International Conference on Indian History ICIH 2009, January 9‐11, 2009
पु र ाणिमितवृत्त माख्याियकोदाहरणं धमार् थ र्श ास्तर्ं चे त ीितहासः ।। SOUVENIR VOLUME
Edited by
Om Prakash Prashant Bhardwaj Kosla Vepa
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Defeatist Spirit Must Go……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4 Welcome……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….5 The Pernicious effects of the Misinterpreted Greek Synchronism in Ancient Indian History…… 11 Listing of Abstracts submitted before deadline ..................................................................... 46 Curriculum Vitae………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 83 Thanksgiving ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………97 Appendix Programme Schedule…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………99
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DEFEATIST SPIRIT MUST GO SIR C. V. RAMAN’S ADVICE TO YOUTH (ASSOCIATED PRESS OF INDIA, PATNA, NOVEMBER 28, 1941) Appeared in the Hindu December 1, 1941 ADDRESSING THE PATNA UNIVERSITY CONVOCATION THIS EVENING IN THE WHEELER SENATE HOUSE, DR. SACHIDANAND SINHA, VICE-CHANCELLOR, PRESIDING, SIR C. V. RAMAN SAID: “You, our young men come to the Universities and leave them to face the world—a world which may seem to be an unsympathetic harsh world. I would like to tell the young men and women before me not to lose hope and courage. Success can only come to you by courageous devotion to the task lying in front of you and there is nothing worth in this world that can come without the sweat of our brow. We have abundant human material in India. Speaking as teacher of twenty‐four years experience, I can assert, without fear of contradiction, that the quality of the Indian mind is equal to the quality of any Teutonic, Nordic or Anglo‐Saxon mind. What we lack is perhaps courage, what we lack is perhaps the driving force which takes one anywhere. We have, I think, developed an inferiority complex. I think what is needed in India today is the destruction of that defeatist spirit. We need a spirit of victory, a spirit that will carry us on to our rightful place under the sun, a spirit which will recognize that, we as inheritors of a proud civilization, are entitled to a rightful place on this planet If that indomitable spirit were to arise, nothing can hold us from achieving our rightful destiny.”
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WELCOME ागतम Bien Venue Herzliche Willkomen Sri Jagmohan, Professor Braj Bhasi Lal, Professor Shivaji Singh, Distinguished Scholars, I extend a hearty welcome to you on behalf of all the volunteer members of the ICIH 2009, and the ISF. I greet you in the same manner as we done from time immemorial with a
Namaste It is indeed a privilege and a signal honor to welcome you all to the International Conference on Indian History (ICIH 2009) the first of what we hope to be many future conferences that will allow us to discuss issues freely and fearlessly, and explore the rich and varied tapestry that forms the major part of the Indic History and Civilization. There is clearly buried within my innermost self the desire to tilt at windmills, just as the hero Don Quixote de la Mancha, in the classic tale by Miguel de Cervantes’ felt the need to do just that. The reason I say that is, our goal remains the changing of the content of the text books worldwide and especially in the English speaking countries that deal with the Indic civilization in so cavalier a fashion. Our estimation is that a significant proportion of the Indic Diaspora has experienced, the demeaning condescension that many English historians have bestowed on India and the Indics, starting from James Mills to Sir Penderel Moon. I mention this to emphasize that this is a problem, not just of a particular geography, but a large part of the World. There are some, I concede, that feel our Civilizational History, provided that it is correctly depicted, is indeed a closed book and nothing more needs to be said about Indian History and that for a host of reasons, any attempt to correct it is futile and would lead nowhere. I beg to disagree. Even a cursory look at the current History books would disabuse us of such a notion. A typical book of Indian history would deal with the entire history of India prior to the Common Era within the space of 20 to 100 pages, and would spend the next 100 pages for the less than 200 years of Mughal rule, and another 100 pages on the British colonial period which lasted just a tad under 200 years. If my remarks suggest that such a cavalier treatment is only extended to the ancient era that is clearly not the case. The Vijayanagar Empire which is a relatively recent occurrence is vouchsafed the same degree of neglect, even though it lasted longer than the 4
Mughal Empire; see for instance, the book by John Keay 1 which devotes a scant 3 pages to the Vijayanagar Empire. Assuming such weight‐age results from lack of knowledge of our past, this merely reinforces my point that much work is yet to be done in deciphering the Indic past. But if such neglect of our Ancient era has been a deliberate act to minimize the contributions of the ancient Indic, it is a far more serious matter indicating lack of integrity. This pattern is strikingly similar in a large number of books. If we make the generalization that this applies only to books written by Englishmen, a quick look at what is there in other countries reveal to us that, alas the picture is no better, such as for example when one looks at a book written for German readers by Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund. Clearly, notwithstanding the great rivalry that the Germans exhibited towards the British during much of the 19th century, the overwhelming feeling you get when you read Kulke and Rothermund is one of empathy for the British for assuming the burden of civilizing the natives of India. There is the customary obfuscation and omission of many egregious acts committed by the Colonial Overlord during their tenure as a self appointed guardian of the Indic peoples. To those millions who died in the seventy famines that occurred during the Colonial era, such a sanitized narrative is not only a mockery of the truth but a grotesque perversion of history. There are exceptions to be sure, such as the monumental work done by Will and Ariel Durant but they are rare. To be charitable, and this is not an instance where charity is warranted, we will assume Napoleon’s dictum to be true, that we should attribute not to malice that which is more easily attributable to incompetence. Even the most painstaking effort at the Historical narration of a people is a process which often reduces the multifaceted civilization to a much lower dimension, where if care is not taken, we come away with the feeling that the only important feature of a land was the chronology of the Kings and the buildings and monuments that they left behind. In reducing the historical narrative to the printed word, we may not experience the vibrancy of events as they first unfolded and the fact we are almost certainly witnessing a large scale titanic shift in paradigms, and values, that is the essential ingredient of the Shiva Tandava, the quintessential Hindu metaphor that represents the daily rhythms of birth, life and of death. Why is this? In my view this is so because for the most part the modern treatment of Indian history in the hands of the occidentals and their parampara in India is so banal and is often reduced to the prevailing mores of political correctness. This is the case, even when the narration is free from egregious errors. When there is little attempt at authenticity, and every issue becomes a test of loyalty to a political dogma, the situation is far more dire. All pretence at maintaining the accuracy of the narrative is abandoned, and the sole criterion is preserving this extraordinary degree of political correctness. There are exceptions to this vast ocean of banality, as exemplified by the work of a few, among whom we count the Chairman and the inaugural speaker. The gifted historian will have the talent to bring alive with vivid colors the tempo of the lives of ordinary folk, their hopes and fears and will take a stab at describing what a typical day is like.
WHY SHOULD WE TAKE A FRESH LOOK AT HISTORY The state of knowledge in various fields such as Physics, Genetics, biology, chemistry, and 1 Jo hn K ea y, “ Indi a – a hi stor y” , Gro ve Press, N ew Yor k,2000
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forensics, is such that they can now be brought to bear on the questions that arise in the decipherment of history. No longer is one forced to guess, at least in an increasing number of cases, the dates when an event took place, as did the colonial overlord
We will begin at the beginning and ask ourselves why we would study history at all.
WHY STUDY HISTORY AT ALL The traditional discipline of History is one that tries to answer the following questions: What was said? What was written? What was physically preserved? The earliest oral record of a history is that of the Vedas (the terminus ante quem we believe is 4000 BCE) and the earliest written record is the Cuneiform of 3400 BCE. Why study history? The answer is because we virtually must, to gain access to the laboratory of human experience. When we study it reasonably well, we acquire some usable habits of mind, as well as some basic data about the forces that affect our own lives and as a result emerge with relevant skills and an enhanced capacity for informed citizenship, critical thinking, and simple awareness. In short the history of a people is akin to the DNA of the human species. It contains within it all the collective experiences and wisdom of a people. People, who ignore their own history, do so at their own peril and will often be forced to repeat it. The real question is, can we afford not to learn our history. As opposed to our viewpoint, which we take as a tautology, notice the fear of the study of history in some quarters, exemplified by the following statement: “The uncontested ascendancy of history has dangerously narrowed the possibilities of dissent in our times and nowhere is this more evident than in India” 2. In other words, the study of history is ipso facto, dangerous and should presumably be at a minimum, not encouraged. If we do not write our own history somebody else will (they will have no compulsion to be true to our history). They will write it from their perspective an account favorable to their civilization. We are pleased to present to you in the next two and a half days a cross section of the rich intellectual tradition that forms the tapestry of Indian civilization. It is indeed a humbling experience when one is confronted by the grand panoply of the Indian literary tradition, the epigraphic and numismatic data, and the archaeological evidence, to realize how little we know of the Indic past. I would consider the conference a success if we come away overwhelmed with the feeling that we have lot to learn. We hope that the conference will once again ignite the curiosity of young minds. These will in turn initiate an era of scholarship in order to give rise to a new generation of historians who 2 Lal, Vina y “The Hi stor y o f H i stor y” . Ox for d Uni ver si ty Press, Del hi, 2003 , N ew Del hi
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will do justice to this narrative, the History of the Indic Peoples and their civilization. We ask all of you to make following pledge: “Let it resound in the distant regions of this planet, whether there are those that wish us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival of the cherished values and traditions of the Hindu”
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Where the mind is without fear Where the mind is without fear And the head is held high; Where knowledge is free; Where the world has not been Broken up into fragments by narrow Domestic walls; Where words come out from The depth of truth; Where tireless striving stretches its Arms towards perfection; Where the clear stream of reason Has not lost its way into the dreary Desert sand of dead habit; Where the mind is led forward by Thee into ever‐widening thought and action… Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake.
Rabindranath Tagore
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PROGRAM SCHEDULE
(see Appendix)
Presidential Address ICIH 2009 Contending paradigms of Indian history: What’s the way out? Professor Shivaji Singh National President,
Akhila Bh¡rat§ya Itih¡sa Sa¯kalana Yμjan¡ (see Appendix)
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THE PERNICIOUS EFFECTS OF THE MISINTERPRETED GREEK SYNCHRONISM IN ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY Kosla Vepa PhD WHAT DO WE MEAN BY THE
GREEK SYNCHRONISM ?
It was F E Pargiter, who introduced the notion of a Synchronism in Indian Historiography, in one of the first such works to appear in a European language, which lent credulity to the Puranic texts, he was the first to analyze them in detail and publish his findings in a book. 3 Even so, Pargiter had fallen prey to the propensity of the colonial overlord to tamper with the data instead of reporting on it in a dispassionate manner with Vairagya and Viveka. In so doing he follows the pattern of British Indian civil servants, who with literally dozens of domestic servants to relieve them of daily chores and ample time and a security enabled through palatial and sumptuous salaries at the cost of the impoverished Indian, were able to indulge in the favorite pastime of rewriting and reinterpreting Indian History in a form more palatable to the European audience. But Pargiter exhibits a degree of adherence to the evidence not evident in most other writers from the Occident. Despite his scholarship, the constant contact with Indians who were mostly in a subordinate role and generally obsequious in their behavior to most Occidentals, had taken its toll on objectivity and there is palpable condescension in the narrative that he spins and like other English historians, he does not seem to have sought the opinion and review of Indic Pundits. The concern about synchronism was a natural one and stemmed from the need for understanding the relationship between various overlapping dynasties that spanned a millennial time frame. Hailing as they did, from a small island, they were not used to seeing the sheer plethora of dynastic families that ruled over the different parts of the subcontinent during the millennia. More importantly, the tendency to disbelieve any dates or the absolute chronology was so strong, that they were looking for external synchronisms, especially with respect to an Occidental. The difficulty was that there was not much of a civilization in the Occident during the millennia prior to 1000 BCE, with the exception of the countries surrounding the eastern Mediterranean. As a result, there is no record that is accessible to us even of travelers from 3 Pa rgi ter , FE, “ Ancient India n H i stori ca l T ra di ti o n” Ox fo r d Univer si ty Press, Lo ndo n, 1922 , Cha pter XII, page 139 .
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Greece or Babylon during the time frame in question. This is not to say that absence of evidence is evidence of absence. It is just that more work needs to be done to see if there were other travelers to India during the time period under consideration
SIR WILLIAM JONES The real pioneer of European Indology was Sir William Jones (1746‐April 27, 1794), reputedly a scholar, gifted linguist and founder of the Royal Asiatic Society and by all accounts a man of superior intellect. It appears he was a confidante of Warren Hastings (1732‐1818). Jones ostensibly became an ardent admirer of India. He wrote, “I am in love with Gopia, charmed with Crishen (Krishna), an enthusiastic admirer of Raama and a devout adorer of Brihma (Brahma), Bishen (Vishnu), Mahisher (Maheshwara); not to mention that Judishteir, Arjen, Corno (Yudhishtira, Arjuna, Karna) and the other warriors of the Mahabharata appear greater in my eyes than Agamemnon, Ajax and Achilles appeared when I first read the Iliad” 4.
Above Sir William learning Sanskrit from the Pundits Brief Highlights in the life of Sir William Jones Studied at Harrow School Entered University College, Oxford 1764 Admitted to the Temple September 19, 1770 Called to the Bar, 1774 Fellow of the Royal Society, 1776 Appointed Judge of the Supreme Court of Judicature, Fort St William, 1783 4 Mukhar ji, S.N., Sir William Jones: A Study in Ei ghteenth Century Br itish Attitudes to India, Orient Lo ngma n, 19 87
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Authored The Chronology of the Hindus, The Indian Zodiac, The Lunar year of the Hindus Died of inflammation of the Liver 1794, when he was shy of 50 This is the story we are told. What is the truth of the matter? He remained true to the Biblical dogma of Genesis which he took to be a literal account. His chronology for ancient India, including the dating of Chandragupta Maurya to the period of Alexander’s invasion of India was dictated at least in part by the Biblical dogma. Jones may not have had an ulterior motive in doing this, since these were the times prior to the advent of Charles Darwin. All the same, his disinclination to go against his scriptures renders his conclusions suspect. In 1786, while delivering his third lecture, Sir William made the following statement which aroused the curiosity of many scholars and finally led to the emergence of comparative linguistics. Noticing the similarities between Sanskrit and the Classical Languages of Europe such as Greek and Latin he declared: “The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine all three of them, without believing them to have sprung from some common source which, perhaps, no longer exists; there is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskrit; and the old Persian might be added to the same family...” 5 There is cognitive dissonance in this stance of Sir William, who on the one hand praises the Sanskrit language as a significant work of the human intellect while at the same time not inviting a single Indian to participate in the deliberations of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal. What is more they were effectively barred from participating in the meetings. He had a good understanding of Vedanta as exemplified in the following quote: “The fundamental tenet of the Vedanta school to which in a more modern age 6, the incomparable Sankara was a firm and illustrious adherent, consisted not in denying the existence of matter, that is, of solidity, impenetrability, and extended figure (to deny which would be lunacy), but in correcting the popular notion of it, and in contending that it has no essence independent of mental perception; that existence and perceptibility are convertible terms.” These words adequately express the compatibility of empirical reality and transcendental ideality. 7 5 Jo nes,Sir Wi llia m, Coll ected Wor ks, Vo l ume III: 3 4 -5 6 It must be noted tha t the curr ent co nventi o nal da ti ng o f Adi Sa nkara whi ch puts hi m i n the ei ghth centur y CE, ( a da ting tha t pro mpted Sir Willi am to use the ter m ‘mo der n a ge’ i s no t bor ne o ut b y the resul ts o f Astr o no mica l da ti ng carr ied o ut b y Prof Nara ha ri Achar . See fo r i nsta nce the Pro ceedi ngs o f the Dalla s confer ence on Distor tions in Indian Histor y, ti tl ed Astronomical Da ti ng and Select Vi gnettes from Indian H istor y, pub lished by the Indi c Studies Fo unda ti o n and a vailable a t lulu.com, and edited by me. T he mo re pla usible da te is 509 to 477 BCE during the r eign of Ha la Sa ta va ha na , with whom he ha d a n a udi ence 7 Sir Will ia m Jo nes On the Philosophy of the Asia ti cs (“ Asiati c Researches”, vol. iv, p, 164 ),
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One must understand the milieu of the times, to fathom the motivations of the individuals and nuances of what happened. Who were these people who came to India so eagerly? What motivated them to do so? Prodosh Aich has documented the real story behind the study of Indology, the subject that Sir William was credited with initiating. There are many questions that he answers in the book Lügen mit Langen Beinen (Lies with Long Legs) 8. For example the preponderance of individuals who served in the upper echelons of the British East India company were awarded the title Sir (or a Knighthood) before being sent to India, we presume to impress the Indians. A gentleman with the title Sir in front of his name was a Knight of the British Empire, reminiscent of the Knights of King Arthur. A Knight did not belong to the hereditary nobility, except on rare occasions. In order to become a Lord and sit in the House of Lords, one had to own a substantial estate and land was scarce in England and hence, while it was possible to impress the Indian by awarding a Sir, it rarely resulted in being elevated to the Peerage. We mention this to emphasize that the vast majority of official who came to India came from modest circumstances and only became wealthy after their stay in India. In other words, the instances where the individual was famous or a scholar before he came to India was rare indeed. So it was in the case of Sir William, whose primary motivation in coming to India was to achieve wealth, at a greatly accelerated pace, than he could hope to achieve in England. As far as his mastery of languages is concerned, there appears to be considerable exaggeration when he is credited with knowing 32 languages. He apparently knew Greek and Latin and had learned Arabic and Persian. In fact so great was his ignorance of Indic languages that he was unable to distinguish any of the languages spoken in Bengal when he arrived in Calcutta in 1782. When he was advised by Charles Wilkins to learn Sanskrit, he is quoted as saying ‘Life is too short and my necessary business too long for me to think at my age – he was then 38‐ of acquiring a new language, when those which I have already learned have such a mine of curious and agreeable information. Thus began the study of Indo European languages as one family. Such a study falls under the rubric of a field known as Philology. Wikipedia defines Philology as “Philology is the study of ancient texts and languages. The term originally meant a love (Greek philo‐) of learning and literature (Greek ‐logia). In the academic traditions of several nations, a wide sense of the term “philology” describes the study of a language together with its literature and the historical and cultural contexts which are indispensable for an understanding of the literary works and other culturally significant texts. Philology thus comprises the study of the grammar, rhetoric, history, interpretation of authors, and critical traditions associated to a given language. Such a wide‐ ranging definition is becoming rare nowadays, and “philology” tends to refer to a study of texts from the perspective of historical linguistics. Inadvertently Sir William set in motion a chain of events beginning with the search for a Proto Indo European Languages or PIE for short. The puzzling observation here is that it never occurred to him, as far as we are aware that possibly, Sanskrit itself could be the grand ancestor to all the languages of the Indo European languages. Till then Europeans had assumed that the oldest language related to the European languages was Hebrew. Given the anti Semitic feelings that were always simmering underneath the surface in Europe, there was general relief that the roots of their heritage lay elsewhere than in Hebrew, but Sir William may have realized that the notion of the unwashed millions of the subject peoples of India possessed the linguistic technology (in 8 Pro do sh Ai ch “ Li es wi th Long Legs” , Sa nskri ti , N ew Del hi , 2004
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Panini‘s Ashtadhyayi) to explain the grammars of their own language would perhaps be equally unacceptable. Whatever the case may be, there are two major disservices that he did to the Indic Civilization. One was the possible misdating of Chandragupta Maurya by several centuries and the other was postulating the assumption of a PIE, which implied an Urheimat (an ancestral home) from where the Indo Europeans fanned out to the four corners of the Eurasian landmass. By so doing he laid the seeds for a fractured historical narrative for the Indics, which was not supported by any Indian legend or folklore. In short he saddled the Indics with perpetually having to refute dual falsehoods, a false chronology and an imposed ‘Aryan Invasion or what has been light heartedly called the Aryan Tourist theory. When it came to synchronisms, the only significant data that could be utilized by Sir William for a synchronism was the invasion of Alexander. This was the earliest date that he could come up with, and the data he had was the notes kept by Megasthenes, the ambassador sent to India by Seleucus Nicator, one of the generals of Alexander who broke away from the main Alexandrian empire to spin of his own Kshatrapy ( Sk. For Regional Kingdom) We will assume for the moment that the accepted date of the invasion when he was in the Indus valley is indeed 326 BCE. There are severe difficulties with this dating, but unless we make the assumption that this is a correct date we will not be able to proceed. Nevertheless, at the outset it must be stated, in all candor, that the name of Alexander does not appear in any literary text in India and that therefore this is hardly a judicious choice for a synchronism. In this instance it is appropriate to recall the ancient adage that ‘Fools will barge in where Angels will fear to tread and one cannot fault Sir William for expressing great joy in his discovery that Megasthenes was the ambassador of Seleucus Nicator to the Maurya Empire. We quote Sir William. Sir William Jones, President of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, gave his tenth anniversary discourse on February 28, 1793. The topic was, “Asiatic history, civil and natural,” and it was published in the fourth volume of the Asiatic Researches, first printed in 1807, reprint 1979. This was his third attempt to destroy the culture and the history of Bharatvarsh by mutilating the historic dates. It bears mentioning that Indians were not allowed to be members of the Royal Asiatic Society and it was not until a hundred and forty years later that they would be allowed to participate Jones says in his speech, “I cannot help mentioning a discovery which accident threw in my way, (I) thought my proofs must be reserved for an essay which I have destined for the fourth volume of your Transactions. To fix the situation of that Palibothra which was visited and described by Megasthenes, had always appeared a very difficult problem.” “…but this only difficulty was removed, when I found in a classical Sanscrit book, near 2000 years old, that Hiranyabahu, or golden‐armed, which the Greeks changed into Erannoboas, or the river with a lovely murmur was in fact another name for the Son itself, though Megasthenes, from ignorance or inattention, has named them separately. This discovery led to another of greater moment; for Chandragupta, who, from a military adventurer, became, like Sandracottus, the sovereign of Upper Hindostan, actually fixed the seat of his empire at Pataliputra, where he received ambassadors from foreign princes; and was no other than that very Sandracottus who concluded a treaty with Seleucus Nicator; so that we have solved another problem, to which we before alluded, and may in round numbers consider the twelve and three hundredth years before Christ.” (pp. xxv to xxvii) 14
He tells us in his speech that he has found a classical Sanskrit book of about 2,000 years old. The other thing he says is that Chandragupta was no other than the very Sandracottus who is described by Megasthenes to have made a treaty with Seleucus around 312 BC; and, to establish that that Chandragupta belonged to the Maurya dynasty, he mentions about some poem by Somdev which tells about the murder of Mahapadma of the Nanda dynasty and his eight sons by Chandragupta in order to usurp the kingdom. In this way Jones created a fictitious connection between Chandragupta Maurya and Sandracottus. He says in his speech, “A most beautiful poem by Somadev, comprising a very long chain of instructive and agreeable stories, begins with the famed revolution at Pataliputra, by the murder of King Nanda with his eight sons, and the usurpation of Chandragupta; and the same revolution is the subject of a tragedy in Sanscrit, entitled the Coronation of Chandra.” (p. xxviii) These were the basic points of his speech that was called the Discovery of the identity of Chandragupta Maurya as Sandracottus. But the problem is that such a formulation was completely erroneous in all aspects and there are several hypotheses that he makes that are no longer valid. What are these Hypotheses?
Who was ruling in India during the visit of Megasthenes? In order to examine these hypotheses we must digress to the characterization of Megasthenes by Greek Historians such as Arrian, Strabo and Diodorus. Megasthenes (ca. 350 BC ‐ 290 BC) was a Greek traveler and geographer from Ionia in Asia Minor or present day Turkey. He became an ambassador of Seleucus I of Syria to the court of Sandracottus (mistakenly believed to be Chandragupta Maurya) of India, in Pataliputra. However the exact date of his embassy is uncertain. Scholars place it before 288 BC. Arrian explains that Megasthenes lived in Arachosia, with the satrap (Sk. Kshatrap) Sibyrtius, from where he visited India: “Megasthenes lived with Sibyrtius, satrap of Arachosia, and often speaks of his visiting Sandracottus, the king of the Indians.” Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri [ 1 ] We have more definite information regarding the parts of India which Megasthenes visited. He entered the country through the district of the Pentapotamia of the rivers of which he gave a full account (thought to be the five affluents of the Indus, forming the Punjab region), and proceeded from there by the royal road to Pataliputra. There are accounts of Megasthenes having visited Madurai (then, a bustling city and capital of Pandya Kingdom), but appears not to have visited any other parts of India. His observations were recorded in Indika, a work that served as an important source to many later writers such as Strabo and Arrian. He describes such features as the Himalayas and the island of Sri Lanka. He also described India’s caste system.
Surviving text of Indika The problem from an Indic perspective is that very little of the Indika survives intact today and we are left with second hand accounts by the aforementioned Greek Historians. In fact McCrindle in “Ancient India as described by Megasthenes and Arian “says that the Greek writers such as Megasthenes were not highly regarded and were prone to lying. Strabo was of the opinion that Megasthenes simply created fables and as such no faith could be placed in his writings. In Strabo’s own words: “Generally speaking the men who have written on the affairs of India were a set of liars. Deimachos is first, Megasthenes comes next.” Diodorus also held similar opinions 15
about him. So who and what should we believe? It was Dr. Schwanbeck 9, who we are told again, had collected all the fragments that were extant at that time, and who finally comes to the conclusion that Megasthenes can be largely vindicated of the charge of mendacity (that was leveled at a host of other Greek historians). The Greek records mention Xandramas and Sandrocyptus as the kings immediately before and after Sandracottus. These names are not in any way phonetically similar to Mahapadma Nanda and Bindusara, who were the predecessor and successor of Chandragupta Maurya, respectively. However, if Sandracottus refers to Chandragupta “Gupta”, Xandramas reckons to be his predecessor Chandrashree alias Chandramas (the last of the main dynasty of Andhra Satavahana Kings) and Sandrocyptus to be Samudragupta. The phonetic similarity becomes quite apparent and also, with the assistance of other evidence, confirms the identity of Sandracottus to Chandragupta Gupta. The ancient Greeks like the Occidentals of today were either incapable of pronouncing Sanskrit names or refused to make the necessary effort to do so.
What does the Puranic evidence tell us The Puranas are the main means by which the transmittal of Hindu tradition took place and form the central core of the literature through which the values of the civilization are transmitted to successive generations. In fact we are told in the Mahabharata that, ‘the Veda is afraid of him who has not studied the Epics and Puranas, for he would indeed kill it with his ignorance of its truth propounded in them.’
Characteristics of the Puranas The Puranas are a class of literary texts, all written in Sanskrit verse, whose composition dates from the time of Veda Vyaasa, who lived at the time of the Mahabharata. The Puranas are regarded by some as the Veda when studied under a magnifying glass. The word “Purana” means “old” and in fact Panini assigns the meaning “complete”( cognate with purna) Generally they are considered as following the chronological aftermath of the epics, though sometimes the Mahabharata, which is generally classified as a work of Itihaasa (history), is also referred to as a Purana. Some Occidental scholars, such as van Buitenen10, are inclined to view the Puranas as beginning around the time that the composition of the Mahabharata came to a close. Certainly, in its final form the Mahabharata shows puranic features, and the Harivamsa, which is an appendix to the Mahabharata, where the life of Krishna or Hari is treated at some length, have sometimes been seen as puranas. The special subject of the Puranas is the powers and works of the gods, and one ancient Sanskrit lexicographer, Amarasinha, regarded by some as a Jain , and by others as a Buddhist who was reputed to be a courtier of Vikramaditya circa 80 BCE , defined a Purana as having five characteristic topics, or Pancalaksana in the Amarkosha thusly “(1) The 9 Anci ent India a s Described by Megasthenes a nd A rrian by Megasthenes, E. A. Schwanbeck, Arrian. A translation of the frag ments of the Indi ka of Megast henes, coll ect ed by Dr. Schwanbeck and of the fi rst part of I ndi ka by Arrian
10 Dimmitt, Cornelia; J. A. B. van Buitenen (1978). Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. pp. 373. ISBN 8170305969. 16
creation of the universe, Sarga; (2) Its destruction and renovation, Prati‐sarga; (3) The genealogy of gods and patriarchs, Vamsa; (4) The reigns of the Manus, forming the periods called Manavantaras; (5) the history of the Solar and Lunar races of kings, Vamsanucharita.” sargascha prathisargascha vamsamanvantharAni cha I VamsAnucharitam chaiva purAnAm panchalakshanam II
सगर्ःच ूिथसगर्ःच वम्समरािन च I
ु िरतम ् च वै प रु ाणाम ् पंच लक्षणं II वम्सान च
No one purana can be described as exhibiting in fine (or even coarse) detail all five of these distinguishing traits, but sometimes the Vishnu Purana is thought to most closely resemble the traditional definition. Vyasa composed the Puranas in 400, 000 “Grantha”. A Grantha is a stanza consisting of 32 syllables. Of these the Skanda Purana alone accounts for 100, 000. It is perhaps the world’s biggest literary work. The remaining 17 Puranas add up to 300, 000 Granthas. Apart from them Vyasa composed the Mahabharata, which comprised also nearly 100, 000 Granthas. Each Purana is devoted to a particular deity. There are Saiva, Vaisnava and Sakta Puranas. The 18 Puranas : Brahma Purana (Brahma), Padma Purana (Padma), Narada Purana (Naradiya), Markandeya Purana, Visnu Purana (Vaisnava), Siva Purana(Saiva), Bhagvata Purana, Agni Purana (Agneya), Bhavisya Purana, Brahma‐Vaivarta Purana, Linga Purana, Varaha Purana (Varaha), Skanda Mahapurana, Vamana Purana, Kurma Purana (Kaurma), Matsya Purana (Matsya), Garuda Purana (Garuda) and Brahmanda Purana. In the Puranic and other literature, there is no allusion anywhere to an invasion or inroad into India by foreign peoples up to the time of Andhra kings; and the only person who bore the name similar to Sandracottus of the Greeks, and who flourished at the time of Alexander, was Chandragupta of the Gupta dynasty, who established a mighty empire on the ruins of the already decayed Andhra dynasty and existing 2811 years after the Mahabharata War, corresponding to 328 B.C. His date is currently placed in the fourth century A.D., which obviously does not stand. It is also interesting to note that the accounts in the life of Sandracottus of the Greeks, and the political and social conditions in India at that time, match those of in the era of Chandragupta Gupta. With this observation, it is therefore the case that the Greek and Puranic accounts unanimously agree on the issue of the identity Chandragupta Gupta and Sandracottus. To provide a complete picture of the Dynastic lists and the names of the individual Kings of the Magadha Empire, we have added the lists until the end of the Gupta empire in appendix C. According to Puranic evidence, there had expired 1500 years after Parikshit, when Mahapadmananda was coronated. Between Parikshit and the Nandas, there were 3 royal dynasties, namely the Brihadratha, Pradyota and Sisunaga families The ten kings of the Sisunaga dynasty ruled for 360 years, beginning from 1994 B.C. and ending with 1634 B.C. At this time, an illegitimate son, Mahapadma‐Nanda, of the last Sisunaga emperor, Mahanandi, ascended the throne of Magadha. The total regnal period of this Nanda dynasty was 100 years. After this, with the assistance of Arya Chanakya, Chandragupta Maurya 17
ascended the throne of Magadha, and that is in the year 1534 B.C. This date can be arrived and confirmed using many independent accounts. The Mauryas ruled for a total of 316 years, and were replaced by the Sungas. The Kanvas who succeeded the Sungas were themselves overthrown by the Andhra, who in turn ruled for a period of 506 years. Then followed the reign of the Sri Guptas for a period of 245 years, also referred to as the (last of the) Golden ages of Bharata. It was Samudragupta of the SriGupta dynasty, who was known as Asokaditya Priyadarshin. The inscriptions of Asoka belong to this Gupta emperor and not to the Asoka Maurya who came to power 218 years after the Buddha. Narahari Achar of Memphis University has confirmed many of the dates including that of the Buddha, using Planetarium software, the algorithms in which are based on Celestial Mechanics, has established that the Puranic dates are correct based on the sky observations that were recorded by the ancients. This must be regarded as an independent verification since the principles of celestial mechanics were unknown to the ancient Indic.
The Hypotheses of Sir William Jones He made the following inferences from the work of Megasthenes, which were in retrospect colossal errors: 1. That the puranic chronology was completely erroneous 2. That the Sandracottus mentioned in Megasthenes’ Indika was Chandragupta Maurya. He based this on two observations of Megasthenes 3. That Pataliputra 11 was situated at the confluence of two rivers which he wrongly inferred to be the Sone and the Ganges. There are two wrong inferences in this statement. Megasthenes never mentions Pataliputra, but he uses the term Palibothra as the capital. Further Megasthenes mentions the two rivers as the Ganga and the Erannoboas (which was the Greek word for Yamuna) the equivalent Sanskrit word is Hiranyabahu which was the name of Yamuna during antiquity. While Megasthenes mentions the Sone elsewhere in his work, he clearly does not associate it with Palibothra. But Sir William deliberately chose to associate the capital Palibothra with the confluence of the Sone and the Ganga. We are indebted to Sunil Bhattacharjya for bringing this to our attention. 12 We quote the following passage from his paper: “Even though Megasthenes had specifically mentioned Sone separately yet Sir Jones conveniently stated that Megasthenes mentioned about Sone negligently. But there was none in those days to protest against such horrendous accusation hurled at Megasthenes. Present day well ‐informed historians know that there was indeed the city of Pratisthanpur at the confluence of Ganga and Yamuna, which was also mentioned by the great poet Kalidasa of the 8th century BCE in his drama “Vikramorvashia”. The city of Pratisthanpur was destroyed completely about one thousand 11 Pa tal iputr a is no t mentio ned i n the Pura na s a nd di d no t enter the pi cture until the r ei gn o f Aso ka . T he capital o f the Maga dha Ki ngdo m wa s al wa ys Ra ja gri ha .al so kno wn in the Ma ha b hara ta a s Giri vra ja 12 Sunil Bha ttachar jya “T he do tted recor d a nd its effect o n the Ancient India n chro nolo gy, including the a ntiqui ty o f the V e da a nd the Bha ga va d Gi ta” Paper p re se nted a t the H i story sessio n a t the W AV ES co nfer ence , 2008 , Flo ri da
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years ago by a devastating fire and from that time onward that city has been known as Jhusi (or Jhunsi), a name derived from the Hindi word Jhulasna or to burn. Megasthenes stated that in those days all the buildings / houses near the rivers and the sea were made of wood and Palibuthra, being at the confluence of Ganga and Yamuna, was no exception and that the structures with brick and clay were built only in places far away from the rivers and the sea. Thus it appears possible that the fire destroyed all the traces of the ancient wooden structures, if any of these at all survived till the time of the devastating fire. Jhusi is located towards the east of Allahabad, just across the river Ganga. Archaeologists have found grains and other artifacts in the mounds of Jhusi, which dates back to before the 4th century BCE. The Asoka pillar found in Jhusi had inscriptions of Samudragupta and it was shifted to the Allahabad Fort and the emperor Jahangir also made his inscriptions on that. There is also inscription of Asoka in that and it was of Samudragupta after he was converted to Buddhism and he assumed the name of Asokaditya. All the Gupta kings had their second names ending in “‐aditya”. After studying the fragments of Ta Indika in detail, Pandit Bhagavad Datta 13 offers another similar plausible explanation, and the following conclusions “Yamuna was flowing thru Palimbothra, known in ancient times as Paribhadra, the capital of the Prassi kingdom. Palimbothra was 200 miles from Prayag on the way to Mathura. The Kshatriyas were known as Paribhadrakas or Prabhadrakas. Their King was Chandraketu. The capital was Paribhadra was near Sindhu Pulinda which is in Madhya desa and is today termed as Kali Sindha. The Karusha reservoir was between Sindhu Pulinda and Prayag”. After Sir William, Max Mueller anointed the identification of Sandracottus with Chandragupta Maurya and proceeded to announce the sheet anchor of Indian History was Alexander’s invasion and the subsequent visit of Megasthenes, neither of which events have great significance in Indian history. M. Troyer did not agree with this conclusion and noted this fact in the introduction to his translation of Rajatarangini of Kalhana. He even communicated his views to Prof. Max Mueller in a letter but did not receive a reply from him. Max Mueller ignored the objections of Troyer and others such as Colebrook.
What does Megasthenes say about the Kings who ruled at that time He calls Sandracottus the king of the Prassi and he mentions the names of Xandramus as predecessor and Sandrocyptus as successor to Sandracottus. There is absolutely no resemblance in these names to Bindusara (the successor to Chandragupta Maurya) and Mahapadma Nanda, the predecessor. He makes absolutely no mention of Chanakya or Vishnugupta, the Acharya who helped Chndragupta ascend the throne. He makes no mention of the widespread presence of the Baudhik or Sramana tradition during the time of the Maurya Empire. 13 Pa ndi t
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Bhagava d D a tta “ Bhara tva r sh ka Bri ha t I ti ha a sa “ , Par t I , D elhi , 19 51 (i n Hindi )
He claims the capital is Palimbothra or Palibothra, and that the city exists near the confluence of the Ganga and the Eranaboas (Hiranyabahu). But the Puranas are clear that all the 8 dynasties after the Mahabharata war had their capital at Girivraja (Rajagriha) 14, located near the present day town of Rajgir. There is no mention of Pataliputra in the Puranas. So, the assumption made by Sir William that Palimbothra is Pataliputra has no basis in fact and is not attested by any piece of evidence. If the Greeks could pronounce the first P in (Patali) they could certainly have pronounced the second p in Putra, instead of bastardizing it as Palimbothra. Granted the Greeks were incapable of pronouncing any Indian names, but there is no reason why they should not be consistent in their phonetics. The empire of Chandragupta was known as the Magadha Empire. It had a long history even at the time of Chandragupta Maurya. In Indian literature, this powerful empire is amply described by this name but it is absent in the Greek accounts. It is difficult to understand as to why Megasthenes did not use this name and instead used the word Prassi which has no equivalent or counterpart in Indian accounts.
The Colossal Error in Indian Historiography This is indeed a remarkable tale even when viewed from the different perspectives of the Indic and the Occidental. That a person with such a scant knowledge of Sanskrit, would have the audacity to rewrite the entire history of the Civilization based merely on the scraps and remnants of a travelogue written by an individual who is not even highly regarded by the revered Greek historians is astonishing and bespeaks a degree of hubris that matches the grandeur of the Himalayas. In fairness to Sir William, it must be said that he himself may be utterly surprised at the seriousness with which his speculations have been subsequently anointed. This is in addition to the great weight that is given to Greek historians writing about India despite their atrocious bastardization of Sanskrit terms. This is a gentle reminder to the Occidental that he would do well to do in Rome as the Romans do and learn to pronounce and spell Sanskrit words accurately before pontificating on the merits of ancient Indian scholarship. Even if Sir William believed he had good cause to stand by his conjectures, what of the Indics of the modern era? Have the Indics taken leave of their senses? Surely such a sloppy conjecture would be reason enough to fail a candidate for the PhD qualifying exam. The Indics should have 14 Raja griha R aj ag rh a (Sa nskri t) T he a ncie nt c a pi ta l o f Ma ga dha , fa mous fo r i ts c o nver sio n to Buddhi sm i n the days o f the Buddhi st kings. It wa s the ro yal r esi dence fr o m Bi mb i sara -ra ja to Aso ka , a nd the sea t o f the fir st Synod or Buddhist Co unci l held 510 BC. T he famo us Sa ptapar na ca ve, in which the Buddha's select circle of ar ha ts were initia ted, was in this famo us city. Rajgir is the current na me of the city and a no ti fied ar ea i n Nala nda di stri ct in the Indian state o f Bi har . The ci ty o f Ra jgir (a nci ent Ra ja gri ha or Rā ja gṛha ; Pa li : Rājaga ha ) was the fir st capi tal o f the ki ngdo m o f Magadha , a sta te tha t woul d eve ntual ly e vo lv e i nto the Ma ur ya Empir e. Its da te o f origin is unkno wn, altho ugh cera mi cs da ti ng to ab o ut 1000 BC ha ve been fo und i n the ci ty. T he epic Mahabharata calls it Gir i vra ja a nd r eco unts the stor y o f its king, Jara sa ndha , a nd his ba ttle wi th the Pa ndava brother s a nd the ir alli e s Kri shna. It is al so mentioned i n Buddhist and Jain scri ptures, which gi ve a series of place-na mes, but without geogra phical contex t. The attempt to locate these places is ba sed largely on reference to them and to other lo ca tions in the works o f Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, particularly Faxian a nd X ua nza ng. It is o n the ba si s o f X ua nza ng i n par ticul ar tha t the site is di vi ded i nto O l d a nd N ew Ra jgir . T he for mer li es wi thi n a vall ey and i s surr o unded b y l owl yi ng hi ll s. It i s defi ned by a n ear then emba nkment (the Inner For ti fica tio n), wi th which i s asso cia ted the O u ter For ti f ica ti o n, a co mpl ex o f cycl opea n wal l s tha t r uns (wi th large b rea ks) alo ng the crest o f the hi ll s. N ew Ra jgir is defined by a nother , lar ger, emba nkment ou tside the northern entr ance of the valley and next to the moder n town.
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cringed when they were told that the undecipherable scrap of paper left of the Indika was more credible than the Puranas written in a language with very little ambiguity, but such are the depths to which the Indic has sunk 15. He is apt to believe the words of a conqueror who has zero accountability to tell the story accurately, and who is himself insisting it is a conjecture, than the words of the Great Rishis of yore, who wrote in the precise language of Sanskrit. There is a palpable sense of frustration when we see that more than 50 years after Independence we still teach the chronology that was erroneously derived from the torn fragments of Ta Indika.
British Colonial Indology (1780 CE – 2000 CE) In reality this field of study was dominated by German scholars. Interest in Indology only took shape and concrete direction after the British came to India, with the advent of the discovery of Sanskrit by Sir William Jones in the 1770’s. Other names for Indology are Indic studies or Indian studies or South Asian studies. Almost from the beginning, the Puranas attracted attention from European scholars. But instead of trying to understand the Puranas and the context in which they were developed, the Occidental went about casting doubts on the authenticity of the texts, and in fact altering the chronology which they could find in a particular Purana. The extraordinary level of interest by German scholars in matters Indic is a very interesting narrative in its own right and we need to reflect upon the highlights of this phenomenon. The German speaking people experienced a vast increase in intellectual activity at about the same time that Britain colonized India. We do not understand the specific factors that came into play during this time, other than to remark on the tremendous intellectual ferment that was running concurrently during the French revolution, and the keen interest that Napoleon showed in matters scientific including the contributions of the orient. Clearly the remarks that Sir William made about Sanskrit as well as the high level of interest that he provoked in the Sanskrit language, contributed to the overall sense of excitement. But why was it Germany and not Britain, the center of research on the Oriental contributions. The answer lies in the intense search for nationhood that was under way in Germany during that period. When Sanskrit was discovered, and it dawned on the Germans that the antiquity of Sanskrit was very great, and that Sanskrit and German were somehow related, the Germans suddenly had an answer to the question of their own ethnic and linguistic origins. Sir Henry Maine an influential Anglo Indian scholar and former Vice Chancellor of Calcutta university, who was also on the Viceroys council, pronounced a view that many Englishman shared about the unification of Germany.
“A NATION HAS BEEN BORN OUT OF SANSKRIT” From the beginning, the great interest that Germany showed in Sanskrit had more to do with their own obsessions and questions regarding their ethnic and linguistic origins. It had very little or at least far less to do with the origin of the ancient Indic, about whom they had considerably less interest. And yet, that does not stop the proponents of the AIT in India, whose knowledge of European history appears to be rudimentary at best, from asserting that AIT is an obsession of nationalistic Hindus. Such is the fate and the perversion of history that conquered nations can 15 Sreedharan, E.,”A text book of Historiography 500 BC to AD 2000” Orient Longmans, Hyderabad (AP) , India,2004 21
aspire to. Different aspects of this fascinating chapter, on the postulation of an Aryan race and its corollaries the Indo European, and Indo German people are described for instance by various authors Trautmann 16, Rajaram 17 and Arvidsson 18 and very recently by Prodosh Aich 19. The interesting but curious aspect of this phenomena is that while the concept of the Aryan race has been well nigh discarded by most of the modern generation of the Occidental world, it lingers on in the narrative of Indian History, a relic of the heyday of Europe’s dominance on the world scene, when racist theories were abundant to explain this dominance as being a consequence of their heritage as an Aryan people. In contrast to the Germans and the French, whose interest in matters Indic was catalyzed by their observance of the ubiquitous presence of the Indic civilization in South East Asia, the British had a particular reluctance to study the nature and extent of the Indic civilization. First and foremost amongst their reasons for this neglect was the reluctance to admit that a subject people had any worthwhile civilization to speak of, let alone one that was of far greater antiquity than their own. Britain was the last of the 3 major powers in Europe to have a chair in Sanskrit, and it was almost 50 years after the death of Sir William that England got around to establishing a chair at Oxford, the famous Boden chair.
The Pernicious effects of a False history One of the criticisms leveled at the new breed of Indian historians who wish to uncover the authentic history of India after the morass of inconsistencies to which it has sunk, is that they are motivated by political considerations and the further charge is made that they are ‘nationalistic’. While I fail to see any violation of ethics in being nationalist, this is to us a perplexing charge to make, as it is apparent that political motivations have been always dominant in the pursuit of Indological studies during the colonial era, right from the outset since the time of Sir William Jones, when he discovered the existence of Sanskrit. One such political motivation was the need for the European to define his identity outside the framework of Semitic traditions which dominated the religious life of Europe. The notion that the North European Viking owed much of his civilization to the Mediterranean Semite was not palatable to most of the elite among the countries of Northern lands of Europe for reasons which we do not have the time to go into now. So, the discovery of Sanskrit was accompanied by a big sigh of relief that the languages of Europe did not after all derive from Hebrew but from an ancestor language which was initially assumed to be Sanskrit. In the immediate aftermath of the discovery of Sanskrit by Sir William Jones, there was a great gush of admiration and worship of the sublime nature of the Sanskrit texts such as Kalidasa’s Sakuntala. But as the European realized that the present day practitioners of Sanskrit were not blonde and blue‐eyed (remember ideas of racial superiority were dominant in 18 t h century Europe despite the advent of the enlightenment and the renaissance) this was found to be equally unpalatable. 16 Tra utma nn, Tho ma s, “ Ar yans a nd Bri ti sh India” , 1997 , Uni ver si ty o f Cal i for nia pr ess 17 Raja ra m, Na vara tna “T he Po li ti cs o f Hi stor y, Voi ce o f Indi a, 19 95 18 S te fa n Ar vidsso n 2 006 :38 Ar ya n I dols 19 Prodosh Aich Lies wi th Lo ng Legs, 20 06 , Sa mskr ti , New Delhi
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The European Indologist therefore came upon the ingenious explanation that the Sanskrit culture of the subcontinent was not native to the subcontinent but was impregnated by a small band of nomadic Viking like marauders who then proceeded to transform themselves within the short space of 200 years into the intellectual class of India 20. This hypothesis (because that is what it was) had of course no basis in fact, but it served the purpose and killed several birds with one stone. It denied India the autochthonous legacy of the dominant culture of the subcontinent, and helped create a schism in the Indian body politic, and further implied that the native Indic was incapable of original thought and certainly was not capable of producing a language like Sanskrit. It filled the obsessive need during those decades that the European had for an ancestor that was not Semitic in origin. Lo and behold the ancestor did not come from India but from a long lost Shangri‐La of whom there were no survivors (so that their hypothesis could never be contradicted). Thus was born the mythical Aryan, whose only qualification was that he should hail from a land that was anywhere but India, preferably from a region not very densely inhabited or conscious of their antiquity. Further it gave the excuse for the British to claim that they were indeed the later day version of the Aryans destined to lord it over lesser, more unfortunate people by reason of the fact that they were Aryans. See for instance Trautmann 1 4 (1997) or Chakrabarti 21 (1997). In short, the study of India, during the colonial era has always been accompanied by a healthy dose of imperialist dogma and by disdain for a people who they felt could so easily be vanquished in battle by handful of Englishmen. In my view, these attitudes and presuppositions of the Occident are deeply entrenched in the psyche of the Occidental, fortified as they are by text books which retain the caricaturized view of the Indic that we elaborate later in this essay. This is in addition to the normal human tendency to exhibit a degree of the ‘Not Invented Here’ syndrome or the propensity to devalue the acquisition of knowledge by people and civilizations other than their own. This is a train of thought that needs to be explored further, but we do not wish to be sidetracked from the main topic. We hasten to add that the fundamental scholarly impulse and intellectual curiosity that drives most scholars still motivates a substantial section of the Indologists, regardless of nationality, despite much pressure from European academia to toe the line and not to stray from the conventional wisdom. But this stream of objective scholars died out pretty soon after and became almost extinct in the nineteenth century, and in general, with a few exceptions amongst the French, the European Indologists toed the party line that Indic contributions were shallow and insubstantial and were a derivative of the work done by the Greeks. In fact the British presence in India was steadily increasing long before the Battle of Plassey in 1757 CE, but so great was the insularity of the colonial overlord that it took almost three hundred years for a relatively well educated scholar like Sir William Jones to show up in India after Vasco da Gama landed of the coast of Goa in 1492 CE, and notice the similarities between Sanskrit and the European languages. Prodosh Aich has done extensive research into primary sources and has come to the conclusion that the vaunted linguistic scholarship of Sir William was 20 I remain agha st at the sheer auda ci ty of this claim, which remains a conjecture, a conjecture that ha s sur vived o ver 200 year s despi te the ab sence o f a ny tangib le ar chaeo lo gical or o ther pro of, parti cular ly so , when the Indi c rega rd the develo pment of the whole edifice of Sa nskritic culture to be the single mo st impo r ta nt identi fyi ng fea tur e o f hi s civiliza tio n
21 Chakrabarti, D “Colonial Indology , Sociopolitics of the Ancient Indian past” Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, P ltd.,New Delhi,1997 23
to put it mildly much exaggerated. We shall examine the background of Sir William especially his early years to see wherein lay the truth. The discovery of Sanskrit by Sir William and the coming of the British had a terminally fatal effect on the conduct of scientific studies in India. It cut off the Indic from his own native source of traditional learning and replaced it with the traditions of a land far away with which he had no physical contact, and could not relate; with the result that literacy fell to 6 percent at the turn of the 20th century. Education was tightly controlled by the government and all support to schools that did not teach English was summarily stopped, except in states that were ruled by a local Maharajah such as Travancore Cochin, Baroda and Mysore. India was turned into a vast Gulag where no ideas other than those of the British were allowed to penetrate and the Indian was effectively barred from traveling to foreign lands, except on a one way trip to a distant land as indentured labor, lest they return with the subversive notions of freedom and democracy which as Churchill remarked on more than one occasion were not applicable to the subject populations of their Colonies. So great was the travel restriction that the Indic internalized this consequence of the rule of the Colonial Overlord, to be a characteristic of the assumed native propensity to aversion of adventure and exploration. There was no money allocated for research and no encouragement of savants, who had little opportunity to pursue further research. So the steady supply of Indic scientists which lasted till about 1780 CE finally died out and Indic science was almost extinguished from the land. This is not to say that there have been no benefits accrued from the change in the medium of instruction to English. Indic youngsters were placed in an advantageous situation when it came to getting admission to graduate studies in North America, in part due to the fortuitous circumstance, that a substantial part of the new world now spoke English. This coupled with the investment in higher education made by Jawaharlal Nehru India’s first Prime Minister catapulted India into the leadership ranks of countries who were players in the new Information Technology. But the negatives remain. The vast majority of the Indian population is not a participant in this new bounty, because they do not have the access to the expensive schools that purvey access to such an education. The most telling impact of the newly coined endeavor called philology, that was the result of this unwanted gush of attention, engendered ever since the discovery of Sanskrit, was the manner in which the Indic was viewed by the rest of the world and even more importantly the internalization of the British and European view of India by the average literate English educated Indic. Till then the Indic was widely respected throughout the world and his geographical origin was synonymous with scholarship. Today, it is commonplace in India to deride somebody who expresses pride in his tradition and his civilization as being jingoistic. The Colonial overlord went to extraordinary lengths to undermine the Civilizational commonalities amongst the people of India by various and diverse means. Anything that had a negative impact was played to the hilt. The antiquity of Indian history was systematically whittled away and the new dates had to conform to the notion that India did not contribute anything of value to civilization and that all she knew in the area of science and mathematics, was learned from the Greeks. The Indian was uniformly characterized as a shiftless indolent individual with very few redeeming qualities. So great was the change and so lasting in its effect that today vast numbers of Indian youth have almost the same opinion of India and Indic traditions that the Colonial overlords had, of India in the eighteenth and nineteenth century. There has been a massive change in the psyche of the Indic, much of it for the worse, a fact that was brought out in vivid portrayals by V S Naipaul when he coined the phrase ‘the wounded civilization’ in his references to the subcontinent. 24
Examples of the internalization of the European views of India abound in India today. Even eminent Indian historians like RC Majumdar have expressed some of these views in writing without substantiating how they arrived at such conclusions. We give below a sample. It is ironic that these viewpoints are usually expressed by Indics rather than non Indics. The general British view of the Indic during the Colonial Era: • • • •
• • • • • • •
•
The Caricaturization of the Indic There is a strong undercurrent in the Occident that it is the religious beliefs of the Indic that are the root cause of his misfortunes. The Indic is inherently incapable of adventurous behavior and will not venture beyond the confines of the Indian subcontinent (Kaalapaani syndrome) The Indic is incapable of original, rational and creative ideas. The Indic is incapable of independent thinking and is unquestioning in his adherence to authoritarian diktats such as those in the Vedic texts and is only capable of rote learning (presuming it is conceded that the Indic is capable of learning at all.) The caste system is an artifact of the Indic religious belief system, and that the Indic is inherently opposed to egalitarian ideas and is wedded to the racial and ethnic stratification of his own society. The Indic is especially unique and egregious in the manner in which he exploits his fellow Indics. The Indic is fundamentally not tuned to making progress and advancing in the modern world, and is lost in an ancient mind set. Everything good and worthwhile in the Indian subcontinent has been imported by the invaders, and the only indigenous characteristics are those like caste that are inherent to the Indic civilization. The Indic is fatalistic and will not make an effort to change his destiny which is written in stone the moment he is born. The Indic is lazy and indolent The Indic has no sense of history and is even poorer at keeping records of his historical past. As a consequence of the above the Indic is socially backward, possibly morally corrupt and perennially hence dependent upon Westernization to reform the current problems in Indian society.
From such a viewpoint it was indeed a short step to assume as Karl Marx did, that the Indic was destined to be ruled by others. The germ of such a vast change in psyche was the goal of Thomas Babington Macaulay and he would have been rather pleased to see the consequences of his minute on education where he proposed changing the medium of instruction to English in the 1830’s in order to produce a class of Brown Englishman who would occupy positions intermediate between those of the Colonial overlords and the unwashed masses of the subcontinent. In the same vein, HH Wilson, the first occupant of the Boden Chair in Sanskrit, wrote as follows, “From the survey which has been submitted to you, you will perceive that the practical religion of the Hindus is by no means a concentrated and compact system, but a heterogeneous compound made up of various and not infrequently incompatible ingredients, and that to a few ancient fragments it has made large and unauthorized additions, most of which are of an exceedingly mischievous and disgraceful nature. It is, however, of little avail yet to attempt to undeceive the multitude; their superstition is based upon ignorance, and until the foundation is taken away, the superstructure, however crazy and rotten, will hold together.” 25
Power over a vast area like India does strange things to people, one of which is the loss of ‘common sense’, not to mention the loss of humility, and one can see the process of creating the mythological Indian has already begun as early as 1833, the process of remaking the Indic mindset had commenced in earnest. There is an immense irony in this state of affairs and that is that India is well on its way to becoming the largest English speaking nation in the planet. If present trends continue the number of English speaking people residing in India will exceed that of the Unites States within 20 years 22. The implications are enormous. For instance, India will become the largest producer of English books in the planet, a state of affairs that may already be true because of the huge market of South and South East Asia.
Conclusion It is obviously not our contention that the Greek synchronism by itself was responsible for the terrible shape the Indic found himself in, at the start of Independence, but there is no question that the erroneous conclusions that Sir William made while he was in search of an external synchronism, played a major role in the subsequent transformation of the Indic from a self confident individual to a mass of contradictions. In particular he could not bring himself to admit that the genealogical tables in the Puranas, had the sanction of millennia of tradition. From such a diagnosis certain remedies suggest themselves. One such remedy is to develop a new set of curricula along with a University for training the future leaders of Bhaarat. The curriculum should be a blend of the traditional Veda Patashala and other subjects such as Latin and Greek with sufficient emphasis on Linguistics. Such an individual will be equipped with a Box of tools or a tool kit, albeit one that encompasses a sophisticated ensemble of subjects, epistemologies and technologies to tackle the problems of society. Such an individual would feel equally at home whether she was chanting the Veda, or confronting world leaders equipped with a formidable array of Epistemes. Unless the Indics are proactive, there is a very real danger that the Vedic episteme will wither away as is happening now and we will read about our past in illustrated coffee table books whose only knowledge of the wellsprings of the Indic civilization is restricted to Cows, Curry and Caste. But again I wish to caution the reader that the main motivation for such a Vishva Vidyalaya is not merely to preserve the superficial accoutrements of Vedic knowledge such as chanting, but to apply the episteme to find solutions to a wide variety of societal problems While this may take a certain period of time, it is essential to set the stage for a new breed of Indic leadership that adheres to a minimum set of universally accepted Core Values (see appendix A for an example). We are emphatic that it will take a single minded individual like Kautilya to make such a reality happen but that should not daunt the Indic from such an endeavor. The alternative to the creation of such a leadership will eventuate in the slow decay of the Indic civilization until it only resides in Museums and illustrated coffee table books and will encourage the Occidental Indologist to enter the fray once again with the same disastrous consequences that have brought us to such a precarious state today. The objective is not to prevent others from studying the Indic civilization but we should never again be in a situation where the Occidental or any individual with scant knowledge of the civilizational ethos becomes 22 I mentio n thi s i mpo r ta nt ar ti fact no t in glee or i n a dula tio n o f Lor d Macaulay, no r even in ala r m, b ut merely to reflect on the co nsequences. Our preference woul d have been the gr adual introducti on of English a nd cer ta i nly no t a s a ma nda to ry requireme nt, w hi c h resul te d a s w e sha ll see shor tl y i n dir e co nse quence s
26
the main interpreter of our past. We conclude, with a call to action and an exhortation reminiscent of a recent American President: “Let it resound in the distant regions of this planet, whether there are those that wish us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival of the cherished values and traditions of the Hindu.”
27
SAGE YAJNAVALKYA
( याज्ञव )
Sage ( याज्ञव ) of Mithila advanced a 95‐year cycle to synchronize the motions of the sun and the moon. He is also credited with the authorship of the Shatapatha Brahmana, in which the references to the motions of the sun and the moon are found. A date of 3200 BC is sometimes suggested by the astronomical evidence within the Shatapatha Brahmana, while some Western scholars dispute not only the chronology but also his historicity. Mithila was a kingdom in ancient India. Yajnavalkya is also a major figure in the Upanishads. His deep philosophical teachings in the Brhadaranyaka, बृह दारण्यक
उपिनषद ् (Brihat – Aranyaka) Upanishad (The Great
Forest Upanishad), and the apophatic teaching of 'neti neti' etc. is found to be startlingly similar to the Buddhist Anatta doctrine and to modern science. Yajnavalkya married two women. One was Maitreyi and the other Katyayani. Of the two, Maitreyi was a Brahmavadini (one who is interested in the knowledge of Brahman and more inclined towards the pursuit of higher knowledge). When Yajnavalkya wished to divide his property between the two wives before starting for the fourth Ashrama of his life (sanyasa), Maitreyi asked whether she could become immortal through wealth. Yajnavalkya replied that there was no hope of immortality through wealth and that she would only become one among the many who were well‐to‐do on earth. On hearing this, Maitreyi requested Yajnavalkya to teach her what he regarded as the higher knowledge. Then Yajnavalkya elaborately described to her the sole greatness of the Absolute Self, the nature of Its existence, the way of attaining infinite knowledge and immortality, etc. This immortal conversation between Yajnavalkya and Maitreyi is recorded in the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad. The Upanishad is one of the older, primary (mukhya) Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. ... “All things are dear, not for their sake, but for the sake of the Self. This Self alone exists everywhere. It cannot be understood or known, for It alone is the One that Understands and Knows. Its nature cannot be said to be positively as such. It is realized through endless denials as 'not this, not this'. The Self is self‐luminous, indestructible, and unthinkable”. The central theme of the discourse is the nature of Brahman in the Vedantic (and subsequently Yogic) forms of Hinduism. Brahman is the signifying name given to the concept of the unchanging, infinite, immanent and transcendent reality that is the Divine Ground of all being in this universe. Sanyasa symbolizes the conception of the mystic life in Hinduism where a person is now integrated into the spiritual world after wholly giving up material life. Thus, it is the consensus that the Wisdom of Yajnavalkya is revealed to a greater extent in the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad where he imparts his teachings to his wife Maitreyi and King Janaka. He also participates in a competition arranged by King Janaka to select the great Brahma Jnani (one who knows Brahman) and wins after defeating several learned scholars and sages. This forms a beautiful chapter filled with lot of philosophical and mystical question‐answers in the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad. In the end, Yajnavalkya took Vidvat Sanyasa (renunciation after the 28
attainment of the knowledge of Brahman) and retired to the forest. The Brhadaranyaka is the prime Upanishad among the many Upanishads written in ancient India, known very widely for its profound philosophical statements. ... In Ancient India, Janaka was the King of the Mithila Kingdom. Yajnavalkya was one of the greatest sages ever known. His precepts as contained in the Upanishads (The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad) stand foremost as the crest‐jewel of the highest teachings on knowledge of Brahman. His knowledge of the skies and the periodicities of the planets was far ahead of his time. It is possible that reading his works may give us clues as to the identity of the person who conceptualized the Sunya.
Appendix A THE CORE VALUES Each set of core values, while containing many that are regarded as universal should also contain, those that are specially suited to the Gunas of the individual, the point being that each individual should customize them according to his strengths and weaknesses. These are placed here merely for illustrative purposes
1. Integrity (1) Sattwa, Suddhi. A hankering for the truth is essential in this kind of endeavor (or any field of endeavor). Truth is conceptualized in many ways. What is the real truth? What is the ultimate truth? What is metaphysical truth or, what lies beyond? In seeking answers to all these questions, what is stressed upon is that one should be true to oneself, not just when interacting with another outside the Self. The study of History (or any other endeavor) must be accompanied by a hankering for the truth. Such a narrative must have few if any inconsistencies and none which are major. 2. Celebration of Diversity (ability to synthesize opposing viewpoints, inability to do so is a sign of weakness and a sign of Avidya where one falls prey to Ahankara). “Ekam sat Vipraa, bahudha vadanti.” “Truth is one, the wise call It by various names.” For many if not the vast majority, diversity signifies primarily if not exclusively diversity of ethnicities or races. But such a viewpoint ignores the very real diversity that exists in differing ideologies, opinions, experiences regardless of ethnic or class diversity. We maintain that the real test of being completely at home in a diverse environment, lies in synthesizing diverse viewpoints , while not necessarily agreeing with them. Celebration of Diversity or at least the recognition of such diversity and its enthusiastic acceptance must remain a fundamental obligation of all nation states and the responsibility of all the individual citizens of a nation state and not just those of its citizens who are deemed to belong to a majority. Those who view themselves as a minority have to bear such an obligation in equal measure and cannot shirk such a responsibility with a plea that they are a minority and hence do not have to shoulder the same responsibilities as the rest of the populace. At the same time celebration of diversity does not mean that one should tolerate the intolerant. 3. Courage(dhairya, dhiratva) to think outside the box and adopt new paradigms (Viswakarma), to admit mistakes, show remorse and apologize where applicable and move on to persevere in the face of great odds and to fight against evil (Thithiksha). This also includes a reverence for the traditions of our ancient civilization and the courage to defend such traditions against tyranny and terrorism. We should be explicit in stating in a fashion reminiscent of an American President, 29
“Let it resound in the distant regions of this planet, whether there are those that wish us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival of the cherished values and traditions of the Hindu 4. Detachment or Vairagya; when faced with the consequences of one’s action, Hinduism asks the individual to stand aside and become a witness (sAkshI bhAva). Rather than respond with extreme excitement or deep depression, the Dharma teaches the individual to ponder the consequences without intervention, with a certain detachment. Whether in victory and failure, one must reflect, understand, and inquire. The nature of our thoughts influences our approach to life and helps us motivate ourself without external aids. Vairagya is a core value which is perhaps emphasized to a greater degree than it is in the Occident 5. Viveka, to discriminate between what is good and what needs to be discarded. To preserve enduring traditions and values and discard those which are no longer relevant using Viveka 6. Compassion for those who need help and who cannot help themselves and those who are disadvantaged in society and who need a helping hand. The value of giving, lies not merely in the fact that we may of help, but also because recognizing the divinity in others, accelerates our quest to know our Real Self. 7. Reverence for all life forms in particular human life is a central core value. The taking of a human life is a grave matter and is permitted to societies (and nations) only under conditions of extreme provocation, such as self defense. To wage war to reclaim lost territory or to avenge past wrongs becomes highly problematic under the prevailing charter of internationally acceptable behavior. It is all the more imperative that when one is forced into war that the fight be fought with valor, courage and single minded determination to win, since the alternative could be very costly, as India has learned from past experience. 8. Tolerance for Ambiguity. Contrary to Einstein, the world and the events that take place in this world are not deterministic. One can only describe certain phenomena in a probabilistic paradigm. The certainty in ones belief system may be a luxury only Prophets can afford. For, the rest of us we have to rest content with a degree of belief and tolerate the inherent ambiguities of many facets of life. 9. Respect for the individual and his/her individuality. We thank Ishwara for blessing the human species with the gift of diversity and we believe in dealing with each individual based on his/her actions and behavior and not on the basis of their status or class or Varna in society 10. It is our belief that a study of history in general and the history of the Indic civilization in particular has lessons to teach us. We make no apology therefore for our emphasis on history in our studies, and our quest to unravel an account of Indic history that is accurate. It behooves us therefore to study history in order to cull those actions, policies, principles and values that have stood the test of time, while at the same time learning from those instances deemed generally to be failures. In short the purpose is not so much to dwell on the ‘glories’ of the past but to learn and continue to be inspired so as to aspire to reach even greater heights. 11. Reverence for Knowledge, both Para and Apara Vidya and a determination (Thithiksha) to pursue the studies of the ancient knowledge in Samskrtam. The manuscript wealth of India exceeds over 5 million; about a million of these have been catalogued. These staggering numbers indicate that there is much that we are not cognizant of when it comes to the knowledge of the ancients. 12. It is our strong belief bolstered by extensive studies of our ancient scriptures, and vetted by the stringent requirements of Logic, that the single greatest gift that the Sanaatana Dharma bestows upon us is the freedom to be our Self and the freedom to exercise choices (Free will). Freedom however is accompanied by responsibilities, the responsibility to ‘Know thyself’ and to be accountable for our actions.
30
Appendix B PROPOSED SKELETON OR SCAFFOLDING OF INDIAN CHRONOLOGY KEY 23 DATES LEGEND
INDIVIDUAL OR DETAILED DESCRIPTION
DATE
GEOLOGIC EVENT
END OF GLACIATION
10,000 BCE
GEOLOGIC EVENT. WE ARE IN THE WARMING HALF CYCLE BETWEEN GLACIAL ERAS GEOLOGICAL EVENT
MELTING OF GLACIERS. THERE ARE BELIEVED TO BE VARIOUS CYCLES, SHORTEST BEING 40,000 YEARS FORMATION OF RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS THE VEDIC ERA. THE TEN MANDALAS OF THE RIG WERE COMPOSED OVER A PERIOD OF 500 YEARS MEHRGARH CULTURE, EARLY PHASE
ERA. THE BEGINNING OF RECORDED HISTORY IN ORAL TRADITIONS. (SRAUTIC PARAMPARA) ERA SARASVATI SINDHU CIVILIZATION WAR
8000 BCE 7000 TO 4000 BCE
7000 BCE
DASARAJNA WAR, THE BATTLE OF THE TEN KINGS THE IKSHVAKUS AND THE RAMAYANA
6000 BCE
ERA, PARADIGM SHIFT, A PHENOMENAL EFFLORESCENCE OF KNOWLEDGE, THE VEDIC EPISTEME ERA
BRAHMANA ERA, BEGINNING OF
5000 BCE
PURANIC ERA
5000 BCE – 3000 BCE
BIRTH
VEDA VYAASA
3200~3300 BCE
OBSERVATION VERNAL EQUINOX IN ROHINI WAR
OBSERVATION OF NAKSHATRA IN WHICH THE VERNAL EQUINOX OCCURS THE GREAT BHARATA WAR
~3100 BCE
PARADIGM SHIFT TO LIKHIT PARAMPARA BIRTH
ERA OF THE SULVA SUTRAS. SUTRAS OF THE CORD, DEVELOPMENT OF GEOMETRY, TRIGONOMETRY APASTAMBHA
BIRTH
BAUDHAYANA
~3200 BCE
DYNASTY
7000 BCE
NOV 22, 3067 BCE (3102 +‐35 BCE – ERROR CAUSED BY CHANGES IN JULIAN CALENDAR) 4000 ~2000 BCE
~3000 BCE
23 We include thi s tabl e to r emi nd o ur selves o f the vast hi stor y that awai ts o ur r esear ch, a nd which the Occi dental usually di smisses wi thin a few pa ges, less space tha n he wo ul d al lo ca te to the Moghal Empire whi ch la sted less tha n 2 centuri es
31
ERA
KALI YUGA
3102 BCE
DEATH
SRI KRISHNA NIRVANA
3102 CE
WRITINGS , SCRIPTS HAD COALESCED INTO CODIFIED SYMBOLS WRITINGS
PINGALA
2900 BCE
PANINI’S ASHTADHYAYI, CODIFICATION OF VYAKARANA AND OTHER VEDANGAS USE OF DECIMAL PLACE VALUE SYSTEM (PANINI, PINGALA). CATALYZED INDIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO ALGEBRA, NUMBER THEORY, INFINITE SERIES, SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY MATURE PHASE
2900 BCE
PARADIGM SHIFT
ERA SARASVATI SINDHU CIVILIZATION DYNASTY (MAGADHA) BIRTH
3138 BCE‐2132 BCE 2765 BCE, 337 YUGABDA
LIFESPAN BIRTH
MAHAVEERA
DYNASTY CORONATION
NANDA DYNASTY (MAHAPADMANANDA AND HIS SONS) CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA
1534 BCE ‐1500 BCE
CORONATION
ASOKA MAURYA
1472 BCE
WRITINGS DYNASTY DYNASTY
DYNASTY DYNASTY CORONATION
3000 BCE – 1700 BCE
YAJNAVALKYA, BRIHAT‐ARANYAKA UPANISHAD, SATPATHA BRAHMANA ARYABHATA WROTE THE ARYABHATIYUM WHEN HE WAS 23 YEARS OLD PRADHYOTA DYNASTY (5 KINGS, 138 YEARS) SISUNAGA DYNASTY (10 KINGS, 360 YEARS) GAUTAMA BUDDHA
WRITINGS
32
BRHIHADRATHA DYNASTY (22 KINGS, 1006 YEARS) ARYABHATA
2900 BCE
MAURYA (12 KINGS, 316 YEARS KUSHAN EMPIRE ASHOKA GONANDA
~3000 BCE ASTRONOMICAL EVIDENCE 2742 BCE 2132 TO 1994 BCE 1994‐1634 BCE 1887‐1807 BCE PURANIC AND ASTRONOMICAL EVIDENCE 1862 BCE 1634 – 1534 BCE
1534‐1218 BCE 1298 BCE 1448 BCE
CORONATION
KANISHKA
1298 BCE
DYNASTY
SUNGA DYNASTY (10 KINGS, 300 YEARS)
1218 – 918 BCE
WRITINGS
PATANJALI’S MAHABHASHYA
1218 BCE
WRITINGS
NAGARJUNA
1294 BCE
REIGN
KANISHKA
1298‐1237 BCE
WRITINGS
KALIDASA I
1158 BCE
DYNASTY
KANVA DYNASTY (4 KINGS, 85 YEARS)
918‐833 BCE
ERA
ANDHRA SATAVAHANA (32 KINGS, 506 YEARS) KUMARILA BHATTA (MIMAMSA)
833 BCE ‐327 BCE
550 BCE 509 BCE‐477 BCE
HARSHA VIKRAMADITYA
SAKANRIPA KALA (ERA OF CYRUS THE GREAT OF PERSIA ADI SANKARACHARYA (HAS AN AUDIENCE WITH HALA SATAVAHANA)
CORONATION
ALEXANDER OF MACEDONIA
336 BCE
CORONATION
CHANDRAGUPTA OF GUPTA DYNASTY
327 BCE
WAR
326 BCE
CORONATION
ALEXANDER INITIATES AN INCONCLUSIVE BATTLE WITH PURUSHOTTAM, REGIONAL KSHATRAP IN THE PUNJAB AND IS FORCED TO RETREAT SHORT OF HIS GOAL OF VANQUISHING THE GREAT EMPIRE OF INDIA IMPERIAL GUPTA DYNASTY (7 KINGS, 245 YEARS) CHANDRAGUPTA
CORONATION
SAMUDRAGUPTA
320 BCE
WRITINGS
VARAHAMIHIRA PANCHA SIDDHANTA
123 BCE
REIGN
VIKRAMADITYA
102 BCE TO 78 BCE
ERA
VIKRAMA SAKA NAMED AFTER VIKRAMADITYA KALIDASA II, AUTHOR OF RAGHUVAMSA, JYOTIRVIDABHARANA BRAHMAGUPTA
57 BCE
78 CE
ERA
SALIVAHANA CALENDAR ( PUNWAR DYNASTY) BHASKARA II, AKA BHASKARACHARYA SIDDHANTA SIROMANI PUNWAR DYNASTY (23 KINGS,1111 YEARS) CHRISTIAN ERA
0 (YUGABDA 3102)
ERA
SALIVAHANA (SAKA CALENDAR)
78 CE
BIRTH ERA BIRTH
DYNASTY
WRITINGS BIRTH ERA WRITINGS DYNASTY
WRITINGS WRITINGS
33
HUEN‐TSANG KALIDASA III (LIVED IN BHOJA’S TIME
557 BCE
327 BCE‐82 BCE 327 BCE
57 BCE 30 BCE
486 CE 82 BCE‐1193 CE
625 CE 638 CE
DYNASTY
PALA EMPIRE
750‐1174 CE
CORONATION
BHOJA RAJA’S CORONATION
648 CE
CORONATION
SRIHARSHA SAILADITYA
648 CE
DYNASTY
CHOLA EMPIRE
848 CE – 1279 CE
BEGINNING OF ISLAMIC ERA
1192 CE
ERA
PRITHVIRAJ CHAMAHANA THE LAST MAJOR INDIC DYNASTY IN NORTH INDIA DELHI SULTANATE
1192 CE – 1526 CE
ERA
THE HOYSALAS
1040 CE–1346 CE
RECONQUISTA BEGINS AND THE FALL OF TOLEDO
TOLEDO, THE GREAT MUSLIM CENTER OF LEARNING FALLS INTO CHRISTIAN HANDS
1085 CE
ERA
THE KAKATIYAS
1083 CE–1323 CE
INDIA’S FIRST MODERN HISTORIAN
KALHANA (KASHMIRI HISTORIAN)
1,148 CE
ERA
BAHMANI CONFEDERATION
1390 CE ‐1596 CE
ERA
VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE
1339 CE ‐1625 CE
ERA
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
1526 CE – 1757 CE
DYNASTY
THE MARATHA CONFEDERACY
1674 CE – 1818 CE
DYNASTY
THE SIKH CONFEDERACY
1716 CE – 1849 CE
DYNASTY
THE BRITISH EMPIRE, THE BRITISH ROYALTY WERE MOSTLY OF GERMAN ANCESTRY THE MODERN REPUBLIC
1757 CE – 1947 CE
ERA
34
1950 CE
Appendix C SELECT DYNASTIES WHO RULED INDIA There is no attempt at completeness here and this list or lists are not exhaustive by any means. But the dynastic lists available to us are far more complete, than our English Language text books would have you believe. So when Indian History Books written by Englishmen, studiously avoid mentioning dynastic lists, methinks they have a reason and that being the need to indulge in and foster the illusion that the Indic had no sense of history. Our response is what is the gold standard for the respective eras we are talking about? How many accurate Dynastic lists do we have in the world going back to 3000 BCE and earlier?
DESCENDANTS OF THE KURU PANDAVAS (FROM 3067– 1634BCE)
35
YUDHISTIRA
PARIKSHIT
JANAMEJAYA
SATANEEKA
ASHWAMEDADATA NICHAKNU
ADHSEEMA KRISHNA USHNA
CHITRA RATHA
SUCHIRATA
KRUSHNIMANTA
SUSHENA
SUNEETHA
NRUPEGAKSHU
SUKHIBALA
PARIPLAVA
SUMAYA
MEDHAVI
RIPUNJAYA
URVA
TIGMA
BRUHADRADHA
KASUDANA
SARANIKA II
UDAYANA
KIHINARA
DANDAPANI
NIVAMITRA
KSHEMAKA
TABLE FROM DATING IN INDIAN ARCHAEOLOGY Problems and Perspectives, Bharateeya Itihaasa Sankalan Samiti, T P Verma Ed.
DYNASTIC LISTS OF THE MAGADHA EMPIRES
BRHADRATHA
NUMBER OF KINGS 22
PRADHYOTA
5
SISUNAGA
10
NANDA
9
MAURYA
12
SUNGA KUNWA ANDHRA SATAVAHANA
10 4 33
DYNASTY
36
PERIOD 3136 TO 2132 BCE 2132 TO 1994 BCE 1994 TO 1634 BCE 1634 TO 1534 BCE 1534 TO 1218 BCE 1218 TO 918 BCE 918 TO 833 BCE 833 TO 327 BCE
TOTAL NUMBER OF YEARS RULED 1006
CUMULATIVE TOTAL
138
1144
360
1504
100
1604
316
1920
300 85 506
2220 2305 2811
IMPERIAL GUPTA PUNWAR OR PRAMARA
77 24
TOTALS
206
327 TO 82 BCE 82 BCE TO 1193 CE 3136 BCE TO 1193 CE
245 1275
3055 4330
4330
BRIHADRATHA DYNASTY BEGINS KALI ERA KE OR YUGABDA
MARJARI
58
36 BEFORE KE
3138
SRUTASRAVA
64
22
3080
APRATIPA OR AYUTAYU
36
86
3016
NIRAMITRA
40
122
2980
SUKRUTHA OR SUKSHATRA
58
162
2940
BRIHATKARMA
23
220
2882
SYENAJIT
50
243
2859
SRUTANJAYA
40
293
2809
MAHABALA OR VIBHAU
35
333
2769
SUCHI
58
368
2734
KSHEMYA
28
426
2676
ANUVRATA OR SUVRATA DHARMANETRA OR SUNETRA
64
454
2648
35
518
2584
NIRVRITI
58
553
2549
SUVRATA
38
611
2491
DHRUDASENA OR MAHASENA SUMATI OR MAHANETRA SUCHALA OR SUBALA
58
649
2453
33
707
2395
22
740
2362
SUNETRA
40
762
2340
NAME OF KING
37
REGNAL PERIOD
SERIAL NO.
BEGINS BCE
SATYAJIT
83
802
2300
VEERAJIT OR VIISWAJIT
35
885
2217
RIPUNJAYA
50
920
2182
TOTAL
1006
‐36 TO 970 KY
3138‐2132 BCE
THE PRADYOTA DYNASTY
SERIAL NO. 23 24 25 26 27
NAME OF KING PRADYOTA OR BALAKA PALAAKA OR PAALAKA VISAKHAYUPA JAMAKA OR SURYAKA NANIVARDHANA TOTAL
REGNAL PERIOD
BEGINS KALI ERA KE OR YUGABDA
BEGINS BCE
23
970
2132
24
993
2109
50
1017
2085
21
1067
2035
20 138
1088 970‐1108
2014 2132‐1994
THE SISUNAGA DYNASTY
SISUNAGA
REGNAL PERIOD,YEARS 40
BEGINS KALI ERA KE OR YUGABDA 1108
29
KAKAVARMA
36
1148
1954
30
KSHEMADHARMA OR KSHEMAVARMA KSHEMAJIT
26
1184
1918
40
1210
1892
VIDHISARTA OR BIMBISARA AJATASATRU
38
1250
1852
27
1288
1814
35
1315
1787
33
1350
1752
42
1383
1719
37
DARSAKA OR VAMSAKA UDAYANA OR UDASINA NANDIVARDHANA OR KAKAVARDHANA MAHANANDI
43
1425
1677
TOTAL
360
1108‐1468
1994‐1634
SERIAL NO.
NAME OF KING
28
31 32 33 34 35 36
38
BEGINS BCE 1994
THE NANDA DYNASTY NAME OF KING 38 39
MAHAPADMANANDA SUMALYA ETC, 9 BROTHERS TOTAL
88 12
BEGINS KALI ERA KE OR YUGABDA 1468 1556
100
1468‐1568
REGNAL PERIOD,YEARS
BEGINS BCE 1634 1546 1634‐1534
THE MAURYA DYNASTY SERIAL NO.
NAME OF KING
40
CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA BINDUSARA ASOKA
41 42
SUPARSVA OR SUYASA DASARADHA OR BANDUPALITA INDRAPALITA HARSHAVARDHANA SANGATA SALISUKA SOMASARMA OR DEVASARMA SATADHANVA BRIHADRADHA ORBRIHADASWA TOTAL
43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51
REGNAL PERIOD,YEARS 34
BEGINS KALI ERA KE OR YUGABDA 1568
28 36
1602 1630
1500 1472
8
1666
1436
8
1674
1428
70 8 9 13 7
1682 1752 1760 1769 1782
1420 1350 1342 1333 1320
8 87
1789 1797
1313 1305
316
1568‐1884
1534‐1218
BEGINS BCE 1534
THE SUNGA DYNASTY
39
PUSHYAMITRA AGNIMITRA VASUMITRA
REGNAL PERIOD,YEARS 60 50 36
BEGINS KALI ERA KE OR YUGABDA 1884 1944 1994
SUJYESHTA
17
2030
SERIAL NO.
NAME OF KING
52 53 54 55
BEGINS BCE 1218 1158 1108 1072
56 57 58 59 60 61
BHADRAJA OR ANDHRAKA PULINDAKA GHOSHAVASU
30
2047
1055
33 3
2077 2110
1025 992
VAJRAMITRA BHAGAVATA DEVABHUTI KSHEMABHUMI TOTAL
29 32 10
2113 2142 2174
989 960 928
300
1884‐2184
1218=918
THE KANVA DYNASTY 62 63
64 65
NAME OF KING
REGNAL PERIOD,YEARS
BEGINS KALI ERA KE OR YUGABDA
BEGINS BCE
VASUDEVA KANVA BHUMIMITRA
30 24
2184 2223
918 879
NARAYANA KANVA SUSARMA TOTAL
12
2247
855
10 85
2259 2184‐2269
843 918‐833
THE SATAVAHANA ANDHRA DYNASTY
40
S.NO
NAME OF THE KING
REGNAL PERIOD,YEARS
66 67
23 18
2269‐2292 2292‐ 2310
833 ‐ 810 810‐792
10
2310 ‐ 2320
792 ‐ 782
69 70 71
SIMUKHA SAATAKARNI SRI KRISHNA SAATAKARNI SRI MALIA SAATAKARNI PUURNOTHSANGA SRI SATAKARNI SKANDHA STAMBHI
18 56 18
2320 ‐ 2338 2338 ‐ 2394 2394 ‐ 2412
782‐764 764 ‐ 708 708 ‐ 690
72 73
LAMBODARA SAATAVAAHANA
18
2412 ‐ 2430
690 ‐ 672
74
APIITAKA SAATAVAAHANA MEGHASWAATI SAATAVAAHANA SAATA SWAATI SAATAVAAHANA SKANEA SAATAKARNI
12
2430 ‐ 2442
672 ‐ 690
18
2442 ‐ 2460
660 ‐ 642
18
2460 ‐ 2478
642 ‐ 624
7
2748‐2485
624‐617
78 79 80
MRIGENDRA SAATAKARNI KUNTALA SAATAKARNI
3
2485 ‐ 2488
617 ‐ 614
8
2488 ‐ 2496
614 ‐ 606
SOUMYA SATAKARNI
12
2496‐2508
606‐594
81 82 83 84
SAATA SAATAKARNI
1
2508 ‐ 2509
594 ‐ 593
PULOMA OR PULOMA I
36
2509 ‐ 2545
593 ‐ 557
MEGHA SATAKARNI
38
2545 ‐ 2583
557 ‐ 519
ARISHTA SATAKARNI (IN THE TENTH YEAR OF HIS REIGN IN B.C. 509, SRI SANKARA WAS BORN. ) HAALA SAATAVAHANA
25
2583 ‐ 2608
519 ‐ 494
5
2608 ‐ 2613
494 ‐ 489
MANDALAKA SAATAVAHANA PURINDRASENA SAATAVAHANA SUNDARA SAATAKARNI
5
2613 ‐ 2618
489 ‐ 484
21
2618 ‐ 2639
484 ‐ 463
1
2639 ‐ 2640
463 ‐ 462
CHAKORA SAATAKARNI
1/2
2640 2640
462‐461
MAHENDRA SAATAKARNI SIVA SAATAKARNI
1/2
2641 ‐ 2641
462‐461
28
2641 ‐ 2669
461‐433
GAUTAMIPUTRA SAATKARNI II PULOMA
25
2669‐2694
433‐408
3
2694‐2726
408‐376
68
75 76 77
41
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92
REIGN IN KALI ERA (SOLAR TROPICAL YEAR)
PERIOD OF REIGN BCE (BEFORE THE COMMON ERA)
THE IMPERIAL GUPTA DYNASTY SERIAL NO.
NAME OF KING
REGNAL PERIOD
BEGINS KALI ERA KE OR
BEGINS BCE
99
CHANDRAGUPTA I OR VIJAYADITYA
7
2775
327
100
SAMUDRAGUPTA OR ASOKADITYA
51
2782
320
101
CHANDRAGUPTA II OR VIKRAMADITYA
36
2833
269
102
KUMARAGUPTA I OR MAHENDRAADITYA
42
2869
233
103
SKANDAGUPTA OR PRATAPADITYA
25
2911
191
NARASIMHA GUPTA
5
2936
166
BALADITYA
35
2941
161
44
2976
126
245
2775‐3020
327‐82
104 KUMARAGUPTA II 105 KRAMADITYA
TOTAL
Source: Chronology of Ancient Hindu History Part 1. author and publisher ¡§ Bharata Charitra Bhaskara¡¨,¡§Vimarsakagresara¡¨ Pandit Kota Vankatachela paakayaaji Kali 5058, AD 1957‐ Arya vignana Grantha Mala , Publication No 23
Appendix D MEANING OF HISTORY & ITIHAASA Historians and philosophers have been contemplating the meaning of history since, well, since the beginning of history! A simple definition of history is” remembering the past “or Knowledge of what has happened from the start until the present. It is also the knowledge of the past since record keeping was initiated. The purpose of studying history in school is to teach the student 42
understanding of what has taken place so that we may build upon and understand how a nation functions and how it came to be. We also study the history of other nations and how their histories interact with our history. A greater awareness of history results in a more enlightened and educated citizenry. Knowledge of our past helps us understand the present and prepare for the future. Knowing the history of the world helps the individual respect and appreciates one’s own form of government and society as well as become better informed about differences in the Civilizational ethos of other peoples of the world “The word history comes from Greek ἱ στορία (istoria), from the Proto‐Indo‐European *wid‐tor‐, from the root *weid‐, “to know, to see”(this is a hypothesis). This root is also present in the English word wit, in the Latin words vision and video, in the Sanskrit word veda, and in the Slavic word videti and vedati, as well as others (The asterisk before a word indicates that it is a hypothetical construction, not an attested form.) The original meaning of Itihaasa had a more precise sense than the word History. The etymology attested to by Panini indicates itiha to mean ‘thus indeed, in this tradition’ 24. One of the earliest references to Itihaasa in the literature of antiquity is in Chanakya’s Arthashastra. Our investigations lead us to believe that the Maurya empire for which he was the preceptor began in 1534 BCE. He defines Itihaasa, in the context of the syllabus prescribed for training of a Prince, with the following words;
ु मााियकोदाहरणं धमा थ र् श र् ा ं च त े ीितहासः। प रु ाणिमितो PURAANA (THE CHRONICLES OF THE ANCIENTS), ITIVRTTA (HISTORY), AKHYAYIKA (TALES), UDAAHARANA (ILLUSTRATIVE STORIES), DHARMASHASTRA (THE CANON OF RIGHTEOUS CONDUCT), AND ARTHASHASTRA (THE SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT) ARE KNOWN BY (COMPRISE THE CORPUS OF ITIHAASA ) HISTORY KAUTILYA’S ARTHASHASTRA, BOOK 1, CHAPTER 5
Thus, History (Itihaasa) in this definition takes on the meaning more akin to the sense of Historiography and is perhaps even more eclectic and appears to indicate a superset of political science and History as we use them today. We feel vindicated therefore in calling this a conference on Indian History, since we seem to ascribe the same broad meaning that Kautilya did 3 millennia ago. In the Mahabharata, which is itself considered Itihaasa, is the following verse in Adi Parva 1.267,268, that knowledge of the Itihaasa and Purana is essential to the proper understanding the Veda
24 Ka tr e, S.M., “Dictiona ry of Pa nini” ,, Published by
43
Decca n College, Par t I, 19 68
tathA hi mahAbhArate samupabRMhayet
mAnavIye
ca
–
itihAsa-purANAbhyAM
vedaM
bibhety alpaśrutAd vedo mAm aya ṃ pratari ṣ yati iti, pUranAt purANam iti cAnyatra. na cAvedena vedasya bRMhaNaM sambhavati nah y aparipUrNasya kanaka-valayasya trapuNA pUraNaM yujyate
तथ ् िह महाभारत ॆ मनिवऎच
ॆ ं सम पु िॄंह य त ॆ ् “इितहास प रु ाणाभ्य़ां व थ
ु ाथ व थ ॆ अौ त ॆ ो माम अय ं ूतिरित” िबभ इित प ूर णात ् प रु ाणाम इित चऽ ।
न च व ॆद ॆन ा व ॆद ॅमणम सवित
ु ा प रु ाणम ु तॆ । र् कनक वलय ऽप ण न ए अपिरप ून THIS IS WHY THE MAHABHARATA (ADI‐PARVA 1.267,268) AND MANU‐SAMHITA STATE, “ONE SHOULD COMPLEMENT ONE’S UNDERSTANDING OF THE VEDAS WITH THE HELP OF THE ITIHASAS AND THE PURANAS.” AND ELSEWHERE IT IS STATED, “THE PURANAS ARE CALLED BY THAT NAME BECAUSE THEY ARE COMPLETE.” The quintessential quote is that of Kalhana in the Rajatarangini, who is regarded as a modern in Indian parlance
धमार् थ र् काममोक्षाणामु प दे श समािन्वतं । पु र ाव ृत्त ं कथायु त्त रूपिमितहासं ूचक्षते ।। “Dharm aartha‐kaama‐m osks h an aa m up ades a‐ s am an vi t am | Pu raa ‐v r tt am , k at h a a‐ yu tt arup am It hih aas ah pra ch a ksh a te ||” HISTORY WILL BE THE NARRATION OF EVENTS AS THEY HAPPENED, IN THE FORM OF A STORY, WHICH WILL BE AN ADVICE TO THE READER TO BE FOLLOWED IN LIFE, TO GAIN THE PURUSAARTHAS NAMELY KAMA THE SATIATION OF DESIRES THROUGH ARTHA THE TOOL, BY FOLLOWING THE PATH OF DHARMA THE HUMAN CODE OF CONDUCT TO GAIN MOKSHA OR LIBERATION. Clearly there is an emphasis on the traditions and on the utilitarian aspect of History, embedded in the etymology of Itihaasa. The reason we draw emphasis to the ambiguity in the use of the word History is that, in our usage in this conference, while we adhere to the broader usage of the word History, we have separated the Civilizational aspects in distinct sessions. There is another reason why we bring attention to the definitions of History and Itihaasa. As we have pointed out in the caricaturization of the Indic, there is a widespread misperception amongst 44
present day Indics that India does not have a well defined sense of History. In fact in a paper titled ‘Concept of History in Vedic Rituals’ presented at the ICIH 2009 in Delhi, the author argues that “The Vedic ritual texts refer to words like purana, Itihasa, upakhyàna, etc. Some of these words are used in the sense of `history’ in modern Indian languages. It would be anachronistic to interpret these words from the Vedic texts in this modern sense. In this paper an attempt has been made to understand the concept of history in the Vedic ritual texts and their weltanschauung”. This is but a summary of what we believe to be a more rational view contradictory to the situation described above, that by the time of the Brahmana and Upanishada (which are considered an appendix to the Veda) and certainly by the time the Itihaasa and Purana were written, there was a well defined sense of history, so much so that the Mahabharata cautions us (as in the quote from the Mahabharata above) that the Veda are afraid of those who would read the Veda without a prior acquaintance of the Itihaasa and Purana. We are also not comfortable with the implication that the Veda is merely a book of ritual. Such a reductionist argument was initiated by the British who for the most part did not understand the contents of the Veda. Max Mueller exemplified this ignorance 25 in his estimation of the Veda Clearly there was sufficient reason for the caution that was expressed in the Mahabharata.
25 “Large number of Vedic hymns are childish in the extreme; tedious, low, commonplace.”“Nay, they (the Vedas) contain, by the side of simple, natural, childish thoughts, many ideas which to us sound modern, or secondary and tertiary. “...this edition of mine and the translation of the Vedas, will hereafter tell to a great extent on the fate of India and on the growth of millions of souls in that country. It (the Rig Veda) is the root of their religion and to show them what the root is, I am sure, the only way of uprooting all that has sprung from it during the last three
45
LISTING OF ABSTRACTS SUBMITTED BEFORE DEADLINE 1 Towards a Strategic Intent for the Indian Millennium PROFESSOR RAJEEV SRINIVASAN “RAJEEV SRINIVASAN“
Indians are strangely diffident about their civilization and its achievements. If the coming Asian Century is to be turned into the Indian Millennium, Indians have to recognize their tremendous heritage of being world leaders in many fields, notably in innovation and intellectual property. This was seen most vividly in such diverse sectors as steel‐making and in the invention of such concepts as context‐free grammars and the basics of the calculus. India is not a developing country, but a RE‐developing, RE‐emerging nation. Mostly because of innovation and the generation of intellectual property, India was consistently at the top of the world in economic terms up until the mid‐18th century CE, after which the deleterious impact of colonialism and a systematic dismantling of the economy impoverished the country. For India to realize its full potential, Indians must develop a strategic intent – a well‐articulated, simple and clear set of objectives that can enthuse the citizenry – to be the world’s best in field after field of endeavor. A study of Indian history is crucial to realize how India is capable of being the once and future leader. This paper considers how history can be used to develop the outlines of India’s long‐term strategic intent. [200 words]
2 New Findings on Harappan Metrology and Town‐Planning: A Case for Continuity with Historical Times. MICHEL DANINO MICHEL DANINO <[email protected]> 80, SWARNAMBIKA LAYOUT RAMNAGAR, COIMBATORE – 641 009, (TAMIL NADU) INDIA Dholavira’s elaborate town‐planning rests on the conscious use of specific proportions for its successive enclosures. Those proportions combined with the city’s dimensions allow us to calculate precisely the unit of length used for the fortifications, to relate it to the Lothal ivory scale, and to work out potential subunits. Both proportions and units receive overwhelming confirmation from structures of Dholavira and other Harappan sites. Units are finally refined to a dhanus of 190.1 cm and an angula of 1.76 cm, the former being 108 times the latter. The Dholavirian scheme of units is then shown to be related to historical unit systems in several ways; in particular, the Arthashastra’s scheme of linear measures conclusively has Harappan 46
roots. Finally, the paper attempts to outline some of the abstract concepts underlying Dholavira’s geometry, taking a peep at a hitherto neglected component of the Harappan mind. [143 words]
3 WERE THE IONIAN GREEKS CULTURALLY CLOSER TO THE INDICS THAN THE OCCIDENTAL HISTORIANS OF INDIA WOULD HAVE US BELIEVE BHARAT GUPT PHD [email protected] Associate Professor, CVS, Delhi University, Founder member and Trustee, International Forum for India’s Heritage. PO Box 8518, Ashok Vihar, Delhi 110052 INDIA. mobile: +91 98100 77914, phones: +91 11 2724 1490,+91 129 404 4590 http://personal.vsnl.com/bharatgupt
My main research has been to show that the Greeks, who have been appropriated by the post Europeans as their predecessors, were actually closer to Indians than Europeans. I have done an exhaustive study in the area of classical Greek and Indian theatre to demonstrate this. I believe that many such studies can be done in other areas. As a continuation to that work, I am now writing essays about Indian aesthetic situation to show how in last hundred years European notions of art have been foisted upon the Indians and how they have internalized it. [97 words]
4 Indian Strategic Tradition and Culture: A Unique Mix of Idealist and Realist Thinking NALIN KANT JHA M A, LL.B. M.PHIL. PHD (JNU) RAJIV GANDHI CHAIR PROF IN CONTEMPORARY STUDIES Allahabad University, Allahabad (UP, India) 211002 Phone (0532) 2462257; Cell: 09936077686
EMAIL: [email protected], WEB: HTTP://NKJHA.BLOGSPOT.COM I shall try to clear two contradictory misperceptions about Indian strategic culture: one which 47
believes that Indian thinking and history has always been violent (except the Buddhist and Jainist thinking); another which believes that Indians have always been romantic idealists out of touch harsh realities of the world. [48 words]
5 History: Epics And Purânas PROFESSOR GANESH UMAKANT THITE PH.D
26
Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune‐4. Mob: 09822912081. The archaic epics and purànas contain some information, which can be used for the sake of literary, social, cultural, religious and philosophical history of ancient India. They contain some references which can be prima‐facie useful for political history also. It will be however highly risky to draw any definite conclusions on the basis of this literature regarding the chronology or political affairs in ancient India. In spite of all the care conclusions on the political history will remain tentative only. Therefore this literature should be used with a lot of discrimination and only as a secondary source of information. [99 words]
6 Concept of History in Vedic Rituals MAITREYEE DESHPANDE PH. D BHANDARKAR ORIENTAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, PUNE-4. PHONE:09225649340. The vedic ritual texts refer to words like puràna, itihàsa, upakhyàna, etc. Some of these words are used in the sense of `history’ in modern Indian languages. It would be anachronistic to interpret these words from the vedic texts in this modern sense. In this paper an attempt has been made to understand the concept of history in the Vedic ritual texts and their weltanschauung. [65 words] 26 Prof Thite is joint author with Maitreyee Deshpande , among others of” Problems in Vedic and Sanskrit Literature” 48
7 Relevance of Upanishada Thoughts on Nature and Its Relation to Science G.T. PANSE PHD BHANDAKAR ORIENTAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, PUNE, MAHARASHTRA, PRESENTLY, MEMBER OF EXECUTIVE BODY OF BORI. FORMELY, SCIENTIST‐DY DIRECTOR NCL PUNE EMAIL:[email protected] PHONE NO.:‐ +919822256443 Origin of universe and creation of nature follows certain pattern of law. The understandings of these laws on the basis of mind, soul and body with the help of scientific instrumentation are distinctly two different processes. Advances in experimental sciences have shown importance to ancient wisdom and modern scientific research. The areas such as i) Origin and nature of ever‐ expanding universe ii) genetic make‐up of species and iii) Vedic knowledge and practices for education, peace and harmony are relevant to historical development at global level. A critical view involving above three areas with examples of research projects will be presented to trigger thought process and experimental evidence. [107 words]
8 Reference to India and the Indians in a Greek source: Testimony of Herodotus; The Histories EISHA GAMLATH PHD HEAD DEPARTMENT OF WESTERN CLASSICS & CHRISTIAN CULTURE UNIVERSITY OF KELANIYA, KELANIYA, SRI LANKA. EMAIL:[email protected] PHONE: +94112910338 Cultural and civilizational amalgamation between the subcontinent and Europe has already been the topic of discussion in the past decades. This paper explores the same in relation to the earliest historical composition of Europe, Herodotus’ the Histories, which throws substantial light on India and the Indians. [46 words] 49
9 At the cross‐roads called Yugantar LEENA MEHENDALE IAS EMAIL: [email protected] Yugantar means a Paradigm shift across the whole world. While tracing the history from our Ancient Literature we find that while for an individual, his/her Activities shift from one Ashram to other, but the societal importance has shifted from one Varna to other. What is the reason behind the paradigm shift and how does it happen smoothly? In earliest days called Satyayug, Knowledge had to be gathered and spread. What values were needed that could facilitate such a spread? When it was spread enough among the scholars, it also led to applications whereby it went to the hands of common household practitioner. This further led to creation of Art and Property, and their Protection became important. As it became much more of applied knowledge, Commerce became important. And eventually the service sector will become prime. These are signified through the Varnashram. In Geeta, it is claimed that 4 Varnas are created based on GUNA and KARMA not birth; but this concept seems to have remained utopia. The caste system became dependent on Birth as earlier it was the best way to read Applied Knowledge. Later it became rife with discrimination. What kind of knowledge was obtained by our forefathers throughout past several millennia? What proficiencies? How the Quest of “What after death” has taken us to different heights in our achievements? The supremacy of each of 4 Varnas by turn in each emerging YUG of Satya, Treta, Dwapar and Kali is a natural process. But what are the preconditions of a major paradigm shift that signifies a complete transition – the Yugantar? They are, to my mind, Research and HRD, Research has enabled mankind to explore new horizons. But its assimilation and application requires MAN to develop. New values, new attitudes, new skills need to be inculcated. What values did we persue in past and have they been replaced by new set of values – more needed to cope up with new realities? What were they and through which process? If any Yugantar has to be brought NOW do we have a methodology? What developments in MAN will lead to a smooth paradigm shift or make a Yugantar occur? [357 words]
10 The historicity of Vikramaditya and Salivahana: A Golden Era Ignored by British Historians –An intrigue exposed by Kota Venkatachalam Kalikivayi Mahankali Rao PhD., STATE PRESIDENT, BHARATIYA ITIHASA SANKALANA SAMITI, TAMILNADU A-13,’C’ BLOCK GULMOHAR APARTMENTS 15, CHEVALIER SIVAJI GANESAN ROAD, T.NAGAR, CHENNAI 600 017.
50
EMAIL: [email protected]
The Vikrama and Salivahana Eras begin with 57 B.C and 78 A.D. respectively. A controversy has been raging regarding the founders of these two Eras contradicting their historicity. V.A.Smith writes that the popular belief, which associates the Vikrama Era of 57 BCE with a Raja Vikramaditya of Ujjain is erroneous. There is no such person then. It was probably invented by the astronomers of Ujjain. This paper intends to highlight the glaring disparity in assigning correct timing of this period espoused by Kota Venkatachalam. He drew his conclusions based on the source material from Bhavishya Mahapurana. This paper brings out the internal evidence available aplenty in Bhavishya Purana to prove the Historicity of the Golden eras named after Vikramaditya and Salivahana. [121 words]
11 Ancient India VASU MURT I EMAIL: [email protected] A letter writer to my local newspaper claims that because “intellectually enlightened Western European Christians came to America 400 years ago,” America does not “resemble Laos, India, Ethiopia or Iran,” but instead possesses “the cities and the institutions that are the envy of the world.” This statement appears to be based more on prejudice than on fact. There have been numerous civilizations throughout history; many were learned in the arts, sciences, humanities and metaphysics. Athens, for example, was a democracy devoted to human excellence in mind and body, to philosophy, and to the cultivation of the art of living. While Christianity kept the West in the Dark Ages for over a millennium, the civilizations in Asia were flourishing. Hindu historian S. Kalyanaraman supports this observation by citing evidence from the principle Hindu scriptures, known as the Vedas, as well as the testimony of Megasthenes, who journeyed from the Greco‐Roman world to India during the 3 r d century BC. Kalyanaraman finds a great deal of political freedom and equality in ancient India, where social mobility was acknowledged. The Vedas describe numerous saints and sages who were of low birth, but were considered by their virtue to have been raised to the highest status. The Greek Megasthenes observed: “The law ordains that none among them under any circumstances be a slave; enjoying freedom, they shall expect the equal right to it which others possess...All Indians are free and not one of them is a slave. The Indians do not use even aliens as slaves; much less a countryman of their own.” The earliest moral and legal codes (Dharma‐sastras and Niti‐sastras) originated in India, as did the earliest representative institutions (Sabha and Parishad). A modern Western text, India: Yesterday and Today, also says, “the four orders...of Hindu society...were classes in the Western sense rather than castes in the Indian manner.” Long before Columbus’ era, India had a reputation throughout the world for its opulence. “The part of India known as Malabar,” wrote Marco Polo, “was the richest and noblest country in the 51
world.” Kalyanaraman writes that Egypt traded ivory, precious stones, gold and sandalwood with India, while Rome traded Indian spices—mostly cinnamon and cassia. The Puranas mention sandalwood from Malaysia. Ancient India’s epic poem, the Mahabharata, even compares the women of the Mediterranean to the goddesses of the higher worlds. The Rig Veda, one of four Vedas, refers to metallurgy. The Vedas also refer to mining iron ore, copper, brass and bronze. By the 6 t h century AD, India was far ahead of Europe in industrial chemistry. The Hindus were masters at calcinations, distillation, sublimation, steaming, making anesthetics, soporific powders, metallic salts, compounds and alloys. India was producing steel during the era of Alexander. Centuries later, steel would be introduced to Europe by the Muslims. Jivaka (6 t h century BC) was adept at surgical operations such as trepanning of the skull, abdominal openings to cure hernia, etc. Panini’s classical work on grammar, the Ashtadhyani contains a comprehensive list of parts of the body (human anatomy) as well as rare and common diseases. He further describes ligaments, sutures, lymphatics, nerve plexus, adipose and vascular tissues, mucous and synovial membranes with astonishing accuracy. Susruta dealt with surgery, obstetrics, dieting, baths, drugs, infant feeding, personal hygiene and medicinal education. He also understood the process of digestion and the functions of the stomach and liver. Bhavamisra, in 1550, detailed the circulation of blood in a book written on anatomy and physiology, a century before the West. Susruta described cataract surgery, hernia, cesarean section, the dissection of cadavers and the use of skin grafts to repair a torn ear. Rhinoplasty (fixing a broken nose) was a common practice. A drug called “sammohini” was used as an anesthetic. Ancient Indians were experts in plastic surgery until the 18 t h century. They knew the importance of taking a pulse. They were aware that mosquito bites transmit diseases as far back as the 6 t h century BC. Square roots and cube roots and the “Pythagorean” theorem are mentioned in the Sulva Sutras of Baudhayana. (700 BC) Baudhayana also calculated the areas of triangles, circles, and trapezoids and determined pi = 3.14136 when measuring and constructing temple altars. Aryabhata (5 t h century AD) drew up a table of Sines and provided India with a system of trigonometry more sophisticated than that of the Greeks. Ancient mathematical texts such as the Jyotisha Vedanga dealt with geometry, fractions, quadratic and cubic equations, algebra, permutations and combinations. In the West, we have been taught to call our base‐ten system of numeration (which replaced Roman numerals) “Arabic numerals.” India gave the world the base‐ten numerical system, our modern numerical script, and the concept of zero as a placeholder and a numerically recorded quantity. Indian mathematics came to the West through the Arabs. The Arabs themselves called mathematics “Hindisa,” or “Indian art.” Centuries before Newton, Bhaskara (1150 AD) was well‐acquainted with the principles of differential calculus and the concept of infinity. Astronomers such as Vachaspati (800 AD) anticipated the foundations of solid coordinate geometry centuries before Descartes. They also explained the movement of celestial bodies in terms of the earth’s rotation and motion about the sun. Charaka, a physician from the 7 t h century BC, described the wave motion of light, had a calendar of 12 lunar months and classified stars into zodiacal constellations. 52
India had rockets in the late 18 t h century; they were even used in military battles against the British. This generated interest in rocket technology in England. The Indian people built “iron forts and thousand pillared halls” and were described by observers as adorning themselves in silk, wool, linen and cotton. For thousands of years, India has enjoyed music, orchestral bands, dance, song, stage acting and all the other fine arts. A. Kalyanaraman writes that in comparison to other parts of the world, slavery was virtually nonexistent. There did exist various forms of indentured servitude, but none as brutal as in the West. Kalyanaraman further insists that the whole of Southeast Asia received most of its culture from India. India gave the world rice, cotton, sugarcane, spices and chess. Indian philosophy and metaphysics can be found in Pythagoras, Plato, Plotinus, Emerson, Thoreau, and Schopenhauer. History must not be written from a Western, colonialist perspective. These are just some of India’s contributions to humanity. [1043 words]
12 ARYA VS ETHNOS: THE PROBLEM OF RIG-VEDA SELF-IDENTITY OLEG PERZASHKEVICH PHD ASST. PROF. OF HISTORY FACULTY OF BELARUSIAN STATE UNIVERSITY EMAIL: [email protected] The identity and self‐identity is the central problem for any people and even any person: this is the ancient global positioning system and our modern set of basic constants. The existing academic definition of Rigvedic Arya is based on the Old Testament concept of ethnos. This situation has been got worse with the following to Aristotle’s logic and classification principles, which should not be applied to Rigvedic worldview. Rigvedic Arya identity pointed out in Rigveda does not match Torah’s goy (ethnos) after 3 of 5 key indications: origin from common ancestor (genus founder), common resident territory and mutual language. So, Arya should not be described as ethic or ethnic based, however it showed identity of the same level and can be used simultaneously with ethnic identity. [126 words]
13 Saffron Archeology and the Media YVETTE RANI ROSSER PHD EMAIL: [email protected] It is archaeologists who have been at the forefront of this saffron movement. It is important for the public to know that the same archaeologists — and they are a minority — who spun the tale about an ‘84 pillar temple’ under the Babri masjid 1 have created this ‘Aryan Harappans’ myth. 2 ‐‐ 53
‐ Shireen Ratnagar The following discussion concerns a contemporary civilizational controversy regarding contestations in the interpretation of archaeological data 3 . During the summer of 2000, a very public debate arose surrounding the excavation of a 10 t h century Jain temple in Fatehpur Sikri where a team from the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) had unearthed the ruins of a temple that revealed, among other finds, a pit filled with numerous damaged, broken statues. The debate about this archeological dig offers an example of not only the ideological gulf dividing social scientists in India, but is indicative of the manner in which opposing camps of scholars have been using the popular media to sensationalize their perspectives. The newspapers jumped in to report about this particular excavation site. Shortly, Prof. K.N. Panikkar, Prof. K.M. Shrimali, Prof. Harbans Mukhia from JNU and Prof. Irfan Habib from Aligarh Muslim University, D. N. Jha from Delhi University, and numerous other Indian academics who often chime in to condemn the Indo‐centric paradigms, issued a statement 4 that accused the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) of acting irresponsibly by excavating the ruins of this Jain temple citing the dig as an example of “saffron archeology”. 5 These critics accused the ASI of “communalizing archeology”. They claimed that the ASI was excavating this site because they wanted to prove that Muslims had destroyed the Jain temple. The historians also contended that the archaeologists at the ASI twist their data, releasing information before it was entirely analyzed, and manipulating the popular media. Many historians have recently assumed that they are more able to understand the nuances of archaeological data than are trained archaeologists whose interpretations are now considered to be tainted by saffron. Harbans Mukhia, a medieval historian, explained during our interview, Archaeology is a discipline that requires a tremendous amount of patience, you dig up things, don’t start announcing your conclusions, be patient, fill out your report, and then, reach whatever conclusions. They don’t have the patience, they want to get into the newspaper head lines immediately so usually it starts from there, announcing headlines.. which headlines? Usually provocative headlines… for example, their evidence of Aryan settlements. Now that leads to a reaction and a counter denunciation etc. If there was patience… they haven’t bothered to publish reports for 25 years not to speak of the ones last year, but suddenly you get these screaming headlines. They don’t have the patience. [452 words]
14 The Pernicious effects of the Greek Synchronism on the Indic Weltanschuung KOSLA VEPA PHD EMAIL: [email protected]
WHAT DO WE MEAN BY THE
GREEK SYNCHRONISM?
It was F E Pargiter, who introduced the notion of a Synchronism in Indian Historiography[1] in one of the first such works to appear in a European language, which lent credulity to the Puranic texts. He was also the first to analyze them in detail. Even so, Pargiter had fallen prey to the 54
propensity of the colonial overlord to tamper with the data instead of reporting on it in a dispassionate manner with Vairagya and Viveka. In so doing he follows the pattern of British Indian civil servants, who with literally dozens of domestic servants to relieve them of daily chores and ample time and a security enabled through palatial and sumptuous salaries at the cost of the impoverished Indian, were able to indulge in the favorite pastime of rewriting and reinterpreting Indian History in a form more palatable to the European audience. But Pargiter exhibits a degree of adherence to the evidence not evident in most other writers from the Occident. Still, the constant contact with Indians who were mostly in a subordinate role and generally obsequious in their behavior to most Occidentals, had taken its toll on objectivity and there is palpable condescension in the narrative that he spins The concern about synchronism was a natural one, seen from the perspective of an Occidental, and stemmed from the need for understanding the relationship between various overlapping dynasties that spanned a millennial time frame. Coming from a small island, they were not used to seeing the sheer plethora of dynastic families that ruled over the different parts of the subcontinent during the millennia. More importantly, the tendency to disbelieve any dates or the absolute chronology was so strong, that they were looking for external synchronisms, especially with respect to dynasties and rulers in the Occident. The difficulty was that there was not much of a civilization in the Occident during the millennia prior to 1000 BCE, with the exception of the countries surrounding the eastern Mediterranean. As a result, there is no record that is accessible to us of travelers from Greece or Babylon during the time frame in question. However this is not the final word on the subject and more research needs to be done on this topic.
ALEXANDER, THE UNKNOWN The only significant one they found in the Pre Christian era was the Synchronism afforded by the invasion of Alexander. We will assume for the moment that the accepted date of the invasion when he was in the Indus valley is indeed 326 BCE. There are severe difficulties with this dating (27), but unless we make the assumption that this is a correct date we will not be able to proceed. Nevertheless, at the outset it must be stated in all candor that the name of Alexander does not appear in any literary text in India and that therefore this is hardly a judicious choice for a synchronism. In this instance it is appropriate to recall the ancient adage that ‘Fools will barge in where Angels will fear to tread’ and one cannot fault Sir William when he expressed great joy in his discovery that Megasthenes was the ambassador of Seleucus Nicator to the Maurya Empire. Sir William Jones, President of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, gave his tenth anniversary discourse on February 28, 1793. The topic was, “Asiatic history, civil and natural,” and it was published in the fourth volume of the Asiatic Researches, first printed in 1807, reprint 1979. This was his third attempt to destroy the culture and the history of Bharatvarsh by mutilating the historic dates. It bears mentioning that Indians were not allowed to be members of the Royal Asiatic Society and it was not until a hundred and forty years later that they would be allowed to participate 27 See for i nstance Muralidhar Pa hoja “Need to correlate a nd Ra tio nal ize Alexa ndri a n, Sa ssa nian, Ro man, a nd Indic Chro nolo gy” Presented a t H EC, Dalla s, 2007 a nd co mpil ed b y Ko sl a Vepa i n ‘Astro nomi ca l Da ting o f Events a nd Sel ect Vi gnettes fr o m Indi an H i stor y” ,2008 , (a vai labl e a t a mazo n.com)
55
We quote Sir William. “I cannot help mentioning a discovery which accident threw in my way; (I) thought my proofs must be reserved for an essay which I have destined for the fourth volume of your Transactions. To fix the situation of that Palibothra, which was visited and described by Megasthenes, had always appeared a very difficult problem.” “…but this only difficulty was removed, when I found in a classical Sanscrit book, near 2000 years old, that Hiranyabahu, or golden‐armed, which the Greeks changed into Erannoboas, or the river with a lovely murmur was in fact another name for the Son itself, though Megasthenes, from ignorance or inattention, has named them separately. This discovery led to another of greater moment; for Chandragupta, who, from a military adventurer, became, like Sandracottus, the sovereign of Upper Hindostan, actually fixed the seat of his empire at Pataliputra, where he received ambassadors from foreign princes; and was no other than that very Sandracottus who concluded a treaty with Seleucus Nicator; so that we have solved another problem, to which we before alluded, and may in round numbers consider the twelve and three hundredth years before Christ.” (pp. xxv to xxvii) He tells us in his speech that he has found a classical Sanskrit book of about 2,000 years old. The other inference he makes is that Chandragupta was no other than the very Sandrocottus who is described by Megasthenes to have made a treaty with Seleucus around 312 BC; and, to establish that that Chandragupta belonged to the Maurya dynasty, he mentions some poem by Somdev which describes the murder of Mahapadma of the Nanda dynasty and his eight sons by Chandragupta in order to usurp the kingdom. In this way Jones created a fictitious connection between Chandragupta Maurya and Sandracottus. He says in his speech, “A most beautiful poem by Somdev, comprising a very long chain of instructive and agreeable stories, begins with the famed revolution at Pataliputra, by the murder of King Nanda with his eight sons, and the usurpation of Chandragupta; and the same revolution is the subject of a tragedy in Sanscrit, entitled the Coronation of Chandra.” (p. xxviii) These were the basic points of his speech that was called the discovery of the identity of Chandragupta Maurya as Sandracottus. But the problem is that such a formulation was completely wrong in all aspects and there are several hypotheses that he makes that no longer withstand close scrutiny. What are these Hypotheses? [1] Pargiter, FE, “Ancient Indian Historical Tradition” Oxford University Press, London, 1922, Chapter XII, page 139. [1099 words]
15 Legacy and Fabrication of Indigenous Law in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century 56
British India RICHA SHARMA PHD LECTURER, GUJARAT NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY, GANDHINAGAR, GUJARAT EMAIL: [email protected] This paper is an interdisciplinary approach of history and law, to trace an understanding of indigenous law before they encountered the western notions of law. The numbers of rudiments of Indian Law, before coming of the British rule, were much advanced and effective. The system of trials in private and public laws, which was practiced during ancient and medieval time was so advanced that it’s more or less similar to some contemporary Medico Legal Examinations. Besides this, the role of the village Panchayat, the system of subordinate courts, judicial procedures and role of judges during the ancient time and cock‐and‐bull dramatization of the same during colonial rule will be the ingredient of script. Thus this paper comprises of two fold objectives; to establish the legacy of Indigenous Law with special reference to Hindu Law and how the Indian laws were taunted, slanted and fabricated during the colonial rule. [155 words]
16 Medieval India Revisited and Revised: Reviled or Rectified? YVETTE RANI ROSSER PH.D Email: [email protected] In the first years of this millennium there was a heated controversy regarding the history textbooks published by the NCERT. The authors of the earlier NCERT textbooks became the most vocal opponents of the new history books. They called many press conferences and wrote innumerable newspaper articles and published several pamphlets decrying the new NCERT history textbooks. Though there was much hoopla about the issue, there was no serious comparison of the textbooks. This paper compares two NCERT textbooks for class eleven: Medieval India, by Satish Chandra, first published in 1978 and revised in 1990 and Medieval India, by Meenakshi Jain, first edition published in November 2002. Satish Chandra’s Medieval History textbook, published by NCERT in 1990, begins the discussion of eighth century India far removed from the Subcontinent, with a lengthy analysis of feudalism in medieval Europe. This textbook, specific to medieval India, begins with the fall of the Roman Empire and the rise of Christianity, and spends most of the first section explaining surfs, fiefdoms, lords, and manors‐‐all in Europe. The 2002 NCERT textbook Medieval India by Dr. Meenakshi Jain begins the narrative in the middle of India, not in medieval Europe. She dispenses with the dense description of feudalism found in earlier versions of the NCERT textbooks. Her introduction, “India after Harsha: An 57
Overview”, provides an illuminating summary of the historical period. Dr. Jain introduces the “interregnum between the death of Harsha in the mid‐seventh century A.D, and the rise of the Delhi Sultanate nearly six hundred years later”. “Yet, the polity remains dynamic and is notable for the assimilation of new groups into the system. The realms of culture and religion are enriched by intense creativity, and overall, this is a time of considerable accomplishments in the fields of language, aesthetics, and spirituality.” This opening statement, that brings the focus immediately to India’s achievements, finds no parallel in the first few chapters of the Satish Chandra textbook. This positive approach to Indian culture highlights the basic difference between the two books. Jain’s paints a vivid picture of life, religion, literature, onto the geography of India during the eighth century. Chandra finds decay. Both historians discuss the Bhakti movement. Chandra describes the efforts of Ramanuja, who “tried to assimilate Bhakti to the tradition of the Vedas”, arguing that “the path to Bhakti was open to all, irrespective of caste”. He explains “that [Ramanuja was] a bridge between the popular movement based on Bhakti and the upper caste movement based on the Vedas”‐‐again highlighting caste divisions. Meenakshi Jain describes the “powerful bhakti movement [that] developed … in the Tamil region … and spread… to north India and Bengal”. She writes that Ramanuja gave “a new impetus to the movement by reconciling metaphysical speculation with popular bhakti”. She manages the commentary without Chandra’s many references to upper or lower castes that characterize the usual NCERT treatment, thereby revealing a selection process, the prerogative of the interpreter. This paper presents in depth comparison of these two Medieval India history textbooks. [502 words]
17 BAL RAM SINGH, PH.D Director, Center for Indic Studies, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth 285 Old Westport Road Dartmouth, MA 02747 Email: [email protected]
Under Indic traditions, events are not man‐made rather a reflection of a journey of individuals, society, and universe. Many times man misunderstands happenings around him to be his creation when in reality one is just responding to circumstances created by usually unknown forces. Similar to scientific examination of matter, ideas, thoughts, philosophies, traditions, cultures, all have a fixed half‐life, and changes are inevitable. Humans do have freedom to understand and act accordingly. One of the ancient ways to explain events over a long period of time is variation in the strengths (practice) of Dharma, the universal force that is eternal. Yuga concept of Indic traditions describes the changing contours of Dharma during different periods of time. This presentation will attempt to link many seminal global events beginning with Mahabharata times to present with commentary on how Yuga cycle has shaped the events, and what one can expect in the future. 58
[150 words]
18 Portrayal of women in Deccan: An Epigraphical substantiation RUPALI PRAVIN MOKASHI, PHD. EMAIL: RUPA LIMOKA SH I@R E DIFFMA IL.C OM India is an ancient land with a living and unbroken tradition of diverse religions, cultures and customs. Women have always played a vital role in espousing this link from the days of the Sindhu‐ Saraswati Civilization to the current President of our country, Honorable Mrs. Pratibha Patil. When one makes an effort to appreciate the women of historic ancient India, it is realized that customarily the position of women in ancient India is judged by analyzing the famous female protagonists depicted in the literary works produced by stalwarts or relying on the norms laid down in scriptures of different times, thus overlooking the ‘real’ women. Their patronages, contributions and personal achievements to the making of the Indian society were rarely brought to light. Epigraphy is the study of written matter recorded on hard or durable material. It is perhaps the most precise and trustworthy source of history in general and India in particular. There is no aspect of the life, culture and activities, not reflected in inscriptions. However inscriptions were seldom utilized as a source to reconstruct the history of women in ancient India. Contrary to the general belief that only queens and princesses would appear in the inscriptions and that too with minimal numbers, hundreds of laywomen, Hindu, Buddhist and Jain, Devadasi’s and even the courtesans did find mention in the inscriptions. Most of the inscriptions studied are religious or donative in character which however, does not impede them from revealing socio, political and economic information in great details. Deccan is a large plateau bounded on both the sides by Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, which are the modern states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh in India. On the economic front, merchants from Deccan flourished considerably due to the sea borne trade with the Ptolemaic and Greco‐ Roman Empires through the ports lined on the Arabian coast. One of them was Kalyan, adjacent to Mumbai. This was the time when Mumbai was centuries away to rise to fame as an international port. The fragrance of the spices and the viscosity of the Muslin and silk dragged the European traders to the shores of Arabian coast with gold bullion. During the early centuries of the Christian era, Deccan’s flourishing overseas trade with Europe had a lasting impact on the social, economic and religious life, especially Buddhism. It thus becomes important to identify the role women played 59
in shaping the society of Deccan in these vibrant fourteen centuries. The continuity of beliefs, traditions and religious practices can be seen very clearly in these inscriptions. Inscriptions exemplify the munificence made by the women on a large scale towards the religion they adhered to. Inscriptions reveal that female donors were not only free to choose a religion of their choice but could also donate funds, whatever they could afford, for the cause of religion they upheld. There are many instances where the donor woman is a devotee of the great masters like Buddha and Mahavira while the rest of the family followed the Hindu traditions. Even the courtesans could exercise this right. Women participated in different religious practices, at times became a part of various social customs themselves, cared for the poor and needy in the society and showed concern for the nature. They rightly understood the importance of education and made provisions for the establishment and management of the educational institutions in ancient Deccan. Many queens actively participated in the administration and defence of their country. Women seemed to be aware of their financial rights as they could buy and sell their landed property and made donations as they desired with the help of money accrued there on. They were also engaged in different professions. Inscriptions throw light on prostitution and practices like Devadasi and the donations that they made while being in the constraints of the traditions. An anthology of more than one thousand women hitherto unknown to history and belonging to different social, religious, economic and political background has been unfolded. The world of women like Naganika the queen, Lota, the palace servant, Paliyakka, the Jain courtesan, Lavanika the lay patron of Buddhism, Koti, the Buddhist Nun, Huliyabijakke the Jain nun etc. will be unfurled. This information will help to create a profound understanding of the glorious tradition of capable and confident but hitherto lesser known real women of ancient Deccan. [740 words]
19 Traditional Knowledge System among the ethnic groups in Rajasthan OM PRAKASH Assistant Professor in History and Public Policy, School of Policy Sciences National Law University, NH‐65, Nagaur Road Mandore, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India 60
Email: [email protected] The tribal and other primitive groups in India have been generally understood as the illiterate and uncivilized people. However, this study will focus that how the tribal in Rajasthan are expert in various branch of medicine. The type of drugs they use and practices they follow are marvelous. Their ethno‐medical remedies for diseases like joints pain, arthritis, asthma, snake bite, piles, dysentery, liver, eye and hair problems etc. are remarkable. Their expertise in animal diseases and the use of medicines for the same are interesting to look into. The use of plants in creation of material culture and useful items of the day is another aspect which this paper would like to discuss. The paper also discuss about the use of animal part in traditional healthcare system being practiced by these ethnic groups since ages in Rajasthan. There are various plants which are quite poisonous in nature and being used for variety of medicines by these peoples. Such command on the botanical knowledge is a distinct and unique feature of the traditional knowledge system of various ethnic groups including tribal in Rajasthan. [182 words]
20 Overlooked Clues of Ancient History N MAHALINGAM Email: [email protected] A person with Telugu as mother tongue found himself as an alien in Tamilnadu and searched for his roots. He found it as a town by name Santhri in Haryana. This search revealed the whole community might have had its origin in Indus valley region. Further Search indicated their presence in the Kingdom of Arrapha in the ancient Mesopotamia. As a bonus the ancestry of Nagarathar and hence Tamils traced to ancient Nagar now known now as Tel Brak in Syria. Incidentally the family names (surnames?) indicated the ancestral places of three Rishis of Sapta Rishi Mandala. In addition the ancestral place of Kautilya Chanakya could be identified by the same technique.. He cannot help but to touch the Aryan question, prevalence of place names with the word Rama and its variants distributed throughout the world. Sami is a popular name of persons in southern states of India. The existence of a tribe by that name in Scandinavia and about 75 places with the name as Sami spread over the globe has to be pointed out. This article is similar to a FIR of a police station and the clues have to be investigated further by specialists. [197 words]
21 Indus Seals, Human Evolution N MAHALINGAM 61
Email: [email protected]
All humans receive sometimes receive unsolicited communications, without asking for it or without expectation. These could be communications from persons, information gathered by occasional reading of News Papers or magazines of different types and books chosen at random. Only a few recognizes that they are special communications directed towards them, to think over them and react. The first part of this article is the result of two such communications received spaced several years apart. The second part of this article is based upon an unexpected event of acting as a patient‐volunteer in a trial of personalized therapy for allergic rhinitis of which the author is suffering from his childhood. The first communication from an engineering consultant who met the author, about a decade ago, at a gathering of consultants who later sent the details of his experiment to prove that humans can lead a normal life by just on water and ingesting vegetables from time to time. The second communication on Indus seals was sent to this author by Mr. Egbert Richter Ushanas, Indologist, last year. The first communication was instinctively preserved by the author. It is generally accepted by the molecular biologists that genes may become inactive over the years due to environment, lifestyle and food. Perhaps by activating the dormant genes it could be possible to survive on water as is proved by experiments of some persons. The personalized therapy gave protection against allergic rhinitis for almost two decades. Similar studies could be extended to evaluate its effectiveness on other ailments of humans. [255 words]
22 THE GENESIS OF INFINITE SERIES IN INDIA AROUND 14TH CENTURY K. RAMASUBRAMANIAN, PHD CELL FOR INDIAN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN SANSKRIT DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES, IIT BOMBAY POWAI, MUMBSAI 400 076, INDIA EMAIL: [email protected] Turning an expression into an infinite series is indeed a brilliant achievement that has played a pivotal role in the advancement of science and technology. Usually Newton (1642–1726 CE) is considered to be the pioneer in this field. However, if one were to historically track the foremost practitioners of this field, it turns out that the contributions of Kerala mathematicians are indeed remarkable. While Newton lived in the later part of the 17th century, starting with Madhava (c.1340 ‐1425 CE) of Sangamagrama, the astronomers and mathematicians of Kerala during the medieval period (13th ‐16th cent.) have made significant contributions to the development of power series expansion of the sine and cosine functions, the development of infinite series (and fast convergent 62
approximations) for the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, and so on. Besides this, the Kerala mathematicians also present a careful analysis of how successive partial sums of these infinite series give better and better approximations, thereby displaying a sophisticated understanding the notion of limit. Today it is too well known that the notion of zero, infinity and limit are tied together as a bundle, and it is in untying this bundle that the flower of calculus unfolds itself. The mathematicians of Kerala in the context of presenting a proof of the expression for one‐eighth of the circumference of a circle, which is given by them in the form of an infinite series—which is known today as the Gregory‐Leibniz series for π / 4 have made clever use of the binomial expansion which brings in spectacular simplification in the expression. They not only express a certain binomial expression in terms of an infinite series, but also mention the condition under which it converges. During the lecture we will give an overview of these contributions and also demonstrate how the same things are discovered by different traditions in different contexts in startlingly different ways. [317 words]
Paper will be changed to "Evolution of Planetary Models: Aryabhata to Nilakantha" (per email from author 12/4, awaiting complete4 abstract
23 Re‐evaluation of the sheet anchor in the light of data from Indian sources MURALIDHAR PAHOJA PHD Email: [email protected] European writers of the 18th and 19th centuries identified Sandracottus of the Alexandrian narratives with Chandragupta of the Maurya dynasty and fixed Indian chronology based on this identification. As a corollary of this synchronization, the chronology of both Buddha and Mahavir had to be advanced by sixty years. Buddhist sources place Chandragupta in 162 of Buddha Nirvan Era. The epoch of this era is placed at 2557 kali, so that Chandragupta is placed in 2719 kali. Ashoka’s coronation is said to take place either in 218 BE (i.e. 2775 kali) or 228 BE (2785 kali) Jain sources on the other hand, place Chandragupta in 155 Mahavir Nirvan era starting from 2574 kali. By this reckoning, Chandragupta is placed in 2729 kali. He is a contemporary of Bhadrabahu. Jain sources say Mauryas came to power in 215 ME i.e. 2789 kali. In effect the Buddhist and Jain sources both consider Ashok Maurya to be contemporary with Alexander. Working on the above hypothesis and analyzing Alexander’s history, positive results are obtained. The Yona kings mentioned in Atoka edicts can be more rationally identified. More importantly, the adversary in the Kalinga war can also be identified. The Maurya chronology is more firmly placed at about 60 years earlier. The chronology of Shunga dynasty is realigned 63
accordingly. ( 232 words)
24 Perception of Indian history in the Mahabharata ASHA GOSWAMI PHD Sanskrit Department, Delhi University, Delhi Email: [email protected]
The Mahabharata is an epic chronicle of the Historical event of the war fought between the two clans of ancient India. It has been acclaimed as the National Epic of India in importance next only to the Rig‐Veda, and from Olden times has been treated as a Historical treatise as authentic as the Vedas. Moreover, its authorship in three recensions Viz., Jaya, Bharata and Mahabharata is itself suggestive of the fact that the great epic is construed on the Historical nucleus relating to a family feud between the two scions of the Bharata clan. Similarly the very name “Mahabharata” If derived as “Bhaarataanaam mahajjanma ... that it is so called as it narrates the great doings of the glorious scions of the ancient king Bharata known as the Bharatas” itself entitles the work as a Book on Indian History (Cf.Mbh.1.5.6.31); and also since Panini (VI.2.38.1) takes the word Bhaarata as signifying the battle of The Bhaaratas , or the History(itivrita) of the Bhaaratas , the work should be deemed as an authentic work of Indian History. Besides the internal evidence from the Epic Itself (Ibid.1.1.52;56.16,18,19) proves its Historical nature. But, it is a sad state of affairs that on account of the much distorted and mutilated character of the narrative, its Historicity has been diluted. Hence, the main objective of this paper is first two collate the vital references from the Epic which bear perceptions of Indian History and then subject these to the proper interpretation in order to trace the hidden meanings with an unbiased mind. Summing up, it may be professed that the Epic chronicles relating the Battles between the two groups of the ruling kings as well as the Teerthayatras, and the Digvijaya descriptions provide enough Indian Historical substratum in the form of the social strata; Geographical background of the sites and ethnographic substratum of the Mahabharata era covering a vast knowledge of the proto‐Indian tribes and castes who occupied various regions of India during that remote period’. [327 words]
25 ANCIENT INDIA’S CONTRIBUTION TO MATHEMATICS SUDHEER BIRODKAR Email: [email protected] Mathematics represents a high level of abstraction attained by the human mind. In India, 64
mathematics has its roots in Vedic literature, which is nearly 4000 years old. Between 1000 B.C. and 1000 A.D. various treatises on mathematics were authored by Indian mathematicians in which were set forth for the first time, the concept of zero, the techniques of algebra and algorithm, square root and cube root. As in the applied sciences like production technology, architecture and shipbuilding, Indians in ancient times also made advances in abstract sciences like Mathematics and Astronomy. It has now been generally accepted that the technique of algebra and the concept of zero originated in India. But it would be surprising for us to know that even the rudiments of Geometry, called Rekha‐Ganita in ancient India, were formulated and applied in the drafting of Mandalas for architectural purposes. They were also displayed in the geometric patterns used in many temple motifs. Even the technique of calculation, called algorithm, which is today widely used in designing soft ware programs (instructions) for computers was also derived from Indian mathematics. In this chapter we shall examine the advances made by Indian mathematicians in ancient times. [196 words]
26 RULING DYNASTIES OF UPPER INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION PROFESSOR GOPAL KRISHNA DASH Vice President, BISS Department of Sanskrit Utkal University, Vanivihar Bhuvaneshwar Phone: 0674‐2580862, Mob. 9937310754
Though a lot of effort has been done to decipher and interpret the archeological findings of the Indus valley civilization, no effort has been done to determine who the rulers of the great civilization were. It is because of the erroneous assumption about the mythical Aryan invasion and wrong dating of the battle of Kurukshetra of Mahabharata. According to the Panchang or Ponjika still widely in use in all parts of India, the battle took place 36 years before Kaliyug, i.e. in 3138 B.C. Astronomical verification using Planetarium soft ware shows the date to be around 3070 BC. The difference can be attributed to the subsequent corrections of the Indian calendar by Varahamihir, Aryabhata etc. and corrections of the Julian and Gregorian calendars. It means that during the upper Indus valley period, the descendants of King Parikshit ruled over the area. This paper tries to correlate the period with the ruling dynasties of the period after the battle of Kurukshetra. A critical examination of the decline of the Indus valley civilization with the drying of river Sarasvati shows how the influence of the rulers declined and came to an end with the conquest from the east (Magadha rulers).
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Identification of the Historical dates from Puranic Sources PROFESSOR NARAYAN RAO Prof esso r of his tory reti red Pri nci pa l of gov er nm en t co l le ges o f Or issa , P resi de n t B haratiya It i haasa Sanka lan Sami ti , Talasahi p.o . & dis t . Kho rda 752055 pho n e: 0 6755 -223058 , mob. 9437389065 According to the modern Indian history books Lord Buddha is believed to have been born in the Sixth century B.C. and Chandragupta Maurya is believed to have been the ruler of Magadha Empire soon after the invasion of Alexander in the year 327 B.C. There is a common misconception among the laymen as well as the historians that these and the other dates given in the official version of Indian history are proven facts. However, a careful and critical examination of the sources from which these dates have been derived show that these dates may be only as true as the creation of the universe in (or around) the year 4006 B.C. Most people, including the historians, believe that the dates mentioned above and the other dates of Indian history have been derived mainly from archaeological evidences, inscriptions of stone pillars and accounts of the foreign travelers. But no complete history, whether correct or incorrect, can be written from such discontinuous sources. If writing of history from such sources were possible we could have got a complete and detailed history of the great Druid civilization of England which built the Stonehenge, the great Mayan and Inca civilizations of America. History has to be written primarily from historical accounts. The modern pioneers of Indian history namely Sir William Jones, Professor Max Muller, Professor Wilson and the other orientalists of early nineteenth century knew this and the first sources they looked for Indian history were the scriptures known as Itihaasa and Purana such as Mahabharata, Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana, Matsya Purana and Bhavishya Purana. The Puranas give the dates of the historical events in Kaliyugabda, Vikram Samvat, Shalivahan Sakabda and other Indian eras still in use at present. From these narrations it is possible to get the dates of all important historical events in the Christian era. This paper gives the chronology of ancient Indian history for the important events calculated precisely in this manner. [326 words]
28 SRI RAMA: NOT A MYTHOLOGICAL GOD JAGAT K. MOTWANI PHD, F U L L BR I GH T S CH O LA R
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E M A IL : JAG AT M O TW A N I@ YA H OO. C O M I am writing this to rebut the politically triggered postulate that Sri Ram didn’t exist, and that he was a mythological god, by irrefutable historical evidences given by various historians, mostly non‐Indian. There has been political uproar over two the inter‐twined issues – the reality of the life of Sri Ram, and protecting Ram Setu (Setu Samudram) as a national monument. A few politicians are saying that Sri Ram didn’t exist; hence there is no question of Ram Setu. The space images taken by NASA reveal a mysterious ancient bridge between Sri Lanka and India. Its unique curvature and composition suggest that it is man‐made. In the Ramayana epic, there is mention of a bridge, which was made by Ram’s army to be able to cross over to Sri Lanka to fight Ravana. No other historical purpose for the bridge has been found documented. I don’t know, and for me there is no use to know, what the political motive is to oppose making it a national monument. Let the readers guess. Every body knows that in most cases, politics in India is hot, when there is fear of losing minority votes. I don’t care if Ram Setu is considered as a national monument. But, I, like millions of Hindus on the planet, would feel pain if Sri Ram is considered as a myth. I am not giving my sentimental beliefs. My paper will contain only a bit – not even 20 percent of what has been historically documented about Lord Rama and his amazing global colonization, particularly Africa, Egypt, Mesopotamia, South America, and Afghanistan. Stephen Knapp, in “Proof of Vedic Global Existence” (2000, p.107), writes that Lord Rama, after defeating Ravana, gave each son – Lava and Kush (or Cush) – .half of the planet each to rule. The paper will give details of the territories colonized by Sri Rama, as historically documented by various scholars. [329 words]
29 THE MISSING MILLENNIUM PARAMESWARAN MURTHIYEDATH Email: [email protected]
As an appraisal of the cosmological contents of the .Rig‐Veda, in particular, and by comparing with the corresponding concepts that emanated from the Brˉahmanaˉ, Aranyaka, Upanisadˉa and the puraana a (BAUP), in general, certain inferences as to the passage of a considerable time between these periods are being drawn. How the earlier notions went unnoticed by the later and how altogether much different notions came into existence are being evaluated. How this indicated a large span of time between the two and how these two periods could not be contiguous is being studied, of course very briefly. The author’s acquaintance with the Vedic text is actually very small and is limited to an enquiry. [116 words]
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30 There was no race called “Arya” INDULATA DAS PHD, Qr. No. 5R9, Forest Park, Unit‐1, Bhubaneswar, Orissa, 751009
EMAIL: [email protected] Confirmation or denial of the theory of “Aryan invasion” can be accomplished only if it is backed by the minimum proof that there was ever a race called “Arya”. And the whole gamut of literature of ancient India miserably fails to provide a single proof in favor of the same although the word “Arya” is profusely used in the hoary literature. The word “Arya” has been defined as a person who accomplishes his moral duties and abstains from activities forbidden by human ethics. The grand historical duo Ramayana and Mahabharata do not provide any allusion directly or indirectly that “Arya” meant a particular race. No Dharmasastra prescribes any code of conduct for the Aryan race although the same has been prescribed for all classes of people in the society. “Arya” in simple terms is a person with noble qualities. “Arya” is also used as an address meant to show one’s profound reverence to the person in context. The father in law is addressed “Arya” by the daughter in law and the husband is called “Aryaputra” (son of Arya) irrespective of their caste or lineage. Moreover Arya is not a word which is exclusively used for human beings only. Examples are not lacking where the word has been used for lower animals or birds. For example “Jatayu” which was a vulture was addressed “Arya” in Ramayana. Hanuman has been called Arya. Tara, the female monkey and the wife of Bali has also been called Arya. Besides, the word “Arya” is not always used to mean a corporeal being. There are instances where the word has been used as an adjective of abstract things like the mind (Abhijnana Sakuntalam of Kalidasa). In Ramayana the word “Arya” has been used as an adjective not of a person but of the nature of a man (Aryasvbhavavanam). Had “Arya” been the name of a race a person who is an “Arya” must have remained “Arya” all the time. But there is example when the same person is addressed “Arya” and “Anarya” according to his good and abominable behavior. There is example of brother being called Anarya while the sister is called Arya according to their respective behavior. Thus throughout the length and breadth of the ancient literature of the country there is not a single proof to substantiate that there ever existed a race called Arya. And it is impossible to conjecture that the huge literature written by none other than the Aryas did not care to mention a few words about their whereabouts and their historic victory over the land. [426 words]
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31 Legacy of the Partition of India: An Assessment of the policy of Rehabilitation of the East Pakistan’s Refugees in India, 1947‐1971. OM PRAKASH Assistant Professor in History and Public Policy, School of Policy Sciences National Law University, NH‐65, Nagaur Road Mandore, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India [email protected]
The partition of Bengal in 1947 rendered millions uprooted and killed thousands. For Bengal, the refugee exodus continued for years after partition. It is important to note that while the Partition of Punjab was a one‐time event with carnage and forced migration, however restricted primarily to first few years, the Partition of Bengal has turned out to be a continuing process. It would be important to observe that how these people struggled to reconstruct their lives, and to what extent their new environment posed a challenge to their existence and culture. What was their attitude towards the Government policies of relief and rehabilitation? The paper shall also attempt to look into the various phases of the government policy to resettle these migrants and will provide a critical appraisal of the government policy; also the attempt will be to find out what legacy this aspect of partition of India left on the memory and geopolitics of Indian subcontinent. For a proper analysis and critique of the government policy, we need to depend upon the government sources, especially of the Ministry of Refugee, Relief and Rehabilitation of Government of West Bengal and those of the Department of Rehabilitation, Government of India and the Lok Sabha Debates and West Bengal State Legislative Assembly Debates, Report of the Indian Planning Commission etc along with other sources. [222 words]
32 The war of God against the Gods: whither Hindus? MADAN L. GOEL PHD, Professor Emeritus, University of West Florida Email: [email protected] The war of God against the Gods refers to the conflict in history between monotheism (Christianity and Islam) and polytheism (Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Shintoism, and numerous native traditions). Monotheism insists that only a single God exists, known variously as Yahweh, the Lord or Allah. Other gods are “false” or even demonic. The Monotheistic God is jealous and wrathful. There is one God, and one correct method of worship. Those who deviate are heretics and may be punished, tortured or killed. In its exclusive devotion to the worship of one God, monotheism 69
has inspired much ferocity and fanaticism. Polytheism in contrast is open‐ended and easy going. Many roads lead to the mountain top. There is a willingness to entertain the idea that there are many gods and many ways to worship them. A person may choose any path. Monotheistic religions of Christianity and Islam have spawned much cruelty and mayhem. The infamous Inquisition lasted 400 years, 1200s—1600s and engulfed all of Europe. The Spanish and the Portuguese inquisitions in the 16 t h century were especially gruesome. The Church appointed Control Boards to root out heresy got carried away. Many were tortured, flogged and burned. Inquisition was used against Protestants, former Jews and pagans. Galileo was imprisoned in a Florence cathedral for the view that the earth revolved around the sun rather than being the center of the universe. For merely talking with animals or for being alone in the woods, women could be charged for the crime of witchcraft. Several million women were tortured and burned at the stake for witchcraft. Many converted Jews also were tortured and burned because they maintained unsuspectingly some of their previous Jewish cultural practices. Then there was the Thirty‐Year War, 1618 to 1648. Protestant and catholic countries fought each other with much brutality and bloodshed. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 brought an end to religious wars. It also brought forth the modern state system. Religion and state were separated. Gradually religion became a private affair. Secularism took birth as a practical necessity. Europe could not otherwise survive as a civilization. The Islamic world faces a similar civilizational dilemma—to reform or to commit suicide in constant warfare. Christianity has been reformed to some extent. It has become pluralistic and multifaceted. Instead of one Church headed by the Pope, there are three: Catholics, Protestants and Eastern Orthodox. In addition, there are smaller sects: Coptic Christians, Armenian Christians, Syrian Christians (in India), Mormons, Jehovah’s Witnesses, the Moonies, and others. Protestants are divided among some 20 separate denominations, such as Baptists, Methodists, and Episcopalians and so on. Fundamentalists and Born‐Again Christians wish to turn the clock back on pluralism; they have achieved some success in the United States. Fundamentalists and evangelical denominations have also spread their tentacles in India. All however is not well with the world On 9/11/2001, we were reminded once again about the ferocity unleashed by monotheism. “The men who hijacked and crashed four civilian airliners were inspired to sacrifice their own lives, and to take the lives of several thousand ‘infidels,’ because they had embraced the simple but terrifying logic that lies at the heart of monotheism: if there is only one god, if there is only one right way to worship that god, then there is only one fitting punishment for failing to do so— death.” Jonathan Kirsch. The ancient hatreds born of religion have been picked up by Muslims in contemporary society. The Islamic world is in conflict with all other civilizations.
Whither Hindus? Hindus have an admirable record in fighting to preserve their civilization. Hinduism survived a long period of subjugation: 500 years of Islamic rule (1201‐1707 approximately), and 200 years of British imperialism (1757‐1947 approximately). Contrast the situation in India with what 70
happened to other civilizations. Islam conquered and decimated the civilizations of Persia, Turkey, Baghdad and North Africa. In less than 100 years after Mohammad’s death, the Islamic rule stretched from the frontiers of India all the way to Spain. The annals of Indian history are filled with those who defended national interests: Rana Pratap, Shivaji, Guru Gobind Singh, Rani of Jhansi, and the numerous freedom fighters. After having won independence from British imperialism, Hindus have lost it to anti‐Hindu forces of secularism and minority vote politics. What factors explain these curious phenomena? What can be done? These and related questions will be discussed in a fuller essay. I will conclude with a call to action by Hindus to defend their civilization and strategy to accomplish the same. [750 words]
33 Transmission of Calculus from India to Europe and Transmission of the Transmission Thesis
C. K. RAJU PHD Centre for Studies in Civilizations, New Delhi EMAIL: [email protected]
A sure way to recognize the transmission of information is the epistemic test‐‐those who copy often do so without adequate understanding, and hence make mistakes. I explain this test with regard to (a) the transmission of the calculus and (b) the transmission of the very thesis that the calculus was transmitted. The epistemic test is easier to understand in the latter case. I also explain, with further examples, how wrong attribution can result in the propagation of a dangerously incorrect understanding of the original. [116 words]
34 Calculus without Limits: A New Way to Teach Mathematics C. K. RAJU PHD Centre for Studies in Civilizations, New Delhi [email protected] The Western understanding of mathematics was quite different from the traditional Indian one. Therefore, Europeans had difficulty in assimilating the imported Indian calculus (just as they had earlier had difficulty in assimilating the imported Indian arithmetic algorithms). The Western understanding of mathematics as “perfect”, led them to suppose that the calculus requires 71
super‐tasks (an infinite series of tasks). This understanding later evolved into formalism, where these super‐tasks are metaphysically enabled by set theory, leading to formal real numbers and limits. This has made the calculus complex (hence axiomatic set theory, formal reals, and formal limits are left out of elementary calculus courses). This added complexity does not achieve any practical end. However, this method of teaching mathematics was enforced in India during colonialism, and the colonial legacy, gifted by Macaulay, still persists. A new understanding of the calculus has now emerged using zeroism: a realistic alternative to formalism. This is close to the traditional Indian way of doing mathematics, hence culturally easier for Indian students to assimilate‐‐‐especially for those coming from a poor background. It is here promoted not only for that last reason, but also because of its universal appeal: it offers greater practical value, and is better suited to present‐day computer technology. On this basis, an alternative course has been developed on calculus without limits‐‐‐both literally and metaphorically. This preserves rigor (using a non‐Western philosophy), but avoids the difficulties of formal limits. I explain the potential of this new constructive alternative to transform the current process of education. [318 words]
35 OLD WORLD HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY REDISCOVERED MURLIDHAR H. PAHOJA PHD Email: [email protected] ‘Greece’ as a name of a country never occurs in Eastern accounts. ‘Yunan’ of West Asian accounts and ‘Yavan’ and ‘Yona’ of Indian accounts are translated as ‘Greece’. It is not clear why in the Eastern accounts, the name ‘Greece’ is not used if that is what is meant by ‘Yunan, Yavan or Yona’. This identification with ‘Greece’ raises doubt and needs investigation. Indian references to Yavan and Yona are such as to indicate their location just outside India. Saka, Yavan and Kamboja are often mentioned together. Kamboja is known to be within the Indian subcontinent. By the sequence used, it would appear Yavan lies just beyond the borders while Saka may be beyond Yavan. One explanation given by European scholars is that Yavan, Yona and Yunan refer to Ionia on the coast of Anatolia (modern Turkey). It is quite possible that Ionia is meant. But the next question will be to determine if Ionia really existed on the coast of Modern Turkey. Many islands, ports and rivers of Ionia are mentioned in Greek (or Yavan ?) literature. European scholars have identified them with islands, ports and rivers on the western coast of Turkey. But the strange thing is that their modern names do not even remotely, resemble the ancient Ionian names sought to be identified. This paper points out a number of such anomalies and logically what seem to be unsound identifications of geographical entities. Alternative identifications are discussed. The same logic applies to the identification of ancient Countries and States (such as Caria or Phrygia and other 72
so called Ionian States) that are sought to be located in Anatolia (Turkey). Here again, alternative locations seem to fit better both by phonetic similarity of names and also by description of geographic features. The process at once opens a new vista and even Countries like Phoenicia, Libya, Egypt, Syria, and Media, Bactria, Persia find new definitions and locations on the Old World map. What we obtain is a total break from the present day concept of Old World Geography. And this is not wishful thinking. There is enough material in ancient Geographical and Historical writings to not only support but to positively affirm the new identifications. The ramifications of these findings are manifold. Maps of Europe and Asia are to be drawn afresh. In fact, Ancient Europe has to now, lie within the boundaries of the present day Asia and the Ancient Asia must shrinks appropriately. Along with the Countries, major Rivers also find new identifications and locations. The distances between Countries shrink and are now more reasonable. The identification and geographical location of Ancient Yunan and Rum is now, made in sync with ancient writings. Yunan is not the present day Greece, nor is Rum same as Rome. Rum is a country, not a city. Geographically Yunan and Rum somewhat overlap as is evident also from ancient references. Because the distances have shrunk, history seems to be more reasonable and manageable. One does not have to now, wonder at the distances between Ashoka’s Pataliputra and Yona rajas in Babylon, Syria and Egypt. Historically, the route followed by Alexander can now, be traced with better precision and certitude and the battle fields can be better identified. Questions such as what happened to Alexander’s body after his death, can now, be answered. The claims of Greek and Hellenic culture become questionable. It becomes now, obvious that ancient Greece was a fabrication in pursuit of a European identity, just as AIT was fabricated with the twin objectives of i) denying India her pre‐Bharat War history and her overwhelming influence on world civilizations through Sanskrit, and ii) confusing the Indian minds about their own identity. [612 words]
36 Myth of Hindu‐Muslim syncretism in medieval India SAURAV BASU MD Email: [email protected]
A myth of a so‐called Hindu‐Muslim syncretism in medieval India has been constructed and perpetuated by self‐styled ‘secularist’ historians in recent decades. Their quest, they claim, is the ‘de‐communalization’ of Indian history and re‐discovery of a ‘composite’ culture, which according to them was effaced by the colonial historians having a ‘divide‐and‐rule’ ideology. They further maintain that this same ideology was appropriated by some Indian historians, whom they term as ‘nationalist’ historians. However, on critical investigation of the works of the ‘secularist’ historians, we find a consistent effort to artificially construct this idea of a “composite” culture through constant use of various artifices like massive bowdlerizations, out‐ of‐context quotations, suppression of strong evidence unfavorable to their theses, gross generalizations, drawing of fictitious parallels, etc. The picture that emerges clearly is that of a gross manipulation and subversion of all norms of scholarship on the part of the ‘secularist’ historians in order to fraudulently shape the history of medieval India in their own Marxist and Nehruvian moulds. [164 words] 73
37 Orientalizing Hindu myth and history SHARADA SUGIRTHARAJAH PHD E MA I L : SHA RA DA@ B LU E Y O ND ER.C O . UK Drawing on primary sources, this paper shows how Western conceptions of history, myth and time have been applied to Hinduism in eighteenth and nineteenth century orientalist and missionary writings and even in current discourses. There has been a strong tendency among Western scholars to see myth and history in oppositional categories ‐ myths as fabrications, and history as dealing with actual events or facts. It is often assumed that only historical events can have a moral purpose. Hindu myths are seen as ahistorical, amoral and lacking the dynamism and vitality of historical facts and therefore incapable of leading to any meaningful purpose or of exercising any ethical influence on the world. It is also held that a cyclical conception of time is detrimental to economic and social progress and that a linear view of time is conducive to change and development. This paper problematizes a binary approach which not only leads to unhealthy essentialisms (tradition and modernity) but also fails to address the complex nuances of these concepts and the relation between myth and history. (175 words)
38 The Origins of the Nanda and Maurya Rulers of the Magadha Empire DINANATH SHARMA Email: [email protected] The seventh century B.C. in northern India had seen the rise of a number of kingdoms, which absorbed the smaller independent areas. Of these kingdoms, the most important were Magadha (south Bihar) and Kosala (Oudha). A few years after Alexander left India in 325 B.C., the Nanda dynasty was in turn overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya. Little is known of his origins, but one source refers to him as an illegitimate son of the reigning Nanda King and also the army commander‐ in‐ chief. His first attempt to win the throne is said to have failed and he fled with his Brahmin advisor Kautilya, the author of the Arthasastra, an important manual of public administration. All these things are going to be dealt with in detail with special reference to Jana literature where they are found. According to Jaina and Bauddha literature Nanda dynasty belonged to barber caste whereas Brahmanic literature admits it to be Shudra. [157 words]
39 Old Saka Era, Mystery Unraveled
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MURLIDHAR H. PAHOJA PHD [email protected] Which Saka era does Varahmihira use in his Pancha Siddhantika? Is it the Salivahana Saka of 3179 kali? The name Salivahana is not used by Varahmihira. Furthermore, Varahmihira states that the Saka era began 2526 years after Yudhishthira. The Yudhishthira era is equated with the Kali era by some scholars and they place the Saka Era in 2526 Kali. Others modify slightly and place the Saka Era in 2551 Kali. Other scholars, especially Europeans prefer to place Yudhishthira in 653 Kali and thus equate the Saka era with Salivahana Saka era. What is the test of correctness? Fortunately, Varahmihira has given enough data about the Saura Siddhanta and the kshepas at 427 Saka which can be used to check the validity of the two views. The 427 Saka starts on a Monday and the kshepa for sun’s longitude is given as 442. This is the most basic test that must be satisfied. Strangely, none of the three hypotheses satisfies this condition. The first view which places 427 Saka in 2953 Kali, gives a kshepa of 671 on Thursday. By the second view which places 427 Saka in 2978 Kali, the kshepa is 446 for midnight on Monday and 246 for sunrise also on Monday, The third group has 427 Saka in 3606 Kali, the kshepa comes out to be 42 for midnight on Monday or 642 for sunrise on Sunday. Thus all three views fail the test. Varahmihira also gives kshepas for moon, moon’s apogee, other planets and Rahu. All of these should be satisfied by the assumed Saka Era. The present paper analyses the data given in the Pancha Siddhantika and determines the date for the start of the Saka Era satisfying the above conditions. The Saura Siddhanta of Varahmihira specifies a Yuga of 180000 years. At the beginning of this Yuga, all planets were in conjunction at sunrise, and were at the start of Mesha rashi and Asvini nakshatra. While analyzing Moon’s longitude it is found that Varahmihira is using the purnimanta scheme of months. [336 words]
40 Stone – Work, Art, Architecture, Style and Dating in Indian Context K. V. RAMAKRISHNA RAO, General Secretary, Bharatiya Itihasa Sankalana Samiti (Tamilnadu) 25 (Old.9), Venkatachala Iyer Street, West Mambalam, Chennai – 600 033. Phone: 98402 92065 (Mobile). e‐mail: [email protected] Ancient Indians have had their Standard books, Manuals and Working Instructions since Vedic
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period (c.12,500‐3,500 BCE)28 for Art and Architecture. They have produced crores of monuments throughout the ancient India or Bharat (outside and beyond the 1947‐India). At one period, definitely, throughout the world, Indian domination was there or the ancient Indians were living. Donald A. Mackenzie29, Waddell30 and others have provided enormous amount of evidences to this effect. When the Babylonian, Persian, Greek, Arabic and European (all categories) truth‐seekers, travelers and others heard about India and came to witness the splendor of India in all aspects, the dating of Indian monuments after them appears to be artificial. That the Europeans wanted to find a sea‐route to India is a different story, as it has so many mathematical, astronomical and scientific implications31. When the travelers visited, they were mainly astonished, bewildered and dumb‐folded to see the architectural and monumental magnificence of India. In between, there had been the Iconoclast invasions and rule of Mohammedans, in which lakhs of Indian monuments suffered heavily. They destroyed lakhs of monuments, demolished equally the places of worship, mutilated Idols and sculptures, used parts of the temples for construction of mosques and of course, they converted temples themselves into mosques, by retaining the structure but demolishing Idols and sculptures. They did not study or analyze the features of monuments, but considered as the representations of Satan and hence faithfully demolished. However, the European recordings differ because of their level of understanding, bias and prejudice32. Here, their psyche worked with religious and racial superiority complex. The Europeans – Portuguese, Danish, French and British tried their best to enter India. With 28 Di ffer ent a utho rities place Veda s to vari ous da tes ra ngi ng fro m 12 ,500 BCE to 3.500 BCE. In any ca se, a s Veda s pre-da te, IVC, the interpreta tion woul d be made accordingly. The western scho lars have been biased in da ting the Veda s, a s they ha ve shi fted their sta nds ma ny ti mes, onl y wi th a n aim to r educe the chro nolo gy ra ther tha n coming to such r evised da tes a fter a cr itical or professional study. Bogha s Koi inscription da ted to 14 t h cent. BCE r ecor ds a bo ut a trea ty si gned between the Mi ttani s and the Hittites, in which the Vedic Go ds Mitrasil (Mitra ), Ar una sil (Ar una ), Indar (Indra ) a nd Na sa ttya (the twin) ar e mentioned al ong with Teshup and Hepa , their go ds.
T he na mes o f the Mi tta ni Kings are str ikingl y I ndia n - S utar na I (good sun), Pa ra tar na I (Grea t Sun), Par a shuksha tra (Ruler wi th a xe ), Sa uksha tra (So n of Suk sha tra , the G oo d R uler ), Par a tar na II, Ar ta ta ma o r Rita dha ma (Abidi ng in Co smi c la w), Sutra na II, Da shratha , Mti vaja or Ma ti wazza (who se weal th i s pra yer ). This evidence is given to prove the prevalence of Vedic people beyond 1947-India and also to show how illogical and unhistorical any attempt to date Vedas after 1500 BCE! 29 Donald A. Mackenzie, Pre-Christian Buddhism in UK and Ireland, Blackie & Son Ltd, UK, 1928. 30 Waddel, History of the World 31 The Longitude problem exposes the claim of European sailors going to different places by ships and reaching their destinations. And of course, the transmission of Indian sciences to the European scientists. 32 Partha Mitter, The Much Maligned Monsters, 76
manipulations, they succeeded to establish their factories first and then power‐centers. When they started studying Indian material and non‐material culture, tradition, heritage etc., they too behaved like their predecessors. The British were so astonished about the Stone Art of India that the British Architects took so much interest. In 1883 William Simpson33 read a paper “Architecture in the Himalayas” before the members of the Royal Institute of British Architects, in which he brought to notice that most of the houses in the hill country between the Sutlej and the Ganges valley were built of wood and stone; timber being used in alternate layers to bind the courses of stone together.
41 Cultural Implications of the Shift to Asia SUSANTHA GOONATILAKE PHD Royal Asiatic Society, Colombo Author: Towards a Global Science: Mining Civilizational Knowledge Email: [email protected]
Five hundred years ago, the world outside Europe was subjected to one of the darkest periods of world history as the Pope‐sanctioned genocidal assault of Iberia (Spain and Portugal) on non‐European lands began. In Asia, Sri Lanka, Goa and the Philippines faced the brunt of the assault. The global colonial world followed in subsequent centuries. Yet within the next thirty years, the world axes return once again to Asia. The economic shift to Asia is occurring with a global re‐division of work. There is also a new relocation of brainpower, and a shift in science, technology and of some of the arts towards the Asian cultural region. The worlds of ideas were once brought together and packaged in Europe in a vigorous fresh amalgam. The Renaissance, the Scientific Revolution, the Enlightenment and the great discoveries in the 19th and 20th centuries have been the resultant outcomes. Now, a new packaging is possible. A new historical moment has opened up where 33 Transactions of the Royal Institute of British Architects, Session 1882-1883. Wil lia m Si mpso n, Orig in and Mutation in Indian and Eastern Architecture , Tr ansactio ns of the Ro yal Institute of British Architects, 189 1.
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India n
Ar chitecture,
the world is increasingly being interconnected in a pervasive spread of globalization but occurring within the shift to Asia. Because of this Asian facet of globalization, key inputs from different civilizational sources could occur as the global system opens up to different cultures with new influence. Consequently, the global model of culture and knowledge is moving away from the classic colonial mould of center and periphery. This emerging system will suck up cultural elements from the different global cultural systems, especially from resurgent Asia and ‘remarket’ them to global niches. The paper identifies the opportunities and challenges ahead for Asian inputs into the emerging global cultural and knowledge systems. The paper documents the role of Asian civilizational knowledge in the manufacture of aspects of modern science in the last few decades. The examples taken are from the fields of medicine, psychology, cognitive sciences, Artificial Intelligence (AI), mathematics and physics. The paper also explores some speculative future possibilities in Asian inputs including in social theory for new technologies. It suggests the use of Asian metaphors in theory construction and gives some estimates of future potentials in the field as well as a rough estimate of the current Asian civilizational knowledge pool.
42 “VICTORIA: IMPERATRICE DES INDES, REINE DE CHYPRE” New information from the French archives concerning the routes to India.
KYRILLOS NIKOLAOU PHD Post doctorate University of Paris IV – Sorbonne Email: [email protected], The British ambition to keep safe the route to India was geopolitically very important and linked to the control of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East. So, in the middle of the 19 t h century, Britain’s policy in the Eastern Mediterranean changed from purely commercial and trade interests to more global goals, related to the British Indian Empire. In India, where already for more than one hundred years, English and French trading companies had fought one another for supremacy, the transition to formal imperialism, characterised by Queen Victoria being crowned “Empress of India” in the 1870s was a gradual process. A secure route to India, “the jewel of the British crown” was essential. Disraeli was convinced that in Cyprus lay the key to Western Asia and the passage to India. So Cyprus, as Malta, Gibraltar, Suez, were parts of the British geopolitical projects for India, outgoing the ambitions of France and Russia. These steps gave Britain a preponderance of power 78
in every direction, as they were directly connected to the entrances of Gibraltar and the Suez Canal, and then the Indian Ocean and the British Indian Empire. The acquisition of Cyprus, not only was seen by the British as symbolic memorial action concerned the medieval kingdom of Cyprus and Jerusalem, but also as a fruit of Britain’s policy towards India. Disraeli described in the Queen Victoria “in taking Cyprus the movement is not Mediterranean it is Indian”, and so this island served as threshold to India. In the same time France was unhappy to see that Victoria, could became “emperor of India and queen of Cyprus” (“impératrice des Indes, reine de Chypre”).
43 The Rise of the Sena Power in Nepal. BASUDEVLAL DAS,PH.D. L ECTURER,DEPA RTMENT OF HISTO RY,THA KUR RA M MULTIPL E CAMPUS,B IRGANJ ( N EPA L ) . The Sena dynasty ruled in Bengal after the Pala dynasty until 1205 AD. After the downfall of their rule in Bengal, their descendants proceeded towards westward. The neighboring area Mithila was influenced by them, so a branch of the Sena family proceeded towards this and established their settlement in the land of present‐day Nepal in about the half of the thirteenth century. There are names of rulers of many dynasties with SENA suffix. The Sena dynasty of Bengal called themselves BRAHMA‐KSHATRIYA and claimed to belong to the lunar race. They came from the Deccan and settled in Bengal. In Bengal, the last Sena ruler was Lakshmanasena, whose rule was ended by the attack of Khilji. The Senas of Bengal expanded their territories at different times and in different ways towards the regions of Kamarupa, Gaya, Magadha, Mithila, Prayag, Kashi etc. These regions are now within the areas of Assam, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh in India and Nepal. The descendants of the Senas of Bengal afterwards established their kingdoms in Mandi, Suket, Keonthal and Kishtwar. These are the areas of present‐day Himachal Pradesh and Jammu. According to the VALLALACHARITA, the dominion of Vallalasena included Vanga, Varendra, Radha, Bagdi and Mithila and so Mithila was one of the five provinces of Vallala kingdom. Lakshmanasena, son of Vallalasena, worked for a long time in Mithila as KUMARAMATYA. This is the cause that the Lakshmana Samvat was prevailing in Mithila more than that in Bengal. Traditions have preserved the names of various kings who succeeded Lakshmanasena. After the downfall of the Sena dynasty in Bengal, the descendants of Senas proceeded towards different provinces on which they and their ancestors had some influences. Though the historians differ in opinion that the Sena ruled over Mithila, nevertheless, they show the possibilities that some minor lines of Senas had something to do particularly with the province of Mithila. Senas controlled a little portion of the area known as Morang, that is north‐eastern Purnea extending to the borders of Jalapaiguri in Bengal. In evidence, the Bengal province of Mithila, included the 79
whole of the country, called Morang. Birbandh is said to be the dividing line between the Karnatas of Mithila and the Senas of Bengal. Morang is at present the name of a district in Koshi Zone of Nepal. This is situated on the east side of the river Koshi. There are so many ruins found in the Tarai region of Nepal. The Tarai region is the northern side of the land on which so many dynasties in different times in history ruled. The Sena kings of Nepal area used the word RUPANARAYANETYADI in their PRSHASTI (eulogy). Regarding the eulogy, it is said that this is related with the place Rupanagar (Saptari district,Nepal). This place was the earliest capital‐seat of the Senas in the Nepalese region. In fact, a king named Mukundasena, who was a descendant of the Senas of Bengal, settled in the area of Rupanagar in the first half of the thirteenth century and expanding his rule towards the area of Magaras, established the seat of Makawanpur. The kingdom of Makawanpur was expanded towards east and west sides and so the rule of Sena dynasty covered, in course of time, the area of twentytwo districts of present‐day Nepal. Finally, in eighteenth century, the rules of the Senas were ended by the new rising power Gorkhalis in Nepal. [580 words]
44 Sloka of Vvasudhaiva kuTumbakaM: Origins & Real Context from SamskR^ita sources SARVESH TIWARI EMAIL: [email protected]
If a survey of the saMskR^ita verses most quoted in the modern times were undertaken, the following would certainly secure the top rank: ayaM nijaH paroveti gaNanA laghu‐chetasAm udAra charitAnAM tu vasudhaiva kuTumbhakam ’This is my own and that a stranger’ – is the calculation of the narrow‐minded, For the magnanimous‐hearts however, the entire earth is but a family Along with its short form ‘vasudhaiva kuTumbakam’, this shloka somehow finds a massive popularity among the modern Hindus. Of late though, the secular variety seems to have developed quite a fetish for it and the verse has gained a rhetorical note. Apparently it offers them an aesthetic emblem of multiculturalism and universalism, as well as an authority of yore to denounce the nationalistic thought as narrow‐minded. Even the most saMskR^ita‐phobic ones therefore can be seen reciting this shloka on every sundry occasion.
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Thanks to the rhetoric, the traditional Hindus too seem to have taken to this shloka like a duck to the water. Vasudhaiva kuTumbakam is often cited by them as an evidence of how ancient Hindu‐s had set for themselves (and for generations thereafter) the principles of an unconditional universal brotherhood. It has been generally taken for granted by them that VK is an unquestionable value, a traditional nIti recommended by wise ancestors of how to deal with the world. VK has also become an unchallenged cornerstone of India’s official policy‐making in the last six decades, and has been officially proclaimed so on several occasions since independence. No wonder then, that as a symbolic reflection, VK has been literally inscribed in stone, on the walls of the India’s Parliament House. However, this prominence to VK in the modern public discourse springs from a superficial or even a perverted understanding. If we study the original sources which recited it in the first place, it becomes amazingly apparent that its application in the matters of policy is a height of ignorance and squarely flawed. That is precisely the objective of this note in which we shall glean through the original sources, recognize the contexts in which the ancient Hindu‐s uttered VK, and most importantly, validate whether it was meant by them as a recommendation. Contrary to the popular myths, the verse is neither located in R^igveda nor in mahAbhArata, neither in manusmR^iti nor in the purANa‐s. Thus far, we have seen the verse in the following saMskR^ita sources: hitopadesha, pa~nchatantra, certain compendiums of chANakya and bhaR^trihari, mahA‐upaniShadam, certain recensions of vikrama‐charita, and finally in the works of the great kAshmIraka poet bhaTTa udbhaTa. While there might be additional sources of the verse as well, which we might identify in future, here we shall make an excursion into these texts identified so far, and understand the proper contexts and true purport of VK in each occurrence. [473 words]
45 U S Intervention in Kashmir Imbroglio P C D OG R A FO RUM ON IN TEGRA T ED NATIONAL SECURITY, 1193 , SECTOR 18 -C, CHAN DIGARH,160018 , INDIA
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Kashmir issue seems to have emerged rather prominently in the USA President designate Obama’s policy frame work. He has to obviously come out with fresh initiatives to break the dead lock both in Afghanistan and Iraq. It is the brain wave of Ahmed Rashid, an acknowledged authority on the Taliban‐Afghanistan and Shuja Nawaz author of a book on the Pakistan Army. The so called ‘grand bargain’ was part of the security strategy review by new US Cent. Com Commander General David Petraeus with these two security analysts from Pakistan as consultants. The paper discusses the ever present security threat to India resulting from the propensity of US Presidents to be generous to Pakistan at the expense of India.
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ORIGIN OF MATHEMATICS IN THE VEDAS B H U DEV SH A R MA PROF ESSO R OF MATHEMATICS, J IIT UN IVER SITY, NO IDA , UP 201307, IN DIA E-MA IL : BHUDEV_ [email protected] M
The current temper being scientific, from intellectual point of view, there is quite some interest in tracing the history of mathematics and science. The scholarship has widened from tracing the development to searching the origin of mathematics. The paper presents: Scholarly views of origin of mathematics in India; Presence of Indian mathematicians in China; Direct internal evidence from the Vedas, that the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, ... 9, with 9 as the largest single digit find mention in the Vedas; The Vedas refer to what in the modern terminology are called ‘sequences of numbers’ and fractions, both unit and others. The current scholarly outlook can rightly be called scientific. Therefore contemporary intellectuals have quite some interest in the history of mathematics and science. The paper points out how initially proposed theories by European scholars of mathematics, considering algebra and geometry of Greek and / or Old‐Babylonian origin came to be discarded as studies expanded to Vedic works like Shatapatha Brahmana and Tattiriya Samhita. It also brings out some references of Indian mathematicians spending time in China in eighth century and using Indian mathematics there for calendrical purposes. Further, though it is universally accepted that the present number system, called ‘Hindu Numerals’ originated in India. However, there is a lot of speculation as when and where did the so called ‘Hindu Numerals’ first came to be recorded and used in Indian works. Going to the very roots, presenting direct internal evidence from Vedas, the paper presents the following points: 1. The numbers 1, 2, 3, ... 9, with 9 as the largest single digit find mention in the ‘richaas’ and mantras of the Vedas; 2. There is enough evidence that a method to denote ‘zero’ was known to Vedic seers. 3. The Vedas refer to what in the modern terminology are called ‘sequences of numbers’; 4. That the idea of fractions, both unit and others, has also found clear mention in Vedas. [394 words]
47 (Mis) interpretation of Indian National Movement by the British and Marxists Historians. 82
SATISH CHANDRA MITTAL PHD Former Professor of History, Kurukshetra University Kurukshetra History is a study of process. It is very much related to the various trends of the history. During the Post‐independence of India, in its interpretation, two major trends may be visualized, more particularly, by the British and Marxist historians. New situations have compelled the British historians claim to offer its solutions. New circumstances gave rise to new interpretations. The British or the Cambridge historians claim to write new Cambridge History of India. The most pertinent problem of political development in India or the Indian National Movement under the British Rule has become the central and basic theme of their recent historical writings. The freedom of India was called as the transfer of power. It was said the fulfillment of the agreement of the British rulers and administrators. It was also claimed as a gift to India which was presented them after giving the due basic training of political democracy. To the British historians, there was nothing like nationalism, national consciousness, mass movement or any all Indian Movements. John Gallagher may be called as the pioneer of this interpretation. Gallagher and his pupil Anil Seal propagated the role of the competitors and the collaborators in the Indian National Movement. Anil Seal’s pupil like D.A. Wash Brooke, C.J. Baker, and Gordon Johnson etc. applied the same approach at Provincial level. They interpreted the Regional Elites, or local elites or the local interests are the dominating factors in the whole Indian National Movement. To them, there was no nationalism, no unity of India or no national consciousness at any level. They did not find any role of the ideology. Finally they called it as a `mimic warfare’. Similarly, the Marxist historians have carried on Marx’s ideas on History. The Indian National Movement is based on the economic interpretation of history, the economic determinism and the class conflicts. Lenin and Stalin tried to give it a practical shape, and were the guiding spirits behind their approach. M.N. Roy, Rajni Palme Dutt were the early Marxist historians who interpreted the National Movement of India, while A.R. Desai and S.A. Dange have made efforts to discuss it economic development. Dr. Bipin Chandra and Sumit Sarkar form their attention in its economic determinism. D.D. Koshambi has praised Marx but criticised his views and Indian History. From the very beginning since 1920, the Marxist historians have denounced the Indian leadership in a very harsh and undignified manner. However, they shifted their attitude with the changing interpretation of the USSR. To them the whole movement was the product of a distrustful national bourgeoisie. All the movements were the bourgeoisie historians could not gain roots in ‘Indian Society, as affairs. The Marxist they have consistently misinterpreted Indian Nationalism, the cultural heritage and the concept of dharma. So in brief, the British and Marxist historians have misinterpreted the Indian National Movement. They created more problems then solved. They highlight the conflicts, but forget the consensus. In fact, it is still a myth, in the writings of British as well as Marxist historians. [523 words]
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48 Some Observations on Inter‐ Community Relationship and its Cultural Significance during the Rigvedic Age VIBHA TRIPATHI Department of AIHC & Archeology Banaras Hindu University Rigveda, one of the ancient most texts ever conceived by man is not only a religio ‐ spiritual composition but is a gold mine for a student of social and cultural history of its age. It provides a direct peep into the life of people who occupied the land irrigated by seven rivers (the Sapta Saindhava Desh).The composers of Rigveda call themselves Arya or the superior ones. In the recent decades efforts have been made by scholars to identify the Rigvedic Aryans with Harappans. This has been due to the availability of horse bones, spoked wheels, chariots, evidence of fire worship in the horizons of Harappan Civilization. It is commonly believed that these are the characteristic features of the Aryans. Over and above, there are a large number of sites of Harappan vintage in the Saraswati basin that was also the locale of the Rigvedic people hence the proposed identification the Harappans with the Rigvedic Aryans. The Rigvedic composers while asserting their identity as Aryans also refer to several other clans or communities inhabiting the land who do not seem to follow their ways and look physically different from them ‐ the non‐Aryans (?). There appears to be a pluralistic social structure during the Rigvedic Age. It may be worth examining the demographic diversity of the Early Vedic period. It may be equally important to delve deeper into the inter‐community relationship during the Age of Rigveda. In the process, we are faced with questions like ‐ who were the other people mentioned in the text? Do these communities represent intrusive cultures? Are they culturally, physically, professionally or religiously different? Why have they been referred to in derogatory terms? What are the causes of animosity among the different communities living during the period? These are the questions that need to be addressed for a better understanding of the people and culture of the Rigvedic Age and their relationship with other contemporary cultures in the subcontinent. It will be equally important to examine the nature of relationship between the clans and communities mentioned in the Rigveda with a view to underline their cultural significance in the present context. An attempt will be made here to take a close look at the archaeological evidence and its echo in the literary data to resolve the issues raised here. (393 words).
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49 The Vegetarian Food in the Rigveda
SHASHI TIWARI PHD MA ITRE YI CO LLEGE , UNI VERS I TY OF DELHI To have a glimpse of the cultural and materialistic life of the Rigvedic people, a deep semantic analysis of the Rigvedic words is required. Such a study can reveal the hidden aspects of the Vedic culture and civilization in its true form. Food is the urgent and recurrent need of an individual. It dictates their activities in relation to their land at every stage of economical development. In the paper, an attempt has been made to describe the vegetarian food used by the Rigvedic people. Economic condition and environment of the area around 'Sapta‐Saindhava’ will also be dealt with to some extent on the basis of the Rigvedic references. In the Rigvedic verses many words are used in the sense of food such as Bhojan, andhas , sina, pitu, shravas, vaja, ida ,isha, svadha, urk etc.All these words give hint through etymological analysis that food is that which gives delight, strength, nourishment and protection in Vedic view. Among cereals the most important place was occupied by Yava, as it is frequently mentioned in the Rigveda. The word Dhanya occurs in the Rigveda three times only. This word means the grain of that name; meaning rice. In the Rigvedic times rice and barley were definitely the dominating cereals in the list of known grains. The people enjoyed various preparations of barley and rice in their food. Their food was supplemented by milk (Payas) and its varied products, such as clarified butter (Ghee) and curd (Dadhi). Each family had a number of cows and the sages also sought their gifts. The principal meal and sacrificial food were prepared from barley and rice, in combination with milk products. Parched grains called Dhana was a meal, prepared with curd, clarified butter, Soma juice or water or milk. The term 'Saktu' occurs only once in the Rigveda. Purodasa is the name of a cake in the Rigveda and later works used specially for sacrificial purposes. Flowering and fruit bearing plants are mentioned in the Rigveda. The word 'Phala' denoting fruit of a tree occurs twice in the Rigveda. In the vegetables cucumber (Urvaruka) and lotus stalks (Bisha) were known to the Rigvedic Indians and were used as food.The Rigvedic Aryans laid great stress on the substantial and healthy food, as is evidenced from their prayers to deities. All cooked food was called Pakva or Pacata in the Rigvedic verses. Thus we find many important factors of food and food‐habits of Aryans the Rigveda.
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50 Crisis and Revival in the Study of Ayurveda in Karnataka 19 th and early decades of 20th centuries K. G VASANTHA MADHAVA PAVANJE PHD Haleangadi, 574146 Karnataka Vasantha madhava The study of the Ayurveda in Karnataka faced crisis and it took place in the middle of the 19 t h century and it continued in the first two decades of the next century. The study of it is based on the original documents both indigenous and foreign The introduction of it gives a brief conditions of the Ayurveda in Karnataka on the eve of the advent of the British power in Karnataka. The next item is the core of the subject i.e. the imperial intervention on the indigenous medical systems and the nature of confrontation between the Ayurveda and the Allopathic systems of medicine, The Europeans were also involved in distorting the Ayurvedic medicines in the countries where they had set up their authority The unequal cooperation between the two systems of medical systems and the virtual eclipse of the Ayurveda from the medical field are explained . The crisis turned into the revival of the Ayurveda and the factors for its revival especially historical research in its field have been viewed. The establishments of the Ayurvedic centre, its associations of its scholars and research in the Ayurvedic medicine are noted in the last item of this paper The crisis in the Ayurvedic medical system, caused by the European medical set up, that transformed into the revival of the former is worthy of noticing despite vigorous intervention, the Ayurveda is able to maintain its vigor and vitality. Finally the crisis and the revival of the Ayurveda led to some sorts of interaction between the Ayurveda and the Allopathic systems unknowingly occurred. But the collaboration between these two did not take place.
51 The Nanda Dynasty as Mentioned in Jaina Literature DINANATH SHARMA PHD Reader Prakrit Department, School of Languages Gujarat University Navrangpura Ahmedabad‐ 380009, Dinanath Sharma The seventh Century BC in northern India had seen the rise of a number of kingdoms, which absorbed the smaller independent areas. Of these kingdoms, the most important were Magadha 86
(South Bihar) and Kosala (Oudha). A few years after Alexander left India in 325 BC, the Nanda dynasty was in turn overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya. Little is known of his origins, but one source refers to him as an illegitimate son of the reigning Nanda King and also the army commander‐in‐Chief. His first attempt to win the crown is said to have failed and he fled with his Brahmin advisor Kautilya, the author of the Arthashastra, an important manual of public administration. All these things are going to be dealt with in detail with special reference to Jaina literature where they are found. According to Jaina and Bauddha literature Nanda dynasty belonged to barber caste whereas Brahmanic literature admits to the Shudra.
52 Afghanistan: Originally a part of Bharat Jagat K. Motwani PhD This paper is based on library‐based research to prove that Afghanistan was historically a part of Vishaal Bharat (Greater India) thousands of years back until 8 t h century A.D.. All these ‘stan’ or ‘istan’ countries, in north‐west of Bharat – Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Tadzhikistan (Tajikistan), Turkmenistan, Turkistan or Turkestan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan – like Pakistan were once part of Bharat. ‘Sthan’ is a Sanskrit word, meaning place or land. The Columbia Encyclopedia (p.164) remarks that the Emperor Asoka (232 B.C.), the grandson of Chandragupta, “brought nearly all India, together with Baluchistan and Afghanistan, under one sway for the first time in history.” Present Kandhar was originally Gandhar, named after Gandhari of Mahabharat, whose name is mentioned in the Rig Veda. Cunningham writes: “The ancient capital of Gandhara was Pushkalavati, which is said to have been founded by Pushkara, the son of Bharata, and the nephew of Sri Rama. It means Afghanistan was originally under the rule of Bharat, more than six millennia back.
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ANCIENT INDIAN DYNASTIES Vishnu Swaroop Misra Synopsis of book published by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 87
Political history of ancient India has so far been a comparatively neglected subject. In early days the normal assumption by the Western historians and their Indian supporters was that the history of ancient India starts with the invasion of India by the Greek king Alexander. Later it was modified to some extent by declaring that the ancient period began with 16 Mahajanapadas and Bimbisara, Mahasena Pradyota, Shatanika and Prasenajit were the rulers of Magadha, Avanti, Vatsa and Koshala respectively and Buddha and Mahavira were their contemporaries. This obviously meant to convey the message that prior to this India was a stateless country without any power structure and these empires emerged from the blue. Many scholars‐ both Indians and Western, have attempted to fill in this vacuum by utilizing the material available in Vedic literature, Puranas, Buddhist and Jain texts, classical literature, Archaeological reports etc While pre MahAbhArata war dynasties were more or less ignored for research, despite considerable efforts in respect of post MahAbhArata war dynasties little success was achieved the reason being that each scholar tried to present the political history of India based on the information available in one source or the other without a critical scrutiny of the material contained therein. In fact many scholars selected a Purana of their choice and arrived at conflicting conclusions. Efforts to write the political history of ancient India based on the Vedic literature whose authenticity is not denied even by the Western historians, had to given up for lack of information as these texts were not meant to be a store house of historical material. The most surprising feature, however, was the refusal of the Western scholars to accept the material contained in the Puranas on the ground that Vedic texts do not certify its authenticity. They ignored the fact that most of the kings mentioned in the Vedic literature appear in the Puranas The other objection against utilization of the Puranic material for writing the history of ancient India is that (a) superficial and distorted material linked with mythology has crept into the Puranas (b) sometimes individual Puranas conflict with others (c) sometimes the same Purana makes contradictory statements (d) sometimes one dynasty is tacked on to another dynasty (e) sometimes collateral successions are described as lineal (f) sometimes the order of succession is reversed (g) sometimes synchronisms are misplaced due to similarity or near similarity of the names (h) sometimes even divergent synchronisms have been recorded (i) sometimes incorrect origins have been assigned to dynasties
The main conclusions emerging from the research done so far are as follows It is possible to eliminate the divergence between the dynastic lists as appearing in different Puranas. Almost all Puranas present each dynastic list as a continuous line of successions despite existence of adequate evidence to prove that these lists comprise a mixture of several branch lines some of which are even collateral. It is feasible to spot such aberrations and eliminate them. It is not too difficult to identify instances where a dynasty came to an end and another dynasty took over but the Puranas merged the two and 88
presented a lineal succession of the original dynasty. In some cases the original dynasty itself was revived after a gap by a descendant of the last king of the original dynasty. It is not impossible to reconcile the differences between the accounts appearing in the Puranas on the one hand and Vedic, Buddhist, Jain and classical Sanskrit literature on the other. Major findings are listed in the succeeding paragraphs. After rationalizing the dynastic lists of the Puranas it is possible to synchronize them with the testimony of Vedic, Buddhist, Jain and classical Sanskrit literature after carrying out necessary adjustments since the latter also suffer from identical aberrations caused by the same environment and conditions which affected the Puranas. The number of successions between Manu Vaivasvata and Bharata Battle would be approximately 50 as against 91 mentioned in the existing Puranic texts. Rectified Aila dynasties‐ Purus, Bharatas and Yadus and Kurus also indicate almost the same number of successions. The dates of Nirvana of Buddha and Mahavira which have been the subject of controversy for centuries, have been worked out in a manner which satisfies Puranic, Buddhist and Jain traditions as also the Archaeological evidence. These revised dates are 514 B.C. and 527 B.C respectively. After rationalising the post Bharata War reign periods of the kings of Barhdratha dynasty of Magadha and keeping in mind the dates of Nirvana of Buddha and coronation of Ashok Maurya, the date of Bharata War has been worked out as 1157 BCE A weak point of the Puranic texts is the lack of chronological data with solitary exception of post war Barhadratha dynasty. While the dates of MahAbhArata war and Barhadratha kings, both pre‐ war and post‐ war, have been settled, the same cannot be claimed in respect of other dynasties. Further research is continuing and it is hoped that use of sophisticated methodology and additional evidence would produce credible chronological charts of as many dynasties as possible. More than 30 major synchronisms have been identified on the basis of evidence contained in the Puranas, Vedas, Buddhist and Jain texts and classical Sanskrit literature to help reconstruction of the political history of ancient India.
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Curriculum Vitae
Guest of Honor JAGMOHAN PHD Jag Mohan Malhotra [ 1 ] (born 25 September 1927) is a former governor of Jammu and Kashmir in India. He is also a former member of Lok Sabha. He is a former minister in the central BJP government. He is a recipient of Padma Shri in 1971 and Padma Bhushan in 1977. He was born in India on 25th September 1927 and was in government service for many years. During the Indian Emergency (1975‐1977) promulgated by Smt. Indira Gandhi, he was vice‐chairman of Delhi Development Authority. Sri Jagmohan undertook the rejuvenation of the Sarasvati. Sri Jagmohan prefers to use only 1 name, PO SIT ION S H ELD 1980‐81 Lt. Governor, Delhi (two times) 1981‐82 Lt. Governor, Goa, Daman and Diu 1984‐89 Governor, Jammu and Kashmir (two times) 1990‐96 Member (nominated), Rajya Sabha 1996 Elected to 11th Lok Sabha from New Delhi 1996‐97 Chairman, Committee on Energy Member 1998 Re‐elected to 12th Lok Sabha (2nd term) from New Delhi 1998‐99 Member, Committee on External Affairs Dec. 1998‐ Union Cabinet Minister, Communications June‐Oct. 1999 Union Cabinet Minister, Urban Development 1999 Re‐elected to 13th Lok Sabha (3rd term) from New Delhi Oct.‐Nov. 1999 Union Cabinet Minister, Urban Development 90
Nov. 1999‐ Union Cabinet Minister, Urban Development and Poverty Alleviation Sept. 2001‐ Union Cabinet Minister, Tourism; Programme Implementation and Statistics Nov. 2001‐ 2004 Union Cabinet Minister, Tourism and Culture BOOKS A UTHO R ED Rebuilding Shahjahanabad‐Walled City of Delhi; Island of Truth; The Challenge of our Cities; My Frozen Turbulence in Kashmir
Chairman of Conference PROFESSOR SHIVAJI SINGH A scholar of eminence in the field of ancient Indian history, culture and archaeology, Prof. Shivaji Singh (b. 1934) has experience of postgraduate teaching and research guidance of about four decades (1956‐1995). He taught first at the Banaras Hindu University and later at the University of Gorakhpur (U.P., India) where he was professor and head of the department till 1995. He has completed a major research project on Vedic Horizon in Archaeology sponsored by the University Grants Commission, New Delhi. He was a Senior Research Fellow at the Indian Council of Historical Research, New Delhi, where he completed another research project entitled Rigvedic and Harappan Ethno‐Geographic Configurations. At present, he is engaged in independent research work in the field of Vedic history and archaeology. He was at Athens, Greece, for two years (1969‐71), where he was sent by the Government of India under the scheme of exchange of scholars between the two countries. During his stay at Athens, he studied Greek language at the University of Athens, participated in the Ancient Greek Cities Research Project of the Athens Center of Ekistics, and wrote a book on the Neolithic Age in Greece. He has supervised research work for over 30 years. Several research scholars have received their Ph.D. degree under his able guidance. A large number of his personal research papers have been published in reputed national and international journals. He has authored several original books like Evolution of Smriti Law (1972), Models, Paradigms, and the New Archaeology (1985), Vedic Culture and Its Continuity: New Paradigms and Dimensions (2003), Rigvaidika Aarya aur Sarasvati‐Sindhu Sabhyata (2004). His book: The Rigveda: An Archaeological Study is presently in press. He has made a mark in the field of archaeology too. He supervised excavation work at the site of Rajghat, ancient Varanasi, (1956). He directed archaeological explorations bringing to light 91
several ancient sites including the hitherto unknown site of Ramagram, the capital of the Koliyas, a republican people of the time of Gautam Buddha (1963‐65). He has discovered many archaeological artifacts like copper‐plate inscriptions, hoard of coins, terracotta figurines, and other antiquities throwing new light on ancient Indian history. He has written a research work on the Neolithic Age in Greece. He has visited archaeological sites and museums and utilized libraries at several places in Egypt, Greece, Italy, Switzerland, France, UK and USA. He has delivered several invitation lectures in top academic institutions. Besides presiding over a large number of paper‐reading sessions in various national and international seminars and conferences, he has delivered key‐note addresses and inaugural speeches also in some of these academic gatherings. In 2004, he was awarded the Vishnu Shridhar Wakankar National Prize for his outstanding scholarly contributions in the area of Vedic history and archaeology. Presently he is President ABISY (Akhila Bharatiya Itihasa Sankalana Yojana).
Inaugural Speaker BRAJBHASI LAL Braj Basi Lal (born in Jhansi, India in 1921) is a well‐known Indian archaeologist. He was the Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India from 1968 to 1972, and has served as President of the World Archaeological Congress. He also worked in for UNESCO committees. He received the Padma Bhushan by the Government of India in 2000. He has done excavations in the Indus Valley Civilization with Mortimer Wheeler and other archaeologists. He has had a spectacularly successful and exemplary archaeological career spanning more than a half century. He was trained in excavation by the veteran archaeologist, Wheeler at Taxila, Harappa and other famous sites in the forties of the last century. Out of his many pupils Wheeler chose Lal to entrust the excavation of the Early Historic site of Sisupalgarh in Orissa before relinquishing the charge of the Director General of Archaeology in India in 1947. The eminent British archaeologists, Stuart Piggott and D.H. Gordon, in their reviews of B. B. Lal’s classic article on the Copper Hoards of the Gangetic basin (Piggott 1954), and his Hastinapura excavation report (Gordon 1957), both published in Ancient India, the annual journal of the Archaeological Survey of India, hailed them as models of research and excavation reporting. In subsequent years Lal excavated the Mesolithic site of Birbhanpur in West Bengal, the Chalcolithic site of Gilund and the Harappan site of Kalibangan, both in Rajasthan, and the Ramayana sites of Ayodhya, Bharadwaj Ashram, Nandigram, Chitrakut and Shringaverapura in Uttar Pradesh. For his academic achievements and the high quality of his scholarship Professor Lal has
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WORKS Lal, B.B. The Earliest Civilization of South Asia (1997) Lal, B.B., (1984) Frontiers of the Indus Civilization.1984. L AL , B. B., Excavations of Srirngeverpura (New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1993) L AL , B. B., I N DI A 1947‐1997: N EW L I GH T International, 1998) L AL , B. B., T HE S ARASVATI F LOWS O N : International, 2002)
THE
ON THE
I NDUS C I VI LI ZATI ON (New Delhi: Aryan Books
C ONTINUITY
OF I NDI AN
C ULTURE (New Delhi: Aryan Books
L AL , B. B., Excavations at Kalibangan: Early Harappan (under joint Authorship) (New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 2003) L AL , B. B., T HE H OMELAND OF THE A RYANS : E VIDENCE OF R I G VEDI C F LORA AND F AUNA (New Delhi: Aryan Books International, 2005) L AL , B. B., Rama : His Historicity Mandir, and Setu (New Delhi: Aryan Books International, 2008) L AL , B. B., How deep are the Roots of Indian Civilization: Archaeology Answers (New Delhi: Aryan Books International, 2009)
EXTERNAL LINKS The Homeland of Indo‐European Languages and Culture: Some Thoughts by Archaeologist B.B. Lal Why Perpetuate Myths ? ‐ A Fresh Look at Ancient Indian History by Archaeologist B.B. Lal Let not the 19th century paradigms continue to haunt us! Inaugural Address, by Prof. Lal, delivered at the 19th International Conference on South Asian Archaeology, 2007
TARUN VIJAY Tarun Vijay was the editor of the RSS weekly in Hindi, Panchajanya till February 2008, and is a columnist of the newspaper The Times of India. As of February 28, 2008, he has taken up directorship of the Dr. Syamaprasad Mookerjee Research Foundation.
MICHEL DANINO Born in 1956 at Honfleur (France) into a Jewish family recently emigrated from Morocco, from the age of fifteen Michel Danino was drawn to India, some of her great yogis, and soon to Sri 93
Aurobindo and Mother and their view of evolution which gives a new meaning to our existence on this earth. In 1977, dissatisfied after four years of higher scientific studies, he left France for India, where he has since been living. Michel Danino participated in the English translation and publication of Mothers Agenda (13 volumes, Mothers record of her yoga in the depths of the body consciousness) and several books by Satprem (Mothers confidant and recipient of Mothers Agenda). Michel Danino also edited, among other titles, Indias Rebirth (a selection from Sri Aurobindo’s works about India, available online; first published in 1993, now in its 3rd edition, translated into nine Indian languages) and India the Mother (a selection from Mothers words, 1998). Studying India’s culture and ancient history in the light of both Sri Aurobindo’s pioneering work and archaeological research, in 1996 Michel Danino authored The Invasion That Never Was, a brief study of the Aryan invasion theory. Intended primarily for the educated non‐specialist Indian public, the book has also been well received in scholarly circles. A second, extensively revised and enlarged edition was brought out in 2000; a third is scheduled for late 2003. In The Invasion that Never Was (2000), he has criticized the “Aryan invasion theory“ and its proponents, instead opting for the notion of “Indigenous Aryans“ Over the last few years, Michel Danino has given lectures at various official, academic and cultural forums on issues confronting Indian culture and civilization in today's world; some of them have been published under the titles Sri Aurobindo and Indian Civilization (1999), The Indian Mind Then and Now (2000), Is Indian Culture Obsolete (2000), and Kali Yuga or the Age of Confusion (2001). Delving into the roots of Indian civilization, Michel Danino has argued that its essential values remain indispensable in today's India and in fact for all humanity in this critical phase of global deculturization and dehumanization. Many of those lectures and a few new ones are available on this homepage. Michel Danino's other fields of activity include Nature conservation; his action for the preservation of an important pocket of native tropical rainforest in the Nilgiris led to the creation of Tamil Nadus first watchdog committee in which concerned citizens actively collaborated with both the Forest Department and local villagers in conservation work, also involving local teachers and hundreds of students. In 2001, Michel Danino convened the International Forum for India’s Heritage (IFIH) with over 160 eminent founder members, whose mission is to promote the essential values of India’s heritage in every field of life. Works Sri Aurobindo and Indian Civilization (1999) The Invasion that Never Was (2000) The Indian Mind Then and Now (2000) Is Indian Culture Obsolete (2000) Kali Yuga or the Age of Confusion (2001) 94
L’Inde et l’invasion de nulle part ‐ Le dernier repaire du mythe aryen (2006) Les Belles Lettres. ISBN 2‐251‐72010‐3
MURALIDHAR PAHOJA PHD Expertise: Theoretical & Applied Mechanics. Retired (1998) as Head IT Applications in Engineering. Experience: (Retired since 1998) 1. (1981‐1998) Escorts Research Centre, Faridabad. Head, IT Applications. 2. (1972‐ 1981) Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur and Delhi. T eaching & Research in Tractor, Farm Machinery, Applied Mechanics, Academic: 1. (1972) Ph.D. Theoretical & Applied Mechanics, University of Illinois, USA. Specialization: Computer Applications. 2. (1966) M.S. Agricultural Engineering, University of Illinois, USA. Specialization: Tractors & Farm Machinery. 3. (1963) B.Tech. (Honors.) Agricultural Engineering, I.I.T., Kharagpur.
YVETTE (RANI) CLAIRE ROSSER Yvette Claire Rosser has a PhD from The University of Texas at Austin. Rosser received a B.A. (with honors), from the Department of Oriental and African Languages and Literature, from UT Austin, in 1981 and Teaching Certifications in Secondary Social Studies and Secondary English. She first noticed the negative and/or dismissive descriptions of Hinduism while teaching World History in America. She hopes her work can help to overcome the ingrained biased approach found in textbook level or introductory study of Hinduism. Rosser’s interests revolve around historical controversies. Her dissertation: Curricula as Destiny: Forging National Identities in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh is a discussion of contested historiography found in Social Studies textbooks used in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Her Master’s Degree is in Asian Studies, for which she investigated the treatment of India as represented in Social Studies textbooks used in American high schools: Global Education: India in the U.S. Secondary Social Studies Curriculum (1997). In this study Rosser worked to eliminate the stereotypes from 95
textbooks. For her early work on this theme pointing out common stereotypes found in teaching about India suggesting corrective pedagogical strategies. See: “Internationalizing Teacher Education: Preparedness to Teach About India”, Teaching South Asia, ed. Karl J. Schmidt, Project South Asia, Missouri Southern State College. Publications “The Clandestine Curriculum: The Temple of Doom in the Classroom”, Education About Asia, Volume 6, Number 3, Winter 2001 (Association of Asian Studies). “Pakistani Perspectives of India”, MANUSHI, New Delhi, “Are the Taliban Coming?” The Friday Times, March 13, 2001, Lahore, Pakistan.
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“Hegemony and Historiography: The Politics of Pedagogy”, Asia Review, Dhaka, Fall 1999. “Pervasive Pedagogical Paradigms,” SAGAR (South Asian Graduate Research Journal), Vol. 3, No.1 Spring 1996. Stereotypes in Schooling: Negative Pressures in the American Educational System on Hindu Identity Formation”, Hindu Diaspora: Global Perspectives, Rukmani, ed. Concordia University, Montreal, Canada, 1999. ”Globalization Through the Kalpas” published as “Be Indian, Buy Indian” in the newspaper, The Hindu, Oct 2000.
KOSLA VEPA PHD Director Indic Studies Foundation, California
[email protected]
Kosla Vepa is a member of the Global Indic Diaspora who hails from the state of Andhra Pradesh in India. He has had the good fortune to have been brought up and have had his education in various parts of India including, Bihar, Maharashtra, and Karnataka. He matriculated from Andhra University in 1955. Among the schools which he has attended are St.Xavier’s College, Bombay, Karnatak University, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, and the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. His highest degree is a PhD in the area of Engineering Mechanics. His professional and technical interests include Mathematical modeling of Mechanical Devices and Engineering Structures, Identification of mechanical systems, Mechanical Design Automation with successful research and development engineering experience in the Information technology, aero‐engine and energy industries. He has worked for various companies including IBM (from where he retired), Lawrence Livermore Laboratories., General Atomics and 96
Pratt and Whitney. Currently he has significant interests in a wide variety of subjects including ontological principles in science and philosophy, Ancient Indian history, Vedas and Vedanta, Mathematical Sciences in India during antiquity, the growth and evolution of civilizations to name a few. When he finds time he pursues hobbies of photography and astronomy. Kosla Vepa resides in the San Francisco Bay Area in the state of California, USA. PUBLICATIONS AND ESSAYS OF GENERAL INTEREST The Societal Stockholm Syndrome India and the Great Game What’s in a name The Debate on the origin of the Vedics India and US Missile defense Indo-US relations (circa 1999) A prolegomena to A History of the Indic Civilization Vedic Mathematicians in ancient India Part I Vedic Mathematicians in ancient India Part II Vedic Mathematicians in ancient India Part III The South Asia File available at Lulu.com The Dhaarmik Traditions available at Lulu.com Astronomical Dating of Events & Select Vignettes from Indian History available at lulu.com Indology and Indologists – a study of people and their motives Ancient Indic contributions to the Exact Sciences – manuscript in preparation The Indic Mathematical tradition, The Hindu Renaissance, Vol. IV no. IV, pp. 19‐24 Paper presented at the HEC 2006 in Los Angeles, Ca, Nov. 2006 More at my websites: www.indicstudies.us, www.vepa.us/dir00, www.kaushal42.blogspot.com
PROF. JAGAT K. MOTWANI, PH.D. 97
E ducat ion: M.A. (E co), MS W (B aroda) , Ph.D.(New York) a n d F ul b r igh t Sc h ola r
PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE • Taught for 11 years at graduate schools of social work at Kashi Vidyapeeth Institute of Social Sciences, Varanasi and Baroda university. •Retired as Asst. Director of Social Service at the New York University Medical Center, Goldwater Hospital, New York •Psychotherapist & family therapist (Private practice, on part time basis). Writer: Areas of interest – Linguistics, Languages, Ancient History, Indus civilization, and Indian Diaspora.
PUBLICATIONS • Several papers for professional journals. • Chief author of a column on family and youth issues for two Indian weekly papers. Authored two books: • America and India: In a ‘Give & Take’ Relationship (2003). • 5000 Years of Sindhis: Heritage, Religion, Entrepreneurship, Sindhyat and Language (2006). • Working on two more – Ancient India, and Global Indians • Chief editor of two books: 1. Global Indian Migration (1989), 2. Global Indian Diaspora: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow (1993). Community Activist •Co‐founder of the India Day Parade, New York. • Marshal, First India Day Parade (1981) in New York 98
• Co‐founder of GOPIO (Global Organization of People of Indian Origin). •As the representative of the Asian Indians in the USA, appeared before the US Senate Sub‐ Committee on March 23, 1987 to protest against the proposed American sale of AWACKs to Pakistan. Pakistan did not get AWACKs • Has visited over 21 countries and met with Indian communities. • Moderated International Conference on ‘Changing Role of Indian Women Worldwide’ (Mumbai, 1997). • Has organized and moderated several NFIA family conferences in the USA.
SAURAV BASU Doctor by Profession Amateur Historian and Socio‐political commentator Associated with the India Policy Foundation, New Delhi PUBLICATIONS The Indian Muslim liberal and the challenge of fundamentalist Islam Kashmir the finale: secularism Vs Pseudo secularism in the Amarnath debate The Rise of Totalitarian India Reservation: The Unmaking of India’s constitution Amir Khusro and the myth of composite culture FEATURED POSTS BY SULEKHA Assam Violence: Congress Party’s great betrayal India’s ‘Political Islamic terror’ nexus My Country, My Life by L K Advani: a review and analysis Trust vote reply: MMS hiding behind charades Manmohan Singh and the saga of undermining national interest
RAJEEV SRINIVASAN Rajeev Srinivasan is an Indian journalist, blogger and Hindu rights activist. He was educated at 99
Indian Institute of Technology, Madras and at Stanford Business School and works in software sales and is a marketing professional [1]. He writes a regular opinion column for Indian web portal Rediff and in India Currents, a magazine catering to the Indian community in the San Francisco Bay area. He has been featured in Outlook and other magazines. Rajeev Srinivasan is a prolific writer who has written about (among others) Islamism and Islamic extremist terrorism The rise of Chinese power and influence Christian missionary activity and conversions Minority appeasement politics in India Leftist politics in India The Occidentalist view of Indian geopolitics The Aryan Invasion theory of Hinduism’s appearance in India The Pervasive anti Hindu tenor of Western Media He has an active blog at Blogspot, titled “Shadow Warrior”. As of March 2007, he has taken on a group of co‐authors for the same, but maintains a Wordpress blog for his sole authorship. Some of the major blogosphere issues he has been instrumental in covering include the California textbook controversy over Hindu history and Shekhar Gupta‘s “Hindu fanatic bombers” slip‐up. Rajeev Srinivasan has been a tireless crusader for the truth and is among the small band of Activists who has taken up positions and causes In December 2003, he made an appearance as a guest speaker at the Indian Institute of Science‘s Prasthutha forum, speaking on “Rethinking Indian History” [2].
OM PRAKASH Assistant Professor‐in‐History and Public Policy School of Policy Sciences, National Law University, University, NH‐65, Nagaur Road Mandore, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India [email protected] Mobile: 09461030615 100
Fax: 91‐0291‐2577540 He did his Graduation and Masters from Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi. He did his MPhil from Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. He has a number of publications in reputed national and international journals, books and on website. Publications Negating the Colonial Construct of Oriental Despotism: The Science of Statecraft in Ancient India Partition of India, Refugee Crisis in Punjab and Problem of Rehabilitation in Punjab Wild Life Destruction: A Legacy of the Colonial State in India, Roots of Islamic Separatism in the Indian Subcontinent. Political Awakening Caste Movement and Congress Behavior in Bihar (1920‐1950) Historicity and Myth of Scientific Forestry in British India The Sri Lankan Ethnic Vulcanism: Historical Misperceptions and Pragmatic Vision Indo‐Oman Gas Pipe line Project: Need to Resurrect Again, An Assessment of the Armed Forces Tribunal Act, 2007 Hindraf and Indian Diaspora in Malaysia
SUDHEER BIRODKAR technical writer [email protected] I began my forays at putting my pen to paper when I was in college in the period 1975 to 1980. I began as a prolific writer to the “Letters to the Editor” column of various newspapers. I began putting my thoughts down on the social issues current at that time. My letters appeared in The Times of India, Economic Times, Indian Express, Financial Express, etc. I started by writing for my college annual Magazine. I wrote an article on the Topic of Economic Development which was published in my college magazine in the year 1978. In the same year I won the second prize in the 21st A.D. Shroff Memorial All India Essay Competition conducted by the Forum of Free Enterprise. The topic was “The Economic Regeneration of Rural India” Initially my interest was primarily in Social welfare and economics. I had participated in inter‐ collegiate Elocution competitions conducted by The Forum of Free Enterprise and the Yuvak Biradari. The topics of these elocution competitions were related to issues concerning economic development. I also wrote for local periodicals published from Mumbai. During this period I was 101
a Karyavaha (Secretary) of the Goregaon Shakha of a socio‐cultural organization, in 1977‐78. After completing my post graduation in Commerce and Economics in 1980, I started working on the subject of Macro‐economic planning. I wrote my first book on Economics, which was published in 1988 by Multitech Publishers. While studying Economics, I also took up Indian Economic history as a second subject. I focused on the period 1000 B.C. to 1000 A.D. In the course of this study I collected a massive pile of notes on the origin of rituals, customs, beliefs, folklore etc., in the economic life of the bygone ages. These notes also covered the subject of advances made in science and technology in ancient India. Initially, these notes were to form a chapter in a General book on history which was planned. But going along, there was so much information on this subject that I decided to present the notes on this topic in the form of a separate book entitled “India’s Contribution to the World’s Culture”. The lack of a book exclusively on this subject was an important motivation to present it as a separate book. This is how the present book was born. Some of the texts referred to while working on this book are: I have also written articles on topics related to Indian culture in Periodicals like The Illustrated Weekly, The Sunday Observer, The Free Press Journal, Imprint, Blitz, Current, etc. I am a Resident Life member of the Asiatic Society’s Library. Centre for further studies on Indian Culture. Aryabhattiya (By Aryabhata) – Astronomy Bramhasputa Siddhanta (by Bramhagupta) – Astronomy Surya Siddhanta (Anon?)‐ Astronomy Arthashastra (by Kautilya) ‐ Political Science Vaisheshika Sutra (by Kanada) ‐ Physics/Philosophy My next aim is to set up a Centre for further studies into the subject of Indian Culture. The aim is also to motivate other students and researchers to come forward and continue this study of the rich intellectual heritage of ancient India. For this, I have donated some land for setting up the Center at Village Dongaran Hawa in Murbad Taluka, in Thane District at the foothills of the main Sahayadri range. The site is near the Bhimashankar Jyotirlinga temple.
Parameswaran Murthiyedath, Free Lance Writer, Author, Mechanical Engineer. Murthiyedath Tharavad, Valambilimangalam P.O, Srikrishnapuram ‐679513 Mobile: +919495131550 102
Parameswaran Murthiyedath, a graduate mechanical engineer, retired, 65 years of age and settled in my native place and address as below. Since past 4 years He is a student of heritage geometry of India and has written the following books.
1. Natyamandapa and the Kuthampalams‐ A 250 page book on the architecture of the traditional performing art theatres attached to Kerala Temples‐ The book is sponsored for publishing by the Kutiyattam centre at Thiruvananthapuram and under the Kendra Sangeet Natak akademi, New Delhi 2. My next book was published in Malayalam ‐``YajNavedikaL'' about the geometry of the Vedic altars as practiced in Kerala 3. My third work was a detailed commentary on Baudhayana Sulvasutra proposed for publishing and under the scrutiny of IGNCA, New Delhi. 4. My fourth book is `` Vedic Cosmogony" ‐ publishing being worked out.
Thanksgiving It is inconceivable that a project of such a large magnitude could have come to fruition without the dedicated and selfless work put in by countless individuals and it is impossible that we can do justice to everybody. So, I hope you will grant me the pardon of having omitted a name inadvertently First and foremost is the dedicated work that Prashant Bhardwaj has put in. He has been tireless since the beginning and it is not an exaggeration to say that the project would not have reached this stage without his extensive involvement. He has given me his unstinted cooperation despite the fact that he has reservation on the conduct of the conference. Prashant ji, is the new breed of the Indic civilization, a true karma yogi, a confident and highly competent individual Prof Shivaji Singh has been unstinted in his dedication to the success of this conference and from the beginning he has been highly encouraging in both words and action. I have learnt a lot from Prof Shiva ji , and I am certainly not restricting my remarks to History. Over the last 12 months I have come to respect his scholarship and dedication to the cause of deciphering the accurate history of India Sri Om Prakash is one of the new generation of historians who is committed to integrity in his narrations of the history of the subcontinent. He does not subscribe to any political ideology, as far as I am aware. I am confident that he will over time occupy a significant spot in the pantheon of up and coming Indian historians. He had no hesitation whatsoever in responding to my request for help at a very early stage of the inception of the project. Sri S Kalyanaraman has been an enthusiastic supporter of this conference ever since it’s inception. I deeply value his role as a mentor ever since our association in the Indian civilization yahoo group , when he reposed sufficient trust in me to moderate the group in the late 1990’s and early 2000’s Sri JP Sharma has been extremely generous with his time in spite of his other commitments and has given freely of his administrative expertise on more than a few occasions. 103
Sri Sraddhalu Ranade has been kind enough to undertake the videotaping of sessions and his involvement is much appreciated Sri Sanjay Choudary has been one of the few volunteers who has enthusiastically pitched in with help in various matters. Dr. Manohar Shinde, who had no hesitation whatsoever to pledge (so far ) the highest amount by an individual and who has been highly encouraging throughout the long drawn out process. Sri Prem Ghai for providing the airline ticket for one of the participants from America Sri Laxmi Nivas Jhunjhunwala, Chairman of the Bhilwara Group for being receptive to my requests for assistance. Sri Aruneshwar Gupta for being extremely supportive with many tangible and intangible contributions to the effort. Sri Rajiv Verma, who inspired me to undertake this project. Sri KG Suresh for undertaking the PR effort for this project, not merely as a commercial endeavor. Sri Pradeep Mittal of Low PrIce Publications, for printing the Philosophy document at no charge to us. I am impressed with the level of service that Kamakshi Events has provided, which makes the job of organizing the conference less onerous. My colleagues in the India Research Foundation and Indic Studies Foundation , Dinesh Acharya, Durvasula Ramana Murty, Arun Sharma, Ratnendra Pandey, Ranadheer Soletti and Prem Ghai, for their constant encouragement. I wish to place on record the support of individuals and moderators at India‐Forum.com for giving me the forum to express my views, among whom are Viren Honnaya, Muthukumar Prakashan, Mudita Purang, L Arvind. To the countless individuals who have interacted with me on the internet with requests for information on Indian history over the last decade which convinced me there remains an unfulfilled hunger for the authentic history of India I am indebted to the following individuals who have given of their time, commitment and resources in a generous manner Sri Arun Panday Sri Balmukund Sri Ramakrisha Ohri 104
Sri Jayesh Gadhia Sri Haribhau Vajhe Sadhu AksharVatsal Das Swami Sri Keertivasan Bharat Sri Sachin Gupta Individual Donors Dr Manohar Shinde Dr Madan Lal Goel Sri Prasanna Rao Dr. Rao Vemuri Sri Prem Ghai Sri Himadhar Vemulepalli Finally but not least, i would be remiss if I did not mention the long suffering members of my family Suguna, Kalpana, for enduring my exile into the ‘Ozone Layer’ during the entire duration of an entire year; my son Sanjay and daughter in law Shruti for their encouragement. Kosla Vepa, Convener, ICIH 2009
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Index Adi Sankara, 12
Gopal Krishna Dash, 65
Alexander, 12
Hinduism, 30
Alexander, the Unknown, 55
History, 42
Asha Goswami, 64
Indika, 15
Asiatic Society of Bengal, 55
Indology, 21
Asokaditya Priyadarshin, 18
Itihaasa, 16, 19, 36, 42, 43, 44
Bal Ram Singh, 58
Jagat K. Motwani, 66, 97
Bharat Gupt, 47
K. Ramasubramanian, 62
Bhu Dev Sharma, 81
Kalikivayi Mahankali Rao, 50
C. K. Raju, 71
Karl Marx, 25
Chandragupta Maurya, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 32, 39
Kosla Vepa, 54, 55, 96, 97 Kota Venkatachalam, 51
Colebrook, 19 Kshatrap, 15 dhairya, dhiratva, 29 Leena Mehendale, 50 Dharma, 30 Madan L. Goel, 69 Dr dinanath sharma, 86 Magadha empire, 17, 20 Dr K. G Vasantha Madhava Pavanje, 86 Mahabharata, 11, 16, 17, 18, 20, 43, 44 Eisha Gamlath, 49 Mahapadma‐Nanda, 17 F E Pargiter, 54 Maitreyee Deshpande, 48 G.T. Panse, 49 Max Mueller, 19 Ganesh Umakant Thite, 48 106
Michel Danino, 46, 93, 94
RC Majumdar, 25
Mukharji, S.N, 11
Richa Sharma, 57
Muralidhar Pahoja, 55, 63, 95
Rupali Pravin Mokashi, 59
Murlidhar H. Pahoja, 72
S.C. Mittal PhD, 82
N Mahalingam, 61
Sage Yajnavalkya, 28
Nalin Kant Jha, 47
Salivahana, 50, 51, 74
Narayan Rao, 65
Samudragupta, 16, 18, 19, 33, 42
Oleg Perzashkevich, 53, 95
Sandracottus, 56, 63
Om Prakash Mishra, 60, 69
Sattwa,Suddhi, 29
Paara and Apaara Vidya, 30
SAurav Basu, 73
Palibothra, 14, 18
Sharada Sugirtharajah, 74
Pandit Bhagavad Datta
Shashi Tiwari, 85
, 19
Panini, 14
Sir William Jones, 11, 12, 14, 18, 21, 22, 23, 55, 66
Parameswaran Murthiyedath, 67 Sisunaga, 17, 32, 36, 38 Pataliputra, 56, 73
Stefan Arvidsson, 22
PC Dogra, 81 Sudheer birodkar, 64 Prodosh Aich, 13, 22, 23 Sudheer Birodkar, 101 Proto‐Indo‐European, 43 Sunil Bhattacharjya, 18 Puranas, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 26, 44 The Greek Synchronism, 54 Purânas, 48 The Buddha, 18, 20 Rajagriha, 18, 20 The Imperial Gupta Dynasty, 42 Rajaram, Navaratna, 22 The Nanda Dynasty, 39 Rajatarangini, 19 The Pradyota Dynasty, 38 Rajeev Srinivasan, 46, 99, 100 107
Trautmann, 23
Trautmann, Thomas, 22
Vishnu gupta, 19
Upanishad, 49
Vishnu Swarop Misra, 87
V S Naipaul, 24
Viveka,, 30
Vairagya, 30
Vyaasa, 16, 17, 31
Vasu Murti, 51
Yugantar, 50
Vibha Tripathi, 84
Yvette (Rani) Claire Rosser, 95
Vikramaditya, 50, 51
Yvette Rani Rosser, 53, 57
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Appendix Program schedule
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