the Horse Sacrifice - Ashwamedha yajna. He also was in conflict with the Kalinga ruler Kharavela, who mentions him in the Hathigumpha inscription. According to the Yuga Purana he conquered Kalinga following the death of Kharavela. He extended Satavahana rule over Madhya Pradesh and pushed back the Sakas from Pataliputra (he is thought to be the Yuga Purana's "Shata", an abbreviation of the full name “Shri Sata” that occurs on coins from Ujjain), where he subsequently ruled for 10 years. By this time the dynasty was well established, with its capital at Pratishthānapura (Paithan) in Maharashtra, and its power spreading into all of South India. [edit] Kanva suzerainty (75-35 BCE) Many small rulers succeeded Satakarni, such as Lambodara, Apilaka, Meghasvati and Kuntala Satakarni, who are thought to have been under the suzerainty of the Kanva dynasty. The Puranas (the Matsya Purana, the Vayu Purana, the Brahmanda Purana, the Vishnu Purana) all state that the first of the Andhra kings rose to power in the 1st century BCE, by slaying Susarman, the last ruler of the Kanvas.[11] This feat is usually thought to have been accomplished by Pulomavi (c. 30-6 BCE), who then ruled over Pataliputra. [edit] Victory over the Shakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas The first century CE saw another incursion of the Sakas of Central Asia into India, where they formed the dynasty of the Western Kshatrapas. The four immediate successors of Hāla (r. 20-24 CE) had short reigns totalling about a dozen years. During the reign of the Western Satrap Nahapana, the Satavahanas lost a considerable territory to the satraps, including eastern Malwa, Southern Gujarat, and Northern Konkan, from Broach to Sopara and the Nasik and Poona districts.[12] [edit] Gautamiputra Satakarni (78-106 CE) Coin of Gautamiputra Satakarni. Obv: King in profile. Prakrit legend "Rano Gotamiputasa Siri Yana Satakarnisa": "In the reign of Gautamiputra Sri Yana Satakarni" Rev: Hill with Satavahana symbol, sun and moon. Dravidian legend "Arahanaku gotami putaku Hiru Yana Hatakanaku".[13] Eventually Gautamiputra (Sri Yagna) Sātakarni (also known as Shalivahan) (r. 78106 CE) defeated the Western Satrap ruler Nahapana, restoring the prestige of his dynasty by reconquering a large part of the former dominions of the Sātavāhanas. He was an ardent supporter of Hinduism. According to the Nasik inscription made by his mother Gautami Balasri, he is the one...

...who crushed down the pride and conceit of the Kshatriyas (the native Indian princes, the Rajputs of Rajputana, Gujarat and Central India); who destroyed the Shakas (Western Kshatrapas), Yavanas (Indo-Greeks) and Pahlavas (IndoParthians),... who rooted the Khakharata family (The Kshaharata family of Nahapana); who restored the glory of the Satavahana race[14] Gautamiputra Satakarni may also have defeated Shaka king Vikramaditya in 78 AD and started the calendar known as Shalivahana era or Shaka era, which is followed by the Marathi and Telugu people. Gautamiputra Sātakarni's son, Vashishtiputra Pulumāyi (r. 106-130 CE), succeeded him. Gautamiputra was the first Sātavāhana king to issue the portrait-type coinage, in a style derived from the Western Satraps.[15] [edit] Successors Silver coin of king Vashishtiputra Sātakarni (c. 160 CE). Obv: Bust of king. Prakrit legend in the Brahmi script: "Siri Satakanisa Rano ... Vasithiputasa": "King Vasishtiputra Sri Satakarni" Rev: Ujjain/Sātavāhana symbol left. Crescented six-arch chaitya hill right. River below. Dravidian legend in the Brahmi script: "Arahanaku Vahitti makanaku Tiru Hatakaniko" - rendered as classical Tamil to "The ruler, Vasitti's son, Highness Satakani" - -ko being the royal name suffix Gautamiputra's brother, Vashishtiputra Sātakarni, married the daughter of Rudradaman I of the Western Satraps dynasty. Around 150 CE, Rudradaman I, now his father-in-law, waged war against the Satavahanas, who were defeated twice in these conflicts. Vashishtiputra Satakarni was only spared his life because of his family links with Rudradaman:[16] "Rudradaman (...) who obtained good report because he, in spite of having twice in fair fight completely defeated Satakarni, the lord of Dakshinapatha, on account of the nearness of their connection did not destroy him." —Junagadh rock inscription [17] As a result of his victories, Rudradaman regained all the former territories previously held by Nahapana, except for the extreme south territories of Poona and Nasik.[18] Satavahana dominions were limited to their original base in the Deccan and eastern central India around Amaravati. However, the last great king of this dynasty, Yajna Satakarni, defeated the Western Satraps and reconquered their southern regions in western and central India. [19] During the reign of Sri Yajna Sātakarni (170-199 CE) the Sātavāhanas regained some prosperity, and some of his coins have been found in Surashtra[20] but around the middle of the third century, the dynasty came to an end. [edit] Decline of the Satavahanas Coin of Gautamiputra Yajna Satakarni (r. 167-196 CE). Four or five kings of Yajna Satakarni's line succeeded him, and continued to rule till about the mid 200s CE. However, the dynasty was soon extinguished following the rise of its feudatories, perhaps on account of a decline in central power.[21] Several dynasties divided the lands of the kingdom among themselves. Among them were: • Western Satraps in the northwestern part of the kingdom. • Andhra Ikshvakus (or Srīparvatiyas) in the Krishna-Guntur region. (r. 220320 CE). • Abhiras in the western part of the kingdom. They were ultimately to succeed the Sātavāhanas in their capital Pratishthānapura. • Chutus of Banavasi in North Karnataka. • Kadambas of Banavasi in North Karnataka. • Pallavas of Kanchipuram, of whom the first ruler was Simhavarman I (r. 275300 CE). [edit] Coinage

Royal earrings, Andhra Pradesh, 1st Century BCE. The Satavahanas are the first native Indian rulers to issue their own coins with portraits of their rulers, starting with king Gautamiputra Satakarni, a practice derived from that of the Western Satraps he defeated, itself originating with the Indo-Greek kings to the northwest. Satavahana coins give unique indications as to their chronology, language, and even facial features (curly hair, long ears and strong lips). They issued mainly lead and copper coins; their portrait-style silver coins were usually struck over coins of the Western Kshatrapa kings. The coin legends of the Satavahanas, in all areas and all periods, used a Prakrit dialect without exception. Some reverse coin legends are in a Dravidian language in Telugu or Tamil[22] , which seems to have been in use in their heartland abutting the godavari,probably Kotilingala, Karimnagar district and Krishna, probably Amaravati, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh.[23] Their coins also display various traditional symbols, such as elephants, lions, horses and chaityas (stupas), as well as the "Ujjain symbol", a cross with four circles at the end. The legendary Ujjayini emperor Vikramditiya on whose name the Vikram Samvat is initiated might be Satakarni II a Satavahana emperor as the Ujjayini symbol also appeared on the Satavahana coins. [edit] Cultural achievements An aniconic representation of Mara's assault on the Buddha, 2nd century CE, Amaravati. Of the Sātavāhana kings, Hāla (r. 20-24 CE) is famous for compiling the collection of Maharashtri poems known as the Gaha Sattasai (Sanskrit: Gāthā Saptashatī), although from linguistic evidence it seems that the work now extant must have been re-edited in the succeeding century or two. The Lilavati describes his marriage with a Ceylonese Princess. The Satavahanas influenced South-East Asia to a great extent, spreading Hindu culture, language and religion into that part of the world. Their coins had images of ships. [edit] Art of Amaravati Scroll supported by Indian Yaksha, Amaravati, 2nd-3rd century CE. The Sātavāhana kings are also remarkable for their contributions to Buddhist art and architecture. They built great stupas in the Krishna River Valley, including the stupa at Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh. The stupas were decorated in marble slabs and sculpted with scenes from the life of the Buddha, portrayed in a characteristic slim and elegant style. The Satavahana empire colonized southeast Asia and spread Indian culture to those parts. Mahayana Buddhism, which may have originated in Andhra (northwestern India being the alternative candidate), was carried to many parts of Asia by the rich maritime culture of the Satavahanas. The Amaravati style of sculpture spread to Southeast Asia at this time. [edit] Art of Sanchi The Satavahanas contributed greatly to the embellishment of the Buddhist stupa of Sanchi. The gateways and the balustrade were built after 70 BCE, and appear to have been commissioned by them. An inscription records the gift of one of the top architraves of the Southern Gateway by the artisans of the Satavahana king Satakarni: Gift of Ananda, the son of Vasithi, the foreman of the artisans of rajan Siri Satakarni[24] Throughout, the Buddhist art of the Satavahanas remained aniconic, denying any human representation of the Buddha, even in highly descriptive scenes. This remained true until the end of the Satavahana rule, in the 2nd century CE.

[edit] List of rulers Puranic list of Andhra/ Satavahana kings (Source: "A Catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. Andhras etc...", Rapson). This list, the most complete one with 30 kings, is based on the Matsya Purana. • Simuka or Sisuka (r. 230-207 BCE). Also (271-248 BCE), ruled 23 years. • Krishna (r. 207-189 BCE), ruled 18 years. • Sri Mallakarni (or Sri Satakarni), ruled 10 years. • Purnotsanga, ruled 18 years • Skandhastambhi, ruled 18 years • Sātakarnī I (195 BCE), ruled 56 years • Lambodara, ruled 18 years.(r. 87-67 BCE) Probably as vassals of Kanva dynasty (75-35 BCE): • Apilaka, ruled 12 years. • Meghasvati (or Saudasa), ruled 18 years. • Svati (or Svami), ruled 18 years. • Skandasvati, ruled 7 years. • Mahendra Satakarni (or Mrgendra Svatikarna, Satakarni II), ruled 8 years. • Kuntala Satakarni (or Kuntala Svatikarna), ruled 8 years. • Svatikarna, ruled 1 year. • Pulomavi (or Patumavi), ruled 36 years. • Riktavarna (or Aristakarman), ruled 25 years. • Hāla (r. 20-24 CE), author of the Gathasaptasati, an Indian literature classic, ruled 5 years. • Mandalaka (or Bhavaka, Puttalaka), ruled 5 years. • Purindrasena, ruled 5 years. • Sundara Satakarni, ruled 1 year. • Cakora Satakarni (or Cakora Svatikarna), ruled 6 months. • Sivasvati, ruled 28 years. • Gautamiputra Sātakarni, or Gautamiputra, popularly known as Shalivahan (r. 25-78 CE), ruled 21 years. • Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi, or Puloma, Puliman (r. 78-114 CE), ruled 28 years. • Vashishtiputra Sātakarni (r. 130-160), or Shiva Sri, Sivasri, ruled 7 years. • Shivaskanda Satakarni, (157-159), ruled 7 years. • Yajna Sri Satakarni, (r. 167-196 CE), ruled 29 years. • Vijaya, ruled 6 years. • Canda Sri Satakarni, ruled 10 years. • Puloma, 7 years. • Madhariputra Svami Sakasena? (r. c.190) [edit] References General • Sastri, Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta (1976). A History of South India. Madras: Oxford University Press. • Rapson, E. J. (1990). A Catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. Coins of Andhra Dynasty, the Western Ksatrapas etc.. Patna. • Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (2003). Ancient India. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Notes 1. ^ ""Marathi History, Bhasha India, Microsoft". http://bhashaindia.com/Patrons/LanguageTech/Marathi.aspx. Retrieved on 2009-06-27. 2. ^ ""Telugu History,Bhasha India Microsoft". http://bhashaindia.com/Patrons/LanguageTech/TeluguFeatures.aspx. Retrieved on 2009-06-27. 3. ^ http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577583/Andhra_Dynasty.html 4. ^ http://www.hindu.com/2007/09/05/stories/2007090559120400.htm 5. ^ Source:fragment LVI. 6. ^ HISTORY – ANCIENT PERIOD "CHAPTER 2: SATAVAHANA EMPIRE AND ITS

FEUDATORIES*" 7. ^ HISTORY – ANCIENT PERIOD "CHAPTER 2: SATAVAHANA EMPIRE AND ITS FEUDATORIES*" 8. ^ Mahajan, P. 400 Ancient India 9. ^ G. Durga Prasad, History of the Andhras upto 1565 A. D., P.G. Publishers, Guntur, p. 116 10. ^ Ancient India: English translation of 'Kitab-ul Hind' by Al-Biruni, National Book Trust, New Delhi 11. ^ (Rapson, LXIV) 12. ^ "The Satavahanas did not hold the western Deccan for long. They were gradually pushed out of the west by the Sakas (Western Khatrapas). The Kshaharata Nahapana's coins in the Nasik area indicate that the Western Kshatrapas controlled this region by the first century CE. By becoming master of wide regions including Malwa, Southern Gujarat, and Northern Konkan, from Broach to Sopara and the Nasik and Poona districts, Nahapana rose from the status of a mere Kshatrapa in the year 41 (58 CE) to that of Mahakshatrapa in the year 46 (63 CE)." in "History of the Andhras" 13. ^ Source for coin information 14. ^ (Rapson, XXXVII) Original Prakrit, line 5 and 6 of the inscription: "Khatiya-dapa-mana-madanasa Saka-Yavana-Palhava-nisudanasa — Khakharatavamsaniravasesa-karasa Satavahana-kula-yasa patithapana-karasa" 15. ^ (Rapson) 16. ^ "Satakarni, Lord of the Deccan, [whom Rudradaman] (inscription dated Saka 72=150 CE) twice in a fair fight was completely defeated, but did not destroy on account of the nearness of their connection" (Rapson, XXXVIII, quoting the Junagadh inscription) 17. ^ "Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman". http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/JunagadhRoc kInscription.htm. 18. ^ (Rapson) 19. ^ "later Satavahana named Yajna Satakarni seems to have conquered the Southern Dominions of the Western Satraps. His coins contain figures of ships, probably indicating the naval power of the Andras. He not only ruled Aparanta, but probably also the eastern part of the Central Provinces" (Majumdar, p. 135) 20. ^ (Rapson, CLXXXVI) 21. ^ ""The different branches of the Satavahana family, which ruled in different parts of the kingdom after the decline in central authority, weres soon ousted by new powers some of which were probably feudatories at the outset." (Majumdar) 22. ^ Pollock, Sheldon (2003). The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India. University of California Press. ISBN 0-5202-4500-8. p. 291 23. ^ (Rapson, CLXXXVII) 24. ^ Original text "L1: Rano Siri Satakarnisa L2: avesanisa vasithiputasa L3: Anamdasa danam", Marshall, John. A guide to Sanchi. p. 52 Indo-Greeks From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Indo-Greek Kingdom) Jump to: navigation, search Indo-Greek Kingdom ← 180 BC–10 →

Indo-Greek Kingdoms in 100 BC. Capital Alexandria in the Caucasus

Sirkap/Taxila Sagala/Sialkot Pushkalavati/Peucela Language(s) Greek (Greek alphabet) Pali (Kharoshthi script) Sanskrit, Prakrit (Brahmi script) Possibly Aramaic Religion Buddhism Ancient Greek religion Hinduism Zoroastrianism Government Monarchy King - 180-160 BC

Apollodotus I

- 25 BC-10 Strato II Historical era

Antiquity

- Established 180 BC - Disestablished 10 Indo-Greek Kingdom Ancient sources History Religion Art Legacy The Indo-Greek Kingdom (or sometimes Graeco-Indian Kingdom[1]) covered various parts of the northwest and northern Indian subcontinent during the last two centuries BC, and was ruled by more than 30 Hellenistic kings,[2] often in conflict with each other. The kingdom was founded when the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius invaded India early in the second century BC; in this context the boundary of "India" is the Hindu Kush. The Greeks in India were eventually divided from the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom centered in Bactria (now the border between Afghanistan and Uzbekistan). The expression "Indo-Greek Kingdom" loosely describes a number of various dynastic polities. There were numerous cities, such as Taxila[3] Pakistan's Punjab, or Pushkalavati and Sagala.[4] These cities would house a number of dynasties in their times, and based on Ptolemy's Geographia and the nomenclature of later kings, a certain Theophila in the south was also probably a satrapal or royal seat at some point. During the two centuries of their rule, the Indo-Greek kings combined the Greek and Indian languages and symbols, as seen on their coins, and blended ancient Greek, Hindu and Buddhist religious practices, as seen in the archaeological

remains of their cities and in the indications of their support of Buddhism, pointing to a rich fusion of Indian and Hellenistic influences.[5] The diffusion of Indo-Greek culture had consequences which are still felt today, particularly through the influence of Greco-Buddhist art. The Indo-Greeks ultimately disappeared as a political entity around 10 AD following the invasions of the Indo-Scythians, although pockets of Greek populations probably remained for several centuries longer under the subsequent rule of the Indo-Parthians and Kushans.[6] Contents [hide] • 1 Background o 1.1 Preliminary Greek presence in India o 1.2 Greek rule in Bactria o 1.3 Rise of the Sungas (185 BC) • 2 History of the Indo-Greek kingdom o 2.1 Nature and quality of the sources o 2.2 Demetrius 2.2.1 After Demetrius I 2.2.2 The first conquests o 2.3 Consolidation 2.3.1 The fall of Bactria and death of Menander o 2.4 Later History 2.4.1 Loss of Mathura and eastern territories (circa 100 BC) 2.4.2 Scythian invasions (80 BC-20 AD) 2.4.3 Western Yuezhi or Saka expansion (70 BC-) • 3 Ideology • 4 Religion • 5 Art • 6 Economy o 6.1 Tribute payments o 6.2 Trade with China o 6.3 Indian Ocean trade • 7 Armed forces o 7.1 Military technology o 7.2 Size of Indo-Greek armies • 8 Legacy of the Indo-Greeks • 9 List of the Indo-Greek kings and their territories • 10 Footnotes • 11 References • 12 See also • 13 External links [edit] Background [edit] Preliminary Greek presence in India In 326 BC Alexander the Great conquered the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent as far as the Hyphasis River, and established satrapies as well as several cities, such as Bucephala, until his troops refused to go further east.[7] The Indian satrapies of the Punjab were left to the rule of Porus and Taxiles, who were confirmed again at the Treaty of Triparadisus in 321 BC, and remaining Greek troops in these satrapies were left under the command of general Eudemus. Sometime after 321 Eudemus toppled Taxiles, until he left India in 316 BC. Another general also ruled over the Greek colonies of the Indus: Peithon, son of Agenor,[8] until his departure for Babylon in 316 BC. In 305 BC, Seleucus I led an army to the Indus, where he encountered Chandragupta. The confrontation ended with a peace treaty, and "an intermarriage agreement" (Epigamia, Greek: Επιγαμια), meaning either a dynastic marriage or an agreement for intermarriage between Indians and Greeks. Accordingly, Seleucus ceded to Chandragupta his northwestern territories, possibly as far as Arachosia and

received 500 war elephants (which played a key role in the victory of Seleucus at the Battle of Ipsus):[9] "The Indians occupy in part some of the countries situated along the Indus, which formerly belonged to the Persians: Alexander deprived the Ariani of them, and established there settlements of his own. But Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus in consequence of a marriage contract, and received in return five hundred elephants." —Strabo 15.2.1(9)[10] Also several Greeks, such as the historian Megasthenes,[11] followed by Deimachus and Dionysius, were sent to reside at the Mauryan court.[12] Presents continued to be exchanged between the two rulers.[13] The intensity of these contacts is testified by the existence of a dedicated Mauryan state department for Greek (Yavana) and Persian foreigners,[14] or the remains of Hellenistic pottery that can be found throughout northern India.[15] Bilingual edict (Greek and Aramaic) by king Ashoka, from Kandahar. Kabul Museum (click image for translation).[16] On these occasions, Greek populations apparently remained in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Mauryan rule. Chandragupta's grandson Ashoka, who had converted to the Buddhist faith declared in the Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, some of them written in Greek,[17][18] that Greek populations within his realm also had converted to Buddhism:[19] "Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma." —Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika). In his edicts, Ashoka claims he sent Buddhist emissaries to Greek rulers as far as the Mediterranean (Edict No. 13),[20][21] and that he developed herbal medicine in their territories, for the welfare of humans and animals (Edict No. 2).[22] The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka such as Dharmaraksita,[23] or the teacher Mahadharmaraksita,[24] are described in Pali sources as leading Greek ("Yona") Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (the Mahavamsa, XII).[25] It is also thought that Greeks contributed to the sculptural work of the Pillars of Ashoka,[26] and more generally to the blossoming of Mauryan art.[27] Again in 206 BC, the Seleucid emperor Antiochus led an army into India, where he received war elephants and presents from the king Sophagasenus:[28] "He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus (Hindu Kush) and descended into India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him." —Polybius 11.39[29] [edit] Greek rule in Bactria Greco-Bactrian statue of an old man or philosopher, Ai Khanoum, Bactria, 2nd century BC Main article: Greco-Bactrian Kingdom Alexander had also established several colonies in neighbouring Bactria, such as Alexandria on the Oxus (modern Ai-Khanoum) and Alexandria of the Caucasus (medieval Kapisa, modern Bagram). After Alexander's death in 323 BC, Bactria became a Satrapy of the Seleucid Empire. In 250 BC the Satrap Diodotus of Bactria rebelled against the Seleucids and proclaimed himself King of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. According to Ranajit Pal[2] he was the same as the great Ashoka. Diodotus' son was overthrown by Euthydemus I in 230 BC, who founded the Euthydemid

Dynasty. The Greco-Bactrians maintained a strong Hellenistic culture at the door of India during the rule of the Mauryan empire in India, as exemplified by the archaeological site of Ai-Khanoum.[30][31] The Greeks in Bactria (Greco-Bactrians) remained in close contact with the Greeks in the Mauryan Empire.[32] When the Mauryan empire was overthrown by the Sunga Dynasty around 185 BC, an army led by King Demetrius I of Bactria invaded India and seized the lands of the Kabul Valley. [edit] Rise of the Sungas (185 BC) Main article: Sunga Empire In India, the Maurya Dynasty was overthrown around 185 BC when Pusyamitra Sunga, the commander-in-chief of Mauryan Imperial forces and a Brahmin, assassinated the last of the Mauryan emperors Brhadrata.[33][34] Pusyamitra Sunga then ascended the throne and established the Sunga Empire, which extended its control as far west as the Punjab. Buddhist sources, such as the Asokavadana, mention that Pusyamitra was hostile towards Buddhists and allegedly persecuted the Buddhist faith. A large number of Buddhist monasteries (viharas) were allegedly converted to Hindu temples, in such places as Nalanda, Bodhgaya, Sarnath or Mathura. While it is established by secular sources that Hinduism and Buddhism were in competition during this time, with the Sungas preferring the former to the latter, historians such as Etienne Lamotte[35] and Romila Thapar[36] argue that Buddhist accounts of persecution of Buddhists by Sungas are largely exaggerated. [edit] History of the Indo-Greek kingdom Main article: History of the Indo-Greek Kingdom [edit] Nature and quality of the sources Main article: Indo-Greeks (sources) Some narrative history has survived for most of the Hellenistic world, at least of the kings and the wars;[37] this is lacking for India. The main Greco-Roman source on the Indo-Greeks is Justin, who wrote an anthology drawn from the Roman historian Pompeius Trogus, who in turn wrote, from Greek sources, at the time of Augustus Caesar.[38] Justin tells the parts of Trogus' history he finds particularly interesting at some length; he connects them by short and simplified summaries of the rest of the material. In the process he has left 85% to 90% of Trogus out; and his summaries are held together by phrases like "meanwhile" (eodem tempore) and "thereafter" (deinde), which he uses very loosely. Where Justin covers periods for which there are other and better sources, he has occasionally made provable mistakes. As Develin, the recent annotator of Justin, and Tarn both point out, Justin is not trying to write history in our sense of the word; he is collecting instructive moral anecdotes.[39] Justin does find the customs and growth of the Parthians, which were covered in Trogus' 41st book, quite interesting, and discusses them at length; in the process, he mentions four of the kings of Bactria and one Greek king of India.[40] Menander I (155-130 BC) is one of the few Indo-Greek kings mentioned in both Graeco-Roman and Indian sources. In addition to these dozen sentences, the geographer Strabo mentions India a few times in the course of his long dispute with Eratosthenes about the shape of Eurasia. Most of these are purely geographical claims, but he does mention that Eratosthenes' sources say that some of the Greek kings conquered further than Alexander; Strabo does not believe them on this, but modern historians do; nor does he believe that Menander and Demetrius son of Euthydemus conquered more tribes than Alexander[41] There is half a story about Menander in one of the books of Polybius which has not come down to us intact.[42] There are Indian literary sources, ranging from the Milinda Panha, a dialogue between a Buddhist sage Nagasena and King Menander I, which includes some incidental information on Menander's biography and the geography and institutions of his kingdom, down to a sentence about Menander (presumably the same Menander)

and his attack on Pataliputra which happens to have survived as a standard example in grammar texts; none is a narrative history. Names in these sources are consistently Indianized, and there is some dispute whether, for example, Dharmamitra represents "Demetrius" or is an Indian prince with that name. There was also a Chinese expedition to Bactria by Chang-k'ien under the Emperor Wu of Han, recorded in the Records of the Grand Historian and Book of the Former Han, with additional evidence in the Book of the Later Han; the identification of places and peoples behind transcriptions into Chinese is difficult, and several alternate interpretations have been proposed.[43] There is also significant archaeological evidence, including some epigraphic evidence, for the Indo-Greek kings, such as the mention of the "Yavana" embassy of king Antialcidas on the Heliodorus pillar in Vidisha,[44] primarily in Indic languages, which has the same problems with names as the Indic literary evidence. But the chief archaeological evidence is the coins. There are coin finds of several dozen Indo-Greek rulers in India; exactly how many is complicated to determine, because the Greeks did not number their kings, and the eastern Greeks did not date their coins. For example, there are a substantial number of coin finds for a King Demetrius, but authors have postulated one, two, or three Demetrii, and the same coins have been identified by different enquirers as describing Demetrius I, Demetrius II, or Demetrius III.[45] The following deductions have been made from coins, in addition to mere existence: • Kings who left many coins reigned long and prosperously. • Hoards which contain many coins of the same king come from his realm. • Kings who use the same iconography are friendly, and may well be from the same family, • If a king overstrikes another king's coins, this is an important evidence to show that the overstriker reigned after the overstruck. Overstrikes may indicate that the two kings were enemies. • Indo-Greek coins, like other Hellenistic coins, have monograms in addition to their inscriptions. These are generally held to indicate a mint official; therefore, if two kings issue coins with the same monogram, they reigned in the same area, and if not immediately following one another, have no long interval between them. All of these arguments are arguments of probability, and have exceptions; one of Menander's coins was found in Wales. The exact time and progression of the Bactrian expansion into India is difficult to ascertain, but ancient authors name Demetrius, Apollodotus, and Menander as conquerors.[46] [edit] Demetrius The founder of the Indo-Greek Kingdom Demetrius I (c. 205– c.170 BC), wearing the scalp of an elephant, symbol of his conquests in India.[47] Demetrius I was the son of Euthydemus I of Bactria; there is an inscription from his father's reign already officially hailing him as victorious. He also has one of the few absolute dates in Indo-Greek history: after his father held off Antiochus III for two years, 208-6 BC, the peace treaty included the offer of a marriage between Demetrius and Antiochus' daughter.[48] Coins of Demetrius I have been found in Arachosia and in the Kabul Valley; the latter would be the first entry of the Greeks into India, as they defined it. There is also literary evidence for a campaign eastward against the Seres and the Phryni; but the order and dating of these conquests is uncertain.[49] Demetrius I seems to have conquered the Kabul valley, Arachosia and perhaps Gandhara;[50] he struck no Indian coins, so either his conquests did not penetrate that far into India or he died before he could consolidate them. On his coins, Demetrius I always carries the elephant-helmet worn by Alexander, which seems to be a token of his Indian conquests.[51] Bopearachchi believes that Demetrius received the title of "King of India" following his victories south of the Hindu Kush.[52] He was also given,

though perhaps only posthumously, the title ανικητος ("Anicetos", lit. Invincible) a cult title of Heracles, which Alexander had assumed; the later Indo-Greek kings Lysias, Philoxenus, and Artemidorus also took it.[53] Finally, Demetrius may have been the founder of a newly discovered Greek Era, starting in 186/5 BC.[54] [edit] After Demetrius I Indo-Greek territory, with known campaigns and battles.[55][56][57] After the death of Demetrius, the Bactrian kings Pantaleon and Agathocles struck the first bilingual coins with Indian inscriptions found as far east as Taxila[58] so in their time (c. 185-170 BC) the Bactrian kingdom seems to have included Gandhara.[59] Several Bactrian kings followed after Demetrius' death, and it seems likely that the civil wars between them made it possible for Apollodotus I (from c. 180/175 BC) to make himself independent as the first proper Indo-Greek king (who did not rule from Bactria). Large numbers of his coins have been found in India, and he seems to have reigned in Gandhara as well as western Punjab. Apollodotus I was succeeded by or ruled alongside Antimachus II, likely the son of the Bactrian king Antimachus I.[60] The next important Indo-Greek king was Menander (from c. 165/155 BC) whose coins are frequently found even in eastern Punjab. Menander seems to have begun a second wave of conquests, and since he already ruled in India, it seems likely that the easternmost conquests were made by him.[61] According to Apollodorus of Artemita, quoted by Strabo, the Indo-Greek territory for a while included the Indian coastal provinces of Sindh and possibly Gujarat.[62] With archaeological methods, the Indo-Greek territory can however only be confirmed from the Kabul Valley to the eastern Punjab, so Greek presence outside was probably short-lived or less significant. Western and Indian sources also indicate that the Indo-Greeks may have captured the Sunga capital Pataliputra in northeastern India, but if this was the case, they did not hold it for long but were forced to retreat, probably due to wars in their own territories.[63] Menander's reign saw the end of the Indo-Greek expansion. An Indo-Greek stone palette showing Poseidon with attendants. He wears a chiton tunic, a chlamys cape, and boots. 2nd-1st century BC, Gandhara, Ancient Orient Museum. [edit] The first conquests Greek presence in Arachosia, where Greek populations had been living since before the acquisition of the territory by Chandragupta from Seleucus is mentioned by Isidore of Charax. He describes Greek cities there, one of them called Demetrias, probably in honour of the conqueror Demetrius.[64] Apollodotus I (and Menander I) were mentioned by Pompejus Trogus as important Indo-Greek kings.[65] It is theorized that Greek advances temporarily went as far as the Sunga capital Pataliputra (today Patna) in eastern India. Senior considers that these conquests can only refer to Menander:[66] Against this, John Mitchener considers that the Greeks probably raided the Indian capital of Pataliputra during the time of Demetrius,[67] though Mitchener's analysis is not based on numismatic evidence. "Of the eastern parts of India, then, there have become known to us all those parts which lie this side of the Hypanis, and also any parts beyond the Hypanis of which an account has been added by those who, after Alexander, advanced beyond the Hypanis, to the Ganges and Pataliputra." —Strabo, 15-1-27[68] The seriousness of the attack is in some doubt: Menander may merely have joined a raid led by Indian Kings down the Ganga,[69] as Indo-Greek presence has not been confirmed this far east. To the south, the Greeks may have occupied the areas of the Sindh and Gujarat,

including the strategic harbour of Barygaza (Bharuch),[70] conquests also attested by coins dating from the Indo-Greek ruler Apollodotus I and by several ancient writers (Strabo 11; Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chap. 41/47):[71] "The Greeks... took possession, not only of Patalena, but also, on the rest of the coast, of what is called the kingdom of Saraostus and Sigerdis." —Strabo 11.11.1[72] Menander I became the most important of the Indo-Greek rulers.[73] Narain however dismisses the account of the Periplus as "just a sailor's story", and holds that coin finds are not necessarily indicators of occupation.[74] Coin hoards suggest that in Central India, the area of Malwa may also have been conquered.[75] Various Indian records describe Yavana attacks on Mathura, Panchala, Saketa, and Pataliputra. The term Yavana is thought to be a transliteration of "Ionians" and is known to have designated Hellenistic Greeks (starting with the Edicts of Ashoka, where Ashoka writes about "the Yavana king Antiochus"),[76] but may have sometimes referred to other foreigners as well after the 1st century AD.[77] Patanjali, a grammarian and commentator on Panini around 150 BC, describes in the Mahābhāsya, the invasion in two examples using the imperfect tense of Sanskrit, denoting a recent event:[78][79] • "Arunad Yavanah Sāketam" ("The Yavanas (Greeks) were besieging Saketa") • "Arunad Yavano Madhyamikām" ("The Yavanas were besieging Madhyamika" (the "Middle country")). Also the Brahmanical text of the Yuga Purana, which describes Indian historical events in the form of a prophecy, but is thought to be likely historical,[80][81][82] relates the attack of the Indo-Greeks on the capital Pataliputra,[83] a magnificent fortified city with 570 towers and 64 gates according to Megasthenes,[84] and describes the ultimate destruction of the city's walls:[85] "Then, after having approached Saketa together with the Panchalas and the Mathuras, the Yavanas, valiant in battle, will reach Kusumadhvaja ("The town of the flower-standard", Pataliputra). Then, once Puspapura (another name of Pataliputra) has been reached and its celebrated mud-walls cast down, all the realm will be in disorder." —Yuga Purana, Paragraph 47–48, quoted in Mitchener, The Yuga Purana, 2002 edition Earlier authors such as Tarn have suggested that the raid on Pataliputra was made by Demetrius.[86] According to Mitchener, the Hathigumpha inscription indicates the presence of the Greeks led by a "Demetrius" in eastern India (Magadha) sometime during the 1st century BC,[87] although this interpretation was previously disputed by Narain.[88] But while this inscription may be interpreted as an indication that Demetrius I was the king who made conquests in Punjab, it is still true that he never issued any Indian coins, and the restoration of his name in Kharosthi on the Hathigumpha inscription: Di-Mi-Ta, has been doubted.[89] The "Di" is a reconstruction, and it may be noted that the name of another Indo-Greek king, Amyntas, is spelt A-Mi-Ta in Kharosthi and may fit in. Therefore, Menander remains the likeliest candidate for any advance east of Punjab. [edit] Consolidation Eucratides I toppled the Greco-Bactrian Euthydemid dynasty, and attacked the IndoGreeks from the west. The important Bactrian king Eucratides seems to have attacked the Indo-Greek kingdom during the mid 2nd century BC. A Demetrius, called "King of the Indians", seems to have confronted Eucratides in a four month siege, reported by Justin, but he ultimately lost.[90] In any case, Eucratides seems to have occupied territory as far as the Indus,

between ca. 170 BC and 150 BC.[91] His advances were ultimately checked by the Indo-Greek king Menander I,[92] Menander is considered to have been probably the most successful Indo-Greek king, and the conqueror of the largest territory.[93] The finds of his coins are the most numerous and the most widespread of all the Indo-Greek kings. Menander is also remembered in Buddhist literature, where he called Milinda, and is described in the Milinda Panha as a convert to Buddhism:[94] he became an arhat[95] whose relics were enshrined in a manner reminiscent of the Buddha.[96][97] He also introduced a new coin type, with Athena Alkidemos ("Protector of the people") on the reverse, which was adopted by most of his successors in the East.[98] [edit] The fall of Bactria and death of Menander From the mid-2nd century BC, the Scythians and then the Yuezhi, following a long migration from the border of China, started to invade Bactria from the north.[99] Around 130 BC the last Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles was probably killed during the invasion and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom proper ceased to exist. The Parthians also probably played a role in the downfall of the Bactrian kingdom. Coin of Philoxenus (c.100 BC), unarmed, making a blessing gesture with the right hand. The Indo-Greek states, shielded by the Hindu Kush range, were saved from the invasions, but the civil wars which had weakened the Greeks continued. Menander I, died around the same time, and even though the king himself seems to have been popular among his subjects, his dynasty was at least partially dethroned (see discussion under Menander I). Probable members of the dynasty of Menander include the ruling queen Agathokleia, her son Strato I, and Nicias, though it is uncertain whether they ruled directly after Menander.[100] Other kings emerged, usually in the western part of the Indo-Greek realm, such as Zoilos I, Lysias, Antialcidas and Philoxenos.[101] These rulers may have been relatives of either the Eucratid or the Euthydemid dynasties. The names of later kings were often new (members of Hellenistic dynasties usually inherited family names) but old reverses and titles were frequently repeated by the later rulers. While all Indo-Greek kings after Apollodotus I mainly issued bilingual (Greek and Kharoshti) coins for circulation in their own territories, several of them also struck rare Greek coins which have been found in Bactria. The later kings probably struck these coins as some kind of payment to the Scythian or Yuezhi tribes who now ruled there, though if as tribute or payment for mercenaries remains unknown.[102] For some decades after the Bactrian invasion, relationships seem to have been peaceful between the Indo-Greeks and these relatively hellenised nomad tribes. There are however no historical recordings of events in the Indo-Greek kingdom after Menander's death around 130 BC, since the Indo-Greeks had now become very isolated from the rest of the Graeco-Roman world. The later history of the IndoGreek states, which lasted to around the shift BC/AD, is reconstructed almost entirely from archaeological and numismatical analyses.[103] [edit] Later History Throughout the 1st century BC, the Indo-Greeks progressively lost ground to the Indians in the east, and the Scythians, the Yuezhi, and the Parthians in the West. About 20 Indo-Greek king are known during this period,[104] down to the last known Indo-Greek ruler, a king named Strato II, who ruled in the Punjab region until around 55 BC.[105] Other sources, however, place the end of Strato II's reign as late as 10 AD - see below in the list of coins. [edit] Loss of Mathura and eastern territories (circa 100 BC) Coin of the Yaudheyas. The Indo-Greeks may have ruled as far as the area of Mathura until sometime in the 1st century BC: the Maghera inscription, from a village near Mathura, records the

dedication of a well "in the one hundred and sixteenth year of the reign of the Yavanas", which could be as late as 70 BC.[106] Soon however Indian kings recovered the area of Mathura and south-eastern Punjab, west of the Yamuna River, and started to mint their own coins. The Arjunayanas (area of Mathura) and Yaudheyas mention military victories on their coins ("Victory of the Arjunayanas", "Victory of the Yaudheyas"). During the 1st century BC, the Trigartas, Audumbaras[107] and finally the Kunindas[108] also started to mint their own coins, usually in a style highly reminiscent of Indo-Greek coinage.[109][110][111][112] The Western king Philoxenus briefly occupied the whole remaining Greek territory from the Paropamisadae to Western Punjab between 100 to 95 BC, after what the territories fragmented again. The western kings regained their territory as far west as Arachosia, and eastern kings continued to rule on and off until the beginning of our era. [edit] Scythian invasions (80 BC-20 AD) Main article: Indo-Scythians Asia in 1 AD, showing last kingdom of the Indo-Greeks. Tetradrachm of Hippostratos, reigned circa 65-55 BC. Silver coin of the Indo-Scythian king Azes II (r.c. 35-12 BC). Around 80 BC, an Indo-Scythian king named Maues, possibly a general in the service of the Indo-Greeks, ruled for a few years in northwestern India before the IndoGreeks again took control. He seems to have been married to an Indo-Greek princess.[113] King Hippostratos (65-55 BC) seems to have been one of the most successful subsequent Indo-Greek kings until he lost to the Indo-Scythian Azes I, who established an Indo-Scythian dynasty.[114] Various coins seem to suggest that some sort of alliance may have taken place between the Indo-Greeks and the Scythians.[115] Although the Indo-Scythians clearly ruled militarily and politically, they remained surprisingly respectful of Greek and Indian cultures. Their coins were minted in Greek mints, continued using proper Greek and Kharoshthi legends, and incorporated depictions of Greek deities, particularly Zeus.[116] The Mathura lion capital inscription attests that they adopted the Buddhist faith, as do the depictions of deities forming the vitarka mudra on their coins. Greek communities, far from being exterminated, probably persisted under Indo-Scythian rule. There is a possibility that a fusion, rather than a confrontation, occurred between the Greeks and the Indo-Scythians: in a recently published coin, Artemidoros presents himself as "son of Maues",[117] and the Buner reliefs show Indo-Greeks and IndoScythians reveling in a Buddhist context. The Indo-Greeks continued to rule a territory in the eastern Punjab, until the kingdom of the last Indo-Greek king Strato was taken over by the Indo-Scythian ruler Rajuvula around 10 AD.[118] [edit] Western Yuezhi or Saka expansion (70 BC-) Main article: Yuezhi Silver bilingual drachm of Hermaeus (ruled 90-70 BC) with his wife Kalliope. King on horse, equipped with the recurve bow of the steppes. Around eight "western" Indo-Greek kings are known; most of them are distinguished by their issues of Attic coins for circulation in the neighbouring. One of the last important kings in the Paropamisadae was Hermaeus, who ruled until around 80 BC; soon after his death the Yuezhi or Sakas took over his areas from neighbouring Bactria. When Hermaeus is depicted on his coins riding a horse, he is

equipped with the recurve bow and bow-case of the steppes and RC Senior believes him to be of partly nomad origin. The later king Hippostratus may however also have held territories in the Paropamisadae. After the death of Hermaeus, the Yuezhi or Saka nomads became the new rulers of the Paropamisadae, and minted vast quantities of posthumous issues of Hermaeus up to around 40 AD, when they blend with the coinage of the Kushan king Kujula Kadphises.[119] The first documented Yuezhi prince, Sapadbizes, ruled around 20 BC, and minted in Greek and in the same style as the western Indo-Greek kings, probably depending on Greek mints and celators. The last known mention of an Indo-Greek ruler is suggested by an inscription on a signet ring of the 1st century AD in the name of a king Theodamas, from the Bajaur area of Gandhara, in modern Pakistan. No coins of him are known, but the signet bears in kharoshthi script the inscription "Su Theodamasa", "Su" being explained as the Greek transliteration of the ubiquitous Kushan royal title "Shau" ("Shah", "King").[120] [edit] Ideology Bilingual silver drachm of Menander I (160-135 BC). With obverse in Greek "BASILEOS SOTĒROS MENANDROY" and reverse in Kharosthi "MAHARAJA TRATASA MENADRASA": "Of The Saviour King Menander". Reverse shows Athena advancing left, with thunderbolt and shield. Indian-standard coin of Apollodotus I (180–160 BC). Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek kings, and their rule, especially that of Menander, has been remembered as benevolent. It has been suggested, although direct evidence is lacking, that their invasion of India was intended to show their support for the Mauryan empire which may have had a long history of marital alliances,[121] exchange of presents,[122] demonstrations of friendship,[123] exchange of ambassadors[124] and religious missions[125] with the Greeks. The historian Diodorus even wrote that the king of Pataliputra had "great love for the Greeks".[126][127] The Greek expansion into Indian territory may have been intended to protect Greek populations in India,[128] and to protect the Buddhist faith from the religious persecutions of the Sungas.[129] The city of Sirkap founded by Demetrius combines Greek and Indian influences without signs of segregation between the two cultures. The first Greek coins to be minted in India, those of Menander I and Appolodotus I bear the mention "Saviour king" (ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΩΤΗΡΟΣ), a title with high value in the Greek world which indicated an important deflective victory. For instance, Ptolemy I had been Soter (saviour) because he had helped save Rhodes from Demetrius the Besieger, and Antiochus I because he had saved Asia Minor from the Gauls. The title was also inscribed in Pali as ("Tratarasa") on the reverse of their coins. Menander and Apollodotus may indeed have been saviours to the Greek populations residing in India, and to some of the Indians as well.[130] Also, most of the coins of the Greek kings in India were bilingual, written in Greek on the front and in Pali on the back (in the Kharoshthi script, derived from Aramaic, rather than the more eastern Brahmi, which was used only once on coins of Agathocles of Bactria), a tremendous concession to another culture never before made in the Hellenic world.[131] From the reign of Apollodotus II, around 80 BC, Kharoshthi letters started to be used as mintmarks on coins in combination with Greek monograms and mintmarks, suggesting the participation of local technicians to the minting process.[132] Incidentally, these bilingual coins of the IndoGreeks were the key in the decipherment of the Kharoshthi script by James Prinsep (1799–1840).[133] Kharoshthi became extinct around the 3rd century AD. In Indian literature, the Indo-Greeks are described as Yavanas (in Sanskrit),[134][135][136] or Yonas (in Pali)[137] both thought to be transliterations of "Ionians". In the Harivamsa the "Yavana" Indo-Greeks are

qualified, together with the Sakas, Kambojas, Pahlavas and Paradas as Kshatriyapungava i.e. foremost among the Warrior caste, or Kshatriyas. The Majjhima Nikaya explains that in the lands of the Yavanas and Kambojas, in contrast with the numerous Indian castes, there were only two classes of people, Aryas and Dasas (masters and slaves). [edit] Religion Main article: Religions of the Indo-Greeks Indian-standard coinage of Menander I with a Buddhist eight-spoked wheel,[138] and a palm of victory on the reverse (British Museum). In addition to the worship of the Classical pantheon of the Greek deities found on their coins (Zeus, Herakles, Athena, Apollo...), the Indo-Greeks were involved with local faiths, particularly with Buddhism, but also with Hinduism and Zoroastrianism.[139] After the Greco-Bactrians militarily occupied parts of northern India from around 180 BC, numerous instances of interaction between Greeks and Buddhism are recorded. Menander I, the "Saviour king", seems to have converted to Buddhism,[140] and is described as a great benefactor of the religion, on a par with Ashoka or the future Kushan emperor Kanishka.[141] The wheel he represented on some of his coins was probably Buddhist,[138] and he is famous for his dialogues with the Buddhist monk Nagasena, transmitted to us in the Milinda Panha, which explain that he became a Buddhist arhat: "And afterwards, taking delight in the wisdom of the Elder, he (Menander) handed over his kingdom to his son, and abandoning the household life for the house-less state, grew great in insight, and himself attained to Arahatship!" —The Questions of King Milinda, Translation by T. W. Rhys Davids. Another Indian text, the Stupavadana of Ksemendra, mentions in the form of a prophecy that Menander will build a stupa in Pataliputra.[142] Plutarch also presents Menander as an example of benevolent rule, and explains that upon his death, the honour of sharing his remains was claimed by the various cities under his rule, and they were enshrined in "monuments" (μνημεία, probably stupas), in a parallel with the historic Buddha:[143] "But when one Menander, who had reigned graciously over the Bactrians, died afterwards in the camp, the cities indeed by common consent celebrated his funerals; but coming to a contest about his relics, they were difficultly at last brought to this agreement, that his ashes being distributed, everyone should carry away an equal share, and they should all erect monuments to him." —Plutarch, "Political Precepts" Praec. reip. ger. 28, 6).[144] [edit] Art Main article: Art of the Indo-Greeks Greek Buddhist devotees, holding plantain leaves, in purely Hellenistic style, inside Corinthian columns, Buner relief, Victoria and Albert Museum. In general, the art of the Indo-Greeks is poorly documented, and few works of art (apart from their coins and a few stone palettes) are directly attributed to them. The coinage of the Indo-Greeks however is generally considered as some of the most artistically brilliant of Antiquity.[145] The Hellenistic heritage (Ai-Khanoum) and artistic proficiency of the Indo-Greek world would suggest a rich sculptural tradition as well, but traditionally very few sculptural remains have been attributed to them. On the contrary, most Gandharan Hellenistic works of art are usually attributed to the direct successors of the Indo-Greeks in India in 1st century AD, such as the nomadic Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians and, in an already decadent state, the Kushans[146] In general, Gandharan sculpture cannot be dated exactly, leaving the exact chronology open to interpretation.

Hellenistic culture in the Indian subcontinent: Greek clothes, amphoras, wine and music (Detail of Chakhil-i-Ghoundi stupa, Hadda, Gandhara, 1st century AD). The possibility of a direct connection between the Indo-Greeks and Greco-Buddhist art has been reaffirmed recently as the dating of the rule of Indo-Greek kings has been extended to the first decades of the 1st century AD, with the reign of Strato II in the Punjab.[147] Also, Foucher, Tarn, and more recently, Boardman, Bussagli and McEvilley have taken the view that some of the most purely Hellenistic works of northwestern India and Afghanistan, may actually be wrongly attributed to later centuries, and instead belong to a period one or two centuries earlier, to the time of the Indo-Greeks in the 2nd-1st century BC:[148] Indo-Greek princes may have been the models for the Bodhisattvas of the GrecoBuddhist art of Gandhara.[149] This also seems to be corroborated by Ranajit Pal's suggestion that the Indo-Greek king Diodotus_I was the great Ashoka.[3].[150] This is particularly the case of some purely Hellenistic works in Hadda, Afghanistan, an area which "might indeed be the cradle of incipient Buddhist sculpture in Indo-Greek style".[151] Referring to one of the Buddha triads in Hadda, in which the Buddha is sided by very Classical depictions of Herakles/Vajrapani and Tyche/Hariti, Boardman explains that both figures "might at first (and even second) glance, pass as, say, from Asia Minor or Syria of the first or second century BC (...) these are essentially Greek figures, executed by artists fully conversant with far more than the externals of the Classical style".[152] Alternatively, it has been suggested that these works of art may have been executed by itinerant Greek artists during the time of maritime contacts with the West from the 1st to the 3rd century AD.[153] The Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, beyond the omnipresence of Greek style and stylistic elements which might be simply considered as an enduring artistic tradition,[154] offers numerous depictions of people in Greek Classical realistic style, attitudes and fashion (clothes such as the chiton and the himation, similar in form and style to the 2nd century BC Greco-Bactrian statues of Ai-Khanoum, hairstyle), holding contraptions which are characteristic of Greek culture (amphoras, "kantaros" Greek drinking cups), in situations which can range from festive (such as Bacchanalian scenes) to Buddhist-devotional.[155][156] Seated Boddhisatva, Gandhara, 2nd century (Ostasiatische Museum, Berlin) Uncertainties in dating make it unclear whether these works of art actually depict Greeks of the period of Indo-Greek rule up to the 1st century BC, or remaining Greek communities under the rule of the Indo-Parthians or Kushans in the 1st and 2nd century AD. Benjamin Rowland thinks that the Indo-Greeks, rather than the Indo-Scythians or the Kushans, may have been the models for the Bodhisattva statues of Gandhara[157] [edit] Economy Very little is known about the economy of the Indo-Greeks, although it seems to have been rather vibrant.[158][159] The abundance of their coins would tend to suggest large mining operations, particularly in the mountainous area of the Hindu-Kush, and an important monetary economy. The Indo-Greek did strike bilingual coins both in the Greek "round" standard and in the Indian "square" standard,[160] suggesting that monetary circulation extended to all parts of society. The adoption of Indo-Greek monetary conventions by neighbouring kingdoms, such as the Kunindas to the east and the Satavahanas to the south,[161] would also suggest that Indo-Greek coins were used extensively for cross-border trade. [edit] Tribute payments

Stone palette depicting a mythological scene, 2nd-1st century BC. It would also seem that some of the coins emitted by the Indo-Greek kings, particularly those in the monolingual Attic standard, may have been used to pay some form of tribute to the Yuezhi tribes north of the Hindu-Kush.[102] This is indicated by the coins finds of the Qunduz hoard in northern Afghanistan, which have yielded quantities of Indo-Greek coins in the Hellenistic standard (Greek weights, Greek language), although none of the kings represented in the hoard are known to have ruled so far north.[162] Conversely, none of these coins have ever been found south of the Hindu-Kush.[163] [edit] Trade with China An indirect testimony by the Chinese explorer Zhang Qian, who visited Bactria around 128 BC, suggests that intense trade with Southern China was going through northern India. Zhang Qian explains that he found Chinese products in the Bactrian markets, and that they were transiting through northwestern India, which he incidentally describes as a civilization similar to that of Bactria: "When I was in Bactria," Zhang Qian reported, "I saw bamboo canes from Qiong and cloth (silk?) made in the province of Shu. When I asked the people how they had gotten such articles, they replied: "Our merchants go buy them in the markets of Shendu (northwestern India). Shendu, they told me, lies several thousand li southeast of Bactria. The people cultivate land, and live much like the people of Bactria". —Sima Qian, "Records of the Great Historian", trans. Burton Watson, p. 236. [edit] Indian Ocean trade Maritime relations across the Indian ocean started in the 3rd century BC, and further developed during the time of the Indo-Greeks together with their territorial expansion along the western coast of India. The first contacts started when the Ptolemies constructed the Red Sea ports of Myos Hormos and Berenike, with destination the Indus delta, the Kathiawar peninsula or Muziris. Around 130 BC, Eudoxus of Cyzicus is reported (Strabo, Geog. II.3.4)[164] to have made a successful voyage to India and returned with a cargo of perfumes and gemstones. By the time Indo-Greek rule was ending, up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India (Strabo Geog. II.5.12).[165] [edit] Armed forces The coins of the Indo-Greeks provide rich clues on their uniforms and weapons. Typical Hellenistic uniforms are depicted, with helmets being either round in the Greco-Bactrian style, or the flat kausia of the Macedonians (coins of Apollodotus I). [edit] Military technology Their weapons were spears, swords, longbow (on the coins of Agathokleia) and arrows. Interestingly, around 130 BC the Central Asian recurve bow of the steppes with its gorytos box starts to appear for the first time on the coins of Zoilos I, suggesting strong interactions (and apparently an alliance) with nomadic peoples, either Yuezhi or Scythian.[166] The recurve bow becomes a standard feature of Indo-Greek horsemen by 90 BC, as seen on some of the coins of Hermaeus. Generally, Indo-Greek kings are often represented riding horses, as early as the reign of Antimachus II around 160 BC. The equestrian tradition probably goes back to the Greco-Bactrians, who are said by Polybius to have faced a Seleucid invasion in 210 BC with 10,000 horsemen.[167] Although war elephants are never represented on coins, a harness plate (phalera) dated to the 3-2nd century BC, today in the Hermitage Museum, depicts a helmetted Greek combatant on an Indian war elephant. Indo-Greek officer (on a coin of Menander II), circa 90 BC. He is equipped with a cuirass, lamellar armour for the thighs, and leg protections (cnemids).[168] The Milinda Panha, in the questions of Nagasena to king Menander, provides a rare glimpse of the military methods of the period: "(Nagasena) Has it ever happened to you, O king, that rival kings rose up against you as enemies and opponents?

-(Menander) Yes, certainly. -Then you set to work, I suppose, to have moats dug, and ramparts thrown up, and watch towers erected, and strongholds built, and stores of food collected? -Not at all. All that had been prepared beforehand. -Or you had yourself trained in the management of war elephants, and in horsemanship, and in the use of the war chariot, and in archery and fencing? -Not at all. I had learnt all that before. -But why? -With the object of warding off future danger." (Milinda Panha, Book III, Chap 7) The Milinda Panha also describes the structure of Menander's army: "Now one day Milinda the king proceeded forth out of the city to pass in review the innumerable host of his mighty army in its fourfold array (of elephants, cavalry, bowmen, and soldiers on foot)." (Milinda Panha, Book I) [edit] Size of Indo-Greek armies The Greco-Bactrian king Eucratides (171-145 BC) is said to have vanquished 60,000 Indo-Greeks, before being himself defeated by Menander. The armed forces of the Indo-Greeks engaged in important battles with local Indian forces. The ruler of Kalinga, Kharavela, claims in the Hathigumpha inscription that he led a "large army" in the direction of Demetrius' own "army" and "transports", and that he induced him to retreat from Pataliputra to Mathura. The Greek ambassador Megasthenes took special note of the military strength of Kalinga in his Indica in the middle of the 3rd century BC: "The royal city of the Calingae (Kalinga) is called Parthalis. Over their king 60,000-foot-soldiers, 1,000 horsemen, 700 elephants keep watch and ward in "procinct of war." —Megasthenes fragm. LVI. in Plin. Hist. Nat. VI. 21. 8–23. 11.[169] An account by the Roman writer Justin gives another hint of the size of Indo-Greek armies, which, in the case of the conflict between the Greco-Bactrian Eucratides and the Indo-Greek Demetrius II, he numbers at 60,000 (although they allegedly lost to 300 Greco-Bactrians): "Eucratides led many wars with great courage, and, while weakened by them, was put under siege by Demetrius, king of the Indians. He made numerous sorties, and managed to vanquish 60,000 enemies with 300 soldiers, and thus liberated after four months, he put India under his rule" —Justin, XLI,6[170] These are considerable numbers, as large armies during the Hellenistic period typically numbered between 20,000 to 30,000.[171] The Indo-Greeks were later confronted by the nomadic tribes from Central Asia (Yuezhi and Scythians). According to Zhang Qian, the Yuezhi represented a considerable force of between 100,000 and 200,000 mounted archer warriors,[172] with customs identical to those of the Xiongnu. [edit] Legacy of the Indo-Greeks Main article: Legacy of the Indo-Greeks The Indo-Scythian Taxila copper plate uses the Macedonian month of "Panemos" for calendrical purposes (British Museum).[173] From the 1st century AD, the Greek communities of central Asia and northwestern India lived under the control of the Kushan branch of the Yuezhi, apart from a short-lived invasion of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom.[174] The Kushans founded the Kushan Empire, which was to prosper for several centuries. In the south, the Greeks were under the rule of the Western Kshatrapas. It is unclear how much longer the Greeks managed to maintain a distinct presence in the Indian sub-continent. The legacy of the Indo-Greeks was felt however for several centuries, from the usage of the Greek language and calendrical

methods,[175] to the influences on the numismatics of the Indian subcontinent, tracable down to the period of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century.[176] The Indo-Greeks may also have had some influence on the religious plan as well, especially in relation to the developing Mahayana Buddhism. Mahayana Buddhism has been described as "the form of Buddhism which (regardless of how Hinduized its later forms became) seems to have originated in the Greco-Buddhist communities of India, through a conflation of the Greek Democritean-Sophistic-Skeptical tradition with the rudimentary and unformalized empirical and skeptical elements already present in early Buddhism".[177] [edit] List of the Indo-Greek kings and their territories Today 36 Indo-Greek kings are known. Several of them are also recorded in Western and Indian historical sources, but the majority are known through numismatic evidence only. The exact chronology and sequencing of their rule is still a matter of scholarly inquiry, with adjustments regular being made with new analysis and coin finds (overstrikes of one king over another's coins being the most critical element in establishing chronological sequences). The system used here is adapted from Osmund Bopearachchi, supplemented by the views of R C Senior and occasionally other authorities.[178] INDO-GREEK KINGS AND THEIR TERRITORIES Based on Bopearachchi (1991) Territories/ Dates PAROPAMISADE ARACHOSIA GANDHARA WESTERN PUNJAB EASTERN PUNJAB 200-190 BCE Demetrius I 190-180 BCE Agathocles Pantaleon 185-170 BCE Antimachus I 180-160 BCE Apollodotus I 175-170 BCE Demetrius II 160-155 BCE Antimachus II 170-145 BCE Eucratides 155-130 BCE Menander I 130-120 BCE Zoilos I Agathokleia 120-110 BCE Lysias Strato I 110-100 BCE Antialcidas Heliokles II 100 BCE Polyxenios Demetrius III 100-95 BCE

Philoxenus

95-90 BCE Amyntas Epander

Diomedes

90 BCE Peukolaos Thraso

Theophilos

90-85 BCE Nicias Menander II Artemidoros 90-70 BCE Archebios

Hermaeus

Yuezhi tribes Maues (Indo-Scythian) 75-70 BCE Apollodotus II

Telephos

65-55 BCE Dionysios

Hippostratos

55-35 BCE

Azes I (Indo-Scythian) Zoilos II

55-35 BCE

Apollophanes

25 BCE- 10 CE

Strato II

Rajuvula (Indo-Scythian) [edit] Footnotes 1. ^ As in other compounds such as "French-Canadian", "African-American" , "Indo-European" etc..., the area of origin usually comes first, and the area of arrival comes second, so that "Greco-Indian" is normally a more accurate nomenclature than "Indo-Greek". The latter however has become the general usage, especially since the publication of Narain's book "The Indo-Greeks". 2. ^ Euthydemus I was, according to Polybius11.34, a Magnesian Greek. His son, Demetrius I, founder of the Indo-Greek kingdom, was therefore of Greek ethnicity at least by his father. A marriage treaty was arranged for the same Demetrius with a daughter of the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III (who had some Persian descent). Polybius 11.34. The ethnicity of later Indo-Greek rulers is less clear ("Notes on Hellenism in Bactria and India". W. W. Tarn. Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 22 (1902), pages 268–293). For example, Artemidoros (80 BC) may have been of IndoScythian ascendency. Some level of inter-marriage may also have occurred, as exemplified by Alexander III of Macedon (who married Roxana of Bactria) or Seleucus (who married Apama). 3. ^ Mortimer Wheeler Flames over Persepolis (London, 1968). Pp. 112 ff. It is unclear whether the Hellenistic street plan found by Sir John Marshall's excavations dates from the Indo-Greeks or from the Kushans, who would have encountered it in Bactria; Tarn (1951, pp. 137, 179) ascribes the initial move of Taxila to the hill of Sirkap to Demetrius I, but sees this as "not a Greek city but an Indian one"; not a polis or with a Hippodamian plan. 4. ^ "Menander had his capital in Sagala" Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p.83. McEvilley supports Tarn on both points, citing Woodcock: "Menander was a Bactrian Greek king of the Euthydemid dysnasty. His capital (was) at Sagala (Sialkot) in the Punjab, "in the country of the Yonakas (Greeks)"." McEvilley, p.377. However,

"Even if Sagala proves to be Sialkot, it does not seem to be Menander's capital for the Milindapanha states that Menander came down to Sagala to meet Nagasena, just as the Ganges flows to the sea." 5. ^ "A vast hoard of coins, with a mixture of Greek profiles and Indian symbols, along with interesting sculptures and some monumental remains from Taxila, Sirkap and Sirsukh, point to a rich fusion of Indian and Hellenistic influences", India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p.130 6. ^ "When the Greeks of Bactria and India lost their kingdom they were not all killed, nor did they return to Greece. They merged with the people of the area and worked for the new masters; contributing considerably to the culture and civilization in southern and central Asia." Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.278 7. ^ India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p.92-93 8. ^ :"To the colonies settled in India, Python, the son of Agenor, was sent." Justin XIII.4 9. ^ India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p.106-107 10. ^ "Strabo 15.2.1(9)". http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgibin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239&query=head%3D%23120. 11. ^ India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p.108-109 12. ^ "Three Greek ambassadors are known by name: Megasthenes, ambassador to Chandragupta; Deimachus, ambassador to Chandragupta's son Bindusara; and Dyonisius, whom Ptolemy Philadelphus sent to the court of Ashoka, Bindusara's son", McEvilley, p.367 13. ^ Classical sources have recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus: "And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters as to make people more amorous. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish love" Athenaeus of Naucratis, "The deipnosophists" Book I, chapter 32 Ath. Deip. I.32. Mentioned in McEvilley, p.367 14. ^ "The very fact that both Megasthenes and Kautilya refer to a state department run and maintained specifically for the purpose of looking after foreigners, who were mostly Yavanas and Persians, testifies to the impact created by these contacts.", Narain, "The Indo-Greeks", p.363 15. ^ "It also explains (...) random finds from the Sarnath, Basarth, and Patna regions of terra-cotta pieces of distinctive Hellenistic or with definite Hellenistic motifs and designs", Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.363 16. ^ "A minor rock edict, recently discovered at Kandahar, was inscribed in two scripts, Greek and Aramaic", India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p.112 17. ^ "The second Kandahar edict (the purely Greek one) of Asoka is a part of the "corpus" known as the "Fourteen-Rock-Edicts"" Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.452 18. ^ "It is also in Kandahar that were found the fragments of a Greek translation of Edicts XII and XIII, as well as the Aramean translation of another edict of Ashoka", Bussagli, p.89 19. ^ "Within Ashoka's domain Greeks may have had special privileges, perhaps ones established by the terms of the Seleucid alliance. Rock Edict Thirteen indicates the existence of a Greek principality in the northwest of Ashoka's empire -perhaps Kandahar, or Alexandria-of-the-Arachosians- which was not ruled by him and for which he troubled to send Buddhist missionaries and published at least some of his edicts in Greek", McEvilley, p.368 20. ^ "Thirteen, the longest and most important of the edicts, contains the claim, seemingly outlandish t first glance, that Ashoka had sent missions to the lands of the Greek monarchs -not only those of Asia, such as the Seleucids, but those back in the Mediterranean also", McEvilley, p.368 21. ^ "When Ashoka was converted to Buddhism, his first thought was to despatch missionaries to his friends, the Greek monarchs of Egypt, Syria, and Macedonia",

Rawlinson, Intercourse between India and the Western world, p.39, quoted in McEvilley, p.368 22. ^ "In Rock Edict Two Ashoka even claims to have established hospitals for men and beasts in the Hellenistic kingdoms", McEvilley, p.368 23. ^ "One of the most famous of these emissaries, Dharmaraksita, who was said to have converted thousands, was a Greek (Mhv.XII.5 and 34)", McEvilley, p.370 24. ^ "The Mahavamsa tells that "the celebrated Greek teacher Mahadharmaraksita in the second century BC led a delegation of 30,000 monks from Alexandria-of-theCaucasus Alexandra-of-the-Yonas, or of-the-Greeks, the Ceylonese text actually says to the opening of the great Ruanvalli Stupa at Anuradhapura"", McEvilley, p.370, quoting Woodcock, "The Greeks in India", p.55 25. ^ Full text of the Mahavamsa Click chapter XII 26. ^ "The finest of the pillars were executed by Greek or Perso-Greek sculptors; others by local craftsmen, with or without foreign supervision" Marshall, "The Buddhist art of Gandhara", p4 27. ^ "A number of foreign artisans, such as the Persians or even the Greeks, worked alongside the local craftsmen, and some of their skills were copied with avidity" Burjor Avari, "India, The ancient past", p118 28. ^ "Antiochos III, after having made peace with Euthydemus I after the aborted siege of Bactra, renewed with Sophagasenus the alliance concluded by his ancestor Seleucos I", Bopearachchi, Monnaies, p.52 29. ^ "Polybius 11.39". http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgibin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0234&query=head%3D%23717. 30. ^ "So far, in Bactria, a theater has been identified at Ai Khanoum", McEvilley, p.386 31. ^ "The discovery of the Bactrian Greek city of Ai-Khanoum is surely one of the most significant gifts archaeology has given to history during the last thirty years", Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.426 32. ^ "Bactria, as part of the Persian conquests of Alexander the Great, had become part of the Seleucid kingdom run from Syria. In the middle of the third century BC Bactria, along with another Persian province, Parthia, revolted against the Seleucids. (...) These Greco-Bactrian kings clashed with the Mauryans during their forays into northwest India", India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p.130 33. ^ "General Pusyamitra, who is at the origin of the Sunga dynasty. He was supported by the Brahmins and even became the symbol of the Brahmanical turnover against the Buddhism of the Mauryas. The capital was then transferred to Pataliputra (today's Patna)", Bussagli, p.99 34. ^ Pushyamitra is described as a "senapati" (Commander-in-chief) of Brhadrata in the Puranas 35. ^ E. Lamotte: History of Indian Buddhism, Institut Orientaliste, Louvain-laNeuve 1988 (1958), p. 109. 36. ^ Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas by Romila Thapar, Oxford University Press, 1960 P200 37. ^ See Polybius, Arrian, Livy, Cassius Dio, and Diodorus. Justin, who will be discussed shortly, provides a summary of the histories of Hellenistic Macedonia, Egypt, Asia, and Parthia. 38. ^ For the date of Trogus, see the OCD on "Trogus" and Yardley/Develin, p. 2; since Trogus' father was in charge of Julius Caesar's diplomatic missions before the history was written (Justin 43.5.11), Senior's date in the following quotation is too early: "The Western sources for accounts of Bactrian and Indo-Greek history are: Polybius, a Greek born c.200 BC; Strabo, a Roman who drew on the lost history of Apollodoros of Artemita (c.130-87 BC9, and Justin, who drew on Trogus, a post 87 BC writer", Senior, Indo-Scythian coins IV, p.x; the extent to which Strabo is citing Apollodorus is disputed, beyond the three places he names Apollodorus (and he may have those through Eratosthenes). Polybius speaks of Bactria, not of India. 39. ^ Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus translated by J. C. Yardley, notes and introduction by Robert Develin. (Atlanta 1994). The

source for these paragraphs, and the next insofar as it is not Justin, is the Introduction pp. 1-11. See also Tarn (1951) p.50. 40. ^ Justin, 41.4.5, 41.4.8-9, 41.6.1-5, ed. cit.; The names of Theodotus I and II; Eucratides and his unnamed parricidal son; and "Demetrius, king of the Indians" (so Yardley: Indorum rex, Develin's note implies this is Demetrius II, but suggests that Demetrius I and II may be the same person.) Theodotus in Justin's text is clearly an error for Diodotus; the two prefixes both mean "God", no coins support his existence, and Trogus' tables of contents (the so-called prologues) survive (Develin and Yardley, p.284) saying Diodotus; they also include Indicae quoque res additae, gestae per Apollodotum et Menandrum, reges eorum "some Indian matters, namely the achievements of the Indian kings, Apollodotus and Menander.", although Justin does not mention Apollodotus. Tarn, Narain, and Bopearchchi all correct to Diodotus. 41. ^ Strabo, Geographia 11.11.1 p.516 Casaubon. 15.1.2, p. 686 Casaubon, "tribes" is Jones' version of ethne (Loeb) 42. ^ For a list of classical testimonia, see Tarn's Index II; but this covers India, Bactria, and several sources for the Hellenstic East as a whole. 43. ^ Tarn, App. 20; Narain (1957) pp. 136, 156 et alii. 44. ^ "The Besnagar Garuda pillar inscription witnesses to the presence of the Yavana Heliodorus son of Dion in Vidisa as an envoy from Taxila of king Antialkidas around 140 BC", Mitchener, The Yuga Purana, p.64 45. ^ Tarn and Narain postulate two Demetrii; the former thinks the Demetrius Anicetus coins describe Demetrius I, although actually made by Demetrius II; the latter that they are entirely by Demetrius II, and have nothing to do with Demetrius I. Bopearachchi ascribes one more recent find to Agathocles, but depicting Demetrius I; he postulates a much later Demetrius III for the previously known coins; this result is now fairly widely accepted by numismatists. The possibility of one Demetrius is attested by Develin and Brill's New Pauly, "Demetrius 4" 46. ^ This reconstruction is adapted mainly from the works of Bopearachchi. Bopearachchi (1991,1998) 47. ^ Senior, Indo-Scythian coins, p.xii 48. ^ Polybius 11.34 49. ^ The first conquests of Demetrius have usually been held to be during his father's lifetime; the difference has been over the actual date. Tarn and Narain agreed on having them begin around 180; Bopearachchi moved this back to 200, and has been followed by much of the more recent literature, but see Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World (Boston, 2006) "Demetrius" §10, which places the invasion "probably in 184". D.H. MacDowall, "The Role of Demetrius in Arachosia and the Kabul Valley," published in the volume: O. Bopearachchi, Landes (ed), Afghanistan Ancien Carrefour Entre L'Est Et L'Ouest, (Brepols 2005) discusses an inscription dedicated to Euthydemus, "Greatest of all kings" and his son Demetrius, who is not called king but "Victorious" (Kallinikos). This is taken to indicate that Demetrius was his father's general during the first conquests. It is uncertain whether the Kabul valley or Arachosia were conquered first, and whether the latter province was taken from the Seleucids after their defeat by the Romans in 190 BC. Peculiar enough, more coins of Euthydemus I than of Demetrius I have been found in the mentioned provinces. The calendar of the "Yonas" is proven by an inscription giving a triple synchronism to have begun in 186/5 BC; what event is commemorated is itself uncertain. Richard Salomon "The Indo-Greek era of 186/5 B.C. in a Buddhist reliquary inscription", in Afghanistan, Ancien Carrefour cited. 50. ^ "Demetrius occupied a large part of the Indus delta, Saurashtra and Kutch", Burjor Avari, p.130 51. ^ "It would be impossible to explain otherwise why in all his portraits Demetrios is crowned with an elephant scalp", Bopearachchi, Monnaies, p.53 52. ^ "We think that the conquests of these regions south of the Hindu Kush brought to Demetrius I the title of "King of India" given to him by Apollodorus of

Artemita." Bopearachchi, p.52 53. ^ For Heracles, see Lillian B. Lawler "Orchesis Kallinikos" Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 79. (1948), pp. 254267, p. 262; for Artemidorus, see K. Walton Dobbins "The Commerce of Kapisene and Gandhāra after the Fall of Indo-Greek Rule" Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 14, No. 3. (Dec., 1971), pp. 286-302 (Both JSTOR). Tarn, p.132, argues that Alexander did not assume as a title, but was only hailed by it, but see Peter Green, The Hellenistic Age, p.7; see also Senior, IndoScythian coins, p.xii. No undisputed coins of Demetrius I himself use this title, but it is employed on one of the pedigree coins issued by Agathocles, which bear on the reverse the classical profile of Demetrius crowned by the elephant scalp, with the legend DEMETRIOS ANIKETOS, and on the reverse Herakles crowning himself, with the legend "Of king Agathocles" (Boppearachchi, "Monnaies", p.179 and Pl 8). Tarn, The Greeks in Bactria and India, Chap IV. 54. ^ "It now seeems most likely that Demetrios was the founder of the newly discovered Greek Era of 186/5", Senior, Indo-Scythian coins IV 55. ^ Davies, Cuthbert Collin (1959). An Historical Atlas of the Indian Peninsula. Oxford University Press. 56. ^ Narain, A.K. (1976). The Coin Types of the Indo-Greek Kings. Ares. ISBN 0890051097. 57. ^ Hans Erich Stier, Georg Westermann Verlag, Ernst Kirsten, and Ekkehard Aner. Grosser Atlas zur Weltgeschichte: Vorzeit. Altertum. Mittelalter. Neuzeit. Westermann, 1978, ISBN 3141009198. 58. ^ MacDowall, 2004 59. ^ "The only thing that seems reasonnably sure is that Taxila was part of the domain of Agathocles", Bopearachchi, Monnaies, p.59 60. ^ Bopearachchi, Monnaies, p.63 61. ^ "There is certainly some truth in Apollodorus and Strabo when they attribute to Menander the advances made by the Greeks of Bactria beyond the Hypanis and even as far as the Ganges and Palibothra (...) That the Yavanas advanced even beyond in the east, to the Ganges-Jamuna valley, about the middle of the second century BC is supported by the cumulative evidence provided by Indian sources", Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" p.267. 62. ^ "The Greeks... took possession, not only of Patalena, but also, on the rest of the coast, of what is called the kingdom of Saraostus and Sigerdis." Strabo 11.11.1 (Strabo 11.11.1) 63. ^ "The combination of textual and numismatic evidence allows to see what was the conflict between Eucratides and Menander. When Menander was engaged in a bloody conquest of the Ganges valley, Eucratides I would have taken advantage of this opportunity to invade his kingdom. This would be the "civil war" mentioned in the Yuga Purana; this would explain that Menander had to stop his conquest of the Ganges valley, and had to return hastily to face the aggressor", Bopearachchi, Monnaies, p.85 64. ^ In the 1st century BC, the geographer Isidorus of Charax mentions Parthians ruling over Greek populations and cities in Arachosia: "Beyond is Arachosia. And the Parthians call this White India; there are the city of Biyt and the city of Pharsana and the city of Chorochoad and the city of Demetrias; then Alexandropolis, the metropolis of Arachosia; it is Greek, and by it flows the river Arachotus. As far as this place the land is under the rule of the Parthians." "Parthians stations", 1st century BC. Mentioned in Bopearachchi, "Monnaies Greco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques", p52. Original text in paragraph 19 of Parthian stations 65. ^ Pompeius Trogus, Prologue to Book XLI. 66. ^ "When Strabo mentions that "Those who after Alexander advanced beyond the Hypanis to the Ganges and Polibothra (Pataliputra)" this can only refer to the conquests of Menander.", Senior, Indo-Scythian coins and history, p.XIV 67. ^ Mitchener, The Yuga Purana, 2000, p.65: "In line with the above discussion, therefore, we may infer that such an event (the incursions to

Pataliputra) took place, after the reign of Salisuka Maurya (c.200 BC) and before that of Pusyamitra Sunga (187 BC). This would accordingly place the Yavana incursions during the reign of the Indo-Greek kings Euthydemus (c.230-190 BC) or Demetrios (c.205-190 as co-regent, and 190-171 BC as supreme ruler". 68. ^ According to Tarn, the word used for "advance" (Proelonthes) can only mean a military expedition. The word generally means "going forward"; according to the LSJ this can, but need not, imply a military expedition. See LSJ, sub προέρχομαι. Strabo 15-1-27 69. ^ A.K. Narain and Keay 2000 70. ^ "Menander became the ruler of a kingdom extending along the coast of western India, including the whole of Saurashtra and the harbour Barukaccha. His territory also included Mathura, the Punjab, Gandhara and the Kabul Valley", Bussagli p101) 71. ^ Tarn, p.147-149 72. ^ Strabo on the extent of the conquests of the Greco-Bactrians/Indo-Greeks: "They took possession, not only of Patalena, but also, on the rest of the coast, of what is called the kingdom of Saraostus and Sigerdis. In short, Apollodorus says that Bactriana is the ornament of Ariana as a whole; and, more than that, they extended their empire even as far as the Seres and the Phryni." Strabo 11.11.1 (Strabo 11.11.1) 73. ^ "Numismats and historians all consider that Menander was one of the greatest, if not the greatest, and the most illustrious of the Indo-Greek kings", Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p.76 74. ^ "the account of the Periplus is just a sailor's story", Narain (p.118-119) 75. ^ "A distinctive series of Indo-Greek coins has been found at several places in central India: including at Dewas, some 22 miles to the east of Ujjain. These therefore add further definite support to the likelihood of an Indo-Greek presence in Malwa" Mitchener, "The Yuga Purana", p.64 76. ^ "Because the Ionians were either the first ot the most dominant group among the Greeks with whom people in the east came in contact, the Persians called all of them Yauna, and the Indians used Yona and Yavana for them", Narain, The Indo-Greeks, p.249 77. ^ "The term (Yavana) had a precise meaning until well into the Christian era, when gradually its original meaning was lost and, like the word Mleccha, it degenerated into a general term for a foreigner" Narain, p.18 78. ^ "Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins in the Smithsonian institution", Bopearachchi, p16. 79. ^ Tarn, p.145-146 80. ^ "But the real story of the Indo-Greek invasion becomes clear only on the analysis of the material contained in the historical section of the Gargi Samhita, the Yuga Purana" Narain, p110, The Indo-Greeks. Also "The text of the Yuga Purana, as we have shown, gives an explicit clue to the period and nature of the invasion of Pataliputra in which the Indo-Greeks took part, for it says that the Pancalas and the Mathuras were the other powers who attacked Saketa and destroyed Pataliputra", Narain, p.112 81. ^ "For any scholar engaged in the study of the presence of the Indo-Greeks or Indo-Scythians before the Christian Era, the Yuga Purana is an important source material" Dilip Coomer Ghose, General Secretary, The Asiatic Society, Kolkata, 2002 82. ^ "..further weight to the likelihood that this account of a Yavana incursion to Saketa and Pataliputra-in alliance with the Pancalas and the Mathuras- is indeed historical" Mitchener, The Yuga Purana, p.65 83. ^ "The advance of the Greek to Pataliputra is recorded from the Indian side in the Yuga-purana", Tarn, p.145 84. ^ "The greatest city in India is that which is called Palimbothra, in the dominions of the Prasians ... Megasthenes informs us that this city stretched in the inhabited quarters to an extreme length on each side of eighty stadia, and

that its breadth was fifteen stadia, and that a ditch encompassed it all round, which was six hundred feet in breadth and thirty cubits in depth, and that the wall was crowned with 570 towers and had four-and-sixty gates." Arr. Ind. 10. "Of Pataliputra and the Manners of the Indians.", quoting Megasthenes Text 85. ^ "The text of the Yuga Purana, as we have shown, gives an explicit clue to the period and nature of the invasion of Pataliputra in which the Indo-Greeks took part, for it says that the Pancalas and the Mathuras were the other powers who attacked Saketa and destroyed Pataliputra", Narain, The Indo-Greeks, p.112 86. ^ Tarn, p. "[132-133 INSERT TITLE]". 132-133. 87. ^ "The name Dimita is almost certainly an adaptation of "Demetrios", and the inscription thus indicates a Yavana presence in Magadha, probably around the middle of the 1st century BC." Mitchener, The Yuga Purana, p.65 88. ^ "The Hathigumpha inscription seems to have nothing to do with the history of the Indo-Greeks; certainly it has nothing to do with Demetrius I", Narain, The Indo-Greeks, p.50 89. ^ P.L.Gupta: Kushâna Coins and History, D.K.Printworld, 1994, p.184, note 5 90. ^ "Justin refers to an incident in which Eucratides with a small force of 300 was besieged for four months by "Demetrius, king of the Indians" with a large army of 60,000. The numbers are obviously an exageration. Eucratides managed to break out and went on to conquer India.", It is uncertain who this Demetrius was, and when the siege happened. Some scholars believe that it was Demetrius I."(Demetrius I) was probably the Demetrius who besieged Eucratides for four months", D.W. Mac Dowall, p.201-202, Afghanistan, ancien carrefour entre l'est et l'ouest. This analysis goes against Bopearachchi, who has suggested that Demetrius I died long before Eucratides came to power. 91. ^ Bopearachchi, p.72 92. ^ "As Bopearachchi has shown, Menander was able to regroup and take back the territory that Eucratides I had conquered, perhaps after Eucratides had died (1991, pp. 84-6). Bopearachchi demonstrates that the transition in Menander's coin designs were in response to changes introduced by Eucratides". 93. ^ "Numismats and historians are unanimous in considering that Menander was one of the greatest, if not the greatest, and the most famous of the Indo-Greek kings. The coins to the name of Menander are incomparably more abundant than those of any other Indo-Greek king" Bopearachchi, "Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et IndoGrecques", p76. 94. ^ "Menander, the probable conqueror of Pataliputra, seems to have been a Buddhist, and his name belongs in the list of important royal patrons of Buddhism along with Ashoka and Kanishka", McEvilley, p.375 95. ^ "(In the Milindapanha) Menander is declared an arhat", McEvilley, p.378 96. ^ "Plutarch, who talks of the burial of Menander's relics under monuments or stupas, had obviously read or heard some Buddhist account of the Greek king's death", McEvilley, p.377 97. ^ "The statement of Plutarch that when Menander died "the cities celebrated (...) agreeing that they should divide ashes equally and go away and should erect monuments to him in all their cities", is significant and reminds one of the story of the Buddha", Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.123, "This is unmistakably Buddhist and recalls the similar situation at the time of the Buddha's passing away", Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.269 98. ^ Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p.86 99. ^ "By about 130 BC nomadic people from the Jaxartes region had overrun the northern boundary of Bactria itself", McEvilley, p.372 100. ^ Bopearachchi, Monnaies, p.88 101. ^ Senior, Indo-Scythian coins and history IV, p.xi 102. ^ a b "P.Bernard thinks that these emissions were destined to commercial exchanges with Bactria, then controled by the Yuezhi, and were post-Greek coins remained faithful to Greco-Bactrian coinage. In a slightly different perspective (...) G. Le Rider considers that these emission were used to pay tribute to the nomads of the north, who were thus incentivized not to pursue their forays in the

direction of the Indo-Greek realm", Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p.76. 103. ^ Senior, Indo-Scythian coins and history IV, p.xxxiii 104. ^ "During the century that followed Menander more than twenty rulers are known to have struck coins", Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.270 105. ^ Bernard (1994), p. 126. 106. ^ The Sanskrit inscription reads "Yavanarajyasya sodasuttare varsasate 100 10 6". R.Salomon, "The Indo-Greek era of 186/5 B.C. in a Buddhist reliquary inscription", in "Afghanistan, ancien carrefour entre l'est et l'ouest", p373 107. ^ "The coinage of the former (the Audumbaras) to whom their trade was of importance, starts somewhere in the first century BC; they occasionally imitate the types of Demetrius and Apollodotus I", Tarn, p.325 108. ^ The Kunindas must have been included in the Greek empire, not only because of their geographical position, but because they started coining at the time which saw the end of Greek rule and the establishment of their independence", Tarn, p.238 109. ^ "Further evidence of the commercial success of the Greek drachms is seen in the fact that they influenced the coinage of the Audumbaras and the Kunindas", Narain The Indo-Greeks, p.114 110. ^ "The wealthy Audumbaras (...) some of their coins after Greek rule ended imitated Greek types", Tarn, p.239 111. ^ "Most of the people east of the Ravi already noticed as within Menander's empire -Audumbaras, Trigartas, Kunindas, Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas- began to coins in the first century BC, which means that they had become independent kingdoms or republics.", Tarn, p.324 112. ^ "Later, in the first century a ruler of the Kunindas, Amogabhuti, issued a silver coinage "which would compete in the market with the later Indo-Greek silver"", Tarn, p.325 113. ^ "Maues himself issued joint coins with Machene, (...) probably a daughter of one of the Indo-Greek houses" Senior, Indo-Scythians, p.xxxvi 114. ^ G.K. Jenkins, using overstrikes and monograms, showed that, contrary to what Narai would write two years later, Apoloodotus II and Hippostratus were posterior, by far, to Maues. (...) He reveals an overstike if Azes I over Hippostratus. (...) Apollodotus and Hippostratus are thus posterior to Maues and anterior to Azes I, whose era we now starts in 57 BC." Bopearachchi, p.126-127. 115. ^ "It is curious that on his copper Zoilos used a Bow and quiver as a type. A quiver was a badge used by the Parthians (Scythians) and had been used previously by Diodotos, who we know had made a treaty with them. Did Zoilos use Scythian mercenaries in his quest against Menander perhaps?" Senior, Indo-Scythian coins, p.xxvii 116. ^ "The Indo-Scythian conquerors, who, also they adopted the greek types, minted money with their own names". Bopearachchci, "Monnaies", p.121 117. ^ Described in R.C. Senior "The Decline of the Indo-Greeks" [1]. See also this source. 118. ^ "Around 10 AD, with the joint rule of Straton II and his son Straton in the area of Sagala, le last Greek kingdom succumbed to the attacks of Rajuvula, the Indo-Scythian satrap of Mathura.", Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p.125 119. ^ "Kujula Kadphises, founder of the Kushan Empire, succeeded there (in the Paropamisadae) to the nomads who minted imitations of Hermaeus" Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p.117 120. ^ "We get two Greeks of the Parthian period, the first half of the first century AD, who used the Indian form of their names, King Theodamas on his signetring found in Bajaur, and Thedorus son of Theoros on two silver bowls from Taxila." Tarn, p.389 121. ^ Marital alliances: o Discussion on the dynastic alliance in Tarn, pp. 152–153: "It has been recently suggested that Asoka was grandson of the Seleucid princess, whom Seleucus gave in marriage to Chandragupta. Should this far-reaching suggestion be well founded, it would not only throw light on the good relations between the Seleucid

and Maurya dynasties, but would mean that the Maurya dynasty was descended from, or anyhow connected with, Seleucus... when the Mauryan line became extinct, he (Demetrius) may well have regarded himself, if not as the next heir, at any rate as the heir nearest at hand". Also: "The Seleucid and Maurya lines were connected by the marriage of Seleucus' daughter (or niece) either to Chandragupta or his son Bindusara" John Marshall, Taxila, p20. This thesis originally appeared in "The Cambridge Shorter History of India": "If the usual oriental practice was followed and if we regard Chandragupta as the victor, then it would mean that a daughter or other female relative of Seleucus was given to the Indian ruler or to one of his sons, so that Asoka may have had Greek blood in his veins." The Cambridge Shorter History of India, J. Allan, H. H. Dodwell, T. Wolseley Haig, p33 Source. o Description of the 302 BC marital alliance in Strabo 15.2.1(9): "The Indians occupy in part some of the countries situated along the Indus, which formerly belonged to the Persians: Alexander deprived the Ariani of them, and established there settlements of his own. But Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus in consequence of a marriage contract, and received in return five hundred elephants." The ambassador Megasthenes was also sent to the Mauryan court on this occasion. 122. ^ Exchange of presents: o Classical sources have recorded that Chandragupta sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus: "And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters as to make people more amourous. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish love" Athenaeus of Naucratis, "The deipnosophists" Book I, chapter 32 Ath. Deip. I.32 o Ashoka claims he introduced herbal medicine in the territories of the Greeks, for the welfare of humans and animals (Edict No2). o Bindusara asked Antiochus I to send him some sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist: "But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men (for really, as Aristophanes says, "There's really nothing nicer than dried figs"), that even Amitrochates, the king of the Indians, wrote to Antiochus, entreating him (it is Hegesander who tells this story) to buy and send him some sweet wine, and some dried figs, and a sophist; and that Antiochus wrote to him in answer, "The dry figs and the sweet wine we will send you; but it is not lawful for a sophist to be sold in Greece" Athenaeus, "Deipnosophistae" XIV.67Athenaeus, "Deipnosophistae" XIV.67 123. ^ Treaties of friendship: o When Antiochos III, after having made peace with Euthydemus, went to India in 209 BC, he is said to have renewed his friendship with the Indian king there and received presents from him: "He crossed the Caucasus (Hindu Kush) and descended into India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him."Polybius 11.39 124. ^ Ambassadors: o Known ambassadors to India are Megasthenes, Deimakos and Dionysius. 125. ^ Religious missions: o In the Edicts of Ashoka, king Ashoka claims to have sent Buddhist emissaries to the Hellenistic west around 250 BC. 126. ^ The historian Diodorus wrote that the king of Pataliputra, apparently a Mauryan king, "loved the Greeks": "Iambulus, having found his way to a certain village, was then brought by the natives into the presence of the king of Palibothra, a city which was distant a journey of many days from the sea. And since the king loved the Greeks ("Philhellenos") and devoted to learning he considered Iambulus worthy of cordial welcome; and at length, upon receiving a permission of safe-conduct, he passed over first of all into Persia and later

arrived safe in Greece" Diodorus ii,60. 127. ^ "Diodorus testifies to the great love of the king of Palibothra, apparently a Mauryan king, for the Greeks" Narain, "The Indo-Greeks", p362 128. ^ "Obviously, for the Greeks who survived in India and suffered from the oppression of the Sunga (for whom they were aliens and heretics), Demetrios must have appeared as a saviour" Mario Bussagli, p. 101 129. ^ "We can now, I think, see what the Greek 'conquest' meant and how the Greeks were able to traverse such extraordinary distances. To parts of India, perhaps to large parts, they came, not as conquerors, but as friends or 'saviors'; to the Buddhist world in particular they appeared to be its champions" (Tarn, p. 180) 130. ^ Tarn p. 175. Also: "The people to be 'saved' were in fact usually Buddhists, and the common enimity of Greek and Buddhists to the Sunga king threw them into each other's arms", Tarn p. 175. "Menander was coming to save them from the oppression of the Sunga kings",Tarn p. 178 131. ^ Whitehead, "Indo-Greek coins", p 3-8 132. ^ Bopearachchi p. 138 133. ^ Whitehead, p.vi 134. ^ "These Indo-Greeks were called Yavanas in ancient Indian litterature" p.9 + note 1 "The term had a precise meaning until well into the Christian era, when gradually its original meaning was lost and, like the word Mleccha, it degenerated into a general term for a foreigner" p.18, Narain "The Indo-Greeks" 135. ^ "All Greeks in India were however known as Yavanas", Burjor Avari, "India, the ancient past", p.130 136. ^ "The term Yavana may well have been first applied by the Indians to the Greeks of various cities of Asia Minor who were settled in the areas contiguous to north-west India" Narain "The Indo-Greeks", p.227 137. ^ "Of the Sanskrit Yavana, there are other forms and derivatives, viz. Yona, Yonaka, Javana, Yavana, Jonon or Jononka, Ya-ba-na etc... Yona is a normal Prakrit form from Yavana", Narain "The Indo-Greeks", p.228 138. ^ a b "It is probable that the wheel on some coins of Menander is connected with Buddhism", Narain, The Indo-Greeks, p.122 139. ^ Tarn, p.391: "Somewhere I have met with the zhole-hearted statement that every Greek in India ended by becoming a Buddhist (...) Heliodorus the ambassador was a Bhagavatta, a worshiper of Vshnu-Krishna as the supreme deity (...) Theodorus the meridrarch, who established some relics of the Buddha "for the purpose of the security of many people", was undoubtedly Buddhist". Images of the Zoroastrian divinity Mithra - depicted with a radiated phrygian cap - appear extensively on the Indo-Greek coinage of the Western kings. This Zeus-Mithra is also the one represented seated (with the gloriole around the head, and a small protrusion on the top of the head representing the cap) on many coins of Hermaeus, Antialcidas or Heliokles II. 140. ^ "It is not unlikely that "Dikaios", which is translated Dhramaika in the Kharosthi legend, may be connected with his adoption of the Buddhist faith." Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.124 141. ^ "Menander, the probable conqueror of Pataliputra, seems to have been a Buddhist, and his name belongs in the list of important royal patrons of Buddhism along with Asoka and Kanishka", McEvilley, p.375 142. ^ Stupavadana, Chapter 57, v15. Quotes in E.Seldeslachts. 143. ^ McEvilley, p.377 144. ^ Plutarch "Political precepts", p147–148 Full text 145. ^ "The extraordinary realism of their portraiture. The portraits of Demetrius, Antimachus and of Eucratides are among the most remarkable that have come down to us from antiquity" Hellenism in Ancient India, Banerjee, p134 146. ^ "Just as the Frank Clovis had no part in the development of Gallo-Roman art, the Indo-Scythian Kanishka had no direct influence on that of Indo-Greek Art; and besides, we have now the certain proofs that during his reign this art was already stereotyped, of not decadent" Hellenism in Ancient India, Banerjee, p147

147. ^ "The survival into the 1st century AD of a Greek administration and presumably some elements of Greek culture in the Punjab has now to be taken into account in any discussion of the role of Greek influence in the development of Gandharan sculpture", The Crossroads of Asia, p14 148. ^ On the Indo-Greeks and the Gandhara school: o 1) "It is necessary to considerably push back the start of Gandharan art, to the first half of the first century BC, or even, very probably, to the preceding century.(...) The origins of Gandharan art... go back to the Greek presence. (...) Gandharan iconography was already fully formed before, or at least at the very beginning of our era" Mario Bussagli "L'art du Gandhara", p331–332 o 2) "The beginnings of the Gandhara school have been dated everywhere from the first century B.C. (which was M.Foucher's view) to the Kushan period and even after it" (Tarn, p394). Foucher's views can be found in "La vieille route de l'Inde, de Bactres a Taxila", pp340–341). The view is also supported by Sir John Marshall ("The Buddhist art of Gandhara", pp5–6). o 3) Also the recent discoveries at Ai-Khanoum confirm that "Gandharan art descended directly from Hellenized Bactrian art" (Chaibi Nustamandy, "Crossroads of Asia", 1992). o 4) On the Indo-Greeks and Greco-Buddhist art: "It was about this time (100 BC) that something took place which is without parallel in Hellenistic history: Greeks of themselves placed their artistic skill at the service of a foreign religion, and created for it a new form of expression in art" (Tarn, p393). "We have to look for the beginnings of Gandharan Buddhist art in the residual IndoGreek tradition, and in the early Buddhist stone sculpture to the South (Bharhut etc...)" (Boardman, 1993, p124). "Depending on how the dates are worked out, the spread of Gandhari Buddhism to the north may have been stimulated by Menander's royal patronage, as may the development and spread of the Gandharan sculpture, which seems to have accompanied it" McEvilley, 2002, "The shape of ancient thought", p378. 149. ^ Benjamin Rowland JR, foreword to "The Dyasntic art of the Kushan", John Rosenfield, 1967 150. ^ Ranajit Pal, "An Altar of Alexander Now Standing Near Delhi", Scholia, vol. 15, pp.78-101 151. ^ Boardman, p141 152. ^ Boardman, p143 153. ^ "Others, dating the work to the first two centuries A.D., after the waning of Greek autonomy on the Northwest, connect it instead with the Roman Imperial trade, which was just then getting a foothold at sites like Barbaricum (modern Karachi) at the Indus-mouth. It has been proposed that one of the embassies from Indian kings to Roman emperors may have brought back a master sculptorto oversee work in the emerging Mahayana Buddhist sensibility (in which the Buddha came to be seen as a kind of deity), and that "bands of foreign workmen from the eastern centers of the Roman Empire" were brought to India" (Mc Evilley "The shape of ancient thought", quoting Benjamin Rowland "The art and architecture of India" p121 and A.C. Soper "The Roman Style in Gandhara" American Journal of Archaeology 55 (1951) pp301–319) 154. ^ Boardman, p.115 155. ^ McEvilley, p.388-390 156. ^ Boardman, 109-153 157. ^ "It is noteworthy that the dress of the Gandharan Bodhisattva statues has no resemblance whatever to that of the Kushan royal portrait statues, which has many affiliations with Parthian costume. The finery of the Gandhara images must be modeled on the dress of local native nobility, princes of Indian or Indo-Greek race, who had no blood connection with the Scythian rulers. It is also evident that the facial types are unrelated to the features of the Kushans as we know them from their coins and fragmentary portrait statues.", Benjamin Rowland JR, foreword to "The Dyasntic art of the Kushan", John Rosenfield, 1967 158. ^ "Those tiny territories of the Indo-Greek kings must have been lively and

commercially flourishing places", India: The ancient past, Burjor Avari, p.130 159. ^ "No doubt the Greeks of Bactria and India presided over a flourishing economy. This is clearly indicated by their coinage and the monetary exchange they had established with other currencies." Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.275 160. ^ Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p.27 161. ^ Rapson, clxxxvi162. ^ Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p.75 163. ^ Fussman, JA 1993, p127 and Bopearachchi, "Graeco-Bactrian issues of the later Indo-Greek kings", Num. Chron.1990, pp79–104) 164. ^ "Strabo II.3.4 5 on Eudoxus". http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/2C*.html#3.4. 165. ^ "Since the merchants of Alexandria are already sailing with fleets by way of the Nile and of the Persian Gulf as far as India, these regions also have become far better known to us of today than to our predecessors. At any rate, when Gallus was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the Nile as far as Syene and the frontiers of Ethiopia, and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos for India, whereas formerly, under the Ptolemies, only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise." Strabo II.5.12 166. ^ "It is curious that on his copper Zoilos used a Bow and quiver as a type. A quiver was a badge used by the Parthians (Scythians) and had been used previously by Diodotos, who we know had made a treaty with them. Did Zoilos use Scythian mercenaries in his quest against Menander perhaps?" Senior, Indo-Scythian coins, p.xxvii 167. ^ "Polybius 10.49, Battle of the Arius". http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgibin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+10.49. 168. ^ Photographic reference on a coin of Menander II, circa 90 BC: Image:MenanderIIQ.jpg 169. ^ "Megasthenes Indica". http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Foreign_Views/GreekRoman/ Megasthenes-Indika.htm. 170. ^ "Justin XLI". http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/texte41.html. 171. ^ On the size of Hellenistic armies, see accounts of Hellenistic battles by Diodorus, books XVIII and XIX 172. ^ "They are a nation of nomads, moving from place to place with their herds, and their customs are like those of the Xiongnu. They have some 100,000 or 200,000 archer warriors... The Yuezhi originally lived in the area between the Qilian or Heavenly mountains and Dunhuang, but after they were defeated by the Xiongnu they moved far away to the west, beyond Dayuan, where they attacked and conquered the people of Daxia (Bactria) and set up the court of their king on the northern bank of the Gui (Oxus) river" ("Records of the Great Historian", Sima Qian, trans. Burton Watson, p234) 173. ^ Tarn, p.494 174. ^ "Though the Indo-Greek monarchies seem to have ended in the first century BC, the Greek presence in India and Bactria remained strong", McEvilley, p.379 175. ^ "The use of the Greek months by the Sakas and later rulers points to the conclusion that they employed a system of dating started by their predecessors." Narain, "Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.190 176. ^ "Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign of Chandragupta II is to be seen in his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type (a peacock) for the chaitya with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc...", p.cli 177. ^ McEvilley, "The Shape of Ancient Thought", p503. 178. ^ Under each king, information from Bopearachchi is taken from Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, Catalogue Raisonné (1991) or occasionally SNG9 (1998). Senior's chronology is from The Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian king

sequences in the second and first centuries BC, ONS179 Supplement (2004), whereas the comments (down to the time of Hippostratos) are from The decline of the IndoGreeks (1998). [edit] References • Avari, Burjor (2007). India: The ancient past. A history of the Indian subcontinent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200. Routledge. ISBN 0415356164. • Banerjee, Gauranga Nath (1961). Hellenism in ancient India. Delhi: Munshi Ram Manohar Lal.. OCLC 1837954 ISBN 0-8364-2910-9. • Bernard, Paul (1994). "The Greek Kingdoms of Central Asia." In: History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250, pp. 99-129. Harmatta, János, ed., 1994. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. ISBN 92-3-102846-4. • Boardman, John (1994). The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-03680-2. • Bopearachchi, Osmund (1991) (in French). Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et IndoGrecques, Catalogue Raisonné. Bibliothèque Nationale de France. ISBN 2-7177-18257. • Bopearachchi, Osmund (1998). SNG 9. New York: American Numismatic Society. ISBN 0-89722-273-3. • Bopearachchi, Osmund (2003) (in French). De l'Indus à l'Oxus, Archéologie de l'Asie Centrale. Lattes: Association imago-musée de Lattes. ISBN 2-9516679-2-2. • Bopearachchi, Osmund; Smithsonian Institution; National Numismatic Collection (U.S.) (1993). Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins in the Smithsonian Institution. Washington: National Numismatic Collection, Smithsonian Institution. OCLC 36240864. • Bussagli, Mario; Francine Tissot; Béatrice Arnal (1996) (in French). L'art du Gandhara. Paris: Librairie générale française. ISBN 2-253-13055-9. • Cambon, Pierre (2007) (in French). Afghanistan, les trésors retrouvés. Musée Guimet. ISBN 9782711852185. • Errington, Elizabeth; Joe Cribb; Maggie Claringbull; Ancient India and Iran Trust; Fitzwilliam Museum (1992). The Crossroads of Asia: transformation in image and symbol in the art of ancient Afghanistan and Pakistan. Cambridge: Ancient India and Iran Trust. ISBN 0-9518399-1-8. • Faccenna, Domenico (1980) (in English). Butkara I (Swāt, Pakistan) 1956– 1962, Volume III 1. Rome: IsMEO (Istituto Italiano Per Il Medio Ed Estremo Oriente). • Foltz, Richard (2000). Religions of the Silk Road: overland trade and cultural exchange from antiquity to the fifteenth century. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 0-312-23338-8. • Keown, Damien (2003). A Dictionary of Buddhism. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860560-9. • Lowenstein, Tom (2002). The vision of the Buddha: Buddhism, the path to spiritual enlightenment. London: Duncan Baird. ISBN 1-903296-91-9. • Marshall, Sir John Hubert (2000). The Buddhist art of Gandhara: the story of the early school, its birth, growth, and decline. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. ISBN 81-215-0967-X. • Marshall, John (1956) (in English). Taxila. An illustrated account of archaeological excavations carried out at Taxila (3 volumes). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. • McEvilley, Thomas (2002). The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies. Allworth Press and the School of Visual Arts. ISBN 1-58115-203-5. • Mitchiner, John E.; Garga (1986). The Yuga Purana: critically edited, with an English translation and a detailed introduction. Calcutta, India: Asiatic Society. OCLC 15211914 ISBN 81-7236-124-6. • Narain, A.K. (1957) (in English). The Indo-Greeks. Oxford: Clarendon Press. o reprinted by Oxford, 1962, 1967, 1980; reissued (2003), "revised and supplemented," by B. R. Publishing Corporation, New Delhi.

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