Jennifer Barton, HASS Fellowship Proposal, Spring 2009 I. Overview of Proposed Research Shouting Appalachia: Articulating Place and Knowledge in the Mountain Top Removal Opposition Movement Jennifer Barton, Science & Technology Studies (STS) 1.0 Introduction Recent attention to place across the social sciences suggests the need for more explicit explanations of how place and placebased identity shape and are shaped by social practices. This study will contribute to that emerging interdisciplinary field by looking at the intersection of place and placebased identity, knowledgeproduction, and social movements. Specifically, I will look at the ways in which Appalachia, as both a physical place and a place defined culture, has shaped activist opposition to mountain top removal coal mining (MTR). How does the place and placebased identity of Appalachia (1) affect how MTR activists frame and produce new knowledge in response to changing social and political opportunities? and (2) shape the ways in which social movement actors use and question existing lay and expert knowledge? Answering these questions will integrate three distinct fields of study— social movements, STS, and geography—by explaining how social movement actors weave together place and place based identity, social and political opportunities, and lay and expert knowledge in pursuit of their goals. MTR is a highly profitable method of coal mining in which several hundred feet of earth and rock are blasted from the tops of mountains in order to expose the coal seam underneath. The effects of MTR on local economies, ecosystems, and communities are dramatic, and grassroots activist organizations have formed across Appalachia to oppose the practice, citing in their arguments not only MTR's environmental and economic damages and their attendant effects on human health and welfare, but also the loss of cultural heritage for a society whose identity is closely tied to the natural landscape. Activists working to end MTR face a dual challenge: They must find ways to understand and address the overlapping and sometimes conflicting needs to protect and develop Appalachia's environment, economy, and placebased heritage. And, they must find ways to create a social movement in a region where communities are often sparsely populated, isolated, and impoverished. However, MTR activists are also working in the context of new opportunities. For example, mainstream environmentalism's recent attention to questions of sustainable economic development, human health, and environmental justice creates an opportunity activists' equal concerns about the social, economic, and environmental effects of MTR to be more fully heard in mainstream environmental discourse. The increasing availability of new media technologies and the increasing number of people with the expertise to use and modify them offers opportunities for social movement actors to communicate with one another and with their target audiences in new ways. Additionally, both new media technologies and new datacollection technologies provide opportunities for the production of knowledge that can be mobilized to corroborate or challenge existing knowledge. 2.0 Literature Review 2.1 Social Movement Studies Scholars from many disciplines have contributed to the empirically rich literature on social movements. The literature remains theoretically dominated by the fields of sociology and political science, which have provided models for understanding how social movement organizations (SMOs) create collective identity, frame their messages, organize, mobilize, and take advantage of political opportunities (Benford & Snow 2000; Polletta and Jasper 2001; Tarrow 1998). Such models have been fruitful for analyzing both the internal social processes of SMOs and their interactions with the wider society, but they tend to omit the important roles of knowledgeproduction and place.
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Jennifer Barton, HASS Fellowship Proposal, Spring 2009 The focus on framing, resource mobilization, and political opportunities is also evident in the social movement literature on the media. Researchers have looked at the implications of courting mainstream media (Brinson 2006; Vliegenthart et al.), the implications of bypassing mainstream media via alternative media channels (Froehling 1997; Scott & Street 2000), and the effects of new communication technologies on SMO networking and framing (Capling & Nossal 2001; Garrett 2006). However, as media technologies become increasingly accessible and the knowledge to use them more widespread, the lines between these categories have begun to blur in practice. Thus, SMOs may simultaneously generate media content that contributes to their collective identity and strengthens networking ties, disseminate it through alternative media channels, and make it attractive to mainstream media. Importantly, some SMOs are also beginning to use media technologies to produce new knowledge. To date little attention has been given to this aspect in the mainstream social movements literature or to the role of placebased identities in the use of media and expertise. Other knowledgeproduction technologies, however, have been studied by scholars who approach social movements from the perspective of STS. 2.2 STS Approaches to Social Movements STS approaches to social movements have drawn only sparingly on the mainstream social movements literature, focusing primarily on social movements' roles in knowledge production or on their response to particular technologies or scientific practices. Thus, STS scholars have contributed frameworks for understanding how knowledgemaking processes can themselves be sites of contestation, as social movements appropriate and challenge established factmaking and technological design practices and generate new practices (Frickel & Moore 2007; Hess 2007); and studied movements that coalesce around the design and diffusion of new technologies (Hess 1998), and community use and development of knowledgeproduction technologies to challenge government and industry actions (Corburn 2002; Crouch & KrollSmith 2000). STS has also demonstrated how social movements call into question the divide between lay and expert knowledge, and documented the ways in which social movements have significantly changed or made suspect expert knowledgemaking (Allen 2003; Brown 2007; Epstein 1996). The STS literature on social movements draws upon a longer tradition in STS of analyzing the social mechanisms through which knowledge is produced. STS has provided increasingly sophisticated analyses of how the particular characteristics of different technologies of knowledge production influence and are influenced by the social practices of the groups who use them. KnorrCetina (1999), for example, explores how the material differences in the laboratory technologies of different scientific fields contributes to very different cultures of practice between those fields. More generally, technologies as material culture embed semiotic distinctions that can also be found in social relations and language (KnorrCetina 1999; Traweek 1988). Although STS work on social movements looks to this literature, it has not yet reached the same level of sophistication in its analysis of the role of material culture and knowledge production within the specific context of social movements. 2.3 Geographical Approaches to Social Movements Geographers have recently begun engaging with the mainstream literature on social movements, beginning to add the important concept of place to the analytical frameworks available. As a theoretical concept, "place" can be used to think about both scale and process. Agnew's (1987) explication of three dimensions of place (location, locale, and sense of place) remains the most widely used definition of scale. Location describes where a place is in relation to other places, locale refers to the material setting of daytoday life, and sense of place is the subjective experience of that material setting. Geographicallyoriented studies of social movements show how the spatiality of networking can affect a movement's duration and effectiveness, for example (Bosco 2001), as well as the effects of place on political opportunities and framing strategies (Miller 2000). However, geographical approaches have not considered the effects of place on knowledgeproduction within the context of social movements.
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Jennifer Barton, HASS Fellowship Proposal, Spring 2009 This project will integrate these three approaches to the study of social movements, asking how place and place based identity (geography) shape the ways in which social movement actors question the authority of existing knowledge and produce new knowledge (STS) in response to changing social and political opportunities (social movement studies). 3.0 Research Design 3.1 Research Questions The project has two central research questions, each of which has several subquestions: (1) How do place and placebased identity shape the ways in which social movement actors frame and produce new knowledge in response to changing social and political opportunities? • How do social movement organizations understand, mobilize, and represent the placebased identities of communities? How do those representations and mobilizations in turn affect the identity of the organizations and communities? • How do place and placebased identity affect o how activists recognize and respond to social and political opportunities? o how activists use technologies of knowledge production to challenge or corroborate existing knowledge? (2) How do place and placebased identity shape the ways in which social movement actors use and question existing lay and expert knowledge? • Specifically, how do place and placebased identity affect o what modes of expertise activists choose to engage with and why? o what bodies of lay knowledge activists draw from and why? o how activists combine and translate expert and lay knowledge as a mobilization tactic? o how activists interpret, frame, and disseminate lay and expert knowledge? 3.2 Research Methodology 3.2.1 Background Research Background research has already begun with a review of the secondary literature on the environmental and social history of the coalfields of Appalachia, as well as both primary and secondary literature on the federal, state, and local government structures that contribute significantly to the shape of the discursive space within which the activist organizations operate. 3.2.2 Fieldwork Interviews and participantobservation will focus on four organizations: United Mountain Defense, Coal River Mountain Watch, Mountain Justice, and Appalachian Voices. Of the dozen or so regionallybased organizations working on MTR, these four were chosen to represent diversity of placefocus and membership, and position in the movement's network of organizations. People often work with more than one organization, and the organizations frequently collaborate on events, legal actions, disaster response, and other coalitional activities. Thus, although my fieldwork will focus on four organizations, the research design will also provide opportunity for interaction with members and activities of additional organizations. Placefocus and membership: All of the organizations contribute to the increasingly national effort to end MTR in Appalachia; however, some are
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Jennifer Barton, HASS Fellowship Proposal, Spring 2009 more focused on particular places than others. United Mountain Defense, for example, works primarily with seven affected counties in eastern Tennessee. Coal River Mountain Watch focuses on the heavilymined Coal River Valley in West Virginia. Both organizations, because of their placespecificity, draw most of their active membership from area residents, although they also work closely with more regionallybased organizations. Rather than focusing on particular areas in Appalachia, both Appalachian Voices and Mountain Justice work with those places that are currently in most need or that offer legal or media opportunities to push the national dialogue towards ending MTR. Because of their broader regional focus, they tend to draw active membership from a wider regional and national base. Additionally, Mountain Justice emphasizes outreach to college students from around the country, resulting in a unique membership demographic. Position in Movement Network: Both of the placespecific organizations, United Mountain Defense and Coal River Mountain Watch, are currently working on projects that the more regionallybased organizations are both assisting with and drawing on for national media outreach. As of this writing, United Mountain Defense is focused on helping the victims of the recent TVA coal waste disaster in Harriman, TN. With the assistance of other organizations, United Mountain Defense has been bringing bottled water to residents, helping them get tested for heavy metal poisoning, distributing information, and facilitating community organization. Although the waste spill was from a coalfired electric plant, not an MTR site, it is still a focal point for the movement as a whole because it provides the opportunity to show how the practice of MTR is bound up in larger contexts of energy production, regulation, and consumption. Other groups are thus helping United Mountain Defense collect scientific data on water and air quality, and build a legal case against TVA. The groups are also visually documenting damages and cleanup efforts and mobilizing those representations in order to bolster the movement's education and outreach efforts. Coal River Mountain Watch's current and unprecedented efforts to prevent an MTR mine by proposing a wind farm and underground coal mine as an alternative use has been of great interest to the entire movement, although controversial, as some movement actors would like to see the end of coal mining, while others see it as a necessary component of a healthy Appalachian economy. Producing the data needed to demonstrate the feasibility of the alternative plan marks a new step for the movement towards realizing socially and economically viable alternatives to MTR. Coal River Mountain Watch's placespecific fights have often served as rallying points for the entire movement in the past, as the company that mines the valley, Massey Energy, is universally viewed as the most egregious of all the coal companies operating in the region. Coal River Mountain Watch is also cited by many as the origin point of the antiMTR movement as a movement. It was Coal River Mountain Watch's call for volunteers in 2005 that spawned Mountain Justice, which has since become a primary node in the movement network. Mountain Justice is the most fluid and flexible of the organizations, drawing significant new membership each year through its outreach to college students. The organization's activities are concentrated in the summer months, when students may have considerable time to contribute, and are dispersed across the region. The group works closely with both United Mountain Defense and Coal River Mountain Watch, and serves as a point of contact between other organizations, including Appalachian Voices and national environmental and global justice groups. Mountain Justice is best known in the movement network for their expertise and creativity in direct action and civil disobedience, and contribute both material and human resources to other organizations and communities in need. Appalachian Voices similarly serves as a point of contact between the organizations in the movement network, but their work tends to emphasize government lobbying and public education in an effort to end MTR through the legal system and to increase the movement's national and global support. Appalachian Voices also produces the website
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Jennifer Barton, HASS Fellowship Proposal, Spring 2009 ilovemountains.org, sponsored in part by Coal River Mountain Watch, which serves as both an information repository and an interactive media outreach program for the movement as a whole. Interviews Semistructured interviews will be conducted primarily with members of the four activist organizations: United Mountain Defense, Coal River Mountain Watch, Mountain Justice, and Appalachian Voices. Questions will be developed based on preliminary archival and media research as well as pilot interviews and revised as the research progresses. Participantobservation with United Mountain Defense and Mountain Justice's listening projects may also provide opportunity for unstructured interviews with affected residents who are not also members of the organizations. The grid below provides an overview of the interview strategy. Because the aim of the study is to understand the interrelations of place and placebased identity, knowledge, and opportunity responses, interviewees will be grouped according to their place identification: organization members who identify as being from affected towns; from affected states, but not affected towns; and from unaffected states. Within these groups, I will then identify interviewees who have significant expertise in different knowledge categories. Some such individuals have already been identified through previous interactions with the groups. Others will be identified through initial interviews and through participantobservation. The number of interviews will be weighted towards those with expertise in local knowledge, including placeidentity, and media technology in order to provide insight to how activists are developing and mobilizing local knowledge of place and placebased identity through use and modification of media technologies. To understand how that knowledge and its media representations are valued and mobilized across the movement, I will also interview activists with significant expertise in energy technology, government and policy, and outreach and organizing, which are key categories for the movement. The number of interviews for each knowledge category may be adjusted upwards as some individuals may have expertise in more than one area. A minimum of 63 individuals will be interviewed. Interview Grid Members who self identify as from affected towns
Local Knowledge Expertise 5
Media Technology Expertise 5
Data Collection Expertise 5
Energy Technology Expertise 2
Government & Policy Expertise 2
Outreach & Organizing Expertise 2
from affected states
5
5
5
2
2
2
from neither affected towns nor affected states
5
5
5
2
2
2
ParticipantObservation Through participantobservation with each of the four organizations, I will observe and experience the process by which the members of MTR activist organizations determine their goals and strategies in response to changing social and political opportunities. Sites will include both virtual and facetoface forums, and has already begun with monitoring of several activist email listserves and volunteer work with Appalachian Voices' outreach program. The next stage will commence with participation in Mountain Justice Summer's training camp in May 2009, during which new and old members orient themselves to current issues, share skills and knowledge, and collectively decide on the summer's projects. Because the summer training camp is intended to bring new members into the movement and collaborate with other groups, it will be an excellent entrée into the movement network. Based on the work
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Jennifer Barton, HASS Fellowship Proposal, Spring 2009 history of the organizations, I also expect to participate in and observe hearings, demonstrations, data collecting, listening projects, media development, outreach events, and disaster/community assistance. 3.2.3 Contemporary Media Analysis I will analyze the form and content of media produced by the activist organizations in order to provide empirical evidence of how the organizations are mobilizing and representing place and placebased identity as well as new and existing knowledge. The four organizations I am focusing on all maintain a strong internet presence, both through regularly updated organization websites, the consortium site ilovemountains.org, and through postings on youtube.com and independent media sites. These sites include media that produce as well as represent knowledge. On the consortium site, for example, visitors can enter their zip code and view a map which shows them the location of the coalfired power plants that provide electricity to their area as well as the MTR mines from which those power plants buy coal. I will also analyze the newspapers produced by Appalachian Voices and by United Mountain Defense as well as the outreach and educational literature produced by each organization. Additionally, I will analyze the form and content of relevant media produced by mainstream news outlets and by industry and government interests in order to trace the changing social and political opportunities to which the different interest groups are responding. 3.3 Timeline Semester Spring 2009
Summer 2009—Spring 2010
Summer 2010—Fall 2010
Spring 2011 Summer 2011—Fall 2011
Spring 2012
Tasks • Complete literature review and preliminary archival research • Solidify contacts with key informants • Prepare detailed interview questions • Conduct fieldwork, beginning with Mountain Justice • Begin contemporary media analysis • Begin coding and analyzing data • Present preliminary findings at professional conferences (e.g., Society for the Social Studies of Science, Applied Anthropology, Appalachian Studies Association) • Complete data analysis • Return to field and archives as needed • Continue conference presentations and begin preparing articles • Begin writing dissertation • Write dissertation and solicit committee feedback • Submit articles for publication (e.g., Mobilization; Journal of Material Culture; Science, Technology & Human Values) • Defend Dissertation
II. Prior Experience and Preparation I am a second year Ph.D. student and will complete my coursework and qualifying exams this semester. Prior to coming to RPI, I lived and worked in southwestern Virginia for 12 years and became very involved in the local culture and community. I took courses in Appalachian Literature and culture at Virginia Tech, where I received a B.A. and M.A. in English and taught for seven years. Since moving to Troy, I have maintained my social networks in Appalachia and have established personal and professional contacts with Mountain Justice, Coal River Mountain Watch, and Appalachian Voices through social interactions and volunteer work.
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Jennifer Barton, HASS Fellowship Proposal, Spring 2009 The proposed project draws on my experiences and contacts in Appalachia and builds on my previous academic research, which began exploring the roles of place and placebased identity in various contexts. For example, I conducted a pilot ethnographic study with an activist group in Schoharie, NY who were opposing the practices of a local quarry, which they felt were negatively affecting their identity. My comparative study of wind farm debates in New England and Appalachia demonstrates how placebased identity and local political history affect the cultural interpretations of wind farms, with important policy implications; this work will be presented at two upcoming STS conferences (International Association for STS and Society for the Social Studies of Science). III. Future Research and Career Plans
As a followup project, I would like to look more broadly at how social movements that might be considered placebased (e.g., movements opposing colonialism or supporting localism) challenge neoliberal policies that privilege the individual by pitting the community against the corporation, which has the legal rights of an individual. Over the longterm, I intend to frame my work around understanding how power and knowledge are expressed, exercised, and transferred through material culture (including landscape and media) as a dynamic process. Such a frame will allow me to speak to and across such fields as sociology, anthropology, semiotics, geography, and STS. I hope to pursue these lines of research in the context of an academic position that allows me to make multiple use of my research through the avenues of interdisciplinary scholarship, teaching, and community service. IV. References Agnew, J. A. (1987). Place and Politics. Boston: Allen and Unwin. Benford, R. D., & Snow, D. A. (2000). Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Overview and Assessment. Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 611639. Bosco, F. J. (2001). Place, Space, Networks, and the Sustainability of Collective Action: The Madres de Plaza de Mayo. Global Networks, 1(4), 307329. Brinson, P. (2006). Liberation Frequency: The Free Radio Movement and Alternative Strategies of Media Relations. The Sociological Quarterly, 47, 543568. Capling, A., & Nossal, K. R. (2001). Death of Distance or Tyranny of Distance? The Internet, Deterritorialization, and the AntiGlobalization Movement in Australia. The Pacific Review, 14(3), 443465. Corburn, J. (2002). Environmental Justice, Local Knowledge, and Risk: The Discourse of a CommunityBased Cumulative Exposure Assessment. Environmental Management, 29(4), 452466. Couch, S. R., & KrollSmith, S. (2000). Environmental Movements and Expert Knowledge: Evidence for a New Populism. In S. KrollSmith, P. Brown, & V. J. Gunter (Eds.), Illness and the Environment: A Reader in Contested Medicine (pp. 384404). NY: New York University Press. Frickel, S., & Moore, K. (Eds.). (2005). The New Political Sociology of Science. University of Wisconsin. Froehling, O. (1997). The Cyberspace 'War of Ink and Internet' in Chiapas, Mexico. Geographical Review, 87(2), 291307. Garrett, R. K. (2006). Protest in an Information Society: A Review of Literature on Social Movements and New ICTS. Information, Communication and Society, 9(2), 202224. Hess, D. J. (2007). Alternative Pathways in Science and Industry : Activism, Innovation, and the Environment in an Era of Globalization. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. KnorrCetina, K. (1999). Epistemic Cultures: How the Sciences Make Knowledge. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Miller, B. A. (2000). Geography and Social Movements: Comparing Antinuclear Activism in the Boston Area. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
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Jennifer Barton, HASS Fellowship Proposal, Spring 2009 Polletta, F., & Jasper, J. M. (2001). Collective Identity and Social Movements. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 283 305. Scott, A., & Street, J. (2000). From Media Politics to eProtest. Information, Communication and Society, 3(2), 215 240. Tarrow, S. (1998). Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Traweek, S. (1988). Beamtimes and Lifetimes: The World of High Energy Physicists. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. Vliegenthart, R., Oegema, D., & Klandermans, B. (2005). Media Coverage and Organizational Support in the Dutch Environmental Movement. Mobilization: An International Quarterly, 10(3), 365381.
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