In Partial Obstruction

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Local Effects of Bowel Obstruction When a loop of bowel becomes obstructed, intestinal gas and fluid accumulate. Stasis of luminal content favors bacterial overgrowth, alters intestinal fluid transport properties and motility, and causes variations in intestinal perfusion and lymph flow. Luminal contents and volume, bacterial proliferation, and alterations in motility and perfusion work in concert to determine the rate at which symptoms and complications develop. Each of these factors merits discussion in some detail. Intestinal Gas. Approximately 80% of the gas seen on plain abdominal radiographs is attributable to swallowed air.6 Approximately 70% of the gas in the obstructed gut is inert nitrogen.10 Oxygen accounts for 10% to 12%, CO2 for 6% to 9%, hydrogen for 1%, methane for 1%, and hydrogen disulfide for 1% to 10%. In the setting of acute pain and anxiety, patients with intestinal obstruction may swallow excessive amounts of air. Passage of such swallowed air distally is prevented by nasogastric suction. Intestinal Flora. An important contribution to normal digestive function comes from its bacterial population. In patients with normal gastric acid secretion, the chyme entering the duodenum is sterile. The small numbers of bacteria that are found in the stomach and proximal intestine are aerobic, gram-positive species found in the oropharynx. Distally, in the ileum and colon, gramnegative aerobes are present and anaerobic organisms predominate. Total bacterial counts in normal feces reach 1011 organisms per gram of fecal matter. Control of the bacterial populations depends on intact motor activity of the intestines and the interactions of all species present. This ecology can be disturbed by antibiotic therapy or by surgical reconstructions that result in stasis within intestinal segments. Intestinal bacteria serve several functions, including metabolism of fecal sterols, releasing the small-chain fatty acids that are an important food source for colonocytes; metabolism of fecal bile acids, fat-soluble vitamins (e.g., vitamin K), and vitamin B12; and breakdown of complex carbohydrates and organic matter, leading to formation of CO2, H2, and CH4 gases.9 Considerable evidence suggests that the normal flora may contribute to baseline levels of intestinal secretion and, perhaps, normal intestinal motility. Under baseline conditions, the small intestines in germ-free animals are frequently dilated, fluid filled, and without peristalsis.11,12 In recent years, the role of bacterial toxins in mediating the mucosal response to obstruction has received increasing attention. In germ-free dogs, luminal accumulation of fluid is not observed and absorption continues.12 In addition, it is well recognized that bacterial endotoxins can stimulate secretion, possibly via release or potentiation of activity of neuroendocrine substances and prostaglandins.11 Finally, since a substantial part of systemic microvascular and hemodynamic responses to endotoxemia appears to be attributable to heightened synthesis of nitric oxide,13,14 it seems likely that mucosal response to local inflammation and endotoxin release will also be altered by conditions modifying the synthesis or activity of nitric oxide. The role of nitric oxide in mucosal fluid and electrolyte movements is currently under active investigation.15,16 Intestinal Fluid. Classical experimental studies established that fluid accumulates intraluminally with open- or closed-loop small-intestinal obstruction.9,17 Factors contributing to the accumulation of fluid include intraluminal distention and pressure, release of prosecretory and antiabsorptive hormones and paracrine substances, changes in mesenteric circulation, and elaboration and luminal release of bacterial toxins. Experimental studies and clinical investigation18,19 demonstrated that elevation of luminal pressures above 20 cm H2O inhibits absorption and stimulates secretion of salt

and water into the lumen proximal to an obstruction. In closed-loop obstructions, luminal pressures may exceed 50 cm H2O and may account for a substantial proportion of luminal fluid accumulation.20 In simple, open-loop obstructions, distention of the lumen by gas rarely leads to luminal pressures higher than 8 to 12 cm H2O.21 Thus, in open-loop obstructions, the contributions of high luminal pressures to hypersecretion may not be important. The release of endocrine/paracrine substances remains relatively uncharacterized in states of mechanical bowel obstruction.22,23 Suggestions have been made that vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) may be released from the submucosal and myenteric plexuses within the gut wall, promoting epithelial secretion and inhibiting absorption.23 Use of prostaglandin P.752 synthesis inhibitors has also implicated excess release of prostaglandins.22 Further work may be expected to focus on the role of luminal factors such as irritative bile acids, proinflammatory agents such as endotoxin and platelet-activating factor, and messengers such as nitric oxide in coordinating responses of mucosal secretory and absorptive functions during intestinal obstruction. Intestinal Blood Flow. Microvascular responses to intestinal obstruction may also play an important role in determining the hydrostatic gradients for fluid transfer across the mucosa into the lumen. In response to heightened luminal pressure, total blood flow to the bowel wall may initially increase.24 The breakdown of epithelial barrier structures and enzymatic breakdown of stagnant intestinal contents leads to increased osmolarity of luminal contents. In addition to secretory stimulation and absorptive inhibition of the mucosa, the simultaneous changes in hydrostatic and osmotic pressures on the blood and lumen sides of the mucosa favor flow of extracellular fluid into the lumen. Perfusion is then compromised as luminal pressures increase, bacteria invade, and inflammation leads to edema within the bowel wall. Intestinal Motility. Obstruction of the intestinal lumen does not simply block distal passage of luminal contents. The accumulation of fluid and gas in the obstructed lumen also elicits changes in myoelectrical function of the gut, proximal and distal to the obstructed segment. In response to this distention, the obstructed segment itself may dilate, a process known as receptive relaxation.25 Such changes ensure that, despite accumulation of air and fluid, intraluminal pressures do not amplify easily to the point of compromising blood flow to the intestinal mucosa. At sites proximal and distal to the obstruction, changes in myoelectrical activity are time dependent. Initially, there may be intense periods of activity and peristalsis. Subsequently, myoelectrical activity is diminished and the interdigestive migrating myoelectrical complex pattern is replaced by ineffectual and seemingly disorganized clusters of contractions.26,27,28 Similar alterations have been observed in experimental models of large-bowel obstruction. Subsequent patterns of myoelectrical quiescence may correspond to increasing accumulation of fluid and air proximally and the attempt to prevent luminal pressures from rising. It is likely that many factors contribute to the rate at which these changes in myoelectrical activity occur. These factors would include neurohumoral milieu, bacterial products, and luminal constituents.

Efek Lokal Obstruksi Usus

Ketika loop usus terhambat, gas dan cairan menumpuk. Stasis konten luminal mendukung pertumbuhan bakteri, mengubah transportasi dan motilitas usus, dan mengganggu perfusi dan aliran limfa usus. Isi dan volume lumen, proliferasi bakteri, dan perubahan motilitas dan perfusi bekerja bersama untuk menentukan perkembangan gejala dan komplikasi. Gas usus. Sekitar 80 % gas yang terlihat pada foto polos abdomen disebabkan oleh udara yang tertelan. Sekitar 70 %; gas dalam usus yang terhalang adalah nitrogen inert. Oksigen menyumbang 10% - 12 %, CO2 6 % - 9 %, hidrogen 1 %, metana 1%, dan hidrogen disulfida 1- 10 %. Dalam keadaan nyeri akut dan cemas, pasien dengan obstruksi usus mungkin menelan udara dalam jumlah yang berlebih. Flora usus. Kontribusi penting fungsi pencernaan yang normal berasal dari populasi bakteri. Pada pasien dengan sekresi asam lambung normal, chyme yang memasuki duodenum steril. Sejumlah kecil bakteri aerob ditemukan di lambung dan proksimal usus, spesies gram positif ditemukan di orofaring. Pada bagian distal, ileum dan kolon, Ditemukan sejumlah aerob gram negatif dan organisme anaerob mendominasi. Jumlah bakteri total dalam feses normal mencapai 10 11 organisme per gram feses. Kontrol populasi bakteri tergantung pada aktivitas motorik dan interaksi semua spesies yang ada. Ekologi ini dapat terganggu oleh terapi antibiotik atau pembedahan digestiv yang menghasilkan stasis segmen usus. Bakteri usus memiliki beberapa fungsi, termasuk metabolisme sterol feses, mengurai asam lemak rantai kecil yang merupakan sumber makanan penting bagi kolonosit; metabolisme asam empedu fekal, vitamin larut lemak (misalnya, vitamin K), dan vitamin B12; dan pemecahan karbohidrat kompleks dan bahan organik, yang mengarah ke pembentukan gas CO2, H2, dan CH4. Bukti yang cukup menunjukkan bahwa flora normal dapat berkontribusi pada tingkat baseline sekresi usus dan, mungkin, motilitas usus normal. Di bawah kondisi dasar, usus kecil di hewan bebas kuman sering dilatasi, diisi cairan, dan tanpa gerak peristaltik. Dalam beberapa tahun terakhir, peran racun bakteri dalam memediasi respon mukosa terhadap obstruksi telah mendapat perhatian yang meningkat. Pada anjing bebas kuman, akumulasi cairan luminal tidak diamati dan absorpsi terus berlanjut.12 Selain itu, juga diketahui bahwa endotoksin bakteri dapat menstimulasi sekresi, mungkin melalui pelepasan atau potensiasi aktivitas zat neuroendokrin dan prostaglandin.11 Akhirnya, karena bagian substansial dari respon mikrovaskular dan hemodinamik sistemik terhadap endotoxemia tampaknya disebabkan oleh sintesis nitrat oksida yang meningkat, 13,14 nampaknya respon mukosal terhadap peradangan lokal dan pelepasan endotoksin juga akan diubah oleh kondisi yang memodifikasi sintesis atau aktivitas oksida nitrat. . Peran nitrit oksida dalam cairan mukosa dan gerakan elektrolit saat ini sedang dalam penyelidikan aktif. 15,16 Cairan usus. Penelitian eksperimental klasik menetapkan bahwa cairan menumpuk intraluminal dengan obstruksi usus kecil terbuka atau tertutup. Faktor yang berkontribusi terhadap akumulasi cairan termasuk distensi dan tekanan intraluminal, pelepasan hormon prosekretori dan antiabsorptif dan zat parakrin, perubahan dalam sirkulasi mesenterika. , dan elaborasi dan pelepasan luminal racun bakteri. Studi eksperimental dan investigasi klinis18,19 menunjukkan bahwa peningkatan tekanan luminal di atas 20 cm H2O menghambat penyerapan dan merangsang sekresi garam dan air ke lumen proksimal ke obstruksi. Dalam obstruksi loop tertutup, tekanan luminal dapat melebihi 50 cm H2O dan dapat menyebabkan proporsi substansial akumulasi cairan luminal. Dalam obstruksi loop terbuka sederhana, distensi lumen oleh gas jarang menyebabkan tekanan luminal lebih tinggi

dari 8 hingga 12 cm H2O.21 Jadi, pada obstruksi loop terbuka, kontribusi tekanan luminal yang tinggi terhadap hipersekresi mungkin tidak penting. Pelepasan zat endokrin / parakrin tetap relatif tidak terkarakterisasi dalam keadaan obstruksi usus mekanik. Saran-saran telah dibuat bahwa polipeptida usus vasoaktif (VIP) dapat dilepaskan dari pleksus submukosa dan myenteric dalam dinding usus, mempromosikan sekresi epitel dan menghambat penyerapan.23 Penggunaan prostaglandin inhibitor sintesis juga melibatkan pelepasan kelebihan prostaglandin.22 Pekerjaan lebih lanjut mungkin diharapkan untuk fokus pada peran faktor luminal seperti asam empedu yang menjengkelkan, agen proinflamasi seperti endotoksin dan faktor pengaktif platelet, dan pembawa pesan seperti nitrit oksida dalam respon koordinasi sekresi mukosa dan fungsi absorpsi selama obstruksi usus. Aliran Darah Usus. Respon mikrovaskular terhadap obstruksi usus juga dapat memainkan peran penting dalam menentukan gradien hidrostatik untuk transfer cairan melintasi mukosa ke lumen. Menanggapi tekanan luminal yang meningkat, aliran darah total ke dinding usus pada awalnya dapat meningkat.24 Kerusakan struktur penghalang epitel dan pemecahan enzimatik dari isi usus stagnan menyebabkan peningkatan osmolaritas isi luminal. Selain stimulasi sekresi dan penghambatan penyerapan mukosa, perubahan simultan dalam tekanan hidrostatik dan osmotik pada darah dan sisi lumen mukosa mendukung aliran cairan ekstraseluler ke lumen. Perfusi kemudian dikompromikan dengan meningkatnya tekanan luminal, bakteri menyerang, dan peradangan menyebabkan edema dalam dinding usus. Motilitas usus. Obstruksi lumen usus tidak hanya memblokir bagian distal dari isi luminal. Akumulasi cairan dan gas dalam lumen yang terhalangi juga memunculkan perubahan fungsi miokelektrik dari usus, proksimal dan distal ke segmen yang terhalangi. Sebagai tanggapan terhadap distensi ini, segmen yang terhalangi itu sendiri dapat melebar, suatu proses yang dikenal sebagai relaksasi reseptif. Perubahan tersebut memastikan bahwa, meskipun akumulasi udara dan cairan, tekanan intraluminal tidak dengan mudah mengamplifikasi titik aliran darah ke mukosa usus. . Di situs proksimal dan distal ke obstruksi, perubahan aktivitas myoelectrical tergantung waktu. Awalnya, mungkin ada periode intens aktivitas dan gerak peristaltik. Selanjutnya, aktivitas mioelektrik berkurang dan pola kompleks mioelektrik yang interdigestif bermigrasi digantikan oleh kelompok kontraksi yang tidak teratur dan tampak tidak teratur.26,27,28 Perubahan serupa telah diamati pada model eksperimental obstruksi usus besar. Pola-pola selanjutnya dari kelistrikan myoelectrical mungkin sesuai dengan meningkatnya akumulasi cairan dan udara secara proksimal dan upaya untuk mencegah tekanan luminal meningkat. Sangat mungkin bahwa banyak faktor berkontribusi pada tingkat perubahan ini dalam aktivitas myoelectrical terjadi. Faktor-faktor ini akan mencakup lingkungan neurohumoral, produk bakteri, dan konstituen luminal..

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