Hass

Lyons, HASS Fellowship Proposal March 2009 Indigenous and Criminal Knowledge in the Americas: Appropriation, Science, and Colonialism Jessica Lyons, Science and Technology Studies 1. Overview Vandana Shiva's concept of “Biopiracy” is an admirable way to frame the exploitation of indigenous knowledge of nature, but historically these two categories of the “primitive” and the pirate may have been more closely related than we think, and together they made have made more contributions to science than we are aware of. Drawing on postcolonial feminist/subaltern theory to highlight previously invisible social groups, I argue that a) these groups have had greater impact than credited; b) key deviant or “primitive” groups, as discussed by Hacking and Hutchins, have served as strong contributors to science and technology; and c) that in showing these contributions we can see more clearly the actual constitution of historical and present science. This project can be divided into three broad but overlapping categories: knowledge networks, contributions to Western science and access, appropriation and alternative uses of technology. Knowledge Networks While the politics of piracy and privateering have generated considerable interest in historical and pop studies studies, as evidenced by the large number of pirate related history books and the emergence of the transAtlantic field, there has been little discussion on how it is that pirates learned to navigate, build, and repair ships. Piracy in the pre-GPS era required extensive knowledge of navigational systems and command of several different navigational tools – instruments that were coveted and difficult to come by. In addition to navigational capabilities, pirate knowledge of ship building, repairing and modification was quite impressive, a concept that conflicts with common notions of pirate intelligence. Popular representations have led us to believe that pirates were uneducated, slovenly vermin. However, it would appear that the literacy rate among pirates was higher than that of the general population or of enlisted sailors (Earle, 2005). While carpentry was a common skill, it was generally necessary for ships to dry dock at a shipyard in order to make repairs. Pirates, however, did not have this luxury and were able to make extensive repairs in remote locations with only the most basic tools (“Pirates of the Pacific”). Furthermore, the majority of pirate ships were refurbished and repurposed mercantile vessels (Earle, 2005). These modifications varied in their complexity and were often carried out on either isolated beaches or at sea. Another point of interest within this category is the exchange between pirates and Europeans with indigenous peoples. Pirates often came into contact with indigenous groups, especially in areas where there was no established pirate port or community. Although the relationship between pirates and indigenous peoples differed between locations, some were quite cordial. For instance, the Mesquite Indians showed pirates how to build traditional canoes, which were ideal for navigating the difficult waterways. The Mesquite also shared their topographical knowledge of the local environment and waterways with these criminals, giving pirates the ability to out run, and when necessary hide from, the British (Earle, 2005). Although the British Navy had an established presence in the Americas and Caribbean from the 16th century onward, piracy continued into the 19th century. Through an analysis of this knowledge exchange I plan to demonstrate how access to this local knowledge was critical to the survival of both pirates and piracy in the Americas and Caribbean and was later incorporated into Western science. An example of direct use of indigenous medical knowledge by Europeans is the use of cinchona bark by Jesuit missionaries. The Quechua indians of Peru first introduced the bark as a medicinal plant to Jesuit missionaries in the early sixteenth century, after which it was used the the primary treatment for malaria, or ague as it was known then, until the 1940s. Agostino Salumbio, an apothecary living in Lima, is generally credited as the first European to notice the medicinal properties of the bark after observing locals, however the specifics of how he gained this medical knowledge – for instance, did he know these indigenous practitioners and was he personally instructed by them as to the collection and preparation of the bark? – is not documented in contemporary historical accounts of quinine (Conner, 2005). Furthermore, there was a conscious attempt to disguise quinine's origins or even its use when it was first brought to the West as Europeans did not trust a medicine used by natives, a process that brings up issues of subjugated knowledge and practices (Conner, 2005). More recently, there has been a considerable amount of contention between the government of Peru, who wants to maintain a dominant hold on the production and distribution of cinchona bark and European colonial powers who may have stolen seeds and saplings, whose exportation was outlawed in the early 19th century. Having been renamed biopiracy or bioprospecting, the appropriation of indigenous plants and the knowledge associated with them by colonial powers has been become a serious issue in intellectual property rights in contemporary society, most commonly in biomedical knowledge. Contributions to Western Science

Lyons, HASS Fellowship Proposal March 2009 Tying in with the study of science and technology as interpreted and used by pirates and indigenous peoples, I plan to investigate what, if any, contributions these groups may have purposely or unknowingly made to the development of Western scientific knowledge. The Golden Age of Piracy is the term generally given to the period of time between the 1650s and the 1720s when there was a dramatic increase in piracy in the Americas, the Caribbean, the Indian Ocean and the west coast of Africa. The end of this period coincided with increased interest in natural science and the advancement of colonial science. Ornithology, botany and natural biology were all areas stimulated by the exploration and settlement of the Americas and Caribbean (Delbourgo, 2007). Although colonial powers sought to discover the extent of their natural resources in the new world, interest in nature extended beyond political structures. These topics were also explored in academia, but naturalism also became a hobby of many British and European aristocrats. Many private and government sponsored missions to collect and obtain wildlife specimens from unknown and dangerous areas that few individuals had explored were undertaken (Schiebinger, 2007). This project will focus on seventeenth and eighteenth century Atlantic world and access the involvement that piracy played in the collection and transportation of these specimens. Perhaps one of the greatest potential contribution to Western thought is the role played by pirates in cartography. Accurate maps were highly coveted by authorities and navigational charts were kept under lock and key by the ship's Captain (“Pirates of the Pacific”). Pirate ships were often some among the first vessels to explore new territory, and the well known buccaneer William Dampier's revised measurements and maps were used by the British Navy well into the twentieth century (Preston, 2004). The greater contribution by pirates to cartography may have been more along the traditional role of pirates. Many pirates, both Captains and crews, retained allegiance or at least feelings of loyalty to their home country (Cordingly, 1995). The Spanish were among the first to establish settlements in the Americas and Caribbean. They created accurate maps and maintained a robust trade between their settlements and Spain (Perez-Mallaina, 1998). However, many of the Atlantic pirate ships had crews of British origins. I plan to document how the capture of Spanish ships, and consequently the capture of their navigational charts and land maps, by pirates contributed to British cartography and knowledge of the area. As previously mentioned, the Quechua indians introduced cinchona bark to Jesuit missionaries in the early sixteenth century, possibly earlier. Quinine was hugely influential British exploration and colonization of Africa, as well as the expansion of other European colonial powers (Rocco, 2003). Conner states that "it was quinine's efficacy that gave colonists fresh opportunities to swarm into the Gold Coast, Nigeria and other parts of west Africa" (Conner, 2005). The discovery of quinine by the West led to the development of a number of effective anti-malarial drugs, and quinine is still an important drug in the twentieth century – overuse of antibiotics has created chloroquine resistant malaria, which is currently treated with the original quinine compound, as are the severe and cerebral stages of malaria. Beyond malaria, quinine is also used to treat nocturnal leg cramps, arthritis and there have also been preliminary attempts to treat prion disease. Ultimately it can safely be said that the discovery of quinine had a significant impact on medicine and consequently far reaching social implications that are still relevant today. Access, Appropriation and Alternative use of Technology My third point of interest is access to and appropriation of technology. Although the composition of pirate crews varied greatly in race and nationality, most members were of little means and members of an economically powerless class in their lives on land. Additionally, pirates were also classified as criminals, another disenfranchised social class. If we view pirate ships as a technology, piracy becomes an excellent case study for demonstrating how access to technology can allow members of disenfranchised social classes, in this case marginalized and criminal individuals, to become a dominant economic force. This aspects ties in with postcolonial conceptions of science studies and provides a framework for incorporating marginalized viewpoints into the construction of science. Furthermore, the majority of ships used by pirates were not intended for use as pirate vessels. Merchant vessels were often cumbersome and slow. Structural modification was necessary in order to make efficient pirating ships (Cordingly, 1995). This serves as a useful site from which to study criminal appropriation of technology and alternative uses. Supporting evidence for this framework can be seen through a comparative analysis with modern day piracy. Contemporary piracy has become a high-tech field. Many modern day pirates are former or off duty military or policemen and have access to technologies and weapons generally unavailable to the public. These pirates are actors in two contrasting fields; in one they act as regulators and law enforcers, in the other they are the criminals. While they utilize the same technology in each field, it is for very different purposes: one to protect and one to take. A number of significant comparisons can be made between the social composition of historical and contemporary pirates, as well as their appropriation and modification of technology designed for unrelated purposes.

Lyons, HASS Fellowship Proposal March 2009 2. Proposed Research For my dissertation I intend to use a combination of archival research and discourse analysis based on communications and private correspondence to document pirate knowledge systems as well as the knowledge networks between indigenous peoples and Europeans. In this project I identify Europeans and pirates as two separate social groups. Although many pirates were of European origins, many were not members of particular social group within Europe, or did not spend any significant amount of time on European land, and were not recognized as European governments as having any rights. The term “European” refers to institutionalized European groups, including merchants and government officials. I will use this information, combined with literature reviews of the history of cartography and natural sciences, to study the role that piracy has played in the development of colonial and modern science. Likewise, by studying the relationship between indigenous groups and Europeans, I can determine the ways in which an indigenous knowledge was able to have a significant impact on Western medicine and the way in which this knowledge was subjugated. A comparative study between the impacts and effects of piracy and so called “primitive” knowledge on the development of Western scientific knowledge illustrates the ability for marginalized social groups to make significant contributions to the development of the West. Despite active persecution there was, and remains, a social value to deviant groups who operate outside of the norms of society, yet still have significant impact on society. Focusing on larger issues of access to technology and the importance of local knowledge networks, this project calls into question the relation of laity and expert in Western science. a). Research Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Who participated in the production of colonial/Western science? Who contributed to the rise of interest in colonial science? How did individuals or social groups from outside of the hegemonic power create scientific or technical knowledge? What types of knowledge did these individuals/social groups produce? What information produced by criminals or indigenous persons was appropriated by Western science and how did this appropriation occur? How has this appropriated knowledge impacted the development of colonial and contemporary science and society?

b). Research Methodology This project will incorporate two different methodologies. Questions that center on the exchange of knowledge, networks and knowledge production will be approached primarily through discourse analysis of historical documents. Material contributing to this analysis will be composed of archival documents, including journals, ships logs, private and public correspondences, narratives, news articles and other pre 19th century literature. Areas of this project dealing with access and appropriation of technology will also utilize discourse analysis. However, I will also use comparative analysis to approach this area by contrasting historical cases of access and appropriation with contemporary technological access and appropriation. c). Research Sites Due to the nature of this project, field work will consist primarily of conducting archival research. Research sites are located in England and Washington, D.C.:

–

Library of National Maritime Museum, London, UK: This site has over four hundred books and pamphlets on piracy and privateering including the Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, America and the West Indies. These materials contain relevant correspondence between colonial governors and the Office of Trade and Plantations in London. – British National Archives, Kew, UK: Contains records and correspondences from the British Royal Navy as well as newspaper articles on pirate attacks and trials from colonial British settlements. Additionally, there are captain's logs and letters, colonial office records from the Bahamas and Jamaica, and translations of Spanish and Vatican documents from the Archive of the West Indies, Seville, Spain. – The Public Record Office in Chancery Lane and Kew, UK: This collection contains ships' logbooks, captain's letters, trial documents and the depositions of seamen and pirate victims.

Lyons, HASS Fellowship Proposal March 2009 – British Library's outstation at Colindale: Contains microfilm copies of reports of pirate attacks and trials from contemporary newspapers. – The Library of Congress, Washington D.C., USA. This library also contains a large collection of historical documents relating to piracy and privateering. Additonally, there are a number of documents, largely correspondences, discussing the use of quinine and other Native American plants in military medicine. – National Library of Jamaica, Kingston, Jamaica. Contains over 40,000 documents on the history of Jamaica and the West Indies from the sixteenth century to the present. The Library has copies of publications from the eighteenth century which are the only known ones to have survived. 3. Theoretical Framework I will approach the above questions from a postcolonial standpoint by analyzing the role of a marginalized colonial class. In addition my investigation will be guided by the sociology of knowledge as well as work in the social construction of technological systems (SCOT). a). Sociology of Knowledge The sociology of scientific knowledge (SSK) provides a useful framework for analyzing the knowledge practices of pirates. The sociology of knowledge aims to explain the development and genesis of particular theories by identifying points of contingency or interpretative flexibility, where at times, ambiguities may be present. After identifying such crossroads in the history of science, SSK then seeks to explain why one interpretation succeeded over another. Following David Bloor's strong programme, this research takes the approach of considering sociological factors as influencing all beliefs. As Karl Mannheim argues, modern science cannot be accurately understood as long as its social origins are unknown or obscured (Mannheim, 1936). In his book Masons, Tricksters and Cartographers, David Turnbull completes a thorough study on the construction of medieval gothic cathedrals. By utilizing comparative analysis Turnbull is able to demonstrate the construction of technoscientific knowledge in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries by restructuring the cathedral as a “large-scale laboratories where knowledge spaces were coproduced through a process of contingent assemblage” (Turnbull, 2000). Utilizing Turbull's theory of “the motley,” I will investigate how valid scientific knowledge has emerged from seemingly the chaotic relationships and between piracy and indigenous cultures and Westerners and “messy practices” (Turbull, 2000). I will undertake a similar approach in my analysis of pirate knowledge construction by re-orientating pirate and indigenous social networks as epistemic communities capable of creating knowledge (Knorr-Cetina, 1999). Further support for incorporating this type of framework can be seen in Naked Science, a collection of works edited by Laura Nader, which provides numerous case studies of the development of legitimate scientific knowledge within non-Western cultures from anthropological and SSK perspectives (Nader, 1996). Post-Kuhnian science studies as a whole has recognized that science is not a field isolated from social institutions or values, which supports to the notion that pirates and “primitive” individuals were able to make valid contributions to science. b). Postcolonial Theory and Subaltern Studies I plan to situate this project firmly within the discourse of postcolonial standpoint and subaltern studies. As Amartya Sen points out in Development as Freedom, Western science is highly respectful of authority. Sen lists “the governor, the minister, the military junta, the religious leader” but I believe that the he could have easily included the “qualified” scientists among this list of authority figures (Sen, 1999). It is unsurprising that contributions to “official” knowledge by non-experts are either overlooked or commandeered by authority figures. In order to cross the great divide between modern science and other knowledge systems science must become unprivileged, a concept that is supported by both subaltern studies and feminist standpoint theory (Turnbull, 2000). Sandra Harding's approach to postcolonial studies attempts to close the “gap between marginalized interests and consciousness” and explore “the way the dominant conceptual schemes organize social relations, including those of scientific and technological changes” (Harding, 1998). According to Harding, the marginalized perspectives of women and postcolonial peoples, including the pirate-criminal epistemic community, brings to light aspects of both nature and modern science that are overlooked by the institutions which produce “official” knowledge. However, the adoption of some medical practices such as acupuncture and indigenous medical practices into Western medicine is an indicator that the Western scientific community itself realizes the value of indigenous and traditional sciences (Harding 2006). I also believe that giving a voice to this overlooked knowledge

Lyons, HASS Fellowship Proposal March 2009 community will encourage increased incorporation of the subaltern voice not only in the construction of science, but in broader social and political issues as well. c). The Social Construction of Technological Systems I believe that the best way in to approach my third category of study in this project, the study of access, appropriation and alternative use of technology, is through a social construction of technology (SCOT) viewpoint. SCOT allows for analysis historical sociotechnical systems. SCOT draws on the work of SSK scholars and argues thats technology does not determine human action, but rather that human action is what shapes technology. This perspective views technologies as a social constructs, taking into account the social groups concerned with particular artifacts and the meaning assigned to those particular artifacts. The modification of merchant ships by pirates fits into the SCOT theory of technological development though alternation of variation and selection. Like SSK, SCOT analyzes why a particular technology (rather than a particular type of scientific knowledge) failed or succeeded. Following Trevor Pinch's and Wiebe Bikjer's perspectives, I treat both the successes and failures of pirate technologies as equally important in their contributions to the development of technology and technoscience (Bikjer et al., 1987). 4. Contributions and Broader Significance Piracy is a popular subject in mainstream media and film as well as in pop history. However, there are many facets of this community that have been overlooked. In additional to exploring a new dimension in transAtlantic history, this project also makes a considerable contribution to science and technology studies and the sociology of knowledge. Likewise, while we have acknowledge the role of indigenous knowledge in colonialism to some degree – after all, what American elementary school child doesn't know the story of the first Thanksgiving and the three sisters - discussion of indigenous contributions to Western science is largely colloquial. I plan on expanding my case studies to include not only piracy and quinine, but potentially the impacts of Native American agriculture on African farming and the Indonesian rubber industry as well. In her book Is Science Multicultural? Sandra Harding makes a call for social scientists to take on issues of postcolonial science. This project is among the many to answer that call. This project addresses the knowledge gap in the construction of Western science. It acknowledges that some of the roots of institutionalized science lie within the activities of social groups who are generally credited with making little to no beneficial contributions to society. This case study can be used to provide additional support to discussions of lay contributions to scientific knowledge; it also makes a significant contribution to the study of experts/expertise and how expertise relates to Western science practices. Furthermore, pirate communities were of mixed ethnicities, thus indigenous communities, along with pirate knowledge networks, have added a distinctly non-Western perspective to the development of modern science. Continued exploration of these areas is necessary in order to achieve a better understanding of science and to appropriately direct both science and technological momentum. Perhaps one of the largest contributions that this study provides is an analysis of the ways in which technology can shape and alter lives. The sociology of technology is underdeveloped in comparison to the sociology of science and this project will add to that body of literature. Through access to ships poverty ridden individuals were able to acquire specialized skills that in turn played a significant role in the development of maritime technology and modern science. The rise of piracy and its impact on government and trade further demonstrates the ways in which access to technology can allow a politically insignificant class to become a dominant economic force. Access and appropriation of technology has been an area of recent interest and this case study grounds contemporary case studies. 5. Background of Researcher I am currently a second year doctoral student in the interdisciplinary field of Science and Technology Studies. My preparation for this program, which included a master’s degree in Social Thought and Humanities (concentrations in science studies, history and anthropology) and a Bachelor of Science in Science, Technology and Society Studies, has given me a thorough understanding of both the social science and the hard sciences. I also have a background in Latin, which provided me with a strong base for Spanish and French, the two other languages, aside from English, most used in primary documents. I will be strengthening my language skills by taking Spanish in the coming year at Rensselaer. I first became interested in this project while reading Sandra Harding's Is Science Multicultural? and since my initial thoughts I have found it to be a rich topic, firmly grounded in science studies. Some of the

Lyons, HASS Fellowship Proposal March 2009 graduate classes that have helped to prepare this topic for my dissertation are Concepts in STS (Fall 2008), Science Studies (Fall 2008), When Knowledge Worlds Collide (Spring 2009) and several research methods and theory courses. Since this project draws heavily upon trans-Atlantic studies, I have developed contacts with potential collaborators in this field. I plan on making an exploratory trip to the Library of Congress, where I will be taking a short course in archival research, following the completion of the Spring 2009 semester. I believe that these skills, combined with my experience as a social scientist, put me in a unique position to study the relationship between science and technology and marginalized individuals in both a modern and historical context. 6. Future Research and Career Plans Following my graduation, I plan on pursuing a career as a tenure track professor. Ideally I would like to remain in an STS department; however I would also be interested in working in a History or Anthropology department. Although I am using research techniques from a variety of academic fields, I seek to create a niche for myself as a science and technology studies scholar. Other areas of interest for me have been biology, medicine and society as well as activists networks. My interests are quite diverse and I believe that as an STS scholar I will have a greater opportunity to explore questions of a more interdisciplinary nature. More imminent plans include expanding my teaching experiences. I have recently been hired at Empire State College as an adjunct lecturer for the 2009-2010 year. As of right now I will be teaching a section in American history, and potentially future sections in cultural anthropology and STS. Works Cited Bikjer, Wiebe, Thomas Hughes and Trevor Pinch. The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1987). Conner, Clifford, D. A People's History of Science: Miners, Midwives, and Low Mechanicks. (New York: Nation Books, 2005). Cordingly, David. Under the Black Flag: The Romance and the Reality of Life Among Pirates. (San Diego, New York, London: Harcourt Brace, 1995). Delbourgo, James. Science and Empire in the Atlantic World. (New York: Routledge, 2007). Earle, Peter. The Pirate Wars. (London: Thomas Dunne Books, 2005). Hacking, Ian. The Social Construction of What. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000). Harding, Sandra. Science and Social Inequality: Feminist and Postcolonial Issues. (Urbana and Champagne: University of Illinois Press, 2006). Harding, Sandra. Is Science Multicultural? Postcolonialisms, Feminisms, and Epistemologies. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998). Hutchins, Edwin. Cognition in the Wild. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996). Knorr-Cetina, Karen. Epistemic Cultures: How the Sciences Make Knowledge. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999). Mannheim, Karl. Ideology and Utopia: An Introduction to the Sociology of Knowledge. Trans. Louis Wirth and Edward Shils. (New York, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers, 1936). Nader, Laura. Naked Science: Anthropological Inquiry into Boundaries, Power, and Knowledge. (New York: Routledge, 1996). Perez-Mallain, Pablo. Spain's Men of the Se: Daily Life on the Indies Fleets in the Sixteenth Century. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998). “Pirates of the Pacific,” San Diego Maritime Museum. 1492 N Harbor Dr. San Diego, CA 92101. Visited July 5, 2008. Preston, Diana & Michael. A Pirate of Exquisite Mind: Explorer, Naturalist and Buccaneer; The Life of William Dampier. (New York: Berkely Books, 2004). Rocco, Fiammetta. The Miraculous Fever-Tree:Malaria and the Quest for a Cure That Changed the World. (New York: HarperCollins, 2003). Schiebinger, Londa. Plans and Empire: Colonial Bioprospecting in the Atlantic World. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005). Sen, Amaryta. Development as Freedom. (New York:Anchor Books, 1999). Shiva, Vandana. Biopiracy: the Plunder and Nature and Knowledge. (Cambridge: South End Press, 1997). Turnbull, David. Masons, Tricksters and Cartographers: Comparative Studies in the Sociology of Scientific and Indigenous Knowledge. (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2000).

Lyons, HASS Fellowship Proposal March 2009

Curriculum Vitae Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY Doctorate of Philosophy, expected December 2011 Science and Technology Studies New York University Master of Arts (cum laude), May 2008 Major: Humanities and Social Thought Thesis: Anarchism, Science and the Good Society Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY Bachelor of Science (magna cum laude), December, 2005 Major: Science, Technology, and Society Studies; Minor: Electronic Arts Sociology of knowledge; trans-Atlantic studies; appropriation of technology; discourse, narrative and content analysis; cultural and material anthropology; history of science and technology. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute: Department of Science and Technology Studies, Troy, NY Teaching Assistant, Senior Research Project, Spring 2009 Teaching Assistant, Introduction to Science and Technology Studies, Fall 2008 Teaching Fellow, Introduction to Sociology, Fall 2008 Teaching Assistant, Professional Development II, Spring 2008 Teaching Fellow, Mind, Brain and Society, Spring 2005 Research Activities & Additional Experience Independent Research Assistant for Dr. Sal Restivo, Summer – Fall 2006 – Anarchy and Inquiry project New York State Assembly Intern and Research Assistant, 2005 Legislative Session – Primary research project: Precautionary Principle (passed Assembly) Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Science and Technology Studies Senior Project, Fall 2005 – Discourse Analysis of Interstitial Cystitis Patients Undergraduate Research Project, Spring 2005 – Draw a Brain Protocols with Dr. Sal Restivo Undergraduate Independent Study Project, Spring 2004 – Infectious Disease Surveillance, with Dr. Charles Boylen Undergraduate Research Project, Fall 2003 – Access to Medical Treatment Act, with Dr. David Hess Lyons, Jessica. “Influenza” in Battleground: Science and Technology. eds. Sal Restivo and Peter Denton. Portsmouth: Greenwood Press Encyclopedia, 2008.

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Emily Roebling Scholarship

2002 – 2006

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Alumni Scholarship Service RPI Graduate Colloquium Committee RPI STS Speaker Committee RPI Student Ambassador (Admissions Office) International Association for Science, Technology & Society

Lyons, HASS Fellowship Proposal March 2009 2002 – 2006 2008 – Present 2008 – Present 2003 – 2005 2008 – Present