Hindu Philosophy

Hindu Philosophy Hindu philosophy is divided into six Sanskrit āstika) schools of thought, or darshanas (literally, "views"): 1. Sankhya, a strongly dualist theoretical exposition of mind and matter. 2. Yoga, a school emphasizing meditation closely based on Sankhya 3. Nyaya or logics 4. Vaisheshika, an empiricist school of atomism 5. Mimamsa, an anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of orthopraxy 6. Vedanta, opposing Vedic ritualism in favour of mysticism. Vedanta came to be the dominant current of Hinduism in the post-medieval period. In Hindu history, the distinction of these six schools was current in the Gupta period "golden age" of Hinduism. With the disappearance of Vaisheshika and Mimamsa, it was obsolete by the later Middle Ages, when the various sub-schools of Vedanta (Dvaita "dualism", Advaita "non-dualism" and others) began to rise to prominence as the main divisions of religious philosophy. Nyaya survived into the 17th century as Navya Nyaya "Neo-Nyaya", while Sankhya gradually lost its status as an independent school, its tenets absorbed into Yoga and Vedanta.

Samkhya Samkhya or Sankhya is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism. Sankhya postulates that everything in reality stems from purusha ( self, atma or soul) and prakriti (matter, creative agency or energy). There are many living souls (Jeevatmas) and they possess consciousness. Prakriti consists of three dispositions known as qualities (gunas): activity (rajas), inactivity (tamas) and steadiness (sattva) which arises when the the two other gunas are held in equilibrium. Because of the intertwined relationship between the soul and these dispositions, an imbalance in disposition causes the world to evolve. Liberation of the soul happens when it realizes that it is above and beyond these three dispositions. Sankhya is a dualistic philosophy, but there are differences between Sankhya and other forms of dualism. In the West, dualism is between the mind and the body, whereas in Sankhya it is between the soul and matter. The concept of the atma (soul) is different from the concept of the mind. Soul is absolute reality that is all-pervasive, eternal, indivisible, attributeless, pure consiousness. It is nonmatter and is beyond intellect. Originally, Sankhya was not theistic, but in confluence with Yoga it developed a theistic variant.

Maharishi Kapila is a Vedic sage, who as mentioned in the Srimad Bhagavatam is the author of basic principles of the Sankhya system of Indian philosophy [1] as available in the classical Sankhya text, Sankhya Karika, in 70 (Sutras) verses [2], though its expansions and commentaries are spread over 6 volumes, and has numerous commentaries, written over the ages, like the Kapila sankhya pravachana Sutra vṛitti, by Aniruddha [3]. As described in the Mahabharata, he was one of the seven sons of Brahman; others being, Aniruddha, Sana, Sanatsujata, Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanatkumara, and Sanatana [4]. Though, in Vishnu Purana, he is described as, an incarnation of the mighty and universal Vishnu [5], famous for teaching a process of liberation known as bhakti yoga. His Descendants are found till date in Northern India esp. Punjab region. They keep their surname as Kapil. Much of the details about sage Kapila's life are available in the Srimad Bhagavatam (Bhagavata Purana), Canto 3, Chapter 33: Activities of Kapila [1], where it is mentioned that his parents were Kardama Muni and Devahuti, and after his father left home, Kapila instructed his mother, Devahuti in the philosophy of yoga and devotional worship of Lord Vishnu, enabling her to achieve both liberation (moksha), and pure love of God [6]

History He is mentioned by Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita as the greatest of all perfected beings: Of all trees I am the banyan tree, and of the sages among the demigods I am Narada. Of the Gandharvas I am Citraratha, and among perfected beings I am the sage Kapila. (Bhagavad Gita 10.26)

Teachings Kapiladev's teachings are quoted extensively within various classical Hindu texts:

Mahabharata •

"Kapila said, 'Those who lead a life of domesticity are certainly auspicious and acquire excellence of every kind. They are unable, however, to enjoy the felicity that attaches to Renunciation." The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section Section CCLXX, p.270 [7].

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"Kapila said,'Acts only cleanse the body. Knowledge, however, is the highest end (for which one strives). 5 When all faults of the heart are cured (by acts), and when the felicity of Brahma becomes established in knowledge, benevolence, forgiveness, tranquillity, compassion, truthfulness, and candour, abstention from injury, absence of pride,

modesty, renunciation, and abstention from work are attained. These constitute the path that lead to Brahma. By those one attains to what is the Highest." The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section CCLXX, p. 270-271. •

"Bhishma said (to Yudhisthira), 'Listen, O slayer of foes! The Sankhyas or followers of Kapila, who are conversant with all paths and endued with wisdom, say that there are five faults, O puissant one, in the human body. They are Desire and Wrath and Fear and Sleep and Breath. These faults are seen in the bodies of all embodied creatures. Those that are endued with wisdom cut the root of wrath with the aid of Forgiveness. Desire is cut off by casting off all purposes. By cultivation of the quality of Goodness (Sattwa) sleep is conquered, and Fear is conquered by cultivating Heedfulness. Breath is conquered by abstemiousness of diet. The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Part III, Section CCCII. [8]

Srimad Bhagavatam •

"My appearance in this world is especially to explain the philosophy of Sankhya, which is highly esteemed for self-realization by those desiring freedom from the entanglement of unnecessary material desires. This path of self-realization, which is difficult to understand, has now been lost in the course of time. Please know that I have assumed this body of Kapila to introduce and explain this philosophy to human society again." (3.24.3637)

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"When one is completely cleansed of the impurities of lust and greed produced from the false identification of the body as "I" and bodily possessions as "mine," one's mind becomes purified. In that pure state he transcends the stage of so-called material happiness and distress."(3.25.16)

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"The Supreme Personality of Godhead is the Supreme Soul, and He has no beginning. He is transcendental to the material modes of nature and beyond the existence of this material world. He is perceivable everywhere because He is self-effulgent, and by His self-effulgent luster the entire creation is maintained." (3.26.3)

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"The glory of the Lord is always worth singing, for His glories enhance the glories of His devotees. One should therefore meditate upon the Supreme Personality of Godhead and upon His devotees. One should meditate on the eternal form of the Lord until the mind becomes fixed." (3.28.18)

Birth of the Ganges Maharshi Kapila is a major figure in the story associated with the Hindu holiday of Makar Sankranti, about bringing down Ganga Ganges River from heaven, which involves King Sagara of Ikshvaku dynasty [9], from Ayodhya, an ancestor of

Rama. King Sagara had performed the Aswamedha yagna (Horse-sacrifice) ninety-nine times. Each time a horse was sent around the earth Indra the King of the Heaven grew jealous and kidnapped the horse, hiding it in the hermitage of Kapila Muni during the hundredth sacrifice. The 60 000 sons of Sagara found the horse, and believing Kapila to be the abductor assaulted him. Kapila turned the assailants to ashes. Anshuman, a grandson of King Sagara (Son of Asamanjas the Wicked son of King Sagara), came to Kapila begging him to redeem the souls of the 60 000. Kapila replied that only if the Ganges descended from heaven and touched the ashes of the 60,000 would they be redeemed [10]

References 1. ^ a b Chapter 33: Activities of Kapila Srimad Bhagavatam, Canto 3, Chapter 33: Activities of Kapila. SB 3.33.1: Śrī Maitreya said: Thus Devahūti, the mother of Lord Kapila and wife of Kardama Muni, became freed from all ignorance concerning devotional service and transcendental knowledge. She offered her obeisances unto the Lord, the author of the basic principles of the Sāńkhya system of philosophy, which is the background of liberation, and she satisfied Him with the following verses of prayer." Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network. 2. ^ A Tribute To Maharishi Kapila Secret Of Sankhya: Acme Of Scientific Unification. p. 42. 3. ^ The Sánkhya Aphorisms of Kapila translated by James R. Ballantyne, 1885. 4. ^ Vaisampayana continued... The Mahabharata translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli (1883 -1896), Book 12: Santi Parva, Part 3, Section: CCCXLI. p. 147 "The puissant Lord who is charged with the creation of all the worlds is called Aniruddha, Sana, Sanatsujata, Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanatkumara, Kapila, and Sanatana numbering the seventh,--these seven Rishis are known as the spiritual sons of Brahman. Their knowledge comes to them of itself (without being dependent on study or exertion). These seven are wedded to the religion of Nivritti. They are the foremost of all persons conversant with Yoga. They are possessed also of deep knowledge of the Sankhya philosophy. They are preceptors of the scriptures on duty and it is they that introduce the duties of the religion of Nivritti, and cause them to flow in the worlds. 5. ^ Parashara... Vishnu Purana translated by Horace Hayman Wilson, 1840. Book II: Chapter XIV. p. 106. "..a portion of the mighty and universal Vishnu.. 6. ^ Śrīmad Bhāgavatam Srimad Bhagavatam 3.33.30 - My dear Vidura, by following the principles instructed by Kapila, Devahūti soon became liberated from material bondage, and she achieved the Supreme Personality of Godhead, as Supersoul, without difficulty." 7. ^ 'Those who lead a life... The Mahabharata translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli (1883 -1896), Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section Section CCLXX, p.270

8. ^ Bhishma said... The Mahabharata translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli (1883 -1896), Book 12: Santi Parva: Part III, Section CCCII. 9. ^ Ikshaku tribe The Mahabharata translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli (1883 -1896), Book 3: Vana Parva: Tirtha-yatra Parva: Section CVI, p. 228 'There was born in the family of the Ikshaku tribe, a ruler of the earth named Sagara, endued with beauty, and strength...". 10. ^ Sons of Sagara Vishnu Purana translated by Horace Hayman Wilson, 1840, Book IV, Chapter IV. p. 378 the gods repaired to the Muni Kapila, who was a portion of Vishńu, free from fault, and endowed with all true wisdom. Having approached him with respect, they said, "O lord, what will become of the world, if these sons of Sagara are permitted to go on in the evil ways which they have learned from Asamanjas! Do thou, then, assume a visible form, for the protection of the afflicted universe." "Be satisfied," replied the sage, "in a brief time the sons of Sagara shall be all destroyed.". An Introduction to Hinduism, Gavin Flood, p. 232. Cambridge University Press, 1996. (Dates for proto-Samkhya, Karika Samkhya.)

Yoga In Indian philosophy, Yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox philosophical schools.[1][2] The Yoga philosophical system is closely allied with the Samkhya school.[3] The Yoga school as expounded by Patanjali accepts the Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is more theistic than the Samkhya, as evidenced by the addition of a divine entity to the Samkhya's twenty-five elements of reality.[4][5] The parallels between Yoga and Samkhya were so close that Max Müller says that "the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord...."[6] The intimate relationship between Samkhya and Yoga is explained by Heinrich Zimmer: "These two are regarded in India as twins, the two aspects of a single discipline. Sāṅkhya provides a basic theoretical exposition of human nature, enumerating and defining its elements, analyzing their manner of co-operation in a state of bondage (bandha), and describing their state of disentanglement or separation in release (mokṣa), while Yoga treats specifically of the dynamics of the process for the disentanglement, out outlines practical techniques for the gaining of release, or 'isolation-integration' (kaivalya)."[7] The foundational text of the Yoga school is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, who is regarded as the founder of the formal Yoga philosophy.[8] The Sutras of the Yoga philosophy are ascribed to Patanjali, who may have been, as Max Müller explains, "the author or representative of the Yoga-philosophy without being necessarily the author of the Sutras."[9]

Patañjali (fl. 150 BCE[1] or 2nd c. BCE[2][3]) is the compiler of the Yoga Sutras, an important collection of aphorisms on Yoga practice, and also the author of the Mahābhāṣya, a major commentary on Panini's Ashtadhyayi. However, whether these two works are that of the same author or not remains in some doubt. In recent decades the Yoga Sutra has become quite popular worldwide for the precepts regarding practice of Raja Yoga and its philosophical basis. "Yoga" in traditional Hinduism involves inner contemplation, a rigorous system of meditation practice, ethics, metaphysics, and devotion to the one common soul, God, or Brahman. At the same time, his Mahābhāṣya, which first foregrounded the notion of meaning as referring to categorization, remains an important treatise in Sanskrit linguistic philosophy.

Authorship Whether these two works are by the same author has been the subject of considerable debate. The authorship of the two are first attributed to the same person in Bhojadeva's rAjamArtaNDa, a relatively late (10th c.) commentary on the Yoga Sutras[4], as well as a large number of subsequent texts. As for the texts themselves, the Yoga Sutra iii.44 cites a sutra as that from Patanjali by name, but this line itself is not from the Mahābhāṣya. However, certain themes such as the unity of the constituent parts appear common to both. Sources of doubt include the lack of cross-references between the texts, and no mutual awareness of each other, quite unlike other cases of multiple works by (later) Sanskrit authors. Also, some elements in the Yoga Sutras may date from as late as the 4th c. AD[3], but such changes may be due to divergent authorship, or due to later additions which are not atypical in the oral tradition. In the absence of any concrete evidence for a second Patanjali, and given the approximately same time frame for the origin of both texts, and the traditional ascription of both to a Patanjali most scholars simply refer to both works as "by Patanjali". In addition to the Mahābhāṣya and Yoga Sutras, the 11th c. text on Charaka by ChakrapAni, and the 16th c. text Patanjalicharita ascribes to Patanjali a medical text called the CarakapratisaMskritah (now lost) which is apparently a revision (pratisaMskritaH) of the medical treatise by Charaka. Some have cited the Patanjali reference in Yoga Sutra as possibly being from this text. Were he to be the author of all three works, it would be quite amazing, although such diversity would not be very uncommon in many early civilizations, as in the work of Pingala or Katyayana, both grammaticians who also worked in mathematics, or their contemporary Aristotle, say. At the same time, it is possible that the Patanjali hagiography extolled his persona considerably. Patañjali as an incarnation of Adi Sesha

Hagiography In the Yoga tradition, Patanjali is a revered name and has been deified by many groups, especially in the Shaivite bhakti tradition. It is claimed that Patañjali is an incarnation of Ādi S'esha who is the first ego-expansion of Vishnu, Sankarshana. Sankarshana, the manifestation of Vishnu His primeval energies and opulences, is part of the so-called catur vyūha, the fourfold manifestation of Vishnu. Thus may Patañjali be considered as the one incarnation of God defending the ego of yoga. Even his name has been glorified; it is said that desiring to teach yoga to the world, he fell (pat-) from heaven into the open palms (-añjali) of a woman, hence the name Patañjali. He is also often respectfully referred to as Patanjali Maharishi, or great sage. In one popular legend, Patanjali was born to Atri (First of the Saptha Rishis) and his wife Anusuya (this would make him go back to the time of the creation by Brahma). According to this tradition, Anasuya had to go through a stern test of her chastity when the Trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu, Siva) themselves came as Bhikshuks and asked her for Bhiksha. She passed their test by accepting them as her children and fed them while naked. She got the boon where all the 3 Murtis will be born to them. They were SomaSkandan or Patanjali, Dattatreya, and Durvasa.

Tamil Shaivite legend Regarding his early years, a Tamil Shaivite tradition from around 10th c. AD holds that Patanjali learned Yoga along with seven other disciples from the great Yogic Guru Nandhi Deva, as stated in Tirumular's Tirumandiram (Tantra 1). Nandhi arulPetra Nadharai Naadinom Nandhigal Nalvar Siva Yoga MaaMuni Mandru thozhuda Patanjali Vyakramar Endrivar Ennodu(Thirumoolar) Enmarumaame English translation By receiving Nandhi's grace we sought the feet of the Lord The Four Nandhis (Sanagar, Santhanar, Sanath Sujatar, Sanath Kumarar), Siva Yoga Maamuni, Patanjali, Vyakramapadar and I (Thirumoolar) We were thus eight disciples. The ancient Kali Kautuvam also describes how Patanjali and Vyagrapada gathered along with the gods in Thillai near Chidambaram to watch Shiva and Kali dance and perform the 108 mystic Karanas, which formed the foundation for the system of Natya Yoga. This Tamil tradition also gives his birth place in South Kailash, possibly the modern day Thirumoorthy hills near Coimbatore. Some other traditions feel that his being born in Bharatavarsha - the part of the ancient world corresponding to

South Asia - is beneath his godlike status, and that he must have been born in the Jambudvipa, the mythical center of the universe. Patanjali as Siddha is also mentioned by the goldsmith-sage Bogar: It was my Grandfather who said, "Climb and see." But it was Kalangi Nathar who gave me birth. Patanjali,Viyagiramar,and Sivayogi Muni all so rightly said, "Look! This is the path!" - Bhogar, 7000 sayings This tradition also holds that Patanjali was a master of dance.

Yoga Sūtras The Yoga tradition is much older, there are references in the Mahabharata, and the Gita identifies three kinds of yoga, and it is also the subject of the late upanishad, Yogatattva. The Yoga Sūtras codifies the royal or best (rAja) yoga practices, presenting these as a eight-limbed system (aShTAnga). The philosophic tradition is related to the Samkhya school. The focus is on the mind; the second sutra defines Yoga - it is the cessation of all mental fluctuations, all wandering thoughts cease and the mind is focused on a single thought (ekAgratA). The eight limbs or the Ashtanga Yoga propounded here are 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

yama, ethics, restraint and ahimsa, niyama, cleanliness, ascetism, etc. Asana, posture prANAyama, breath-control pratyahAra, sense-withdrawal dhAraNa, concentration dhyana meditation, and samAdhi, full absorption.

Expanded as this:Yama - non-violence, truthfulness, brahmacharya, non-accumulating/non-coveting Niyama - Tapas (Discipline)- Svadhyaya (Self Study) - Ishvara Pranidhana (Surrender to God/Higher Self) - Contentment/Acceptance Asana - Discipline of the body Pranayama - Breath Control Pratyhara - withdrawal of all senses Dharana - Concentration/Expand awareness beyond oneself Dhyana - Meditation Samadhi - Absorption/Universal Consciousness where All is One, One is All

In contrast to the focus on the mind in the Yoga sutras, later traditions of Yoga such as the Hatha yoga focus on more complex asanas or body postures.

Relevance of his contribution to the science of yoga Patañjali defended in his yoga-treatise several ideas that are not mainstream of either Sankhya or Yoga. He, according to the Iyengar adept, biographer and scholar Kofi Busia, acknowledges the ego not as a separate entity. The subtle body linga sarira he would not regard as permanent and he would deny it a direct control over external matters. This is not in accord with classical Sankhya and Yoga. Although much of the aphorisms in the Yoga Sutra possibly pre-dates Patanjali, it is clear that much is original and it is more than a mere compilation. The clarity and unity he brought to divergent views prevalent till then has inspired a long line of teachers and practitioners up to the present day in which his most renowned defender is B.K.S. Iyengar. With some translators he seems to be a dry and technical propounder of the philosophy, but with others he is an empathic and humorous witty friend and spiritual guide.

Mahābhāshya The Mahābhāṣya ("great commentary") of Patañjali on the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini is a major early exposition on Panini, along with the somewhat earlier Varttika by Katyayana. Here he raises the issue of whether meaning ascribes to a specific instance or to a category: kim punar AkritiH padArthaH, Ahosvid dravyam [5]. Now what is 'meaning' (artha) [of a word]? Is it a particular instance (dravya) or a general shape (Akriti)? This discussion arises in Patanjali in connection with a sutra (Panini 1.2.58) that states that a plural form may be used in the sense of the singular when designating a species (jAti). Another aspect dealt with by Patanjali relates to how words and meanings are associated - Patanjali claims shabdapramâNaH - that the evidentiary value of words is inherent in them, and not derived externally[6] - the word-meaning association is natural. The argument he gives is that people do not make an effort to manufacture words. When we need a pot, we ask the potter to make a pot for us. The same is not true of words - we do not usually approach grammarians and ask them to manufacture words for our use. [27] This is similar to the argument in the early part of Plato's Cratylus, where morphemes are described as natural, e.g. the sound 'l' is associated with softness. These issues in the word-meaning relation (symbol) would elaborated in the Sanskrit linguistic tradition, in debates between the Mimamsa, Nyaya and Buddhist schools over the next fifteen centuries.

Sphota : An early phonemic theory? Patanjali also defines an early notion of sphoTa, which would be elaborated considerably by later Sanskrit linguists like Bhartrihari. In Patanjali, a sphoTa (from sphuT, burst) is the invariant quality of speech. The noisy element (dhvani, audible part) can be long or short, but the sphoTa remains unaffected by individual speaker differences. Thus, a single letter or 'sound' (varNa) such as k, p or a is an abstraction, distinct from variants produced in actual enunciation[6]. This concept has been linked to the modern notion of phoneme, the minimum distinction that defines semantically distinct sounds. Thus a phoneme is an abstraction for a range of sounds. However, in later writings, especially in Bhartrihari (6th c. AD), the notion of sphoTa changes to become more of a mental state, preceding the actual utterance, akin to the psycholinguistic lemma. Patañjali's writings also elaborate some principles of morphology (prakriyā). In the context of elaborating on Panini's aphorisms, he also discusses Kātyāyana's commentary, which are also aphoristic and sūtra-like; in the later tradition, these were transmitted as embedded in Patañjali's discussion. In general, he defends many positions of Panini which were interpreted somewhat differently in Katyayana.

Metaphysics as grammatical motivation Unlike Panini's objectives in the Ashtyadhyayi which is to distinguish correct forms and meanings from incorrect ones (shabdAunushAsana), Patanjali's objectives are more metaphysical. These include the correct recitations of the scriptures (Agama), maintaining the purity of texts (rakShA), clarifying ambiguity (asaMdeha), and also the pedagogic goal of providing an easier learning mechanism (laghu)[6]. This stronger metaphysical bent has also been indicated by some as one of the unifying themes between the Yoga Sutras and the Mahābhāṣya. The text of the Mahābhāṣya had diversified somewhat in the late Sanskritic tradition, and the nineteenth-century orientalist Franz Kielhorn produced the first critical edition and developed philological criteria for distinguishing Kātyāyana's "voice" from Patañjali's. Subsequently a number of other texts have come out, the 1968 text by S.D. Joshi and J.H.F. Roodbergen often being considered definitive. Patanjali also writes with a light touch. For example, his comment on the conflicts between the orthodox Brahminic (Astika) groups, versus the heterodox, nAstika groups (Buddhism, Jainism, and atheists) seems relevant for religious conflict even today: the hostility between these groups was like that between a mongoose and a snake[7]. He also sheds light on contemporary events, commenting on the recent Greek incursion, and also on several tribes that lived in the Northwest regions of the subcontinent.

References 1. ^ Jonardon Ganeri, Artha: Meaning, Oxford University Press 2006, 1.2, p. 12 2. ^ S. Radhakrishnan, and C.A. Moore, (1957). A Source Book in Indian Philosophy. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University, ch. XIII, Yoga, p.453 3. ^ a b Gavin A. Flood, 1996 4. ^ The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, ed. James Haughton Woods, 1914 5. ^ Mahābhāṣya, Joshi/Roodbergen: 1968, p. 68 6. ^ a b c The word and the world: India's contribution to the study of language (1990). Bimal Krishna Matilal. Oxford. 7. ^ Romila Thapar, Interpreting Early India. Oxford University Press, 1992, p.63

Nyaya The Nyaya school is based on the Nyaya Sutras. They were written by Aksapada Gautama, probably in the second century B.C.E. The most important contribution made by this school is its methodology. This methodology is based on a system of logic that has subsequently been adopted by the majority of the Indian schools. This is comparable to the relationship between Western science and philosophy, which was derived largely from Aristotelian logic. Nevertheless, Nyaya was seen by its followers as more than logical in its own right. They believed that obtaining valid knowledge was the only way to gain release from suffering, and they took great pains to identify valid sources of knowledge and distinguish these from mere false opinions. According to Nyaya, there are exactly four sources of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. Knowledge obtained through each of these is either valid or invalid. Nyaya developed several criteria of validity. In this sense, Nyaya is probably the closest Indian equivalent to analytic philosophy. The later Naiyanikas gave logical proofs for the existence and uniqueness of Ishvara in response to Buddhism, which, at that time, was fundamentally non-theistic. An important later development in Nyaya was the system of Navya-NyÄya.

Gautama Maharishi is one of the Saptarishis (Seven Great Sages Rishi) sapta-

rishis (seven Rishis) of the current Manvantara (seventh) [1]. He was one of the Maharishis of Vedic times, known to have been the discoverer of Mantras -'Mantra-drashtaa', in Sanskrit. The Rig Veda has several suktas that go with his name. He was the son of Dirgha-tamas, belonging to the line of Angiras. The Devi Bhagavatam says that the river Godavari is so named because of its association with Gautama. He had two sons by name Vamadeva and Nodhas, both themselves

discoverers of Mantras. There is a hymn called Bhadra in the Sama Veda which again is ascribed to Gautama Maharishi.

Personal life His wife is Ahalya, herself the mind born daughter (manasa putri) of Creator Brahma. The Puranas speak of the story wherein it is described how Gautama won the hand of Ahalya by perambulating the divine cow in order to fulfill the stipulation of Brahma that whoever first goes round the whole Earth will win the hand of Ahalya. The Chief priest of King Janaka of Mithila, by name Shatananda, was the son of Gautama and Ahalya. Gautama's sixty-year long penance is mentioned in the Shanti parva of the Mahabharata. The Narada purana describes the story of the 12-year famine during which Gautama fed all the Rishis and saved them. Gautama was one of the famous seven rishis termed Saptarshi. He was the progenitor of the Gautama gotra. He was the son of Rahugana. With Bharadvaja, Gautama shares a common ancestry as they are both descended from Angirasa, and sometimes they are both bracketed together under the name Angirasa. The sons of Gautama are Vamadeva and Nodha. The 4th book of the Rigveda is that of the Vamadeva Gautama family.

Legends The descent of Lord Shiva as Tryambakeshvar, that constitutes the source of the Jyotirlinga nearby, happened for the sake of Gautama. The Brahmaanda-purana mentions that one of the sub-branches of the Raanaayani branch of Sama Veda was initiated by this Gautama. Some famous disciples of Gautama were Praachina-yogya, Shaandilya, Gaargya, and Bharadwaja. According to the Ramayana, Rishi Gautama once went to take bath in the river Ganges early morning. The king of the devas, Indra, was fascinated with Gautam's wife, Ahalya. Indra came in the form of Gautam and made love to Ahalya. As he was escaping, he was caught by Rishi Gautama who was returning to the Ashrama from his bath. Gautam cursed Ahalya and Indra both for this act. Ahalya was converted to stone, while Indra was cursed with one thousand female genitals (Sahasrayoni). Later, taking pity on both, Gautama converted both these curses to boons. Indra's female genitals (yonis) became eyes, and he came to be known as Sahasraaksha. As for Ahalya, Gautama granted her the boon that she would be brought back to human form by the touch of the feet of Lord Rama and would reunite with him.

Author of the earliest Dharma-sutra Gauatama was also the author of Dharma-sutra known as Gautama Dharma sutra [2] [3] It is in fact the earliest Dharma Sutra. It contains 28 chapters with 1000 aphorisms. Almost every aspect of the observances of Hindu dharma - including the rules for the four Ashramas, the forty sanskāras, the four varnas, kingly duties, the punishments for various offences, the obsequies for the dead, do's and don'ts of food consumption, the dharmas of women, the rules for Praayaschitta (atonement for sins), and the rules of succession of property. In this sense Gautama's Dharma Shastra may perhaps be considered the oldest law book of the world. Akṣapāda Gotama, the 2nd century founder of the school of philosophy that goes by the name of 'Nyaya' (Logic), is not to be confused with Gautama Maharishi.

References 1. ^ Inhabitants of the Worlds Mahanirvana Tantra, translated by Arthur Avalon, (Sir John Woodroffe), 1913, Introduction and Preface. The Rishi are seers who know, and by their knowledge are the makers of shastra and "see" all mantras. The word comes from the root rish Rishati-prapnoti sarvvang mantrang jnanena pashyati sangsaraparangva, etc. The seven great Rishi or saptarshi of the first manvantara are Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Pulaha, Kratu, Pulastya, and Vashishtha. In other manvantara there are other sapta-rshi. In the present manvantara the seven are Kashyapa, Atri, Vashishtha, Vishvamitra, Gautama, Jamadagni, Bharadvaja. To the Rishi the Vedas were revealed. Vyasa taught the Rigveda so revealed to Paila, the Yajurveda to Vaishampayana, the Samaveda to Jaimini, Atharvaveda to Samantu, and Itihasa and Purana to Suta. The three chief classes of Rishi are the Brah-marshi, born of the mind of Brahma, the Devarshi of lower rank, and Rajarshi or Kings who became Rishis through their knowledge and austerities, such as Janaka, Ritaparna, etc. Thc Shrutarshi are makers of Shastras, as Sushruta. The Kandarshi are of the Karmakanda, such as Jaimini. 2. ^ Introduction to Gautama The Sacred Laws of the Âryas, translated by Georg Bühler (1879), Part I: Âpastamba and Guatama. (Dharma-sutra). 3. ^ Gautama, Institutes of the Sacred Law The Sacred Laws of the Âryas, translated by Georg Bühler (1879), Gautama, Chapter I (Dharma-sutra).

Vaisheshika The Vaisheshika school was founded by Kanada and postulates an atomic pluralism. All objects in the physical universe are reducible to certain types of atoms, and Brahman is regarded as the fundamental force that causes consciousness in these atoms. Although the Vaisheshika school developed independently from the Nyaya, the two eventually merged because of their closely related metaphysical theories. In its classical form, however, the Vaisheshika school differed from the Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaisheshika accepted only two—–perception and inference.

Kanada (also transliterated as Canada as well as other forms) was a Hindu sage

who founded the philosophical school of Vaisheshika. [1]. He talked of Dvyanuka (biatomic molecule) and tryanuka (triatomic molecule) He probably lived around 600 BCE according to some accounts. It is believed that he was born in Prabhas Kshetra (near Dwaraka) in Gujarat, India. His area of study was Rasavādam, considered to be a type of alchemy. He believed that all living beings are composed of five elements: water, fire, earth, air, ether. Vegetables have only water, insects have water and fire, birds have water, fire, earth and air, Humans the top of the creation has ether the sense of discrimination. (time, space, mind)are one. Kal is time, the universal mind, the ruler of the first spiritual region. In religions he is called Satan or Devil and soul is the light part of the creator, the drop of the Ocean. He theorised that Gurutva was responsible for the falling of objects on the Earth. Vaiseshika is one of the six orthodox (vedic) schools of Indian philosophy, usually paired with Nyaya, another of those six. It is believed that he often abstained from food by eating dirt.

Purva Mimamsa The main objective of the Purva Mimamsa school was to establish the authority of the Vedas. Consequently, this school's most valuable contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of Vedic interpretation. Its adherents believe that one must have unquestionable faith in the Vedas and perform the yajñas, or firesacrifices, regularly. They believe in the power of the mantras and yajñas to sustain all the activity of the universe. In keeping with this belief, they place great emphasis on dharma, which consists of the performance of Vedic rituals.

The Mimamsa accepted the logical and philosophical teachings of the other schools, but felt they did not sufficiently emphasize attention to right action. They believed that the other schools of thought that aimed for release (moksha) did not allow for complete freedom from desire and selfishness, because the very striving for liberation stemmed from a simple desire to be free. According to Mimamsa thought, only by acting in accordance with the prescriptions of the Vedas may one attain salvation. The Mimamsa school later shifted its views and began to teach the doctrines of Brahman and freedom. Its adherents then advocated the release or escape of the soul from its constraints through enlightened activity. Although Mimamsa does not receive much scholarly attention, its influence can be felt in the life of the practising Hindu, because all Hindu ritual, ceremony, and law is influenced by this school.

Jaimini was an ancient rishi (sage), who was a great philosopher of the Mimansa school of Indian philosophy. He was the disciple of the great Rishi Veda Vyasa, the son of Rishi Parashara.[1]

Important works of Jaimini Purva Mimamsa Sutras Jaimini is most known for his great treatise Purva Mimamsa Sutras (“First Reflection”), or Karma-mimamsa (“Study of [Ritual] Action”), a system that investigates the nature of Vedic injunctions. The text founded the Purva-Mimamsa school of Ancient Indian philosophy, one of the six Darsanas or schools of Ancient Indian philosophy. [2] Dated to ca. the 3rd century BC, the text contains about 3,000 sutras and is the foundational text of the Mimamsa school. The text aims at an exegesis of the Vedas with regard to ritual practice (karma) and religious duty (dharma), commenting on the early Upanishads. Jaimini's Mimamsa is a ritualist contermovement to the mysticist Vedanta currents of his day. He was commented upon by Śābara in the early centuries CE. [3]

Jamini Bharata He is also considered the author of epic work, Jamini Bharata, which presents a version of Mahabharata, which most known for its Aswamedha parva. [4]

Jamini Sutras The Jaimini sutras, or Upadesha Sutras, is a classic work, rated as next only to the Brihat Parashara Hora Sashtra, to which he gave an extended commentary, thus giving birth to "Jaimini system of astrology". [5]

Other Mentions Samaveda When Rishi Veda Vyasa divided ancient vedic hymns into four parts based on their use in the sacrificial rites, and taught them to his four chief disciples – Paila, Vaisampayana, Jaimini and Sumantu, Samaveda was transmitted to rishi Jaimini. "He divided the Veda into four, namely Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva. The histories and the Puranas are said to be the fifth Veda." - Brahmanda Purana 1.4.21 [6]

Markandeya Purana One of the major puranas, the Markandeya Purana, is presented as a dialogue between sage Jaimini and Markandeya. [7]

Vedanta The Vedanta, or later Mimamsa school, concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the Upanishads rather than the ritualistic injunctions of the Brahmanas. While the traditional Vedic rituals continued to be practised as meditative and propitiatory rites, a more knowledge-centered understanding began to emerge. These were mystical aspects of Vedic religion that focused on meditation, selfdiscipline, and spiritual connectivity, more than traditional ritualism. The more abstruse Vedanta is the essence of the Vedas, as encapsulated in the Upanishads. Vedantic thought drew on Vedic cosmology, hymns and philosophy. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is believed to have appeared as far back as 3,000 years ago. While thirteen or so Upanishads are accepted as principal, over a hundred exist. The most significant contribution of Vedantic thought is the idea that self-consciousness is continuous with and indistinguishable from consciousness of Brahman. [Vyāsa is a central and revered figure in the majority of Hindu traditions. He is also sometimes called Veda Vyasa (veda vyāsa), (the one who compiled the Vedas) or Krishna Dvaipayana (referring to his complexion and birthplace). He is accredited as the scribe of both the Vedas, and the supplementary texts such as the Puranas. A number of Vaishnava traditions regard him as an avatar of Vishnu.[1] Vyasa is also considered to be one of the eight Chiranjeevin (long lived, or immortals), who are still in existence according to general Hindu belief.

In the Mahabharata Vyasa appears for the first time as the author of, and an important character in the Mahābhārata. He was the son of Satyavati, daughter of a ferryman or fisherman, and the wandering sage Parashara. He was born on an island in the river Yamuna. This is said to be near Kalpi in Jalaun district in Uttar Pradesh. Many also point out that the sage was born on the confluence of the rivers Koel,Sankha and Brahmani at the present steel city of Rourkela in Northern Orissa. The place is named after him as Vedvyas.He was dark-complexioned and hence may be called by the name Krishna (black), and also the name Dwaipayana, meaning 'islandborn'. Vyasa was grandfather to the Kauravas and Pandavas. Both Dhritarashtra and Pandu, adopted as the sons of Vichitravirya by the royal family, were fathered by him. He had a third son, Vidura, by a serving maid.

Veda Vyasa Hindus traditionally hold that Vyasa categorised the primordial single Veda into four. Hence he was called Veda Vyasa, or "Splitter of the Vedas," the splitting being a feat that allowed people to understand the divine knowledge of the Veda. The word vyasa means split, differentiate, or describe. It has been debated whether Vyasa was a single person or a class of scholars who did the splitting. The Vishnu Purana has an interesting theory about Vyasa. The Hindu view of the universe is that of a cyclic phenomenon that comes into existence and dissolves repeatedly. Each cycle is presided over by a number of Manus, one for each Manvantara, that has four ages, Yugas of declining virtues. The Dvapara Yuga is the third Yuga. The Vishnu Purana (Book 3, Ch 3) says: In every third world age (Dvapara), Vishnu, in the person of Vyasa, in order to promote the good of mankind, divides the Veda, which is properly but one, into many portions. Observing the limited perseverance, energy, and application of mortals, he makes the Veda fourfold, to adapt it to their capacities; and the bodily form which he assumes, in order to effect that classification, is known by the name of Veda-vyasa. Of the different Vyasas in the present Manvantara and the branches which they have taught, you shall have an account. Twenty-eight times have the Vedas been arranged by the great Rishis in the Vaivasvata Manvantara... and consequently eight and twenty Vyasas have passed away; by whom, in the respective periods, the Veda has been divided into four. The first... distribution was made by Svayambhu (Brahma) himself; in the second, the arranger of the Veda (Vyasa) was Prajapati... (and so on up to twenty-eight).

Author of the Mahābhārata Vyasa is traditionally known as author of this epic. But he also features as an important character in it. His mother later married the king of Hastinapura, and had two sons. Both sons died without an issue and taking recourse to an ancient

practice called Niyoga where a chosen man can father sons with the widow of a person who dies issueless, she requests Vyasa to produce sons on behalf of her dead son Vichitravirya. Vyasa fathers the princes Dhritarashtra and Pandu (by Ambika and Ambalika, the wives of the dead king Vichitravirya). Vyasa told them that they should come alone near him. First did Ambika, but because of shyness and fear she closed her eyes. Vyasa told Satyavati that her child would be blind. Later this child was named Dhritarāshtra. Thus Satyavati sent Ambālika and warned her that she should remain calm. But Ambālika's face became pale because of fear. Vyasa told her that child would suffer from anaemia, and he would not be fit enough to rule the kingdom. Later this child was known as Pāndu. Then Vyasa told Satyavati to send one of them again so that a healthy child can be born. This time Ambika and Ambālika sent a maid in the place of themselves. The maid was quite calm and composed, and she got a healthy child later named as Vidura. While these are 'legally' not his sons, another son Shuka, born of his wife, sage Jābāli's daughter Pinjalā (Vatikā),[2] is considered his true spiritual heir. He was thus the grandfather of both the warring parties of the Mahābhārata, the Kauravas and the Pāndavas. He makes occasional appearances in the story as a spiritual guide to the young princes.

Ganesha writes Mahabharata as dictated by Vyasa In the first book of the Mahābhārata, it is described that Vyasa asked Ganesha to aid him in writing the text, however Ganesha imposed a condition that he would do so only if Vyasa narrated the story without pause. To which Vyasa then made a counter-condition that Ganesha must understand the verse before he transcribed it. This is supposed to explain the complicated Sanskrit used in some sections of the Mahābhārata, recited by Vyasa when he wanted a break. Vyasa is supposed to have meditated and authored the epic by the foothills of the river Beas (named in his honour,) in the Punjab region.

Vyasa's Jaya Vyasa's Jaya, the core of Mahābhārata is structured in the form of a dialogue between Dhritarashtra (the Kuru king and the father of the Kauravas, who opposed the Pāndavas in the Kurukshetra War) and Sanjaya, his advisor and chariot driver. Sanjaya narrates each incident of the Kurukshetra War, fought in 18 days, as and

when it happened. Dhritarāshtra sometimes asks questions and doubts and sometimes laments, knowing about the destruction caused by the war, to his sons, friends and kinsmen. He also feels guilty, due to his own role, that led to this war, destructive to the entire Indian subcontinent. In the beginning Sanjaya gives a description of the various continents of the Earth, the other planets, and focuses on the Indian Subcontinent and gives an elaborate list of hundreds of kingdoms, tribes, provinces, cities, towns, villages, rivers, mountains, forests etc of the (ancient) Indian Subcontinent (Bhārata Varsha). He also explains about the military formations adopted by each side on each day, the death of each hero and the details of each war-racings. Some 18 chapters of Vyasa's Jaya constitutes the Bhagavad Gita, the sacred text of the Hindus. Thus, this work of Vyasa, called Jaya deals with diverse subjects like geography, history, warfare, religion and morality.

Ugrasrava Sauti's Mahābhārata The final phase of Vyasa's work culminated as Mahābhārata, structured as a narration by Ugrasrava Sauti, who was a professional story teller, to an assembly of sages like Saunaka. Bharata is embedded inside it, and within it Jaya.

Reference to writing Within the Mahābhārata, there is a tradition in which Vyasa wishes to write down or inscribe his work: The Grandsire Brahma (creator of the universe) comes and tells Vyasa to get the help of Ganapati for his task. Ganapati writes down the stanzas recited by Vyasa from memory and thus the Mahābhārata is inscribed or written. Ganapati could not cope up with Vyasa's speed and he misses many words or even stanzas. The earliest portions of the Mahābhārata are estimated to date from roughly the 4th century BC, the time of the introduction of writing to India. There is some evidence however that writing may have been known earlier based on archeological findings of styli in the Painted Grey Ware culture, dated between 1100 BC and 700 BC.[3][4][5] and archeological evidence of the Brahmi script being used from at least 600 BC.[6] The difficulty faced by Ganapati (Ganesha) in writing down Mahābhārata as described in the tradition, could be real, and was most probably faced by those people who first attempted to write it down as some reciter recited it continuously. This is because, the reciter will not be able to stop the recitation in between and resume it, as the lines are committed to his memory as a continuous recording. The name Ganapati, was used in ancient days, to denote the head of a republic. In ancient India, there were kingdoms ruled by kings or Rajas as well as republics

ruled by elected heads or Ganapatis. Kambojas were a republic. To some extent Dwāraka had republican style of rule. Ganapati who wrote down Mahābhārata, probably was one this republic chiefs, well educated in the art of writing or inscription.

In the Puranas Vyasa is also credited with the writing of the eighteen major, if not all, Purāṇas.His son Shuka is the narrator of the major Purāṇa Bhagavat-Purāṇa.

In Buddhism Within Buddhism Vyasa appears as Kanha-dipayana (the Pali version of his name) in two Jataka tales: the Kanha-dipayana Jataka and Ghata Jataka. Whilst the former in which he appears as the Bodhisattva has no relation to his tales from the Hindu works, his role in the latter one has parallels in an important event in the Mahabhrata. In the 16th book of the epic, Mausala Parva, the end of the Vrishnis, clansmen of Vyasa's namesake and Vishnu incarnate Krishna is narrated. The epic says: One day, the Vrishni heroes .. saw Vishvamitra, Kanwa and Narada arrived at Dwaraka. Afflicted by the rod of chastisement wielded by the deities, those heroes, causing Samba to be disguised like a woman, approached those ascetics and said, ‘This one is the wife of Vabhru of immeasurable energy who is desirous of having a son. Ye Rishis, do you know for certain what this one will bring forth?Those ascetics, attempted to be thus deceived, said: ‘This heir of Vasudeva, by name Samba, will bring forth a fierce iron bolt for the destruction of the Vrishnis and the Andhakas. The important Bhagavata Purana (book 11) too narrates the incident in a similar manner and names the sages as Visvāmitra, Asita, Kanva, Durvāsa, Bhrigu, Angirâ, Kashyapa, Vâmadeva, Atri, Vasishthha, along with Nârada and others - it does not explicitly include Vyasa in the list. The Ghata Jataka has a different spin on it: The Vrishnis, wishing to test Kanhadipayana's powers of clairvoyance, played a practical joke on him. They tied a pillow to the belly of a young lad, and dressing him up as a woman, took him to the ascetic and asked when the baby would be born. The ascetic replied that on the seventh day the person before him would give birth to a knot of acacia wood which would destroy the race of Vásudeva. The youths thereupon fell on him and killed him, but his prophecy came true . Notably, he is not the Bodhisattva in the Ghata Jataka.

In the Arthashastra The only non-religious book in which Vyasa has an interesting entry is the Arthashastra of Chanakya. In chapter 6, it says:

'Whosoever is of reverse character, whoever has not his organs of sense under his control, will soon perish, though possessed of the whole earth bounded by the four quarters. For example: Bhoja, known also by the name, Dándakya, making a lascivious attempt on a Bráhman maiden, perished along with his kingdom and relations; so also Karála, the Vaideha... Vátápi in his attempt under the influence of overjoy to attack Agastya, as well as the corporation of the Vrishnis in their attempt against Dwaipáyan. This reference matches the Jataka version in including Vyasa as the sage attacked by the Vrishnis, though Vyasa does not die here.

Author of Brahma Sutra The Brahma Sutra is attributed to Badarayana — which makes him the proponent of the crest-jewel school of Hindu philosophy, i.e., Vedanta. As the island on which Vyasa was born is said to have been covered by Badara (Indian jujube) trees, he is known as Badarayana. Though traditionally, Vyasa is considered the Badarayana who wrote the Sutras, many historians think these were two different personalities.

Author of Yoga Bhashya This text is a commentary on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Vyasa is credited with this work also, though this is impossible, if Vyasa's immortality is not considered, as it is a later text.

References • • • • •

The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa, translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, published between 1883 and 1896 The Arthashastra, translated by Shamasastry, 1915 The Vishnu-Purana, translated by H. H. Wilson, 1840 The Bhagavata-Purana, translated by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, 1988 copyright Bhaktivedanta Book Trust The Jataka or Stories of the Buddha's Former Births, edited by E. B. Cowell, 1895

References 1. ^ Mahābhārata 12.350.4-5, K.M. Ganguly full edition http://www.sacredtexts.com/hin/m12/m12c049.htm 2. ^ Skanda Purāṇa, Nāgara Khanda, ch. 147 3. ^ S. U. Deraniyagala. Early Man and the Rise of Civilisation in Sri Lanka: the Archaeological Evidence. 4. ^ N. R. Banerjee (1965). The Iron Age in India. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal.

5. ^ F. Raymond Allchin, George Erdosy (1995). The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: Emergence of Cities and States. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37695-5. 6. ^ T. S. Subramanian. Skeletons, script found at ancient burial site in Tamil Nadu. Institute for Oriental Study, Thane. •

Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa, English translation by Kisari Mohan Ganguli ]

The aphorisms of the Vedanta sutras are presented in a cryptic, poetic style, which allows for a variety of interpretations. Consequently, the Vedanta separated into six sub-schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries. Four of them are given here.

Advaita Advaita is probably the best-known of all Vedanta schools. Advaita literally means "non duality." Its first great consolidator was Adi Shankaracharya (788-820), who continued the line of thought of some of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his teacher's teacher Gaudapada. By analysing the three states of experience—– waking, dreaming, and deep sleep—–he established the singular reality of Brahman, in which the soul and Brahman are one and the same. He saw this form as that of Vishnu. He wrote a thesis on the Vishnu Sahasranama (1008 names of Vishnu), and also composed poems like the Bhaja Govindham instructing people to think about Govinda (Vishnu) all the time. Ishvara is the manifestation of Brahman to human minds under the influence of an illusionary power called Avidya.

Visishtadvaita Ramanujacharya (1040-1137) was the foremost proponent of the concept of the Supreme Being having a definite form, name, and attributes. He saw this form as that of Vishnu, and taught that reality has three aspects: Vishnu, soul (jiva), and matter (prakrti). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on Vishnu for their existence. Thus, Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism. [VishishtAdvaita Vedanta (IAST Viśishṭādvaita Vedanta) is a sub-school of the Vedānta (literally, end or the goal of Knowledge, Sanskrit) school of Hindu philosophy, the other major sub-schools of Vedānta being Advaita and Dvaita. VishishtAdvaita (literally "Advaita with uniqueness/qualifications") is a nondualistic school of Vedanta philosophy. It is non-dualism of the qualified whole, in which Brahman alone exists, but is characterised by multiplicity. It can be described as qualified monism or attributive monism. Asesha Chit-Achit Prakaaram Brahmaikameva Tatvam - Brahman as qualified by the sentient and insentient modes (aspects or attributes) is the only reality.

It is a school of Vedanta philosophy which believes in all diversity subsuming to an underlying unity. Ramanuja, the main proponent of Visishtadvaita philosophy contends that the Prasthana Traya ("The three courses") i.e. Upanişads, Bhagavad Gītā, and Brahma Sūtras are to be interpreted in way that shows this unity in diversity, for any other way would violate their consistency.

Philosophers The VisishtAdvaitic thought is considered to have existed for a long time, and it is surmised that the earliest works are no longer available. The names of the earliest of these philosophers is only known through Ramanuja's Vedanta Sangraha. In the line of the philosophers considered to have expounded the VisishtAdvaitic system, the prominent ones are Bodhayana, Dramida, Tanka, Guhadeva, Kapardi and Bharuci. Besides these philosophers, Ramanuja's teacher Yamunacharya is credited with laying the foundation for what culminates as the Sri Bhashya. Bodhayana is considered to have written an extensive vritti (commentary) on the Purva and Uttara Mimamsas. Tanka is attributed with having written commentaries on Chandogya Upanishad and Brahma Sutras. Natha-muni of the ninth century AD, the foremost Acharya of the Vaishnavas, collected the Tamil prabandhas, classified them, made the redaction, set the hymns to music and spread them everywhere. He is said to have received the divine hymns straight from Nammalvar, the foremost of the twelve Alwars, by yogic insight in the temple at Alwar Thirunagari, which is located near Tirunelveli in South India. Yamunacharya renounced kingship and spent his last days in the service of the Lord at Srirangam and in laying the fundamentals of the Vishishtadvaita philosophy by writing four basic works on the subject. Ramanuja is the main proponent of VisishtAdvaita philosophy. The philosophy itself is considered to have existed long before Ramanuja's time.[citation needed] Ramanuja continues along the line of thought of his predecessors while expounding the knowledge expressed in the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and Bhagavad Gita. Vedanta Desikan, one of the foremost learned scholars of medieval India, wrote more than a hundred works in Sanskrit and Tamil. All are characterised by their versatility, deep spiritual insight, ethical fervour and excellent expressions of devotional emotion in delightful style. His Paduka-sahasram is a classic example. He was a great teacher, expositor, debater, poet, philosopher, thinker and defender of the faith of Vaishnavism. The Vadakalai sect of Sri Vaishnavism associate themselves with Vedanta Desikan. Pillai Lokacharya is associated with the Tenkalai sect of Sri Vaishnavism. He is said to have born as an amsa ("essence") of Kanchi Devaraja (Varadaraja) Perumal to document and immortalize Ramanuja's message in the month of Aippaci under the star Thiruvonam (Sravana), in the year 1205 CE.[citation needed]. He is said to have lived for 106 years, during which time, he also helped to safeguard the idol of Ranganatha at Srirangam from Muslim invaders[citation needed]. Pillai

Lokacharya confirmed the basics of the Sri Vaishnava system in his 18 works popularly known as Ashtadasa Rahasyangal ("the eighteen secrets") also called the Rahasya granthas ("doctrines that explain the inner meanings"). Swaminarayan, the founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday also propogated this philosophy and based the Swaminarayan Sampraday on these ideals. An important point to be noted here is that though these are two Schools of Sri Vaishnavism (the religion) there are no differences in the doctrines of Vishistadvaita.[neutrality disputed] There are only differences in issues related to the method of following (for Eg. There is difference in the concept of sharanagati), status of Sri and the status of nitya karmanushtanams. The Philosophy of Vishistadvaita is essentially same.

Key Principles of VishishtAdvaita The understanding of the 3 principles of VishishtAdvaita namely, Tattva, Hita and PurushArtha are essential pre-requisites for an aspirant of that knowledge which leads to liberation. •

Tattva: The knowledge of the 3 real entities namely, jIvA (the sentient); Jagat (the insenient) and Ishvara (Vishnu-Narayana or Parabrahman)

•

Hita: The means of realisation i.e. through Bhakti (devotion) and Prapatti (self-surrender)

•

PurushArtha: The goal to be attained i.e. moksha or liberation from bondage.

Epistemology Pramāṇas Pramā, in Sanskrit, refers to the correct knowledge, arrived at by thorough reasoning, of any object. Pramāṇa (sources of knowledge, Sanskrit) forms one part of a tripuṭi (trio), namely, 1. Pramātṛ, the subject; the knower of the knowledge 2. Pramāṇa, the cause or the means of the knowledge 3. Prameya, the object of knowledge In VisishtAdvaita Vedānta, the following three pramāṇas are alone accepted as valid means of knowledge: • • •

Pratyakṣa — the knowledge gained by means of perception Anumāna — the knowledge gained by means of inference ṣabda — the knowledge gained by means of Sruti

Perception refers to knowledge obtained by cognition of external objects based on sensory perception. In the modern day usage this will also include evidence obtained by means of observation through scientific instruments since they are only an extension of perception. Inference refers to knowledge obtained by deductive reasoning and analysis. Sruti refers to knowledge obtained from scriptures which primarily are Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and Bhagavad Gita

Rules of Epistemology The following rules of hierarchy apply to the issues when there is apparent conflict between the 3 modes of acquiring knowledge: •

ṣabda or Sruti Pramāṇa occupies the highest position in matters which cannot be settled or resolved by Pratyakṣa or Anumāna.

•

Anumāna occupies the next position. When an issue cannot be settled through sensory perception alone, it is settled based on Anumāna i.e. whichever argument is more logical.

•

When Pratyakṣa yields a definitive position on a particular issue, such a perception cannot be ignored to interpret ṣabda in a way which violates that perception.

Metaphysics Ontology The ontology in VishishtAdvaita consists of explaining the relationship between Ishvara (Parabrahman), the sentient beings (chit-brahman) and the insentient Universe (achit-brahman). In the broadest sense, Ishvara is the Universal Soul of the pan-organistic body consisting of the Universe and sentient beings. The description of the three ontological entities is given below:

Ishvara Ishvara (denoted by Vishnu-Narayana) is the Supreme Cosmic Spirit who maintains complete control over the Universe and all the sentient beings, which together also form the pan-organistic body of Ishvara. The triad of Ishvara along with the universe and the sentient beings is Brahman, which signifies the completeness of existence. Ishvara is Parabrahman endowed with innumerable auspicious qualities (Kalyana Gunas). Ishvara is perfect, omniscient, omnipresent, incorporeal, independent, creator of the universe, its active ruler and also the eventual destroyer. He is causeless, eternal and unchangeable — and is yet the material and the efficient cause of the universe and sentient beings. He is both immanent (like whiteness in milk) and transcendent (like a watch-maker

independent of a watch). He is the subject of worship. He is the basis of morality and giver of the fruits of one's Karma. He rules the world with His Māyā — His divine power. Ishvara is considered to have a 2-fold characteristic: he is the indweller of all beings and all beings also reside in Ishvara.

Antarvyāpi When Ishvara is thought of as the indweller of all beings, he is referred to as the paramātmān, or the innermost self of all beings. Ishvara is also the self for the non-conscious Universe. He who inhabits water, yet is within water, whom water does not know, whose body water is and who controls water from within—He is your Self, the Inner Controller, the Immortal. He who inhabits the sun, yet is within the sun, whom the sun does not know, whose body the sun is and who controls the sun from within—He is your Self, the Inner Controller, the Immortal - Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 3.7.4-14

Bahuvyāpi When Ishvara is thought of as the all encomposing and the residence of all beings i.e. all beings reside in Ishvara, he is referred to as the paramapurusha. The sentient beings and the insentient universe which form part of the pan-organistic body of Ishvara are encapsulated by Ishvara.[original research?] Sarvam khalvidam Brahma Chandogya Upanishad Isavasyam idam sarvam Isa Upanishad

Chit Chit is the world of sentient beings, or of entities possessing consciousness. It is similar to the Purusha of Samkhya system. The sentient beings are called Jīvās and they are possessors of individual consciousness as denoted by "I". The scope of Chit refers to all beings with an "I" conscousness, or more specifically selfconsciousness. Therefore all entities which are aware of their own individual existence are denoted as chit. This is called Dharmi-jnana or substantive consciousness. The sentient beings also possess varying levels of Dharma-bhutajnana or attributive consciousness The jivas possess three different types of existence: • • •

Nityas, or the eternally free Jivas who were never in Samsara Muktas, or the Jivas that were once in Samsara but are free Baddhas, or the Jivas which are still in Samsara

Achit Achit is the world of insentient entities as denoted by matter or more specifically the non-conscious Universe. It is similar to the Prakriti of Samkhya system

Brahman There is a subtle difference between Ishvara and Brahman. Ishvara is the substantive part of Brahman, while jivas and jagat are its modes (also secondary attributes), and kalyanagunas(auspicious attributes) are the primary attributes. The secondary attributes become manifested in the effect state when the world is differentiated by name and form. The kalyanagunas are eternally manifest. Brahman is the description of Ishvara when comprehended in fullness i.e. a simultaneous vision of Ishvara with all his modes and attributes. The relationship between Brahman and Jivas, Jagat is expressed by Rāmānujā in numerous ways. He calls this relationship as one of: • • • • • • •

Sarira/Sariri (body/indweller); Prakara/Prakari (attribute or mode/substance); Sesha/Seshi (Owned/owner); Amsa/Amsi (part/whole); Adharadeya/Sambandha (supporter/supported); Niyamya/Niyanta (controlled/controller); Rasksya/Raksaka (redeemed/redeemer);

These relationships can be experienced holding Brahman as the father, son, mother, sister, wife, husband, friend, lover and lord. Hence, Brahman is a personal being. •

What does Nirguna Brahman mean?

Ramanuja argues vehemently against understanding Brahman as one without attributes. Brahman is Nirguna in the sense that impure qualities do not touch it. He provides three valid reasons for staking such a claim: Sruti/ Sabda Pramana: All sruti and sabda's denoting Brahman always list either attributes inherent to Brahman or not inherent to Brahman. The Sruti's only seek to deny Brahman from possessing impure and defective qualities which affect the world of beings. There is evidence in the Sruti's to this regard. The Sruti's proclaim Brahman to be beyond the tri-gunas which are observed. However, Brahman possess infinite number of transcendental attributes, the evidence of which is given in vakhyas like "satyam jnanam anantam Brahma" Pratyaksha Pramana: Ramanuja states that "a contentless cognition is impossible". And all cognition must necessarily involve knowing Brahman through the attributes of Brahman.

Anumana Pramana: Ramanuja states that "Nirgunatva" itself becomes an attribute of Brahman on account of the uniqueness of no other entity being Nirguna.

Theory of Existence VishishtAdvaita adheres to a system of complete reality.[neutrality disputed] The three ontological entities i.e. Ishvara, Chit and Achit are fundamentally real. It upholds the doctrine of Satkaryavada as against Asatkaryavada. Briefly, •

Satkaryavada is pre-existence of the effect in the cause. It maintains that karya (effect) is sat or real. It is present in the karana (cause) in a potential form, even before its manifestation.

•

Asatkaryavada is non-existence of the effect in the cause. It maintains that karya (effect) is asat or unreal until it comes into being. Every effect, then, is a new beginning and is not born out of cause.

More specifically, the effect is a modification of what exists in the cause and doesnot involve new entities coming into existence. This is called as parinamavada or evolution of effect from the cause. This doctrine is common to the Samkhya system and VishishtAdvaita system. The Samkhya system adheres to Prakriti-Parinama vada whereas Vishishtadvaita is a modified form of BrahmaParinama vada.

Kārya and kāraṇa The kāraṇa (cause) and kārya (effect) in Vishishtadvaita is different form other systems of Indian Philosophy. Brahman is both the kāraṇa(cause) and the kārya(effect). Brahman as the cause does not become the Universe as the effect. Brahman is assigned two kāraṇatvas (ways of being the cause): 1. Nimitta kāraṇatva — Being the Efficient/ Instrumental cause. For example, a goldsmith is assigned Nimitta kāraṇatva as he acts as the maker of jewellery and thus becomes the jewellery's Instrumental cause. 1. Upādāna kāraṇatva — Being the material cause. For example, the gold is assigned Upādāna kāraṇatva as it acts as the material of the jewellery and thus becomes the jewellery's material cause. The Universe and Sentients always exist, much like Brahman. However, they undergo transformation. They begin from a subtle state and undergo transformation. The subtle state is called a causal state, while the transformed state is called the effect state. The causal state is when Brahman is internally not distinguishable by name and form. The effect state is when the internal distinction becomes pronounced.

It can be said that Vishishtadvaita follows Brahma-Prakara-Parinama Vada. That is to say, it is the modes (Jivas and Jagath) of Brahman which is under evolution. The cause and effect only refer to the pan-organistic body transformation. Brahman as the Universal Self is unchanging and eternal. Brahman having the subtle (sūkshma) chit and achit entities as his Saareeram/Prakaaram(body/mode) before manifestation is the same Brahman having the expanded (stūla) chit and achit entities as Saareeram/Prakaaram(body/mode) after manifestation. The essential feature is that the underlying entity is the same, the changes are in the description of that entity. For eg. Jack was a baby. Jack was a small kid. Jack was a middle-aged person. Jack was an old man. Jack is dead The body of a single personality named Jack is described as continuously changing. Jack doesnot become "James" because of the change.

Ethics Souls and Matter are only the body of God. Creation is a real act of God. It is the expansion of intelligence. Matter is fundamentally real and undergoes real revelation. The Soul is a higher mode than Matter, because it is conscious. It is also eternally real and eternally distinct. Final release, that comes, by the Lord's Grace, after the death of the body is a Communion with God. This philosophy believes in liberation through one's Karmas (actions) in accordiance with the Vedas, the Varna (caste or class) system and the four Ashramas (stages of life), along with intense devotion to Vishnu. Individual Souls retain their separate identities even after moksha. They live in Fellowship with God either serving Him or meditating on Him. The philosophy of this school is SriVaishnavism, a branch of Vaishnavism.

Interpretation of Mahāvākyas All Vedantic schools need to substantiate the meaning espoused by Mahāvākyas which occur throughout Upanishadic literature. The interpretation of these Grand Pronouncements serve as the cornerstone for establishing each school of thought. The most significant among them is: 1. sarvam khalv idam brahma from Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1 Translated literally, this means All this is Brahman. The ontology of Vishishtadvaita system consists of: 1. Ishvara is Para-brahman with infinite superlative qualities, whose substantive nature imparts the existence to the modes

2. Jivas are chit-brahman or sentient beings (which possess consciousness). They are the modes of Brahman which show consciousness. 3. Jagat is achit-brahman or matter/Universe (which are non-conscious). They are the mode of Brahman which are not conscious. Brahman is the composite whole of the triad consisting of Ishvara along with his modes i.e. Jivas and Jagat. Hence, "all this is Brahman" denotes the triad of entities. 2. ayam ātmā brahma from Mandukya Upanishad 1.2 Translated literally, this means the Self is Brahman. From the earlier statement, it follows that on account of everything being Brahman, the self is not different from Brahman. 3. Tat tvam asi from Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7 Translated literally, it means Thou art that that here refers to Brahman and thou refers to jiva The vākya establishes the identity of the jiva and Brahman. The issue here is if the identity involves establishing a unique identity or a universal identity. The difference is as follows: 1. Unique Identity:

Atman is Brahman; Nothing else is Brahman; Brahman is reality and therefore everything else is illusion. 2. Universal Identity:

Atman is Brahman in the same way as everything else is Brahman. Rāmānujā chooses to take the position of universal identity. He interprets this passage to mean the subsistence of all attributes in a common underlying substratum. This is referred to as samānādhikaranya. Thus Rāmānujā says the purport of the passage is to show the unity of all beings in a common base. Ishvara (Parabrahman) who is the Cosmic Spirit for the pan-organistic body consisting of the Universe and sentient beings, is also simultaneously the innermost self (Atmān) for each individual sentient being (Jīvā). All the bodies, the Cosmic and the individual, are held in an adjectival relationship (aprthak-siddhi) in the one Isvara. Tat Tvam Asi declares that oneness of Isvara.

When multiple entities point to a single object, the relationship is established as one of substance and its attributes. For eg. in a statement: Jack is a tall and intelligent boy The descriptors tall-ness,intelligence and boy-ness all refer to a common underlying Jack Similarly, when the upanishads declare Brahman is the Universe, Purusha, Self, Prana, Vayu, and so on, the entities are attributes or modes of Brahman. If the statement tat tvam asi is taken to mean as only the self is brahman, then sarvam khalv idam brahma will not make sense.

Understanding Neti-Neti This is an upanishadic concept which is employed while attempting to know Brahman. The purport of this exercise is understood in many different ways and also influences the understaning of Brahman. In the overall sense, this phrase is accepted to refer to the indescribable nature of Brahman who is beyond all rationalisations. All descriptions of such an entity will necessarily have to be partial or fall short of the actual. The typical interpretation of Neti-Neti is not this, not this or neither this, nor that. In VisishtAdvaita, the phrase is taken in the sense of not just this, not just this or not just this, not just that. This means that Brahman cannot be restricted to one specific or a few specific descriptions. Consequently, Brahman is understood to possess infinite qualities and each of these qualities are infinite in extent.

Purpose of Human Existence The purpose or goal of human existence is called as PurushArtha. According to the Vedas, there are four goals namely Artha (wealth), kAma (pleasure), Dharma (righteousness) and Moksha (permanent freedom from worldly bondage). According to this philosophy, the first three goals are not an end by themselves but need to be pursued with the ideal of attaining Moksha.

Moksha Moksha is a state where the jiva achieves one-ness with Brahman in terms of all knowership and possessing qualities free from all wordly evils and defects. The jiva however does not possess the power to manifest/create and unmanifest/destroy. Neither does it have the power to grant Moksha.

The union of Atman and Brahman is likened to a situation where tiny lamps come under the blaze of the Sun. The lamp and Sun are still identifiable as different sources of light and yet the light arising from them is indistinguishable. Moksha does not involve destruction of the self ("I") consciousness of the jiva.

Comparison with Western Non-dualism Baruch Spinoza, the 17th century Dutch rationalist philosopher, in his magnum work Ethics establishes the nature of God. Spinoza's pan-organistic God (i.e. God revealed as orderly nature) is comparable to Brahman (having the individual selves' and Universe as its body) Spinoza makes the following propositions on the nature of God in his work "Ethics". These positions closely reflect the VishistAdvaitic position on the nature of Brahman: PROPOSITION XI. God, or substance consisting of infinite attributes, of which each expresses eternal and infinite essentiality, necessarily exists. PROPOSITION XV. Whatsoever is, is in God, and without God nothing can be, or be conceived. PROPOSITION XVII. God acts solely by the laws of his own nature and is not constrained by anyone. PROPOSITION XVIII. God is the indwelling and not the transient cause of all things. PROPOSITION XIX. God and all the attributes of God are eternal. PROPOSITION XXX. Intellect, in function finite, or in function infinite, must comprehend the attributes of God and the modifications of God, and nothing else. VisishtAdvaita and Sri Vaishnavism The Absolute Supreme Reality referred to as Brahman, is a Transcendent Personality with infinite superlative qualities. He is Narayana, also known as Lord Vishnu. He is also the other two members of the Trimurti, namely, Creator Brahma and Shiva, the Lord of Deluge. A man who has discrimination for his charioteer and holds the reins of the mind firmly, reaches the end of the road; and that is the supreme position of Vishnu. 1.3.9 Katha Upanishad Beyond the senses are the objects; beyond the objects is the mind; beyond the mind, the intellect; beyond the intellect, the Great Atman; beyond the Great

Atman, the Unmanifest; beyond the Unmanifest, the Purusha. Beyond the Purusha there is nothing: this is the end, the Supreme Goal.- 1.3.10,11 Katha Upanishad In terms of theology, Ramanujacharya puts forth the view that both the Supreme Goddess Lakshmi and Supreme God Narayana together constitute Brahman - the Absolute. Sri Lakshmi is the female personification of Brahman and Narayana is the male personification of Brahman, but they are both inseparable, co-eternal, coabsolute and are always substantially one. Thus, in reference to these dual aspects of Brahman, the Supreme is referred to in the Sri Vaishnava Sampradaya as Sriman Narayana.

Conclusion Vishishtadvaita conclusions may be briefly summarised as below. Narayana is the Absolute God. The Soul and the Universe are only parts of this Absolute and hence, Vishishtadvaita is panentheistic. The relationship of God to the Soul and the Universe is like the relationship of the Soul of Man to the body of Man. Individual souls are only parts of Brahman. God, Soul and Universe together form an inseparable unity which is one and has no second. This is the non-duality part. Matter and Souls inhere in that Ultimate Reality as attributes to a substance. This is the qualification part of the non-duality. Vishishtadvaita philosophy provided the philosophical basis for the establishment of Sri Vaishnavism and gave Vedantic backing to the brimming devotion of the Alwar saints and their composition of wonderful poetry and devotional songs in praise of Lord Vishnu.[neutrality disputed] The succession of great Master-Expositors and spiritual giants of Vishishtadvaita school starts with the twelve Alwars, who left behind an imperishable legacy of Tamil devotional poetry in the form of 4000 songs, now called the Nalayira divya prabandham.]

Dvaita Like Ramanuja, Madhvacharya (1238-1317) identified Brahman with Vishnu, but his view of reality was pluralistic. According to Dvaita, there are three ultimate realities: Vishnu, soul, and matter. Five distinctions are made: (1) Vishnu is distinct from souls; (2) Vishnu is distinct from matter; (3) Souls are distinct from matter; (4) A soul is distinct from another soul, and (5) Matter is distinct from other matter. Souls are eternal and are dependent upon the will of Vishnu. This theology attempts to addresses the problem of evil with the idea that souls are not created.

Dvaitadvaita (Bhedabheda) Dvaitadvaita was proposed by Nimbarka, a 13th century Vaishnava Philosopher from the Andhra region. According to this philosophy there are three categories of existence: Brahman, soul, and matter. Soul and matter are different from Brahman in that they have attributes and capacities different from Brahman. Brahman exists independently, while soul and matter are dependent. Thus soul and matter have an existence that is separate yet dependent. Further, Brahman is a controller, the soul is the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed. Also, the highest object of worship is Krishna and his consort Radha, attended by thousands of gopis, or cowherdesses; of the celestial Vrindavana; and devotion consists in self-surrender.

Shuddhadvaita Shuddadvaita (Sanskrit: śuddhādvaita; pure non-dualism ), also known as the Vallabhā sampradāya (tradition of Vallabh) or Puśtimārg (The path of grace), is a Hindu Vaishnava tradition, established by Vallabhacharya(1479 - 1531), who came from the Andhra region but eventually settled in Gujarat, in the fifteenth century. The tradition is focused on the worship of Krishna and preaches a pure form (nondualist) philosophy different from Advaita. The Shrinathji temple at Nathdwara, and compositions of eight poets (aṣṭachap), including Surdas, are central to the worship by the followers of the sect.[1] Though the tradition originated near Vrindavana in the current Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, in modern times followers of Shuddadvaita are concentrated in the states of Rajasthan and Gujurat.[2]

Vallabhacharya Vallabha was a Telugu brahmin from a region that is currently in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. He won the title of acharya by traveling and debating advaita scholars from a young age. He is considered an avatar or Krishna's mouth (mukhāvatāra) by the followers of the tradition.[1] In 1493-94 Vallabhacharya is said to have identified an image of Krishna at the Govardhan hill at Braj. This image, now called Shrinathji and located at Nathdwara, Rajasthan, is central to the worship by Vallabha followers.[3] The bulk of his fame lies in the region that is currently in the state of Gujarat.

Initiating mantra According to Vallabha tradition, one night in 1494, Vallabhacharya received the Brahmasambandha mantra (the mantra that binds one with Brahman, or Krishna) from Krishna himself (hence the name, mukhāvatāra) at Gokula. The eight-

syllable mantra, śri kṛṣṇaḥ śaraṇaṃ mama (Lord Krishna is my refuge), is passed onto new initiates in Vallabh sampradaya, and the divine name is said to rid the recipient of all impurities of the soul (doṣas) .[2][3]

Philosophy The school of in-essence monism or purified non-dualism of Vallabha sees equality in "essence" of the individual self with God. There is no real difference between the two (like the analogy of sparks to fire). However, unlike Shankara's Advaita, Vallabha does not deny God as the whole and the individual as the part. The individual soul is not the Supreme (Satcitananda) clouded by the force of avidya, but is itself Brahman, with one attribute (ananda) rendered imperceptible. The soul is both a doer and enjoyer. It is atomic in size, but pervades the whole body through its essence of intelligence (like sandalwood makes its presence felt through its scent even if sandalwood can't be seen). Unlike Advaita, the world of Maya is not regarded as unreal, since Maya is nothing else than a power of Ishvara. He is not only the creator of the universe but is the universe itself. Vallabha cites the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad account, that Brahman desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual souls and the world. Although Brahman is not known, He is known when He manifests Himself through the world. Bhakti is the means of salvation, though Jnana is also useful. Karmas precede knowledge of the Supreme, and are present even when this knowledge is gained. The liberated perform all karmas. The highest goal is not Mukti or liberation, but rather eternal service of Krishna and participation along with His activities in His Divine abode of Vrindavana. Vallabha distinguishes the transcendent consciousness of Brahman as Purushottama. Vallabha lays a great stress on a life of unqualified love and devotion towards God.

Everything is Krishna's Leela According to the version of Vaishnava Theology Vallabhacharya espoused; the glorious Krishna in His "Satcitananda" form is the Absolute, Svayam bhagavan. He is permanently playing out His sport (leela) from His seat in the goloka which is even beyond the divine Vaikuntha, the abode of Vishnu and Satya-loka, the abode of Brahma the Creator, and Kailas, the abode of Shiva. Creation is His sport.

Path to bliss in the Kali Yuga Followers of Vallabhacharya maintain that if one wants to obtain moksha and the bliss given by Krishna, the only path to do so is bhakti. In the Kali Yuga, it is believed that the forms of bhakti mentioned in the scriptures are nearly impossible to practice, so the followers of Vallabhacharya recommend pushti bhakti – obtaining the grace of God for seemingly no reason. This path is called pushtimaarg.

Atma-nivedana It is that bhakti which gives itself up body, heart and soul to the cause of God. It is considered to be the fullest expression of what is known as Atma-nivedana (= giving-up of oneself) among the nine forms of bhakti (Nava Vidha Bhakti). It is the bhakti of the devotee who worships God not for any reward or presents but for His own sake. Such a devotee goes to Goloka after leaving this body and lives in eternal bliss enjoying the sports of the Lord. The classical example of this complete self-effacement is that of the cow-herdesses towards Krishna. They spoke no word except prayer and they moved no step except towards Krishna. Their supreme-most meditation was on the lotus-feet of Krishna.Thus it is by God's grace alone that one can obtain release from bondage and attain Krishna's heaven, Goloka.

Ashta-chaap Eight disciples of Vallabhacharya are called the ashta-chaap (eight reprints). Foremost among them was Surdas, the blind poet of Agra. These are Surdas, Krushnadas, Paramanand, Kumbhandas, Chaturbhuj, Nanddas, Chhitswami, Govinddas.

Notes 1. ^ a b Martin, Nancy M., "North Indian Hindi devotional literature" in Flood 2003, pp. 182-198 2. ^ a b Beck 1993, pp. 194-195 3. ^ a b Colas, Gerard, "History of Vaiṣṇava traditions" in Flood 2003, pp. 229-270

References • •

Beck, Guy L. (1993). Sonic theology: Hinduism and sacred sound. Columbia, S.C: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 0-87249-855-7. Flood, Gavin (Ed) (2003), Blackwell companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 0-631-21535-2

Acintya Bheda Abheda Achintya-Bheda-Abheda (acintya bhedābheda in IAST) is a school of Vedanta representing the philosophy of inconceivable one-ness and difference,[1] in relation to the power creation and creator, (Krishna), svayam bhagavan.[2][3] and also between God and his energies[4] within the Gaudiya Vaishnava religious tradition. In Sanskrit achintya means 'inconceivable',[1] bheda translates as 'difference', and abheda translates as 'one-ness'. It is believed that this philosophy was taught by the movement's theological founder Chaitanya Mahaprabhu[5](1486 - 1534) and

differentiates the Gaudiya tradition from the other Vaishnava Sampradayas. It can be best understood as integral monism, as a position between polar opposites of absolute monism of Advaita, and the dualist monism of Dvaita. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534), was stating that the soul or energy of God is both distinct and non-distinct from God, whom he identified as Krishna, Govinda, and that this, although unthinkable, may be experienced through a process of loving devotion (bhakti).[10] This philosophy of "inconceivable oneness and difference" is followed by a number of modern Gaudiya Vaishnava movements, including ISKCON. ISKCON has recently participated in bringing the academic study of Krishna-related philosophies into Western academia through the theological discourse on Krishnology. { Caitanya's philosophy of acintya-bhedābheda-tattva completed the progression to devotional theism. Rāmānuja had agreed with Śaṅkara that the Absolute is one only, but he had disagreed by affirming individual variety within that oneness. Madhva had underscored the eternal duality of the Supreme and the Jīva: he had maintained that this duality endures even after liberation. Caitanya, in turn, specified that the Supreme and the jīvas are "inconceivably, simultaneously one and different" (acintya-bhedaabheda). He strongly opposed Śaṅkara's philosophy for its defiance of Vyāsadeva's siddhānta.– Satsvarupa dasa Goswami, Readings in Vedit Literature: The Tradition Speaks for Itself, Chapter 5[6]}

Historical perspective Historically, within Hinduism there are two conflicting philosophies regarding the relationship between living beings (Jiva or Atma) and God (Ishvara, Brahman or Bhagavan). Advaita schools assert the monistic view that the individual soul and God are one and the same[7], whereas Dvaita schools give the dualistic argument that the individual soul and God are eternally separate[8]. The philosophy of Achintya-bheda-abheda includes elements of both viewpoints. The living soul is intrinsically linked with the Supreme Lord, and yet at the same time is not the same as God - the exact nature of this relationship being inconceivable to the human mind.

Philosophy The theological tenet of achintya-bheda-abheda tattva reconciles the mystery that God is simultaneously "one with and different from His creation". In this sense Vaishnava theology is not pantheistic as in no way does it deny the separate existence of God (Vishnu) in His own personal form. However, at the same time, creation (or what is termed in Vaishnava theology as the 'cosmic manifestation') is never separated from God. He always exercises supreme control over his creation. Sometimes directly, but most of the time indirectly through his different potencies or energies (Prakrti). "One who knows God knows that the impersonal conception and personal conception are simultaneously present in everything and that there is no

contradiction. Therefore Lord Caitanya established His sublime doctrine: acintya bheda-and-abheda-tattva -- simultaneous oneness and difference." (A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada)[4] The analogy often used as an explanation in this context in the relationship between the Sun and the Sunshine.[9] For example both the sun and sunshine are part of the same reality, but there is a great difference between having a beam of sunshine in your room, and being in close proximity to the sun itself. Qualitatively both, the Sun and the Sunshine are the same, but in terms of quantity they are very different. This analogy is applied to the living beings and God - the Jiva being of a similar quality to the Supreme being, but not sharing the qualities to an infinite extent, as would the Personality of Godhead himself[10]. Thus there is a difference between the souls and the Supreme Lord.

Difference in concept to Advaita Vedanta Its is clearly distinguished from the concept of anivacaniya (inexpressible) of Advaita Vedanta. There is a clear difference between the two concepts as the two ideas arise for different reasons. Advaita concept is related to the ontological status of the world, where as both Svayam bhagavan and his shaktis (in Lord himself and his powers) are fully real, and they are different from each other, but at the same time they are the same. But that does not negate the reality of both.[1] Mayavadi concept is a direct opposite and a contradicting concept to an early Krishna-theism. [11]

Exceptions While it applied to relations between Purusha (the Lord) and Prakriti (be it material, marginal, or spiritual powers), in the theology of the concept there are areas of exceptions. Jiva Goswami also accepts that any object and its energy are nondifferent, such as fire and power of burning. While some maintain that its only a secondary extension of the principle that it is primarily applied to Svayam bhagavan and His energies. It does not, however, apply to differences between Avatars of Svayam bhagavan and Lord Himself, so the difference between Vishnu and His origin, is not covered by the concept of acintya bhedabheda, i.e. it cannot be applied in cases where different levels of Purusha are compared.[1]

Miscellaneous The phrase is used as the chorus line in Kula Shaker's 1998 hit song Tattva. "Achintya-bheda-abheda-tattva".[12]

References 1. ^ a b c d Gupta, Ravi M. (2007). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika. Routledge. ISBN 0415405483.pp. 47-52 2. ^ Kaviraja, K.G.. Sri Caitanya-caritamrita. Bengali text, translation, and commentary by AC Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust.Madhya 20.108-109 "It is the living entity's constitutional position to be an eternal servant of Krishna because he is the marginal energy of Krishna and

a manifestation simultaneously one with and different from the Lord, like a molecular particle of sunshine or fire." 3. ^ Kṛṣṇa Upaniṣad 1.25: ...na bhinnam. nā bhinnamābhirbhinno na vai vibhuḥ 4. ^ a b Prabhupada, A.C.Bhaktivedanta Swami (1972). Bhagavad-gita as it is. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust Los Angeles, Calif.7.8 5. ^ "Additional information" (in English). Krishna.com. Retrieved on April 16, 2008. "Lord Chaitanya taught that as spirit souls we are part of God and thus we are one with Him in quality, and yet at the same time we are also different from Him in quantity. This is called acintya-bheda-abheda-tattva, inconceivable, simultaneous oneness and difference." 6. ^ Satsvarupa, dasa Goswami (1976), Readings in Vedit Literature: The Tradition Speaks for Itself, pp. 240 pages, ISBN 0912776889 7. ^ "Additional information" (in English). Tatfoundation. Retrieved on April 16, 2008. "This interpretation of the Upanishads, that the individual soul and God are one and the same, is what distinguishes advaita from other forms of Vedanta." 8. ^ "Additional information" (in English). dvaita.org. Retrieved on April 16, 2008. "Dvaita,... asserts that the difference between the individual soul or Jiva, and the Creator, or Ishvara, is eternal and real" 9. ^ Prabhupada, A.C.Bhaktivedanta Swami (1988). Srimad Bhagavatam. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. Bhag. 4.31.16 "One may be in the sunshine, but he is not on the sun itself." 10. ^ Kaviraja, K.G.. Sri Caitanya-caritamrita. Bengali text, translation, and commentary by AC Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. Madhya 6.163 "Qualitatively the living entity and the Supreme Lord are one, but in quantity they are different" 11. ^ (1997) in S. Devadas Pillai: Indian Sociology Through Ghurye: A Dictionary. Columbia, Mo: South Asia Books, 403. ISBN 81-7154-807-5. 12. '^ Kula shaker. "Tattva lyrics" (in English). Song, Album 'k. lyricsfreak.com. Retrieved on April 16, 2008. "acintya bheda bheda tattva ... like the sun and the shine"

References • •

• •

Chatterjee, Satischandra; Datta, Dhirendramohan (1984). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Eighth Reprint Edition, Calcutta: University of Calcutta. Müeller, Max (1899). Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Naya and Vaiseshika. Calcutta: Susil Gupta (India) Ltd.. ISBN 0-7661-42965. Reprint edition; Originally published under the title of The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy. Radhakrishnan, S.; Moore, CA (1967). A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Princeton. ISBN 0-691-01958-4. Zimmer, Heinrich (1951). Philosophies of India. New York, New York: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01758-1. Bollingen Series XXVI; Edited by Joseph Campbell.

Further reading •

Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1996. ISBN 0-521-43878-0.

•

Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; and Moore, Charles A. A Source Book in Indian Philosophy. Princeton University Press; 1957. Princeton paperback 12th edition, 1989. ISBN 0-691-01958-4.

•

Rambachan, Anantanand. "The Advaita Worldview: God, World and Humanity." 2006.

Svayam Bhagavan Svayam Bhagavan (IAST svayam bhagavān), "The Lord" or Lord Himself, is a Sanskrit theological term. The term refers to the concept of absolute representation of the monotheistic God as Bhagavan within Hinduism. It is most often used in Gaudiya Vaishnava Krishna-centered theology as referring to Krishna. The title Svayam Bhagavan is used exclusively to designate Krishna, (Gupta 2007, p.36 note 9)[1] while there are conflicting semantics or other usages in the Bhagavata Purana. Traditions of Gaudiya Vaishnavas, the Nimbarka Sampradaya and follower of Vallabha considers him to be the source of all avataras,[2] and the source of Vishnu himself, or to be the same as Narayana. As such, he is therefore regarded as Svayam Bhagavan.[3][4][5] The term is seldomly used to refer to other forms of Krishna and/or Vishnu within the context of certain religious texts such as the Bhagavata Purana, and also within other sects of Vaishnavism. Though Krishna is recognized as Svayam Bhagavan by many,[6] he is also perceived and understood from an eclectic assortment of perspectives and viewpoints. [7] When Krishna is recognized to be Svayam Bhagavan, it can be understood that this is the belief of Gaudiya Vaishnavism,[8] the Vallabha Sampradaya,[9] and the Nimbarka Sampradaya, where Krishna is accepted to be the source of all other avatars, and the source of Vishnu himself. This belief is drawn primarily "from the famous statement of the Bhagavatam"[1](1.3.28).[10] A different viewpoint differing from this theological concept is the concept of Krishna as an avatara of Narayana or Vishnu. It should be however noted that although it is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the avataras, this is only one of the names of the God of Vaishnavism, who is also known as Narayana, Vasudeva and Krishna and behind each of those names there is a divine figure with attributed supremacy in Vaishnavism.[11]

Meaning The theological interpretation of svayam bhagavān differs with each tradition and the literal translation of the term has been understood in several distinct ways. Translated from the Sanskrit language, the term literary means "Bhagavan Himself" or "directly Bhagavan".[1] Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition often translates it within its perspective as primeval Lord or original Personality of Godhead, but also considers the terms such as Supreme Personality of Godhead and Supreme God as an equivalent to the term Svayam Bhagavan, and may also choose to apply these terms to Vishnu, Narayana and many of their associated avatars. [12][13] Early commentators of Bhagavata Purana such as Madhvacharya translated the term Svayam Bhagavan as "he who has bhagavata"; meaning "he who has the quality of possessing all good qualities".[5] Others have translated it simply as "the Lord Himself".[14] Followers of Vishnu-centered sampradayas of Vaishnavism rarely address this term, but believe that it refers to their belief that Krishna is among the highest and fullest of all avatars[15] and is considered to be the "paripurna avatara", complete in all respects and the same as the original.[16] According to them Krishna is described in the Bhagavata Purana as the purnavatara (or complete manifestation) of the Bhagavan, while other incarnations are called partial. "Krishna being the Bhagavan Himself, the mind of man fixed on him intensely, whatever be the motive and however ignorantly it might be."(p.334)[6] Generally there is a universal acceptance of the uniqueness of Krishna incarnation throughout Hinduism, as well as the principles involved in His life and personality for which He has been described as Svayam Bhagavan. [6] Perspectives

Supporting Views There is an element of countenance in many Krishna centered traditions to the subordination of Krishna to Vishnu. The reasons for that are given that it was the easiest way to accommodate Krishna's human story within the composite Vaishnava theological perspective. These "core texts assert and defend the ultimacy of Krsna's identity".[17] However inclusion of Krishna in the list of avataras does not necessarily subordinated him to Vishnu as one of the latter's expansions.[18] Early authors, such as 12th century Jayadeva considered dasavatara to be principal incarnations of Kirshna, rather then Vishnu. The prime supporters of the Krishna-centered theology, Gaudiya Vaishnavas and followers of the Vallabha Sampradaya Nimbarka Sampradaya, use the Gopala Tapani Upanishad,[19] Vedanta Sutras[1] and other Hindu scriptures[20] such as the Bhagavata Purana and the Brahma Vaivarta Purana, among others, to support their view that Krishna is indeed the Svayam Bhagavan. This belief was summarized by the 16th century author Jiva Goswami in some of his works, such as Krishnasandarbha.[21][1] While Krishna himself if mentioned in one of the earliest texts of Vedic literature - Rig-Veda.[22]

In the sixth book of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, the Bhishma Parva (where the Bhagavad Gita is part of), Krishna offers numerous quotations that reaffirm the belief that he himself is the Svayam Bhagavan. Verse 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, is often used to support the opinion that Krishna himself is the Svayam Bhagavan, and that no impersonal form of Brahman supersedes his existence, as it is an common view that Bhagavad Gita was propounding Krishna-theism before first major proponents of monism.[23] Other two pervading understandings of the position of Svayam Bhagavan asserted in the Gita are connected to other, not Krishna-centered, traditions. One tradition follows predominately the views of Sankaracharya commentary on Brahma Sutras and is referred as maya-vad[23] which justifies Svayam Bhagavan supremacy by a concept of illusion or maya. The second alternative understanding of the evident supremacy of Svayam Bhagavan in the Gita, is a popular view on Krishna being the highest and fullest avatar of the Lord, Vishnu or Narayana.[15] "The Bhagavad Gita depicts Krishna not only as Brahman but also as an avatara of Vishnu and the friend of Arjuna."[24] In summary in accordance with this view Svayam Bhagavan Krishna is considered to be the purna-avatara (full incarnation) of Vishnu or, according to some, of the universal Narayana who transcends even Brahman.[25] [2] Supremacy or a concept of originality is often referred to the words pf Krishna himself, as for example, Abhinavagupta of yet another tradition of Hinduism, introduces a quotation from the Bhagavad-gita that 'I', referring to Krishna, is the highest self who transcends the perishable and imperishable. [26]

Other Vaishnava views Sri Vaishnavas provide and example of alternative monotheism that is “tainted” by elements apparently in tension with this concept. The Sri Vaishnavas identify Vishnu with the Brahman, while Krishna-centered traditions will associate Para Brahman with Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan. According to Ramanujacharya, Brahman is personal. Indeed, he is the supreme person , creator and Lord, who leads souls to salvation. Far from having no (positive) attributes, as some Advaita Vedanta followers maintain, Brahman is the sum of all “noble attributes” — i.e. omniscient, omnipotent, omnipresent, and all-merciful, all qualities attributed to Vishnu by all Vaishavas. According to South Indian traditions he is also advitya (Sanskrit meaning without rival). To Vaishnavas, Shiva, Brahma, and the other gods of the Hindu pantheon are viewed as Brahman's agents or servants, created and commissioned by him. Some Vaishnavas consider them to be or see that they have the same status that of angels have in the western religious traditions.[27] “The entire complex of intelligent and non-intelligent beings - is viewed as real and constitutes the form, i. e., the body of the highest Brahman”.[28] A soul-body relationship, according to Ramanujacharya, is “entirely subordinate” to its soul, having no independent reality or value.[29] However Ramanujacharya himself did not stress a subordination of the 'puravatara' Krishna to Vishnu.

However, Vaishnava traditions do not adhere to the concept of Svayam Bhagavan with the same views as those who support the concept.[30][unreliable source?] To support their view they quote the 149th chapter of Anushāsanaparva in the epic Mahabharata, Bhisma which states, with Krishna present, that mankind will be free from all sorrows by chanting the Vishnu sahasranama', which are the thousand names of the all-pervading supreme being Vishnu, who is the master of all the worlds, supreme over the devas and who is one with Brahman. [31], [32] This seems to indicate that Krishna is identical with Vishnu. Indeed, Krishna himself said, "Arjuna, one may be desirous of praising by reciting the thousand names. But, on my part, I feel praised by one shloka. There is no doubt about it.” [33] Adherents of this view generally believed to adhere to Vedic literature, and often state that some Vaishnava scriptures such as the Bhagavata Purana, which is one of the primary texts used in supporting the concept of Svayam Bhagavan, may contain material that was added at a later time and does not completely follow the teachings of the Vedas.[citation needed] Some adherents of this view argue that the application of the term Svayam Bhagavan and the category of svayaṁ-rūpa is a relatively new view, generally associated with Gaudiya Vaishnavism view, and is generally not upheld in any previous Vaishnava traditions and within greater Hinduism.[citation needed] Many Vaishnava schools have different interpretation of the concept as for example followers of the Swaminarayan Sampraday believe that Lord Narayana manifested himself as Lord Swaminarayan.[34] This view is only supported within their particular tradition.

Comparison The exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu, particularly regarding which of the two is primary to the other, and which of the two is the summum bonum, is one of the most frequently debated issues in Vaishnavism. Some early schools of thought, such as Pancaratra in particular, refer to VasudevaKrishna (Krishna, the son of Vasudeva) as the source of all incarnations and as no different from the ultimate and absolute reality, and as non-distinct from Vasudeva and any other manifestations of the supreme self.[35] However other, more specifically in South Indian Vaishnava sampradayas existing prior to Caitanya and Vallabhacarya, Krishna is often considered to be either a subordinate avatar of Vishnu, or as in the case of the Madhva tradition, a full avatar of Vishnu. However, this definition of avatar was presented differently to Sanatana Goswami by Chaitanya, as it was based on the Gaudiya interpretations of the Upanishads and the Bhagavata Purana.

Krishnaism The term Krishnaism has been used to describe the cults of Krishna, reserving term "Vaishnavism" for cults focusing on Vishnu in which Krishna is an avatara, rather than a transcended being.[36] "Greater Krishnaism" corresponds to the second and dominant phase of Vaishnavism, revolving around the cults of Vasudeva, Krishna, and Gopala.[37]Today the faith has a significant following outside of India as well.[38] Supremacy of Krishna is the key concept of Krishnaism. Gaudiya is one of the main traditions worshiping Radha Krishna that developed this concept.

Relationship between different forms of Krishna as paripurna avatara of Vishnu and as svayam bhagavan being direct representation of svayam rupa.

Gaudiya Vaishnava perspective Theory of avataras Primary theology of Caitanyaite or Gaudiya traditions is based and presented in Bhagavata Purana and Caitanya Caritamrita.[39]Svayam in Svayam rupa does not imply one and only, and all conceptions by previous Vaishnava traditions, according to the Gaudiya Vaishnavas beliefs, fall under a second category, tad ekatma rupa[40] (meaning: one that one and not different).[41] 'Svayam' as a term

means not depending on others or being himself. [21] In his instruction to Sanatana Goswami, at Kasi, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu explains the implications of the vadanti verse: "The word brahman refers to Svayam Bhagavan, who has one consciousness without a second, and without whom there is nothing else." (Gupta 2007, p 36).[1]

The deity of Tulasi Krishna at Udupi. Krishna is the main deity worshipped by the followers of Madhvacharya. Rūpa Gosvāmī has described the svayaṁ-rūpa in his Laghu-bhāgavatāmṛta:[42] "The form of the Supreme Personality of Godhead that does not depend on other forms is called svayaṁ-rūpa, the original form."[43][40] The tad-ekātma-rūpa forms[40] are also described in the Laghu-bhāgavatāmṛta [43][44] "The tad-ekātma-rūpa forms simultaneous to svayaṁ-rūpa form and are non-different.[40] At the same time by their bodily features and specific activities they appear to be different." Two best known Vedic descriptions of the creation are purusha sukta and nasadiya sukta. One hymn addresses to Vishvakarma, The one who makes all. To beliefs of Vaishnavas,[45] the Visvakarma Sukta of Rig Veda (10.82) refers to Garbhodakasayi Viṣṇu indirectly as the Supreme God: The waters verily first retained the embryo in which all the gods were aggregated, single deposited on the navel of the unborn (ajah), in which all beings abide.[46] and according to the Gaudiyas, falls under category of tad-ekātma-rūpa,[40] According to the Gaudiya Vaishnava interpretation, it is also confirmed in the Bhagavad-gītā (7.7), which says, mattaḥ parataraṁ nānyat: "There is no truth superior to Me." Where Krishna is 'bhagavan' himself, whose partial manifestations are the other gods. This idea is reflected in the Bhagavata Purana. The Brahma Vaivarta Purana tells us Krishna is the ultimate source from which

Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva and Prakriti originate. He is Svayam Bhagavan while other incarnation are his partial manifestations. The comments of Sridhara Svami (an early Sankara sect commentator), bring out uniqueness of Krishna. According to him Krishna is perfect as all potencies are observed to be full in him. [47] In Atharvavedasamhita, Krishna is described as having slain the giant Kesi, Keshava. The Kaustiki Brahmana (30.9) alludes to Krishna Angirasa, who is an object of evening ceremony in connection with Brahmanaacchamsin priest. The Aitareya Aranyaka speaks of two Krishnas of Harita Gotra.[47] However the south Indian Vaishnavism makes very little stress on Krishna and altogether ignored Radha in contrast with the other traditions.[47] To the views of the Gaudiya Sampradaya, the Bhagavad-gita[48] states that this bhakti-yoga is secretive:[49] - "Just hear from Me again about the most confidential part of the instructions in Bhagavad-gītā."[48] It is also described as such in Bhagavata Purana[50] Vashnavas of ISKCON often stress their view that in both cases Krishna is speaking about himself, aham and me in Sanskrit mean, I am and Me respectively. While some commentators derive secondary meanings,[51] all major Sanskrit dictionary accept that the direct meaning of aham and me, refers to Krishna himself. [52]

Krishna and Balarama meet their father and mother - Vasudeva and Devaki. Thus a personal name of Krishna as Vaasudeva or son of Vasudeva, and Devakinandana, son of Devaki. Painting by Raja Ravi Varma

Lakshmi When Gaudiya Vaishnavas present their views on Krishna being Svayam Bhagavan, [53] they present a number of perspectives some include comparison with other forms such as Vishnu, that are considered supreme in other sampradayas. The Bhagavat Sandarbha and the Tattva Sandabha are among quoted works by Jiva Goswami[1], "Vaishnavas don't argue among themselves if Krishna or Vishnu is the Supreme. They consider it a matter of one's relationship with the Lord. Someone has a relationship with Vishnu, someone with Rama,

someone with Krishna, etc. as per rasa theology." In the Caitanya Caritamrita [54] Chaitanya discusses this in a joking mood with Venkatta Bhatta from Sri sampradaya.[55] While Pustimarga tradition predates Gaudiya Vaisnavism in Radha worship. [56] When Chaitanya traveled through South India in 1509-10, he stayed at the house of Venkata Bhatta, the father of Gopala Bhatta, priest of Srirangam. Venkata and his two brothers, Gopala's uncles Trimalla and Prabodhananda Sarasvati "were converted from their Sri Vaishnava faith in Lakshmi-Narayana as supreme to one in Radha Krishna" as Svayam Bhagavan.[56] The dialog of this conversion is recorded in 16 c. Caitanya caritamrita biography by Krishna dasa Kaviraja.[55] In the Madhya lila of the Chaitanya charitamrita a presentation is given,[57] with a reference to the particular verse of the tenth canto of Bhagavata Purana as to the reason why Lakshmi also knows as Sri (thus the name of Sri Sampradaya) is burning with desire and still not capable of entering to the realm of Vrindavana.[58] Prabodhananda Sarasvati who was a Sri Sampradaya sannyasi was converted as to supreme position of Radha-Krishna being Svayam Bhagavan instead of LakshmiNarayana. He as well apparently came to appreciate the supremacy of Radha worship from Caitanya.[59]

Cosmological perspective The view of South Indian Vaishnava groups, on sarga, or subtle creation, is based upon scriptural adherence to Narayana or Vishnu being the cause of creation[60] expanding into Viraja and then Maha-Viṣṇu glancing over pradhana, and that is the start of actual function of creation. This view is not contradicted by Krishnacentered Vashnavism and does not appear to be in contradiction with Svayam Bhagavan who as Vasudeva (son of Vasudeva, Krishna) is according to Pancaratra is at the source of creation. Pancaratra sources are accepted by all of Vaishnava traditions, and confirmed by Yamunacarya who preceding in the line of Ramanuja, summarizing in his Agamapramanya, a defense of the revelation of the tantric Vaishnava Pancaratra, defending whole body of the texts being part of the Veda: "The Pancadratra Tantra is authoritative like the Vedic sentences ordaining sacrifice on the grounds that it is based on knowledge free from all defects". Amalananda, also defends Pancaratra and while confirming that Agamas do not have the same selfauthenticating validity, as the four Vedas, but the authenticity of it assured because Veda bear witness to the omniscience of Vasudeva. This position also forms the basis of Bhagavatam based theology. [61] It is also a view of Gaudiya Vaishnavas that Sanatana Goswamis Brihad Bhagavatamrita, has illustrated this principle, not just in terms of comparative cosmology or avatara hierarchy as in Vaishnava Pancaratra, but also in terms of cosmology of adi-rasa.[62] The cosmological principle of the four dhamas (with a separate place for the last two: Vaikuntha - abode of Vishnu or Narayana, tadekatma rupa, in transcendence, and Goloka as abode of Svayam Bhagavan in

transcendence) is the key of the graphical presentation, but it is also an answer to the dilemma.[63] In accordance with the cosmology of the Brihad Bhagavatamrita Krishna is believed being the original and most complete in all rasas or tastes is in fact not engaged and non engaging, is his independence, he does not even, at least in this his original form, carry symbols of Viṣṇu, he only carries his own flute, and that is the pleasure of his devotees.[64]

Original Purusha of the Vedas The form of Narayana is linked with the concept of sacrifice in the earliest known references to him. In Vedic sources such as the Purusha Sukta, Narayana is given as the name of the self-offering of the great cosmic sacrifice of the Rig Veda[65]. Narayana is not mentioned in Rig Veda itself, but came to be regarded as the seer who authored the hymn. It is possible that the sage who composed the Purusha Sukta hymn has been assimilated to the Purusha whose praise he had sung, and he himself became the object of worship. Mentions of a divine sage named Narayana, along with counterpart Nara, appears in many Puranic texts.[66] Purusha is also identified with Vishnu in the Rig Veda and interpreted accordingly by many traditions of Vaishnavism. In the Bhagavata he is recognized as "the Lord whose being is sacrifice, Yajna Purusha"[67][68][69][20] Some believe that thus this verse of the Rig Veda is a foundation of Vaishnava tradition. In the Gopala Tapani Upanishad the Rig Veda verse(1.22.20) was addressed paraphrasing the original of the Vedic hymn in accordance with the beliefs of the Gaudiya Vaishnava:[70] It outlines a specific view held by the Gaudiya Vaishnava and Vallabha Sampradaya, that the conclusion of Vishnu worship is meditation on gopa-rupah or specific form of Krishna[19].[71] Krishna Upanishad supports this conclusion of Gopala Tapani,[72] and refers to the original "the most divine form of bliss dwells in the supremacy of love of Lord Krishna", [73] saksad, Hari as gopa-rüpa. (1.10-12): [74] "The Supreme Personality of Godhead appeared in His original form as a cowherd boy. Cheated and bewildered by His illusory potency, the world could not understand His true identity. "Even all the demigods cannot defeat the Lord's Maya potency. By the Lord's Yogamaya potency Brahma became a stick and Siva became a flute. How did the Lord's Maya potency manifest the entire universe? "Knowledge is the strength of the demigods. The Lord's Maya potency steals away that knowledge in a single moment. Lord Sesanaga appeared in His original form as Lord Balarama. The eternal Supreme Personality of Godhead appeared in His original form as Lord Krishna."[75][19] Gaudiya Vaishnava believe that Krishna possesses qualities that are absent in other forms and they relate to his sweetness in Vrindavana lila. Krishna is himself Narayana.[76] Narayana is often identified with supreme, however, when his beauty and sweetness (madhurya) overshadow his majesty, he is known as Krishna, i.e. Svayam Bhagavan. [77] As Friedhelm Hardy says, the concept of Bhagavan, "a single, all-powerful, eternal, personal and loving God ... is an empty slot, to be

filled by concrete characteristics" and these characteristics culminate in Krishna.[78]

Paribhasa-sutra of Bhagavata Purana

Jiva Gosvami’s Bhajan Kutir at Radha-kunda. Jiva Goswamis Sandarbhas summarize Vedic sources of Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition's accretion of the concept bhagavān svayam based on paribhasa-sutra of Bhagavat Purana [79]

In Gaudiya Vaishnava, Vallabha Sampradaya Nimbarka sampradaya and old Bhagavata school, Krishna believed to be fully represented in his original form in the Bhagavata Purana, that at the end of the list of avataras concludes with the following text:[80] All of the above-mentioned incarnations are either plenary portions or portions of the plenary portions of the Lord, but Sri Krishna is the original Personality of Godhead (Svayam Bhagavan).[81] Not all commentators on the Bhagavata Purana stress this verse, however a majority of Krishna-centered and contemporary commentaries highlight this verse as a significant statement.[82]Jiva Goswami has called it Paribhasa-sutra, the “thesis statement” upon which the entire book or even theology is based. [83] In another place of the Bhagavata Purana 10.83.5-43 those who are named as wives of Krishna all explain to Uraupadi how the 'Lord himself' (Svayam Bhagavan, Bhagavata Purana 10.83.7) came to marry them. As they relate these episodes, several of the wives speak of themselves as Krishna's devotees.[84] Many Krishna-centered traditions believe that Svayam Bhagavan personally carries his unalloyed devotees (vahamy aham) like a husband carries his bride across the threshold into the house of prema bhakti [85]. Badarayana Vyasa says in his Brahma Sutras, visesam ca darsayati, implying that the scripture declares a

difference with regard to the passing from the world of nirapeksa or unflinching devotees.[86]

Source of Para-Vasudeva Baladeva Vidyabhusana in his commentary on Gopala Tapani Upanishad states: Glory to the Gopala Tapani Upanishad, which to the pious reveals Lord Krishna, the original Personality of Godhead, the Supersoul near to all moving and unmoving creatures.[87] The word used is krsna svayam isvaram, the paraphrase of the Bhagavatam verse 1.3.28 that Jiva Goswami has called a key sutra[21], not only to the Bhagavatam but to Vedanta and thus all the Vedas.[21] [88] According to the Upanishads its believed that when Brahma, who is said to be original created being, was approached by the sages Four Kumaras he was presented with critical question: – Who is Supreme God? Who does death fears? – By knowing Whom, does everything else gets realized? – Who is that person, who is behind the repetition of creation of this Universe?[89] [90]His own original or sweet form, Sva-bimbaṁ to the is not manifested very often in the Universe, lokalocanam.[91] Gaudiya Vaishnavas quote sources that claim that it happens only ones in a universal day of Brahma, and its only at that time its believed, once every fourteen manvantaras, each seventy one divya-yugas duration.[92] Some religions do not even consider it possible to see the God. To answer four Kumaras Brahma needed to relate this secret word of the seed mantra.[93] And this is believed to be the answer to the question, who is supreme god and how he creates this world.[89] Brahma replied to the sages: "Krisna is the Supreme Personality of Godhead. Death fears Govinda. By knowing Gopijanavallabha everything becomes realized. By pronouncing the word "svaha" the Personality of Godhead created the world.[94] In the wider context of the Bhagavata's total perspective, Krishna is "not one among many but the Lord himself".[95] Sanat-Kumara Samhita confirms the belief that this Kama Gayatri is the foundational structure of the Goloka, believed to be the above of Krishna, who is the original Vaasudeva[96]: "In the whorl of the lotus flower which is Lord Krishna's transcendental abode, the Gopala mantra is written."[97][98] [99][100]

Related historical records

The first inscription of the Heliodorus pillar that was made by Heliodorus 110 BCE. This Garuda-standard of Vasudeva, the God of Gods was erected here by the devotee Heliodoros, While some place Krishna-centered worship as Svayam Bhagavan in the medieval times of Indian history, there is some evidence suggesting the opposite. In the antiquity Krishna images were worshiped at many places. Quoting Curtius, Dr. D.C. Sircar says that an image of Herakles (i.e. Vasudeva-Krishna according to Sircar) was being carried in front of the Paurava army, as it advanced against the Greeks led by Alexander the Great (The Cultural Heritage of India, vol. 4. p. 115) An interesting terracotta plague showing Vasudeva carrying the infant Krishna over his head across the flooded Yamuna river, belonging to c. first century is housed in the Mathura Museum. A Mora stone inscription of about the same time refers to some images of Bhagavata Vrshni Panchaviras, Sankarshana, Vasudeva, Pradyumna, Samba and Aniruddha - which were very beautifully carved in stone.[101]A Gupta period research makes a "clear mention of Vasudeva as the exclusive object of worship of a group of people," who are referred as bhagavatas.[102] Verifying the antiquity of the exclusive worship of Svayam Bhagavan, Krishna, the early Jaina texts repeatedly stress two categories of Baladevas and Vasudevas that clearly can not be attributed to the Buddhist tradition, and can not be traced to the earlier strata of the Jaina canon itself. The introduction of these novel categories in the Jaina tradition, therefore, can hardly be explained without references to the legends surrounding the two popular figures of the early Vaishnava tradition, namely Balarama and Krishna of Mathura.[103] Archaeological remains found in the region of Mathura support the fact that the popularity of these two divine figures had reached its zenith in the Mauryan and the Sunga period and associated Bhagavata religion had become widespread throughout Mathura and Western India areas. This period coincides with the large migrations of Jainas from Magadha to Mathura. Baladeva is referred to by Jaina Puranas as Halabhrit, without any support from Brahminical texts. All the Vasudevas are modeled after the description of Krishna found in the Puranas.

They are called blue-black (nila) in complexion and are designated by several names that are normally applied exclusively to Krishna e.g. Keshava, Madhava, Govinda, Vishnu and Narayana (which is used as synonym for the name Vasudeva). List of opposites (or prati categories) include most of the names associated with Asuras in Puranas.[103] According to an opinion of some scholars in Patanjali's time identification of Krishna with Vasudeva is an established fact as is surmised from a passage of the Mahabhasya - (jaghana kamsam kila vasudevah).[104] This "supposed earliest phase is though to have been established from the sixth to the fifth centuries BCE at the time of Panini, who in his Astadhyayi explained the word vasudevaka as a bhakta, devotee, of Vasudeva and its believed that Bhagavata religion with the worship of Vasudeva Krishna were at the root of the Vaishnavism in Indian history."[105] [106] Not just Indian Gupta period but also some historical records of the Greeks show existence of the bhakti tradition to Krishna-Vaasudeva,[107] it needs to be noted that, even Panini gives some support to the ancient root of Krishna-Vaasudeva bhakti - (vāsudeva arjunābhyāṁ, or related to Arjuna),[108] its is however only much later (2nd century BC) Patanjali who refer in his definition of the devotee or bhakta as "the follower of Vasudeva, God of gods."[109][104]

Other uses In the Bhagavata purana the term is used for other forms of God, including Dhanvantari,[110] Vamana,[111] Vishnu, [112] Vaikunthadeva.[113] Although the term appears in the text referring to other forms, these references do not form a part of the Krishna-centered theology on which the reference to Krishna is based. The Brahma Vaivarta Purana and Garga Samhita often refer to Krishna as paripūrṇatama, the term used in Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition by Bhaktivinoda Thakura in his Amnaya Sutra - krishnas tu paripurnatma sarvatra sukha-rupakah translated as 'original Supreme Personality of Godhead'. [114]

Notes 1. ^ a b c d e f g Gupta, Ravi M. (2007). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami. Routledge. ISBN 0415405483. 2. ^ a b Bhagawan Swaminarayan bicentenary commemoration volume, 17811981. p. 154: ...Shri Vallabhacharya [and] Shri Swaminarayan... Both of them designate the highest reality as Krishna, who is both the highest avatara and also the source of other avataras. To quote R. Kaladhar Bhatt in this context. "In this transcendental devotieon (Nirguna Bhakti), the sole Deity and only" is Krishna. New Dimensions in Vedanta Philosophy - Page 154, Sahajānanda, Vedanta. 1981 3. ^ Delmonico, N. (2004). "The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism". The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant. Retrieved on 2008-04-12. 4. ^ Elkman, S.M.; Gosvami, J. (1986). Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Movement. Motilal Banarsidass Pub.

5. ^ a b Dimock Jr, E.C.; Dimock, E.C. (1989). The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya Cult of Bengal. University Of Chicago Press. page 132 6. ^ a b c Mepathur Narayana Bhattatiri (2003). Narayaneeyam-Bhagavata, Condensed Edition. Sri Ramakrishna Math. ISBN 81-7120-419-8.pp.234239 7. ^ Mahony, W.K. (1987). "Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities". History of Religions 26 (3): 333-335. Retrieved on 2008-04-12. 8. ^ Kennedy, M.T. (1925). The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaishnavism of Bengal. H. Milford, Oxford university press. 9. ^ Flood, Gavin D. (1996). An introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 341. ISBN 0-521-43878-0. Retrieved on 2008-04-21."Early Vaishnava worship focuses on three deities who become fused together, namely Vasudeva-Krishna, Krishna-Gopala, and Narayana, who in turn all become identified with Vishnu. Put simply, Vasudeva-Krishna and Krishna-Gopala were worshiped by groups generally referred to as Bhagavatas, while Narayana was worshipped by the Pancaratra sect." 10. ^ Essential Hinduism S. Rosen, 2006, Greenwood Publishing Group p.124 ISBN 0275990060 11. ^ Matchett 2000, p. 4 12. ^ Knapp, S. (2005). The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination -. iUniverse. "Krishna is the primeval Lord, the original Personality of Godhead, so He can expand Himself into unlimited forms with all potencies." page 161 13. ^ Dr. Kim Knott, (1993). "Contemporary Theological Trends In The Hare Krishna Movement: A Theology of Religions". Retrieved on 2008-0412...."Bhakti, the highest path, was that of surrender to Lord Krishna, the way of pure devotional service to the Supreme Personality of Godhead". 14. ^ K. Klostermaier (1997). The Charles Strong Trust Lectures, 1972-1984. Brill Academic Pub, 206. ISBN 90-04-07863-0. "For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagavan, the Lord himself." p.109 Klaus Klostermaier translates it simply as "the Lord Himself" 15. ^ a b Bipin Chandra Pal (1964, 132 pages). Shree Krishna: Letters Written to a Christian Friend. Yugayatri/New India Printing & Publishing Co.. "First edition published in 1938 under the title of 'Europe asks: who is Shree Krishna'."p. 31: Shree Krishna stands at the top of this series. He is therefore called by his votaries as Purna Avatara or the highest and fullest incarnation of the Lord. 16. ^ "Sapthagiri". www.tirumala.org. Retrieved on 2008-05-03. Parashara Maharishi, Vyasa's father had devoted the largest Amsa (part) in Vishnu Purana to the description of Sri Krishna Avatara the Paripoorna Avatara. And according to Lord Krishna's own (istructions) upadesha, "he who knows (the secrets of) His (Krishna's) Janma (birth) and Karma (actions) will not remain in samsara (punar janma naiti- maam eti) and attain Him after leaving the mortal coil." (BG 4.9). Parasara Maharishi ends up Amsa 5 with a phalashruti in an identical vein (Vishnu Purana .5.38.94) 17. ^ Valpey 2006, p. 154

18. ^ Matchett, Freda (2000). Krsna, Lord or Avatara? the relationship between Krsna and Visnu: in the context of the Avatara myth as presented by the Harivamsa, the Visnupurana and the Bhagavatapurana. Surrey: Routledge, 254. ISBN 0-7007-1281-X. p. 182-183 19. ^ a b c B. V. Tripurari (2004). Gopala-tapani Upanisad. Audarya Press. ISBN 1-932771-12-3. 20. ^ a b Gaudiya scholar, Bhaktivinoda Thakura in his Dasa Mula Tattva Ch.3: 'Śrī Kṛṣṇa—The Supreme Absolute Truth', Part: Vedic Evidences of Śrī Kṛṣṇa ’s Divinity states: In the Ṛg-Veda (Ṛg. 1.22.23): tad viṣṇoḥ paramaṁ padaṁ sadā paśyanti sūrayaḥ divīva cakṣur ātataṁ viṣṇor yat paramaṁ padam "The Personality of Godhead, Viṣṇu, is the Absolute Truth whose lotus feet all the demigods are always eager to see. His lotus-feet are only visible to those endowed with spiritual vision, for they are completely transcendental and supreme like Śrī Kṛṣṇa, Himself." Again, in the ṚgVeda (1.22.164 sūkta 31) we find this verse:

apaśyaṁ gopām anipadyamāna mā ca parā ca pathibhiś carantam sa sadhrīcīḥ sa viṣucīr vasāna avarīrvati bhuvaneṣv antaḥ "I saw a young cowherd boy, who never falls from His position. Sometimes He is near, sometimes He is far away; in this manner, He moves in various ways. Sometimes, He is clothed in many robes and at other times differently dressed; in this way, He is repeatedly appearing and disappearing in this universe." The next verse establishes the eternal aspect of Śrī Kṛṣṇa's transcendental pastimes as found in the Ṛg Veda (1.54.6):

tā vāṁ vāstuny uśmasi gamadhyai yatra gavo bhūri sṛṅga ayāsaḥ atrāha tad urugāyasya viṣṇoḥ parama-padam avabhāti bhuri "I desire to attain Your (Śrī Rādhikā and Śrī Kṛṣṇa's) abode where the wish-fulfilling cows, known as kāmadhenu, are decorated with gracefully long horns. The eternal residence of Śrī Kṛṣṇa, the fulfiller of His devotees' desires, is pre-eminently exhibiting itself in all grandeur."

21. ^ a b c d Gupta, Ravi M. (2004). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta: Acintyabhedabheda in Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika. University Of Oxford. 22. ^ Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya Krishna-cult in Indian Art. 1996 M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 8175330015 p.126: "According to (D.R.Bhadarkar), the word Krishna referred to in the expression 'Krishnadrapsah' in the Rig- Veda, denotes the very same Krishna". 23. ^ a b (1997) in S. Devadas Pillai: Indian Sociology Through Ghurye: A Dictionary. Columbia, Mo: South Asia Books, 403. ISBN 81-7154-807-5. 24. ^ Panjab University Journal of Medieval Indian Literature. Page 56 Panjab University Sheikh Baba Farid Dept. of Medieval Indian Literature 25. ^ Sri Swami Chidananda (1964, 132 pages). The Divine Name and Its Practice: Souvenir on the Occasion of the Double. Divine Life Society & Publishing Co.. "Preface Sri Swami Krishnananda"p. 24 26. ^ Flood 2006, p. 150 27. ^ "Monotheism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) Nov 1, 2005". www.seop.leeds.ac.uk. Retrieved on 2008-07-26. 28. ^ Ramanuja {1962) p. 88 29. ^ Ramanuja {1962) p. 424 30. ^ Tapasyananda, S. (1982). Śrīmadbhāgavatam-Srimad Bhagavata, the Holy Book of God. Sri Ramakrishna Math, Madras.Page xxvi[unreliable source?] 31. ^ see, Ganguli English translation of Mahabharata, Chapter 148, at http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13b113.htm 32. ^ For Sanskrit text and translation, see: Tapasyananda, Vishnu Sahasrnama, Ramakrishna Mission pp. 3-4.[unreliable source?] 33. ^ Srivaishnavism 34. ^ "Lord Narayan manifested himself as Lord Swaminarayan". 35. ^ Flood, G.D. (2006). The Tantric Body: The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion. IB Tauris. ISBN 1845110129. p.102-105 - describes VasudevaKrishna, (Krishna son of Vasudeva) as the source of all or as the same the ultimate reality, non-distinct from Vasudeva and other manifestations. Having a hundred-fold radiance of fire from whom all other forms of Purusha, Achuta and Satya emanate. 36. ^ Flood p. 117 37. ^ Vaishnava University of Cumbria website Retrieved on 5-21-2008 38. ^ Graham M. Schweig (2005). Dance of Divine Love: The R asa L il a of Krishna from the Bh agavata Pur a. na, India's classic sacred love story. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, Front Matter. ISBN 0691-11446-3. 39. ^ Valpey, Kenneth Russell (2006). Attending Kṛṣṇa's image: Caitanya Vaiṣṇava mūrti-sevā as devotional truth. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415-38394-3.Ch. 1 40. ^ a b c d e Beck 2005, page 39 'According to Ortodox Gaudiya.. Krishnas svarupa, or true form manifests in three ways. His svayam-rupa or transcendent form is self-existent, not dependent on anything. His tadekatma rupa is identical in essence to his true form, though it differs in appearance (and would include such forms of Krishna as Narayana and

Vasudeva). His avesa form has Krishna appearing though in varying degrees of possession' 41. ^ Swami Prabhupada, A.C. Bhaktivedanta. "Sri Caitanya Caritamrta Madhya-lila Chapter 20 Verse 165". Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. Retrieved on 2008-05-07. 42. ^ Rupa Goswami, Laghu-bhāgavatāmṛta (Pūrva-khaṇḍa,verse 12) Kusakrathadasa, 1990, Krsna Institute, ISBN 156130008X ananyāpekṣi yad rūpaṁ svayaṁ-rūpaḥ sa ucyate. 43. ^ a b Srila Rupa Gosvami's Sri Laghu-Bhagavatamrta, Translated by Kusakrathadasa, 1990, Krsna Institute, ISBN 156130008X 44. ^ Rupa Goswami, Laghu-bhāgavatāmṛta (Pūrva-khaṇḍa, verse 14) yad rūpaṁ tad-abhedena svarūpeṇa virājate ākṛtyādibhir anyādṛk sa tad-ekātma-rūpakaḥ “The tad-ekātma-rūpa forms exist simultaneously with the svayaṁ-rūpa form and are nondifferent. At the same time, their bodily features and specific activities appear to be different.” quoted in Swami Prabhupada, A.C. Bhaktivedanta. "Sri Caitanya Caritamrta Madhya-lila Chapter 20 Verse 165". Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. Retrieved on 2008-05-07.

45. ^ Klaus K. Klostermaier, A Survey of Hinduism. Page 113, 1994, ISBN 0791421090 46. ^ Rg.10.082.06 Ralph T.H. Griffith, [1896] translates it "The waters, they received that germ primeval wherein the Gods were gathefed all together. It rested set upon the Unborn's navel, that One wherein abide all things existing." 47. ^ a b c Gosvami, J.; Chatterjee, C. (1986). Srikrsnasandarbha and its critical study. Jadavpur University. p xvii-xviii 48. ^ a b BG 18.64 "sarva-guhya-tamam—the most confidential of all" Purport states : "This essence is not understood by a common man, but by one who is actually very dear to Kṛṣṇa" 49. ^ Klostermaier, K. (1974). "The Bhaktirasamrtasindhubindu of Visvanatha Cakravartin". Journal of the American Oriental Society 94 (1): 96-107. Retrieved on 2008-04-12. 50. ^ SB 2.9.35: yathā mahānti bhūtāni bhūteṣūccāvaceṣv anu praviṣṭāny apraviṣṭāni tathā teṣu na teṣv aham 51. ^ Hiltebeitel, A. (1984). "The Two Krishnas on One Chariot: Upanisadic Imagery and Epic Mythology". History of Religions 24 (1): 1-26. Retrieved on 2008-04-19. 52. ^ Sivananda, S. (1958). God Exists.. Yoga-Vedanta Forest University.Quote: “Aham” means “I” in Sanskrit. “Idam” means “this.”

53. ^ "VEDA - Vedas and Vedic Knowledge Online - Vedic Encyclopedia, Bhakti-yoga in vedas, Library". www.veda.harekrsna.cz. Retrieved on 2008-05-04. 54. ^ Caitanya Caritamrita 2.9.108 55. ^ a b Jan, Marez. "VEDA - Vedas and Vedic Knowledge Online - Vedic Encyclopedia, Bhakti-yoga in vedas, Library". www.veda.harekrsna.cz. Retrieved on 2008-05-04. 56. ^ a b Brzezinski, J.K. (1992). "Prabodhananda, Hita Harivamsa and the" Radharasasudhanidhi". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 55 (3): 472-497. Retrieved on 2008-0504."identify Radha as the supreme Laksmi.." 57. ^ Madhya 9.113-114: "Just to associate with Kṛṣṇa, Lakṣmī abandoned all transcendental happiness in Vaikuṇṭha and for a long time accepted vows and regulative principles and performed unlimited austerities." 58. ^ SB 10.16.36 59. ^ Brzezinski, J.K. (1992). "Prabodhananda Sarasvati: From Benares to Braj". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 55 (1): 52-75. Retrieved on 2008-05-04. 60. ^ The Eleventh Canto of Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam describes Lord Mahāpuruṣa: bhūtair yadā pañcabhir ātma-sṛṣṭaiḥ puraṁ virājaṁ viracayya tasmin svāṁśena viṣṭaḥ puruṣābhidhānam avāpa nārāyaṇa ādi-devaḥ "When the primeval Lord Nārāyaṇa created His universal body out of the five elements produced from Himself, and then entered within that universal body by His own plenary portion, He thus became known as the Puruṣa. 61. ^ "self-authenticating validity as the Veda, but their authenticity is nevertheless assured because the Veda bear witness to the omniscience of Vasudeva." p. 53-54, Flood. 2006 62. ^ K Dasa, (2006). "The Life and Teachings of Krishna dasa Baba". Retrieved on 2008-04-13. 63. ^ Anand Karalapakkam, Bhakti List : Archives Wed Apr 19 2000. "krushNAstu bhagavAn swayam". www.ramanuja.org. Retrieved on 200804-29. 64. ^ Dāsa, Gopīparāṇadhana; Sanātana Gosvāmī (2002). Śrī Brhad Bhāgavatāmrta of Śrīla Sanātana Gosvāmī: translated from the original Sanskrit, with a summary of the author's Dig-darśinī commentary. Los Angeles: Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 920. ISBN 0-89213-345-7. 65. ^ Rig Veda 10.90 66. ^ Matchett, Freda (2000). Krsna, Lord or Avatara? the relationship between Krsna and Visnu: in the context of the Avatara myth as presented by the Harivamsa, the Visnupurana and the Bhagavatapurana. Surrey: Routledge, 254. ISBN 0-7007-1281-X. p. 5 67. ^ Bhagavata Purana 3.13.23 68. ^ Matchett 2000, p. 194bhagavan yajñapuruso 69. ^ Matchett, Freda (2000). Krsna, Lord or Avatara? the relationship between Krsna and Visnu: in the context of the Avatara myth as presented by the Harivamsa, the Visnupurana and the Bhagavatapurana. Surrey: Routledge, 254. ISBN 0-7007-1281-X. p.74-75 70. ^

etad visnoh paramam padam ye nityodyuktah samyajante na kaman tesam asau gopa-rupah prayatnat prakasayad atma-padam tadaiva- "To they who always diligently worship Lord Viṣṇu's transcendental form, the Lord, in His original form as a cowherd boy, shows His lotus feet."B. V. Tripurari (2004). Gopala-tapani Upanisad. Audarya Press. ISBN 1932771-12-3. 71. ^ Krishna, the Lord of Love. Bábá Premánand Bhárati, 1904]] 72. ^ Wood, Ernest (2008). Great Systems of Yoga (Forgotten Books). Forgotten Books. ISBN 1-60506-644-3. "Once the sages came to the great Brahma and asked: 'Who is the supreme God?... He replied Shri Krishna verily is the supreme God. Death is afraid of Godinda." 73. ^ Stephen Knapp (2005). The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination. [United States]: iUniverse, Inc. ISBN 0-595-35075-5. p.16: "the Krishna Upanishad that directly reveals that the most divine form of bliss dwells in the supremacy of love of Lord Krishna." 74. ^ gopa-rūpo hariḥ sakṣan maya-vigraha-dharaṇaḥ durbodhaṁ kuhakaṁ tasya mayayā mohitaṁ jagat durjayā sa suraiḥ sarvair dhṛṣṭi-rūpo bhaved dvijaḥ rudro yena kṛto vaṁsas tasya māyā jagat katham balaṁ janaṁ suraṇaṁ vai teṣāṁ janaṁ hṛtaṁ kṣaṇat śeṣa-nago bhaved ramaḥ kṛṣṇo brahmaiva sasvatam Vyasadeva, Baladevavidyabhusana (1992). Sri Krsna Upanisad and Other Vaisnava Upanisads. [United States]: Krsna Institute. ISBN 1561300780. 75. ^ Vyasadeva, Baladevavidyabhusana (1992). Sri Krsna Upanisad and Other Vaisnava Upanisads. [United States]: Krsna Institute. ISBN 1561300780. 76. ^ Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, Edward Balfour. Published 1871, Scottish and Adelphi Presses. p.604: Krishna indeed, himself is Narayana; 77. ^ The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant, Edwin Bryant, Maria Ekstrand, 2004, 448 pages, Page 151: known as Narayana and is served in awe and reverence. However, when his beauty and sweetness (madhurya) overshadow his majesty, he is known as Krishna...] 78. ^ Matchett 2000, p. 2 79. ^ Gupta, Ravi M. (2007). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami. Routledge. ISBN 0415405483. 80. ^ Matchett 2000, p. 153Bhag. Purana 1.3.28 ete cāṁśa-kalāḥ puṁsaḥ kṛṣṇas tu bhagavān svayam :indrāri-vyākulaṁ lokaṁ mṛḍayanti yuge yuge

81. ^ 1.3.28 Swami Prabhupada, A.C. Bhaktivedanta. "Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 1 Chapter 3 Verse 28". Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. Retrieved on 2008-05-07. 82. ^ "Sri Krishna". www.stephen-knapp.com. Retrieved on 2008-04-30. 83. ^ Dhanurdhara Swami (2000). Waves of Devotion. Bhagavat Books. ISBN 0-9703581-0-5. - "Waves of Devotion". www.wavesofdevotion.com. Retrieved on 2008-05-04.In Hari-namamr†a-vyakarana, Jiva Gosvami defines paribhasa-sutra as aniyame niyama-karini paribhasa: “A paribhasa-sutra implies a rule or theme where it is not explicitly stated.” In other words, it gives the context in which to understand a series of apparently unrelated statements in a book. 84. ^ Matchett 2000, p. 141 85. ^ Bg 9.22 86. ^ "VNN Editorial - 'Uttarayana', The Path Of Light And Darkness". www.vnn.org. Retrieved on 2008-05-03. 87. ^ B. V. Tripurari (2004). Gopala-tapani Upanisad. Audarya Press. ISBN 1-932771-12-3.Śrī Gopāla Tapanī bhāśya 1.1: gopala-tapanim naumi ya krsnam svayam isvaram kara-stharava-sankasam sandarsayati sad-dhiyah 88. ^ Gosvami, J.; Dasa, S.N.; Dasa, K.; Dasa, K.; Dasa, G.; Dasa, D. (1995). Sri Tattva-sandarbha: The First Book of the Sri Bhagavata-Sandarbha Also Known as Sri-sandarbha. Jiva Institute for Vaisnava Studies. 89. ^ a b krsno vai paramam daivatam govindan mrtyur bibheti gopijanavallabha-jnanena taj jnatam bhavati svahayedam samsarati 90. ^ alternative translation of Gopala-tapani Upanisad 91. ^ SB 3.2.11 92. ^ Chaitanya Charitamrita Adi 3.10 93. ^ Rosen, S.J. (2006). Essential Hinduism. Praeger Publishers. 94. ^ Svähä is the mantra by which offerings are made into the sacrificial fire.5 It is derived from the root ä(hu with the prefix su meaning “well-done,” meaning “according to the vidhi.” This etymology is tentatively accepted by Monier-Williams. The verb root vah is only used in the perfect tense. “to say, speak, state.” Monier-Williams gives the following meanings for svähä: “hail! hail to! May a blessing rest on” As a noun: “an oblation, oblation personified.” Both svähuti and svähväna are found in Rg. 95. ^ Matchett 2000, p. 184 96. ^ om namo bhagavate sarva-bhutatmane vasudevaya sarvatma-samyogayoga-padma-pithatmane namah - "I offer my respectful obeisances unto Lord Vasudeva, the all-pervading Supreme Personality of Godhead who resides in His own transcendental abode, which resembles a lotus flower." 97. ^ karnikayam likhed vahni-

putitam mandala-dvayam tasya madhye likhed bijam sadhyakhyam karma samyutam 98. ^ Cult, P.C.S. (1927). "An Introduction To The Post-chaitanya Sahajia Cult". Journal. - refers to Kama Gayatri in the practice of Post-chaitanya Sahajia Cult and ortodox Gaudiya. 99. ^ Mukherjee, P. (1979). History of the Chaitanya Faith in Orissa. Manohar. refers to practice of Gopal mantra and its significance 100. ^ Rosen, S.J. (2004). "Who Is Shri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu?". The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant. Retrieved on 2008-04-19."he was given the ten-syllable Gopala mantra, a confidential incantation" 101. ^ Chapter: Krishna and His Cult. Krishna Theatre in India By M.L. Varalpande, p.6; 2002. ISBN 8170171512 102. ^ Banerjea, 1966, page 20 103. ^ a b Doniger, Wendy (1993). Purāṇa perennis: reciprocity and transformation in Hindu and Jaina texts. Albany, N.Y: State University of New York Press, 331. ISBN 0-7914-1381-0.p.210-212 104. ^ a b A Corpus of Indian Studies: Essays in Honour of Professor Gaurinath Sastri, Page 150, 1980 - 416 pages. 105. ^ Page 76 of 386 pages: The Bhagavata religion with the worship of Vasudeva Krishna as the ... of Vasudeva Krishna and they are the direct forerunners of Vaisnavism in India.Ehrenfels, U.R. (1953). "The University Of Gauhati". Dr. B. Kakati Commemoration Volume. 106. ^ Page 98: In the Mahabharata, Vasudeva-Krishna is identified with the highest God.Mishra, Y.K. (1977). Socio-economic and Political History of Eastern India. Distributed by DK Publishers' Distributors. 107. ^ Vaidisa, B.; Wessanagar, V.; Others, (1987). "The Impact Of Vaisnavism—excavated Remains From Vidisha (mp)". Vaisnavism in Indian Arts and Culture: Collected Papers of the University Grants Commission National Seminar on" Impact of Vaisnavism on the Indian Arts". 108. ^ bhaktiḥ | 4.3.96 acittāt adeśakālāt ṭhak | 4.3.97 mahārājāt ṭhañ | 4.3.98 vāsudeva arjunābhyāṁ vun | Panini 4.3.95 109. ^ Singh, R.R. (2007). Bhakti And Philosophy. Lexington Books. ISBN 0739114247. p. 10: "[Panini's] term Vaasudevaka, explained by the second century B.C commentator Patanjali, as referring to "the follower of Vasudeva, God of gods." 110. ^ Bhag.P. 2.7.21: dhanvantariś ca bhagavān svayam eva kīrtir nāmnā nṛṇāṁ puru-rujāṁ ruja āśu hanti yajñe ca bhāgam amṛtāyuravāvarundha āyuṣya-vedam anuśāsty avatīrya loke. The Lord in His incarnation of Dhanvantari very quickly cures the diseases of the everdiseased living entities simply by his fame personified, and only because of him do the demigods achieve long lives. Thus the Personality of Godhead becomes ever glorified. He also exacted a share from the sacrifices, and it is he only who inaugurated the medical science or the knowledge of medicine in the universe.

111. ^ Bhag. P. 5.24.27: tasyānucaritam upariṣṭād vistariṣyate yasya bhagavān svayam akhila-jagad-gurur nārāyaṇo dvāri gadā-pāṇir avatiṣṭhate nija-janānukampita-hṛdayo yenāṅguṣṭhena padā daśakandharo yojanāyutāyutaṁ dig-vijaya uccāṭitaḥ. Śukadeva Gosvāmī continued: My dear King, how shall I glorify the character of Bali Mahārāja? The Supreme Personality of Godhead, the master of the three worlds, who is most compassionate to His own devotee, stands with club in hand at Bali Mahārāja's door. When Rāvaṇa, the powerful demon, came to gain victory over Bali Mahārāja, Vāmanadeva kicked him a distance of eighty thousand miles with His big toe. I shall explain the character and activities of Bali Mahārāja later [in the Eighth Canto of ŚrīmadBhāgavatam]. 112. ^ Bhag. P. 7.1.1 samaḥ priyaḥ suhṛd brahman bhūtānāṁ bhagavān svayam indrasyārthe kathaṁ daityān avadhīd viṣamo yathā King Parīkṣit inquired: My dear brāhmaṇa, the Supreme Personality of Godhead, Viṣṇu, being everyone's well-wisher, is equal and extremely dear to everyone. How, then, did He become partial like a common man for the sake of Indra and thus kill Indra's enemies? How can a person equal to everyone be partial to some and inimical toward others? 113. ^ Bhag. P. 8.5.4 patnī vikuṇṭhā śubhrasya vaikuṇṭhaiḥ surasattamaiḥ tayoḥ sva-kalayā jajñe vaikuṇṭho bhagavān svayam From the combination of Śubhra and his wife, Vikuṇṭhā, there appeared the Supreme Personality of Godhead, Vaikuṇṭha, along with demigods who were His personal plenary expansions. 114. ^ "In that devotional liberation the spiritual senses of the spiritual form of the liberated soul are filled. There Lord Krishna, the original Supreme Personality of Godhead, enjoys blissful pastimes." Amnaya Sutra 3.5 Sampatti-prakarana, Sutra 114

References •

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Elkman, S.M.; Gosvami, J. (1986). Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement. Motilal Banarsidass Pub. Flood, G.D. (2006). The Tantric Body: The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion. IB Tauris. ISBN 1845110129. Kennedy, M.T. (1925). The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaishnavism of Bengal. H. Milford, Oxford university press. Ramanuja; George Thibaut (trans.) (1962). "The Vedanta Sutras with the Commentary by Ramanuja". Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Richard Thompson, Ph. D. (December 1994). "Reflections on the Relation Between Religion and Modern Rationalism". Retrieved on 2008-04-12. Gupta, Ravi M. (2004). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta: Acintyabhedabheda in Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika. University Of Oxford. Gupta, Ravi M. (2007). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika. Routledge. ISBN 0415405483.

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Ganguli, K.M. (1883 -1896). The Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa. Kessinger Publishing.

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Kaviraja, K.; Prabhupada, A.C.B.S.; Bhaktivedanta, A.C. (1974). Sri Caitanya-Caritamrta of Krsnadasa Kaviraja. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. S.D. Goswami (1998), The Qualities of Sri Krsna, GNPress, pp. 152 pages, ISBN 0911233644 Garuda Pillar of Besnagar, Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report (1908-1909). Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, 1912, 129. Rowland Jr, B. (1935). "Notes on Ionic Architecture in the East". American Journal of Archaeology 39 (4): 489-496. Retrieved on 2008-04-12. Delmonico, N. (2004). "The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism". The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant. Retrieved on 2008-04-12. Mahony, W.K. (1987). "Perspectives on Krsna's Various Personalities". History of Religions 26 (3): 333-335. Retrieved on 2008-04-12. D Hudson (1993). "Vasudeva Krsna in Theology and Architecture: A Background to Srivaisnavism". Journal of Vaisnava Studies (2). Retrieved on 2008-04-30.

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Beck, Guy L. (Ed.) (2005), Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity, SUNY Press, ISBN 0791464156,

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Matchett, Freda (2000). Krsna, Lord or Avatara? the relationship between Krsna and Visnu: in the context of the Avatara myth as presented by the Harivamsa, the Visnupurana and the Bhagavatapurana. Surrey: Routledge, 254. ISBN 0-7007-1281-X. Valpey, Kenneth Russell (2006). Attending Kṛṣṇa's image: Caitanya Vaiṣṇava mūrti-sevā as devotional truth. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415-38394-3.

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Further reading •

Ganguli, K.M. (1896). Bhagavad-Gita (XXV-XLII). The Mahabharata, Book 6. Calcutta: Bharata Press.

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Prabhupada, A.C. (1988). Srimad-Bhagavatam. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust.