Handbook Chap 1

Qwertyuiopadfghjklzxcvbnmqwer tyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyui opasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopa sdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfg hjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklz xcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvb nmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmq wertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwert yuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuio pasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopas dfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfgh jklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzx cvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvb nmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmq wertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwert yuiopasfghjklzxcvbnmrtyuiopasdf Compilation of book reviews in Handbook of Information Technology, The fortune at the bottom of the pyramid and Cyberethics By:

Junabel Esper A. Manuel

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons AttributionNoncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 Philippines License.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Handbook of Information and Computer Ethics

Bottom of the Pyramid

CyberEthics

Dedication To my family who’s been supportive of all my “puyatandays”. To my friends who helped me get rid of my laziness. To my HP dv2500 Pavilion Laptop who’s been there with my “puyatan-days” who never lets me down, to my loved ones who made me inspired in finishing this book and to my mentor, my professor, Mr. Paul Amerigo Pajo who required us to do this book for our own good and made an impact in our lives.

Preface Our professor, Paul Amerigo Pajo, informed us that at the end of the term we should be able to submit a three books containing all the book reviews that we had regarding Handbook of Information and Computer Ethics, CyberEthics and Bottom of the Pyramid. This book is a compilation of all the hard works of the author in this subject. This book contains book reviews from different books that the author read. This book is indeed memorable to the author because she spent a lot of her time accomplishing tasks for this subject. By doing this book, it made the author to be more patient and to know how to prioritize her time. The contents of this book are related to ethical doings. In this subject it was discussed how to react in every situation. Also, readers will learn the ethical things to do. This will be helpful to all readers especially to those who are in the I.T. industry.

THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 We call our society “the information society” because of the pivotal role played by intellectual, intangible assets (knowledge-based economy), information-intensive services (business and property services, communications, finance, and insurance), and public sectors (education, public administration, health care). Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER I – Internet Foundation of Information Ethics Review: INTRODUCTION It is discussed in this chapter that as a social organization and way of life, the information society has been made possible by a cluster of information and communication technologies (ICTs) infrastructures. Andas a full expression of techne, the information society has already posed fundamental ethical problems, whose complexity and global dimensions are rapidly growing and evolving. It was also mentioned that Information Ethics (IE) means differently in every researchers working in a variety of disciplines, including computer ethics, business ethics, medical ethics, computer science, the philosophy of information, social epistemology ICT studies, and library and information science. THE FIRST STAGE: IE AS AN ETHICS OF INFORMATIONAL RESOURCES According to Froehlich, it was in the 1980s by Koenig et al. (1981) and Hauptman (1988), when the expression of “information ethics” was introduced. It was used as a general label to discuss issues regarding information (or data) confidentiality, reliability, quality, and usage. Not surprisingly, the disciplines involved were initially library and information science and business and management studies. They were only later joined by information technologies studies. Socrates argued that a moral agent is naturally interested in gaining as much valuable information as the circumstances require, and that a well informed agent is more likely to do the right

thing. The ensuing “ethical intellectualism” analyzes evil and morally wrong behavior as the outcome of deficient information. THE SECOND STAGE: IE AS AN ETHICS OF INFORMATIONAL PRODUCTS It was in the 1990’s when IE began to merge with computer ethics, ICT revolution became so extensive as to give rise to new issues not only in the management of information-as-a-resource by professional figures but also in the distributed and pervasive creation, consumption, sharing, and control of information, by a very large and quickly increasing population of people online, commonly used to dealing with digital tools of all sorts. The author said that it is hard to identify researchers who uniquely support this specific interpretation of IE, as works on Information-as-Product Ethics tend to be inclusive, that are, they tend to build on the first understanding of IE as an ethics of informational resources and add to it a new layer of concerns for informational products as well. THE THIRD STAGE: IE AS AN ETHICS OF THE INFORMATIONAL ENVIRONMENT The more people have become accustomed to living and working immersed within digital environments, the easier it has become to unveil new ethical issues involving informational realities. Returning to our initial model, independently of A’s information input (info-resource) and output (infoproduct), in the 1990s there appeared works highlighting a third sense in which information may be subject to ethical analysis, namely, when A’s moral evaluations and actions affect the informational environment. Hacking, is understood as the unauthorized access to an information system, is another good example because it shows quite clearly the change in perspective. In the 1980s it was not uncommon to mistake hacking for a problem to be discussed within the conceptual frame of an ethics of informational resources. This misclassification allowed the hacker to defend his position by arguing that no use (let alone misuse) of the accessed information had been made. Yet hacking, properly understood, is a form of breach of privacy. What is in question is not what A does with the information, which has been accessed without authorization, but what it means for an informational environment to be accessed by A without authorization. THE LIMITS OF ANY MICROETHICAL APPROACH TO INFORMATION ETHICS In this chapter it was mentioned that, RPT model may help one to get some initial orientation in the multiplicity of issues belonging to different interpretations of Information Ethics. Despite its advantages, however, the model can still be criticized for being inadequate, for at least two reasons. the model is too simplistic. Arguably, several important issues belong mainly but not only to the analysis of just one “informational arrow.” The reader may have already thought of several examples that illustrate the problem: someone’s testimony is someone’s else trustworthy information; A’s responsibility may be determined by the information A holds, but it may also concern the information A issues; censorship affects A both as a user and as a producer of information; misinformation (i.e., the deliberate production and distribution of misleading information) is an ethical problem that concerns all three “informational arrows”; freedom of speech also affects the availability of offensive content (e.g., child pornography, violent content, and socially, politically, or religiously disrespectful statements) that might be morally questionable and should not circulate. The model is insufficiently inclusive. There are many important issues that cannot easily be placed on the map at all, for they really emerge from, or supervene on, the interactions among the “informational arrows.” Two significant examples may suffice: “big brother,” that is, the problem of monitoring and controlling anything that might concern A and the debate about information ownership and fair use, which affects both users and producers while shaping their informational environment.

Both criticisms are justified: the RPT model is indeed inadequate. As the examples mentioned above emphasize, supporters of narrowly constructed interpretations of Information Ethics as a micro ethics are faced with the problem of being unable to cope with a large variety of relevant issues, which remain either uncovered or inexplicable. In other words, the model shows that idiosyncratic versions of IE, which privilege only some limited aspects of the information cycle, are unsatisfactory.

THE FOURTH STAGE: INFORMATION ETHICS AS A MACROETHICS Biocentric ethics usually grounds its analysis of the moral standing of bioentities and ecosystems on the intrinsic worthiness of life and the intrinsically negative value of suffering. It seeks to develop a patient-oriented ethics in which the “patient “maybe not only a human being, but also any form of life. Indeed, Land Ethics extends the concept of patient to any component of the environment, thus coming close to the approach defended by Information Ethics. Any form of life is deemed to enjoy some essential proprieties or moral interests that deserve and demand to be respected, at least minimally and relatively, that is when contrasted to other interests. So biocentric ethics argues that the nature and well-being of the patient of any action constitute its moral standing and that the latter makes important claims on the interacting agent, claims that in principle ought to contribute to the guidance of the agent’s ethical decisions and the constraint of the agent’s moral behavior. The author mentioned that, Ethics has steadily moved from a narrow to a more inclusive concept of what can count as a center of moral worth, from the citizen to the biosphere (Nash, 1989). The emergence of the info sphere, as a new environment in which human beings spend much of their lives, explains the need to enlarge further the conception of what can qualify as a moral patient. IE represents the most recent development in this ecumenical trend, a Platonist and ecological approach without a biocentric bias, a move from the biosphere to the info sphere. More than 50 years ago, Leopold defined Land Ethics as something that “changes the role of Homo Sapiens from conqueror of the land community to plain member and citizen of it. Moral Agents It was said that a transition system is interactive when the system and its environment act upon each other. Typical examples include input or output of a value, or simultaneous engagement of an action by both agent and patient. A transition system is also said to be autonomous when the system is able to change state without direct response to interaction, that is, it can perform internal transitions to change its state. So an agent must have at least two states. This property instils an agent with a certain degree of complexity and independence from its environment. Finally, a transition system is adaptable when the system’s interactions change the transition rules by which it changes state. This property ensures that an agent might be viewed as learning its own mode of operation in a way that depends critically on its experience. There can be moral agency in the absence of moral responsibility. Promoting normative action is perfectly reasonable even when there is no responsibility but only moral accountability and the capacity for moral action. Four Moral Principles All this does not mean that the concept of “responsibility” is redundant. On the contrary, the previous analysis makes clear the need for further analysis of the concept of responsibility itself, especially when the latter refers to the ontological commitments of creators of new agents and environments. The only “cost” of a “mind-less morality” approach is the extension of the class of agents

and moral agents to embrace artificial agents. It is a cost that is increasingly worth paying the more we move toward an advanced information society. Lessons Learned: I learned in this chapter that, a human being is part of the whole, universe as what we call, a part limited in time and space. He experiences himself, his thoughts and feelings, as something separated from the rest, a kind of optical delusion of his consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons close to us. Our task must be to free ourselves from our prison by widening our circle of compassion to embrace all humanity and the whole of nature in its beauty. Nobody is capable of achieving this completely, but the striving for such achievement is in itself a part of the liberation and a foundation for inner security. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER II – Milestones in the History of Information and Computer Ethics Review: In the middle of the Second World War, academic field of information ethics was born. In this chapter, it was noted that this way of doing information ethics does not require the expertise of a trained philosopher. Any adult who functions successfully in a reasonably just society is likely to be familiar with existing customs, practices, rules, and laws that govern one’s behavior and enable one to tell whether a proposed action or policy would be ethically acceptable. As a result, those who must cope with the introduction of new information technology—whether they are public policy makers, computer professionals, business people, workers, teachers, parents, or others—can and should engage in information ethics by helping to integrate new information technology into society in an ethically acceptable way. Information ethics, understood in this very broad sense, is too important to be left only to philosophers or to information professionals. Moor stated that, Computers are logically malleable in that they can be shaped and molded to do any activity that can be characterized in terms of inputs, outputs, and connecting logical operations because logic applies everywhere, the potential applications of computer technology appear limitless. The computer is the nearest thing we have to a universal tool. Indeed, the limits of computers are largely the limits of our own creativity.

In this chapter, it was said that many people found Moor’s account of computer ethics to be insightful and a helpful way to understand and deal with emerging computer ethics issues. His account of the nature of computer ethics quickly became the most influential one among a growing number of scholars across America who was joining the computer ethics research community. A common ethical thread that runs through much of the history of computer ethics, from Norbert Wiener onward, is concern for the protection and advancement of central human values such as life, health, security, happiness, freedom, knowledge, resources, power, and opportunity.

Lessons Learned: I learned in this chapter that, computers are logically malleable in that they can be shaped and molded to do any activity that can be characterized in terms of inputs, outputs, and connecting logical operations because logic applies everywhere, the potential applications of computer technology appear limitless. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER III – Moral Methodology and Information Technology Review: Based on what I read, it was said in this chapter that, computer ethics is a form of applied or practical ethics. It studies the moral questions that are associated with the development, application, and use of computers and computer science. Computer ethics exemplifies, like many other areas of applied and professional ethics, the increasing interest among professionals, public policy makers, and academic philosophers in real-life ethical questions. Posing ethical questions about privacy, software patents, responsibility for software errors, equal access, and autonomous agents is one thing; answering them is another. Also, it was said that moral philosophers started to look at problems and practices in the professions, in public policy issues, and public debate. Especially in the USA, philosophers gradually started to realize that philosophy could contribute to social and political debates about, for example, the

Vietnam War, civil rights, abortion, environmental issues, animal rights, and euthanasia, by clarifying terms and structuring arguments. There are problems with the Engineering views that are said in this chapter. They are related to the logic and to the epistemic status of the premises. The logic of the Engineering Model fails to capture the phenomenon of belief revision, exceptions, ceteris paribus clauses, and default logic, which characterizes much of ordinary moral discourse. It furthermore fails to address the problem of opentextured concepts and vague notions. There are important objections to particularism, of which two deserve closer examination in this context. The first is that theory and thinking in terms of moral principles and rules seems to be part of our moral practices. Trying to find general principles to match one’s judgments and intuitions in a particular case to extend them to other cases, or to explain them to others, seems a natural thing to do and is simply part and parcel of moral life, especially in the public policy and political arena. Our moral thinking in some cases simply depends on our ability to articulate the covering moral rules or principles. Only when an exaggerated distinction between theory and practice is introduced, can one make the latter seem superior at the expense of the former. Lessons Learned: I learned in this chapter that, Computer ethics exemplifies, like many other areas of applied and professional ethics, the increasing interest among professionals, public policy makers, and academic philosophers in real-life ethical questions. Posing ethical questions about privacy, software patents, responsibility for software errors, equal access, and autonomous agents is one thing; answering them is another. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The credibility of the system is of great importance, particularly when the system is being used in a politically charged situation, and is thus the subject of intense scrutiny. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER IV – Value Sensitive Design and Information Systems Review: Value Sensitive Design is discussed in this chapter that it is said to be a theoretically grounded approach to the design of technology that accounts for human values in a principled and comprehensive manner throughout the design process. It employs an integrative and iterative tripartite methodology, consisting of conceptual, empirical, and technical investigations.

There are also three case studies by Value Sensitive Design that are mentioned in this chapter. First, concerns information and control of web browser cookies, implicating the value of informed consent. The second study concerns using high-definition plasma displays in an office environment to provide a “window” to the outside world, implicating the values of physical and psychological well-being and privacy in public spaces. The third study concerns an integrated land use, transportation, and environmental simulation system to support public deliberation and debate on major land use and transportation decisions, implicating the values of fairness, accountability, and support for the democratic process, as well as a highly diverse range of values that might be held by different stakeholders, such as environmental sustainability, opportunities for business expansion, or walkable neighborhoods. Value Sensitive Design can help researchers uncover the multiplicity of and potential conflicts among human values implicated in technological implementations. In the above design space, for example, values of physical health, emotional well-being, and creativity appear to partially conflict with other values of privacy, civil rights, trust, and security. Value Sensitive Design distinguishes between usability and human values with ethical import. Usability refers to characteristics of a system that make it work in a functional sense, including that it is easy to use, easy to learn, consistent, and recovers easily from errors. Value Sensitive Design identifies and takes seriously two classes of stakeholders: direct and indirect. Direct stakeholders refer to parties’ individuals or organizations that interact directly with the computer system or its output. Indirect stakeholders refer to all other parties who are affected by the use of the system. Lessons Learned: I learned in this chapter things about Value Sensitive Design.

THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The justification typically given for the “fair use” rule is that the disvalue of limiting the rights of authors is overbalanced by the value of greater access. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER V – Personality-Based, Rule Utilitarian, and Lockean Justification Review:

This chapter overviews about the arguments for intellectual property rights have generally taken one of three forms. Personality theorists maintain that intellectual property is an extension of individual personality. Rule-utilitarian ground intellectual property rights in social progress and incentives to innovate. Lockeans argue that rights are justified in relation to labor and merit. Intellectual property is generally characterized as nonphysical property that is the product of cognitive processes and whose value is based upon some idea or collection. Intellectual property rights surround the control of physical manifestations or expressions. Systems of intellectual property protect rights to ideas by protecting rights to produce and control physical embodiments of those ideas. There are said to be works that may be copyrighted include literary, musical, artistic, photographic, and cinematographic works, maps, architectural works, and computer software. There are five exclusive rights that copyright owners enjoy and three major restrictions on the bundle. Personality must be permitted to be active, that is to say, to bring its will to bear and reveal its significance to the world; for culture can thrive only if persons are able to express themselves, and are in a position to place all their inherent capacities at the command of their will. Lessons Learned: I learned in this chapter the five rights are said in to be the right to reproduce the work, the right to adapt it or derive other works from it, the right to distribute copies of the work, the right to display the work publicly, and the right to perform it publicly. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER VI – Informational Privacy: Concepts, Theories, and Controversies Review: In this chapter, the concept of privacy was discussed. It was said that privacy is not simply a static concept, but instead has a dynamic component. Moor argues that privacy is “an evolving concept” and that its “content” is often influenced by the “political and technological features of the society’s environment.” In a later section of this chapter, we will see how the concept of privacy has evolved significantly in the United States since the eighteenth century. Some theorists, such as Regan, claim that the concept of privacy has existed throughout American history. Yet this concept has also been contested

in American jurisprudence, as there is no explicit mention of privacy in the U.S. Constitution. Many Americans now believe that their privacy is severely threatened by the kinds of technologies that have been developed and used in recent years, and some even speak of “the end of privacy. Also, it was discussed that, “Physical privacy” and “accessibility privacy” are relatively recent expressions used to refer to a conception of privacy that emerged in the late nineteenth century in response to an influential article on privacy by Samuel Warren and Louis Brande. Privacy is sometimes conceived of as freedom from interference in one’s personal choices, plans, and decisions; many now refer to this view as decisional privacy. Lessons Learned: I learned in this chapter the five rights are said in to be the right to reproduce the work, the right to adapt it or derive other works from it, the right to distribute copies of the work, the right to display the work publicly, and the right to perform it publicly. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER VII – Online Anonymity Review: In this chapter, the term anonymity is said in this chapter to denote a number of related things: namelessness, detachment, unidentifiability, lack of recognition, loss of sense of identity or sense of self, and so on. Anonymity can also be brought about in a variety of ways and there are many purposes, both positive and negative, that anonymity could serve, such as, on the positive side, promoting free expression and exchange of ideas, or protecting someone from undesirable publicity or, on the negative, hate speech with no accountability, fraud or other criminal activity. Anonymity and privacy are also considered to be closely related, with anonymity being one means of ensuring privacy. The author mentioned in this chapter that Internet as a social environment may be of concern in so far as it has the capacity to increase the scope of natural or spontaneous anonymity as a by-product of or endemic to the nature of online communicative relations. For instance, in comparison to face-to-face and telephonic communications, social and person cues are reduced in online communications, and

people can easily adopt pseudonyms and personae in chat rooms, blogs, and so on. However, the idea that in “cyberspace” anonymity is given may be mistaken. THE CONCEPT OF ANONYMITY: In this chapter the concept of anonymity was discussed. It was said that Anonymity has sometimes been taken to mean “un-name-ability” or “namelessness,” but that is somewhat too narrow a definition. While a name is often a key and clear identifier of a person, that is not always the case. A name could be ambiguous or there maybe contexts in which some other tags is a less ambiguous identifier of a person. Moreover, someone could be clearly and unambiguously identified without naming her, for example, by giving enough other identifying information such that the person can be uniquely picked out even without having been named. Anonymity presupposes social or communicative relations.9 In other words, it is relative to social contexts in which one has the capacity to act, affect or be affected by others, or in which the knowledge or lack of knowledge of whom a person is relevant to their acting, affecting, or being affected by others. Lessons Learned: I agree with what the author said on the last part that anonymity presupposes social or communicative relations.9 In other words, it is relative to social contexts in which one has the capacity to act, affect or be affected by others, or in which the knowledge or lack of knowledge of whom a person is relevant to their acting, affecting, or being affected by others. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER VIII – Ethical Issues Involving Computer Security: Hacking, Hacktivism, and Counterhacking Review: Benign Intrusions as Exercising the Right to a Free Flow of Content

It was said that this argument also attempts to identify a moral principle that might limit other rights indeed, one grounded in a putatively stronger right than privacy and property rights, namely the right of free expression. So strong is the right of free expression, on this analysis, that it entails a moral principle that would prevent any other right from permitting restrictions on the free flow of content. Also, based on what I’ve read the claim that there are no morally legitimate restrictions on the free flow of content is inconsistent with there being any moral intellectual property (IP) rights. Of course, moral IP rights might be much weaker than the right defined by IP law. But the idea that there are any moral IP rights is inconsistent with the claim that there are no morally legitimate restrictions on the free flow of content. If we have any moral IP right to exclude people from the contents of at least some of our creations, then the right of free expression permits restrictions on the flow of content. What is Hacktivism? It was emphasized in this chapter that hacktivism” can be defined as “the commission of an unauthorized digital intrusion for the purpose of expressing a political or moral position.” Qua digital act, hacktivism is nonviolent in nature. Qua activism, hacktivism does not seek to achieve its political purposes, unlike terrorism, by inspiring terror among the population; it attempts to achieve these purposes by stimulating discussion and debate. Hacktivism is thus conceptually distinct from cyber terrorism— though the boundaries, as we will see, sometimes seem to blur. Hacktivism is distinct from other forms of benign hacking in that it is motivated by the laudable desire to protest injustice. Lessons Learned: I agree with what the author said on the last part that anonymity presupposes social or communicative relations.9 In other words, it is relative to social contexts in which one has the capacity to act, affect or be affected by others, or in which the knowledge or lack of knowledge of whom a person is relevant to their acting, affecting, or being affected by others.

THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER IX – Information Ethics and the Library Profession

Review: The author said that Libraries by their very nature shape the ways in which we access information. If they did not do this, they would have little use. A big room with all the books and other information stuffed in at random with no way of sorting through it would be relatively useless. As we saw in the previous section, selection is an unavoidable part of the librarian’s job; the same is true of organization. However, once one sorts and organizes material or provides particular ways for the information seeker to sort the material herself, one is shaping what information that seeker will get and how the seeker will perceive this information. This shaping may be intentional, or it may simply be an artifact of the way in which the sorting system has been set up. Nevertheless, a library is an intermediary between the person who wishes to access some information and the information. The question is what sorts of shaping are appropriate and which are inappropriate. In traditional library cataloging and classification, the categories and organization of the information objects are the creations of library professionals. Librarians determine what would be the most useful categories to use in organizing material. This may either be by devising a categorical scheme ahead of time or by using the works within the subject area to guide the creation of the categories. Not all classifications require such intentional acts of categorization by human beings, however. Classification schemes can also arise from “the ground up,” as a result of the ways in which large numbers of people actually label and use information objects. Language itself can be seen as one such classification scheme. Lessons Learned: I agree with what the author said on the last part that anonymity presupposes social or communicative relations.9 In other words, it is relative to social contexts in which one has the capacity to act, affect or be affected by others, or in which the knowledge or lack of knowledge of whom a person is relevant to their acting, affecting, or being affected by others. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER IX – Information Ethics and the Library Profession Review: The author said that Libraries by their very nature shape the ways in which we access information. If they did not do this, they would have little use. A big room with all the books and other

information stuffed in at random with no way of sorting through it would be relatively useless. As we saw in the previous section, selection is an unavoidable part of the librarian’s job; the same is true of organization. However, once one sorts and organizes material or provides particular ways for the information seeker to sort the material herself, one is shaping what information that seeker will get and how the seeker will perceive this information. This shaping may be intentional, or it may simply be an artifact of the way in which the sorting system has been set up. Nevertheless, a library is an intermediary between the person who wishes to access some information and the information. The question is what sorts of shaping are appropriate and which are inappropriate. In traditional library cataloging and classification, the categories and organization of the information objects are the creations of library professionals. Librarians determine what would be the most useful categories to use in organizing material. This may either be by devising a categorical scheme ahead of time or by using the works within the subject area to guide the creation of the categories. Not all classifications require such intentional acts of categorization by human beings, however. Classification schemes can also arise from “the ground up,” as a result of the ways in which large numbers of people actually label and use information objects. Language itself can be seen as one such classification scheme. Lessons Learned: I agree with what the author said on the last part that even if children do not have the cognitive development to ground full intellectual freedom, there is still an important justification for trying to provide as full a range of information as possible in support of that children’s future intellectual freedom. Arguably, in order to develop capacities for understanding, evaluating, and deliberating about information, children need some degree of liberty to make their own information choices as well as access to a broad range of information. Such liberty by itself without adult guidance, however, may inhibit rather than promote the development of an autonomous self. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER X – Ethical Interest in Free and Open Source Software Review: Open Source System The free software community was said by the author that grew substantially after the introduction of the Internet and Linus Torvalds. Contribution of Linux as free software. It quietly made gains, without

garnering widespread attention, until 1998, when Eric Raymond and Bruce Perens teamed to create the Open Source Initiative. In 1997, Raymond gave the first thorough analysis of the software development process employed by the free software community in “The cathedral and the bazaar” (Raymond, 2001). He argued that the process is effective at producing superior software and considers numerous reasons that make it effective.

Lessons Learned: I agree with what the author said on the last part that even if children do not have the cognitive development to ground full intellectual freedom, there is still an important justification for trying to provide as full a range of information as possible in support of that children’s future intellectual freedom. Arguably, in order to develop capacities for understanding, evaluating, and deliberating about information, children need some degree of liberty to make their own information choices as well as access to a broad range of information. Such liberty by itself without adult guidance, however, may inhibit rather than promote the development of an autonomous self. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER X – Ethical Interest in Free and Open Source Software Review: Open Source System The free software community was said by the author that grew substantially after the introduction of the Internet and Linus Torvalds. Contribution of Linux as free software. It quietly made gains, without garnering widespread attention, until 1998, when Eric Raymond and Bruce Perens teamed to create the Open Source Initiative. In 1997, Raymond gave the first thorough analysis of the software development process employed by the free software community in “The cathedral and the bazaar” (Raymond, 2001). He argued that the process is effective at producing superior software and considers numerous reasons that make it effective. The author mentioned also that The social contract articulated in the Open Source Software Definition is fairly clear about what OSS offers to others. But what do OSS developers expect in return?

What motivates developers to contribute to an open source project? Is it altruism, that is, do they consider it a “pro bono” project that contributes to the public good? Is it a reaction against corporate greed? Does it make them feel part of a select community with special talents? Clearly all of these play a part in OSS developer motivation to abide by this contract. Beyond that, however, there is also a sense that developers see their involvement as “enlightened self-interest”.

Lessons Learned: I agree with what the author said on the last part that even if children do not have the cognitive development to ground full intellectual freedom, there is still an important justification for trying to provide as full a range of information as possible in support of that children’s future intellectual freedom. Arguably, in order to develop capacities for understanding, evaluating, and deliberating about information, children need some degree of liberty to make their own information choices as well as access to a broad range of information. Such liberty by itself without adult guidance, however, may inhibit rather than promote the development of an autonomous self. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER X – Ethical Interest in Free and Open Source Software Review: Open Source System The free software community was said by the author that grew substantially after the introduction of the Internet and Linus Torvalds. Contribution of Linux as free software. It quietly made gains, without garnering widespread attention, until 1998, when Eric Raymond and Bruce Perens teamed to create the Open Source Initiative. In 1997, Raymond gave the first thorough analysis of the software development process employed by the free software community in “The cathedral and the bazaar” (Raymond, 2001). He argued that the process is effective at producing superior software and considers numerous reasons that make it effective. It was stated also that, Quality software, in the traditional sense, is software that meets requirement specifications, is well-tested, well-documented, and maintainable. Advocates of OSS claim

that its developers/users are motivated to do quality work because they are developing software for their own use; their reputations among their peers are at stake. Critics of OSS claim that volunteers will not do professional-quality work if there is no monetary compensation. This has become a rather outdated argument. As we have seen above, there are many who are employed by companies to write open source code and others who are paid to customize it. Critics also claim that documentation and maintenance are nonexistent. Although it is true that documentation and maintenance are concerns, OSS advocates maintain that OSS meets users. Requirements, is tested by its developers, and is constantly being upgraded. Documentation evolves as more and more users become interested in the software and use it. The author mentioned also that the social contract articulated in the Open Source Software Definition is fairly clear about what OSS offers to others. But what do OSS developers expect in return? What motivates developers to contribute to an open source project? Is it altruism, that is, do they consider it a “pro bono” project that contributes to the public good? Is it a reaction against corporate greed? Does it make them feel part of a select community with special talents? Clearly all of these play a part in OSS developer motivation to abide by this contract. Beyond that, however, there is also a sense that developers see their involvement as “enlightened self-interest”.

Lessons Learned: I agree with what the author said and this is what I learned that Quality software, in the traditional sense, is software that meets requirement specifications, is well-tested, well-documented, and maintainable. Advocates of OSS claim that its developers/users are motivated to do quality work because they are developing software for their own use; their reputations among their peers are at stake. Critics of OSS claim that volunteers will not do professional-quality work if there is no monetary compensation. This has become a rather outdated argument. As we have seen above, there are many who are employed by companies to write open source code and others who are paid to customize it. Critics also claim that documentation and maintenance are nonexistent. Although it is true that documentation and maintenance are concerns, OSS advocates maintain that OSS meets users. Requirements, is tested by its developers, and is constantly being upgraded. Documentation evolves as more and more users become interested in the software and use it.

THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER XI – Internet Research Ethics: The Field and Its Critical Issues Review: The author overviews that Internet research ethics (IRE) is an emerging multi- and interdisciplinary field that systematically studies the ethical implications that arise from the use of the Internet as a space or locale of, and/or tool for, research. No one discipline can claim IRE as its own, as various disciplines since the 1990s have used the Internet for research and, to some extent, grappled with the ethical implications of such research. Indeed, because Internet research is undertaken from a wide range of disciplines, IRE builds on the research ethics traditions developed for medical, humanistic, and social science research; this means in turn that a central challenge for IRE is to develop guidelines for ethical research that aim toward objective, universally recognized norms, while simultaneously incorporating important disciplinary differences in research ethics a challenge frequently met in IRE through pluralistic approaches that conjoin shared norms alongside such irreducible differences. Indeed, at the heart of IRE is an intertwined convergence as IRE seeks to draw from the insights of applied ethics, research methods, information and computer ethics, and comparative philosophy. Respect for Persons Human subjects protections models are grounded in respect for persons, as born out of the informed consent process, as well as through a consideration of risks and benefits for the individual and for the larger society. A careful balance is necessary, though this has certainly not always been the case (e.g., the Tuskegee syphilis study), in protecting individual rights within the greater societal good. Researchers must justify the risk of their studies by the value of potential results. And, through the informed consent process, research participants must clearly understand these risks and benefits, what is taking place in the research, what is expected of them, and what will become of the data. Informed consent must be processual, not a static one-time event. Recruitment

Based on what I’ve read, it was stated that In traditional research ethics, the principle of justice demands that subjects have an equal or fair chance of participation—exclusion must be based on some justifiable reason. The federal Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP) in its IRB Handbook, The Foundations of Human Subjects Protections in the United States, describes the principle of justice: The principle of justice mandates that the selection of research subjects must be the result of fair selection procedures and must also result in fair selection outcomes. The “justness” of subject selection relates both to the subject as an individual.

Lessons Learned: I agree with what the author said and this it is clear that the research ethics implicated by a given ethical problem or difficulty is deeply entwined with and defined by the specific methodology that shape a specific research project. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER XII – Health Information Technology: Challenges in Ethics, Science, and Uncertainty Review: PRIVACY AND CONFIDENTIALITY The demands of privacy are intuitively straightforward and the consequences of its violation obvious. Without a credible promise that privacy and confidentiality will be safeguarded, the task of fostering trust is frustrated. If for instance a patient believes that a physician will disclose interesting or salacious diagnostic data to others, the patient might not disclose information the physician needs to render an accurate diagnosis in the first place. If a patient believes a physician or hospital does not maintain the security of medical records, the patient might similarly be discouraged to tell the truth. And if a patient is dubious about an institution’s ability to safeguard data stored in or transmitted by computers and other information systems, then the technology itself will be a source of distrust. STATUS OF THE PROFESSION

Based on what I’ve read, this is what I’ve learned there come a point at which it is not inaccurate to suggest that an intelligent machine is practicing medicine or nursing? Moreover, in the event of an affirmative answer to that question, one might reasonably reply, “So what?” or at least “so what, if patient care is improved?” Such an exchange parallels those in numerous other disciplines concerning the extent of any computer’s appropriate use. The challenge for us is the same one that has been a part of the computer ethics. I also learned that in order to meet these challenges, we turn to various forms of inquiry: science and ethics. There is of course no alternative. The very idea that use of a tool, in this case a computational tool, might be required or forbidden depending on facts and factors we are unsure of is exhilarating. Applied ethics is too often regarded as consisting in handwringing. In fact, it is among the most important things humans do. At our best, we progress: Science and ethics advance in ways that improve the human condition, generally speaking. Lessons Learned: I agree with what the author said that the demands of privacy are intuitively straightforward and the consequences of its violation obvious. Without a credible promise that privacy and confidentiality will be safeguarded, the task of fostering trust is frustrated. If for instance a patient believes that a physician will disclose interesting or salacious diagnostic data to others, the patient might not disclose information the physician needs to render an accurate diagnosis in the first place. If a patient believes a physician or hospital does not maintain the security of medical records, the patient might similarly be discouraged to tell the truth. And if a patient is dubious about an institution’s ability to safeguard data stored in or transmitted by computers and other information systems, then the technology itself will be a source of distrust. I also learned that in order to meet these challenges, we turn to various forms of inquiry: science and ethics. There is of course no alternative. The very idea that use of a tool, in this case a computational tool, might be required or forbidden depending on facts and factors we are unsure of is exhilarating. Applied ethics is too often regarded as consisting in handwringing. In fact, it is among the most important things humans do. At our best, we progress: Science and ethics advance in ways that improve the human condition, generally speaking. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER XIII – Ethical Issues of Information and Business Review:

The Concept of Business Economic activity is a part of every society, and it is arguably one of the most important aspects of current liberal democratic states. Businesses have a large influence on how we live our individual lives and also on how society is regulated. Businesses are social facts, but they are also the objects of theoretical and academic attention. The only introductory remark about business that seems indispensable at this stage of the argument refers to two possible levels of observation of business that will inform the subsequent debate on ethics. The two levels of observation of business and economic activity are the micro- and macrolevels. These are reflected by the distinction between the academic disciplines of economics and business studies. The foci of attention of the two levels are different, which is reflected by different methodologies and vocabularies. To address the ethical issues arising from the intersection of business and information, we nevertheless need to consider both levels. Manifest ethical problems, for example, caused by employee surveillance or digital rights management, often occur on the microlevel of the individual business or industry. They cannot be completely divorced, however, from the macrolevel of national and global institutions which, in turn, are linked to prevalent understanding and theories of economics. The Business Value of Information Also, the author lectured that, Ethical issues enter the debate when the justifications of a possible right to be left alone are discussed. In principle, these can be divided into two streams of debate: one that is concerned with data about customers, the other which deals with privacy of employees. Companies usually have more power over their employees than their customers. The arguments in defense of employee privacy are therefore based on stronger ethical concerns. Within the debate about employee privacy, one can distinguish three groups of reasons for its support. They deal primarily with the individual person, with society, and with economic considerations. Attacks on employee surveillance as the main threat to employee privacy are Lessons Learned: I agree with what the author said that the demands of privacy are intuitively straightforward and the consequences of its violation obvious. Without a credible promise that privacy and confidentiality will be safeguarded, the task of fostering trust is frustrated. If for instance a patient believes that a physician will disclose interesting or salacious diagnostic data to others, the patient might not disclose information the physician needs to render an accurate diagnosis in the first place. If a patient believes a physician or hospital does not maintain the security of medical records, the patient might similarly be discouraged to tell the truth. And if a patient is dubious about an institution’s ability to safeguard data stored in or transmitted by computers and other information systems, then the technology itself will be a source of distrust. I also learned that in order to meet these challenges, we turn to various forms of inquiry: science and ethics. There is of course no alternative. The very idea that use of a tool, in this case a computational tool, might be required or forbidden depending on facts and factors we are unsure of is exhilarating. Applied ethics is too often regarded as consisting in handwringing. In fact, it is among the most important things humans do. At our best, we progress: Science and ethics advance in ways that improve the human condition, generally speaking. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER XIV– Responsibilities for Information on the Internet Review: These are some of the things that the author discussed. First, there should be a causal relationship of some kind between the agent and the action or the consequences of the action. This relationship can be direct or indirect, substantial or additional. The relationship need not be the one that can be framed in terms of a sufficient condition or even of a necessary condition as long as it contributes in one way or another to the effect. Second, the action or its consequences should be performed or produced intentionally. This does not mean that the agent should have or should have had a positive desire to bring about the action or its consequences. The only minimal requirement is that he or she at least did not act or did not refrain from acting in a state of voluntary ignorance regarding the action or the omission and their consequences. Although a thorough discussion about this point would go far beyond the purposes of this chapter, it should be kept in mind that the things that I have said about causality and intentionality are of a rather minimalist vein. What causal relationship and what kind and degree of intentionality should be present depends on the context, the kind of action, and the kind of value that is at stake. Lessons Learned: I agree with what the author said that the demands of privacy are intuitively straightforward and the consequences of its violation obvious. Without a credible promise that privacy and confidentiality will be safeguarded, the task of fostering trust is frustrated. If for instance a patient believes that a physician will disclose interesting or salacious diagnostic data to others, the patient might not disclose information the physician needs to render an accurate diagnosis in the first place. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences.

Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER XV– Virtual Reality and Computer Simulation Review: In this chapter, it was said that Virtual reality and computer simulation have not received much attention from ethicists. It is argued in this essay that this relative neglect is unjustified, and that there are important ethical questions that can be raised in relation to these technologies. First of all, these technologies raise important ethical questions about the way in which they represent reality and the misrepresentations, biased representations, and offensive representations that they may contain. In addition, actions in virtual environments can be harmful to others and raise moral issues within all major traditions in ethics, including consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics. Although immersive virtual reality systems are not yet used on a large scale, non-immersive virtual reality is regularly experienced by hundreds of millions of users, in the form of computer games and virtual environments for exploration and social networking. These forms of virtual reality also raise ethical questions regarding their benefits and harms to users and society, and the values and biases contained in them. The author mentioned also something about A computer simulation is a computer program that contains a model of a particular system. The program can be executed, simulating changes in the system according to certain parameters, after which the output results of the simulation can be analyzed. Computer simulation is also the name of the discipline in which such models are designed, executed, and analyzed. The models in computer simulations are usually abstract and either are or involve mathematical models. Computer simulation has become a useful part of the mathematical modelling of many natural systems in the natural sciences, human systems in the social sciences, and technological systems in the engineering sciences, in order to gain insight into the operations of these systems and to study the effects of alternative conditions and courses of action. Lessons Learned: I learned that actions in virtual environments can be harmful to others and raise moral issues within all major traditions in ethics, including consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics. Although immersive virtual reality systems are not yet used on a large scale, non-immersive virtual reality is regularly experienced by hundreds of millions of users. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences.

Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER XVI– Genetic Information: Epistemological and Ethical Issues Review: In this chapter, Genetic essentialism7 is widely attacked and this view has strongly influenced the public perception of genetics. According to Lewontin, however, it takes more than DNA to make a living organism and its history. A living organism at every moment of its life is the unique consequence of a developmental history that results from the interaction of and determination by internal (genetics) and external (environmental) forces. Such external forces are themselves partly a consequence of the activities of the organism itself, produced by the conditions of its own existence. Reciprocally, the internal forces are not autonomous, but act in response to the external. Part of the internal chemical machinery of a cell is manufactured only when external conditions demand it. Therefore, genetic essentialism, which assumes the uniqueness and independence of genetic information, does not give us a plausible argument for treating genetic information in a special category. Another claim that genetic information is special compared with other kinds of health-related information is sometimes based on a further claim that there is some other kind of genetic information that makes it different. Some have pointed out that genetic information is predictive; but it is also worth pointing out that, on the contrary, a lot of genetic information is non-predictive and much of non-genetic health-related information is predictive. Lessons Learned: I learned based on the statement of the author that “information” is used in two different contexts: “It may be used without semantic implication; for example, we may say that the form of a cloud provides information about whether it will rain. In such cases, no one would think that the cloud had the shape it did in deeply oppressive. To achieve such a vision in a positive sense, culture cannot be separated from biology. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other.

CHAPTER XVII– The Ethics of Cyber Conflict Review: This chapter mentioned that ethical dilemmas involve nonstate actors whose cyber attacks are politically or socially motivated. This domain of conflict is often referred to as “hacktivism,” as it represents a confluence of hacking with activism. If the attacks are designed to be sufficiently destructive as to severely harm and terrorize civilians they become “cyberterrorism” the integration of cyber attacks with terrorism. Although cyberterrorism is abhorrent and clearly unethical, hacktivism raises ethical questions. The other thing, the author mentioned something about the ethics of cyber defense, particularly what is called “hack back,” “strike back,” or “active response.” If a system is under cyber attack, can the system administrators attack back in order to stop it? What if the attack is coming from computers that may themselves be victims of compromise? Since many attacks are routed through chains of compromised machines, can a victim “hack back” along the chain in order to determine the source? Also, another statement was pointed out by the author. He said that, international law of armed conflict applies to nation states, and thus concerns cyber warfare at the state level. The paper will extend this framework to politically and socially motivated cyber attacks by non state actors, and compare this approach with some previous work on the ethics of cyber activism and civil disobedience. It will also apply the international law of armed conflict to the domain of cyber defense, and show how it ties in with the legal doctrine of selfdefense and relates to other work on hack back. Lessons Learned: I learned based on the statement of the author that “information” is used in two different contexts: “It may be used without semantic implication; for example, we may say that the form of a cloud provides information about whether it will rain. In such cases, no one would think that the cloud had the shape it did in deeply oppressive. To achieve such a vision in a positive sense, culture cannot be separated from biology. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other.

CHAPTER XVII– The Ethics of Cyber Conflict Review: This chapter mentioned that ethical dilemmas involve nonstate actors whose cyber attacks are politically or socially motivated. This domain of conflict is often referred to as “hacktivism,” as it represents a confluence of hacking with activism. If the attacks are designed to be sufficiently destructive as to severely harm and terrorize civilians they become “cyberterrorism” the integration of cyber attacks with terrorism. Although cyberterrorism is abhorrent and clearly unethical, hacktivism raises ethical questions. The other thing, the author mentioned something about the ethics of cyber defense, particularly what is called “hack back,” “strike back,” or “active response.” If a system is under cyber attack, can the system administrators attack back in order to stop it? What if the attack is coming from computers that may themselves be victims of compromise? Since many attacks are routed through chains of compromised machines, can a victim “hack back” along the chain in order to determine the source? Also, another statement was pointed out by the author. He said that, international law of armed conflict applies to nation states, and thus concerns cyber warfare at the state level. The paper will extend this framework to politically and socially motivated cyber attacks by non state actors, and compare this approach with some previous work on the ethics of cyber activism and civil disobedience. It will also apply the international law of armed conflict to the domain of cyber defense, and show how it ties in with the legal doctrine of selfdefense and relates to other work on hack back. The author mentioned something about The Law of Information Conflict: Severity – this refers to people killed or wounded and property damage. The premise is that armed attacks that use force often produce extensive casualties or property damage, whereas soft measures do not. Immediacy – this is the time it takes for the consequences of an operation to take effect. As a general rule, armed attacks that use force have immediate effects, on the order of seconds to minutes, while softer measures, such as trade restrictions, may not be felt for weeks or months. Directness – this is the relationship between an operation and its effects. For an armed attack, effects are generally caused by and attributable to the application of force, whereas for softer measures there could be multiple explanations. Invasiveness – this refers to whether an operation involved crossing borders into the target country. In general, an armed attack crosses borders physically, whereas softer measures are implemented from within the borders of a sponsoring country. Measurability – this is the ability to measure the effects of an operation. The premise is that the effects of armed attacks are more readily quantified (number of casualties, dollar value of property damage) than softer measures, for example, severing diplomatic relations. Presumptive Legitimacy – this refers to whether an operation is considered legitimate within the international community. Whereas the use of armed force is generally unlawful absent some justifiable reason such as self-defense, the use of soft measures are generally lawful absent some prohibition. Responsibility – this refers to the degree to which the consequence of an action can be attributed to a state as opposed to other actors. The premise is that armed coercion is within the exclusive province of states and is more susceptible to being charged to states, whereas non state actors are capable of engaging in such soft activity as propaganda and boycotts. Lessons Learned: I learned based on the statement of the author that one area where hacktivism may be morally justified is civil disobedience, which is the active refusal to obey certain laws and demands of a government through nonviolent means. Civil disobedience is conducted to protest and draw attention to laws, policies, and practices that are considered unjust or unethical. It employs such means as peaceful demonstrations, blockades, sit-ins, and trespass. Civil disobedience involves breaking laws, but it is an area where violating a law does not necessarily imply immoral behavior. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS

By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER XVIII– A Practical Mechanism for Ethical Risk Assessment—A SoDIS Inspection Review: Risk Analysis Once these potential risk effects have been identified, they are prioritized in the risk analysis phase to help order when and if they will be addressed. The risk analysis process divides the identified risks by their severity and the likelihood that they will occur, producing a given level of risk. The analysis of the risk severity is put in either qualitative or quantitative terms. Kerzner says when doing project risk analysis, those items to be considered are cost evaluation, schedule evaluation, and technical evaluation. Once these are analyzed they are converted into a prioritized schedule, either by quantitative analysis or a limited qualitative analysis that still uses cost and project derailment as the major form of categorization. Ethical Risks The ethical stakeholders in developed software are all those who are affected by it even though they are not directly related to the use or financing of a system. The political candidate who is not elected because of a difficult voting machine interface is a stakeholder in the development of that voting machine. The person who suffers identity theft because of a flaw in the security for an information system is a stakeholder in that information system. The developer’s obligations to these stakeholders are not included in the generic concept of software failure. Lessons Learned: I learned based on the statement of the author that one area where hacktivism may be morally justified is civil disobedience, which is the active refusal to obey certain laws and demands of a government through nonviolent means. Civil disobedience is conducted to protest and draw attention to laws, policies, and practices that are considered unjust or unethical. It employs such means as peaceful demonstrations, blockades, sit-ins, and trespass. Civil disobedience involves breaking laws, but it is an area where violating a law does not necessarily imply immoral behavior.

THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS

By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER XIX– Regulation and Governance of the Internet Review: The author mentioned something about This implies that censorship is a violation of a right. However, commonly consequentialist arguments are brought to bear against censorship, and some of the most compelling of these come from Mill (1975, Chapter 2). The first is that an opinion that is not allowed to be heard might just be true, and the second that it might contain some truth. Therefore restrictions on the freedom of opinion can, and most probably will, deprive the world of some truths. His third reason is that unless beliefs and opinions are vigorously challenged, they will be held as mere prejudices, and finally, those opinions are themselves in danger of dying if never contested, simply because there is never any need to think about them. Also, the author mentioned that, Anybody can put anything on, and with varying degrees of difficulty almost anybody can have access to it. In addition, gaining access to pornography on the Internet may be a very private affair. Locked in one’s room, one can browse and search to one’s heart’s content. There is no need to face the possible embarrassment of detection in buying or hiring material from a newsagent or video shop, or even by the interception of mail, if acquiring material by mail order. As a consequence, it is much more difficult to restrict its consumption to adults. Lessons Learned: I learned based on the statement of the author that one area where hacktivism may be morally justified is civil disobedience, which is the active refusal to obey certain laws and demands of a government through nonviolent means. Civil disobedience is conducted to protest and draw attention to laws, policies, and practices that are considered unjust or unethical. It employs such means as peaceful demonstrations, blockades, sit-ins, and trespass. Civil disobedience involves breaking laws, but it is an area where violating a law does not necessarily imply immoral behavior.

THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS

By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. Information overload, as we have seen, involves more than just the exposure of an agent to excessive amounts of information: that agent must also suffer certain negative effects as a result. One of the most obvious, and straightforward, consequences is a failure to complete the task at hand, or to complete it well. As the conveyor belt speeds up, Lucy is unable to wrap all the chocolates passing her station by the end, she isn.t wrapping any of them. CHAPTER XX– Information Overload Review: Information overload, according to these two definitions, is a condition in which an agent has or is exposed to, or is provided with too much information, and suffers negative consequences as a result. Lessons Learned: I learned based on the statement of the author that one area where hacktivism may be morally justified is civil disobedience, which is the active refusal to obey certain laws and demands of a government through nonviolent means. Civil disobedience is conducted to protest and draw attention to laws, policies, and practices that are considered unjust or unethical. It employs such means as peaceful demonstrations, blockades, sit-ins, and trespass. Civil disobedience involves breaking laws, but it is an area where violating a law does not necessarily imply immoral behavior. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences.

Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER XXI– Email Spam Review: The author said that A fundamental problem with any philosophical discussion of email spam is definitional. Exactly what constitutes spam? Published definitions by some major players differ dramatically on which emails should be identified as spam. Some emphasize the importance of “consent”; others require the emails to be commercial in nature before they are called spam; still others focus on the number of identical messages that are sent as spam. At least one Web site is soliciting signatories to settle on the definition of spam. The conceptual muddles about defining spam have immediate philosophical and legislative consequences. These muddles have, for example, made it difficult to write effective legislation regarding spam, and the laws that exist have not been successful at significantly reducing what many people consider a significant problem in cyberspace. At this writing, some estimates show that over 80% of email traffic is spam. Although the definitional and technical challenges of these estimates make it difficult to verify their accuracy, few Internet users doubt that spam emails are a significant and persistent occurrence. In this short article ,we’ll look at the short history of spam and then describe a just consequentialist analysis of email spam, an analysis that takes into account several different characteristics that help to differentiate spam from other emails. Lessons Learned: I learned based on the statement of the author that Regardless of the intent of the sender, the actual consequences to the receiver often influence the receiver’s classification of an email. Every email has an effect. Even emails that are blocked by a spam filter still have a consequence on the performance of the network and the receiver.s system. Emails that lure the receiver into revealing personal and financial information, “phishing attacks,” and damaging virus attacks can have devastating effects. However, some emails that some think of as spam, some might welcome as useful advertising or helpful announcements. The more detrimental the consequences of an email, the more likely it is that the receiver will label the email as spam. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER XXII– The Matter of Plagiarism: What, Why, and If

Review: Based on what the author said, As with most ethical concepts, there is plenty of room for debate over the definition of “plagiarism.” Plagiarism will be treated here very broadly as expression that improperly incorporates existing work either without authorization or without documentation, or both. The emphasis on impropriety is important. There are a wide variety of situations where it seems acceptable to repeat prior expressions while ignoring a possible attribution and making no attempt to seek permission from a putative source. We commonly repeat jokes and report established dates for historical events without citing sources, and we do so without qualms about plagiarism. An expression is only plagiarism if it is unacceptable on some established value. But we should be careful to avoid the error of being overly narrowing identifying any particular value or standard as the basis for condemning an expression as plagiarism. Among the reasons for finding an expression to be plagiarism, we may note that it is sometimes condemned as theft of intellectual property, sometimes as a failure to live up to a standard of originality, sometimes as a violation of the moral rights of a prior author, sometimes as fraudulent misrepresentation of authorship. A debate over whether an expression is plagiarism is, therefore, a debate over the standards for and values inherent in its condemnation. The present study is an overview of the variety of standards and values that underlie accusations of plagiarism, with an emphasis on how computer technology has changed the focus for those accusations. It should come as no surprise that accusation of plagiarism are often based in a complex heap of intertwined and poorly understood values. Lessons Learned: I agree with what I’ve read. And I do believe that plagiarism should not be done because it will unfair to those who did the real thing. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER XXIII– Intellectual Property: Legal and Moral Challenges of Online File Sharing Review: The author said that Thus, the most distinctive feature of this architecture is that each node in the system is a “peer” or an equal. There is no need for a central authority to mediate and control the

exchange of information. The “purest” P2Parchitecture is flat and non-hierarchical. However, the diminished control associated with such a completely decentralized network leads to obvious scalability problems. AsWu observes, as the network grows “the loss of control makes it difficult to ensure performance on a mass scale, to establish network trust, and even to perform simple tasks like keeping statistics.” P2P software programs are usually free and easy to install. Once they are installed, a user can prompt his or her personal computer to ask other PCs in a peer-to-peer network if they have a certain digital file. That request is passed along from computer to computer within the network until the file is located and a copy is sent along to the requester’s system. Each time aP2Pusermakes a copy of a digital file, by default that copy becomes available on the user. computer so that it can be copied byotherP2Pusers. This process, which is known as “uploading,” results in “an exponentially multiplying redistribution of perfect digital copies”. Peer-to-peer networks require some method of indexing the information about the digital files available across the network so that user queries can be handled efficiently. There are three different methods of indexing: a centralized index system, in which the index is located on a central server; a decentralized indexing system; and a super node system, in which a special group of computers act as indexing servers. The first method, which was adopted by Napster, relies on central servers to maintain an index of all the files available on the network; users search that index, and they are then referred to peers with a copy of the desired file. Lessons Learned: I learned based on the statement of the author that one area where hacktivism may be morally justified is civil disobedience, which is the active refusal to obey certain laws and demands of a government through nonviolent means. Civil disobedience is conducted to protest and draw attention to laws, policies, and practices that are considered unjust or unethical. It employs such means as peaceful demonstrations, blockades, sit-ins, and trespass. Civil disobedience involves breaking laws, but it is an area where violating a law does not necessarily imply immoral behavior. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER XXIV– Censorship and Access to Expression

Review: In this chapter, I have learned based on what the author said that proposed the following definition of censorship: restricting or limiting access to an expression, portion of an expression, or

category of expression, which has been made public by its author, based on the belief that it will be a bad thing if people access the content of that expression. A virtue of this definition is that it does not make describing an act as “censorship” a discussion stopper. In other words, this definition allows that there may be cases of censorship that are morally permissible or even obligatory. People on both sides of a debate can agree that some action fulfils the above definition and they can then go on to have the real conversation about whether such an action is justified. This conversation requires that we look carefully at both why access to expression is important and what the harms related to access might be. Then we can think through the justifications for and against censorship in a clear and systematic way. My hope is that this chapter has gotten us started on this more fruitful approach to the issue of censorship. Ultimately, I believe that given our strong interests in access to expression and the reasonable concerns about human implementation of policies that restrict access, cases of justifiable censorship will likely be relatively rare. Lessons Learned: I learned that In this chapter the following definition of censorship: restricting or limiting access to an expression, portion of an expression, or category of expression, which has been made public by its author, based on the belief that it will be a bad thing if people access the content of that expression. A virtue of this definition is that it does not make describing an act as “censorship” a discussion stopper. In other words, this definition allows that there may be cases of censorship that are morally permissible or even obligatory. People on both sides of a debate can agree that some action fulfils the above definition and they can then go on to have the real conversation about whether such an action is justified. This conversation requires that we look carefully at both why access to expression is important and what the harms related to access might be. Then we can think through the justifications for and against censorship in a clear and systematic way. My hope is that this chapter has gotten us started on this more fruitful approach to the issue of censorship. Ultimately, I believe that given our strong interests in access to expression and the reasonable concerns about human implementation of policies that restrict access, cases of justifiable censorship will likely be relatively rare. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other.

CHAPTER XXV– The Gender Agenda in Computer Ethics Review:

I have read in this chapter that Computer ethics is a newarea of applied ethics with a rapidly burgeoning portfolio of ethical case studies and problems. In this chapter, I frame the question: “What gender issues are involved in computer ethics and what contribution may feminist ethics offer computer ethics?” In the following section, I briefly introduce the topic of feminist ethics. The next section reviews existing research on gender and computer ethics. This falls into two main categories: empirical comparisons of computer ethics decision making by men and women and other aspects of gender and computing that have been considered in ethical terms in the literature—the latter usually involves a consideration of the low numbers of women in computing. In forming a critical analysis of these areas, I identify a number of gaps where extended discussion from a gender perspective would benefit several current problem areas within the purview of contemporary computer ethics. These include topics such as cyber stalking and hacking. Finally, and more speculatively, I suggest what might be offered from these ideas about gender analysis of computer ethics back to the theoretical development of feminist ethics, framing the discussion on “cyberfeminism” as a possible locus for a feminist computer ethics. Information overload, according to these two definitions, is a condition in which an agent has or is exposed to, or is provided with too much information, and suffers negative consequences as a result. Lessons Learned: I learned based on the statement of the author that one area where hacktivism may be morally justified is civil disobedience, which is the active refusal to obey certain laws and demands of a government through nonviolent means. Civil disobedience is conducted to protest and draw attention to laws, policies, and practices that are considered unjust or unethical. It employs such means as peaceful demonstrations, blockades, sit-ins, and trespass. Civil disobedience involves breaking laws, but it is an area where violating a law does not necessarily imply immoral behavior. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER XXVI– The Digital Divide: A Perspective for the Future Review: The author said that, The digital divide is not any one particular gap between rich and poor, local and global, but rather includes a variety of gaps believed to bear on the world’s inequitable distribution of resources. There is, of course, a comparative lack of meaningful access to information communication technologies (ICTs); a gap in having the skills needed to use these resources; a gap between rich and poor in their ability to access information needed to compete in a global economy; and a gap in education that translates into a gap in abilities to process and absorb information. There are, of course, nondigital

gaps that contribute to the distribution of resources: poor nations have less highly developed infrastructure at every level needed to contribute to productive economic activity. There has also been the unfortunate result of pressure by organizations, such as the IMF, World Bank, and USAID, on poor nations to privatize their most economically prosperous resources, which typically get sold to a wealthy Western nation that profits from the privatization of recipient poor nations while protecting vulnerable markets such as agriculture against the competition of poor nations with subsidies that are (arguably) illegal under the World Trade Agreement. Lessons Learned: I learned based on the statement of the author that one area where hacktivism may be morally justified is civil disobedience, which is the active refusal to obey certain laws and demands of a government through nonviolent means. Civil disobedience is conducted to protest and draw attention to laws, policies, and practices that are considered unjust or unethical. It employs such means as peaceful demonstrations, blockades, sit-ins, and trespass. Civil disobedience involves breaking laws, but it is an area where violating a law does not necessarily imply immoral behavior. THE HANDBOOK OF INFORMATION AND COMPUTER ETHICS By: Kenneth Einar Himma Herman T. Tavani

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook-Information-ComputerEthics/dp/0471799599/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1234374049&sr=8-1 The fruitfulness of the “human-values approach” to computer ethics is reflected in the fact that it has served as the organizing theme of some major computer-ethics conferences. Learning Expectations: I think this chapter overviews things about how and when was the foundation of Internet and things about Information Ethics and how you can relate those two with each other. CHAPTER XXVII– Intercultural Information Ethics The author overviewed things regarding Morality is objective in the sense of being true or false in virtue of mindindependent facts about the world and not in virtue of what cultures or individuals think about them. Normative moral relativism that claims morality is manufactured by the beliefs and practices of cultures (i.e., moral claims are true in a culture only if accepted, believed, or practiced by some sufficiently large majority of the culture and Normative moral subjectivism that claims morality is manufactured by the beliefs and practices of individuals. The distinction between cognitivism and noncognitivism presupposes that human emotions have no cognitive value and, vice versa, that human cognition has a truth value if and only if it is free of emotions Review: Information overload, according to these two definitions, is a condition in which an agent has or is exposed to, or is provided with too much information, and suffers negative consequences as a result. Lessons Learned:

I learned based on the statement of the author that one area where hacktivism may be morally justified is civil disobedience, which is the active refusal to obey certain laws and demands of a government through nonviolent means. Civil disobedience is conducted to protest and draw attention to laws, policies, and practices that are considered unjust or unethical. It employs such means as peaceful demonstrations, blockades, sit-ins, and trespass. Civil disobedience involves breaking laws, but it is an area where violating a law does not necessarily imply immoral behavior. “ The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid” Book Review Chapter: Chapter 1 : The Market at the Bottom of the Pyramid Quote: “Trust is difficult to build after 50 years of suspicion and prejudice based on little evidence and strong stereotyping”. Learning Expectations: As a reader I am expecting to learn about the BOP market. I expect that I could learn how the market may be used in poverty alleviation. Review: In the economic pyramid, the poor belongs to the bottom. In past and up to the present, Mr. Prahalad noted the many efforts that have been done by the World Bank and the United Nations among others to alleviate poverty among developing countries. However, there have not been much headway and the problem persists. He said that what is needed is a better approach which involves partnering the poor with the private sectors and companies to innovate and achieve sustainable win-win solutions where the poor become actively engage and companies providing products and services to them are The writer writes that there have been many things being in done in solving the global poverty problems. While he did not say that they are not effective, he implied that the efforts are not enough. According to the writer there is a need to find a new approach. His approach focused on the people at the bottom of the pyramid. These are people who live in less than $ 2 a day. In this approach the writer calls upon the partnership between the poor, civil society organizations, governments, and large firms. The effort will involve creating a BOP market- which is turning the poor into consumer markets. This approach is based on his assumptions that : large companies have virtually ignored the poor who actually represents a latent market for goods and services; the market at the bottom of the pyramid can provide a new growth opportunity for the private sector and; that this market could become an integral part of its work. Lessons Learned In the process the companies are called upon to focus on the BOP market- making products and services affordable, accessible and available to the poor.

Integrative Questions 1. What is meant by bottom of the pyramid?

2. What are features of BOP market 3. What is the dominant logic concerning BOP market held by companies and private sector? 4. What is required to meet success in the BOP market? 5. How can people at the BOP be developed into a consuming public?

Name of the Book: “ The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid” Book Review Chapter: Chapter 2: Products and Services for BOP Quote : “I believe that more innovative, sustainable solutions will increasingly emerge from serving the BOP markets than from the developed markets ”- C.K. Prahalad Learning Expectations I am expecting to learn the emerging philosophy for developing products and services for the BOP markets. I also expect to learn how companies need to do in order to develop the poor into consumer market. Review: The BOP markets are challenging companies to innovate. A new philosophy of product development and innovations that reflects the realities of BOP market will be needed. According to the writer this philosophy represents a different perspective from those that use in serving Western markets. He developed 12 principles of innovation in accordance with this philosophy. First companies need to focus on price performance of products and services. Innovation requires hybrid solutions since BOP consumer problems cannot be solved with old technologies. Third, as BOP markets are large, solutions that are developed must be scalable and transportable across countries, cultures, and languages. Fourth, innovations must focus on conserving resources, eliminate, reduce and recycle. Fifth, product development must start from a deep understanding of functionality not just form. Sixth, process innovations are just as critical in BOP markets as product innovations. Seventh,the design of products and services must take into account the skill levels, poor infrastructure and difficulty of access for service in remote areas. Eight, education of customers on product usage is key. Ninth, Products must work in hostile environments. Tenth, Research on interfaces is critical given the nature of the consumer population. Eleventh, innovations must reach the consumers. Twelfth, focus on the broad architecture of the system so that features can be easily incorporated. The writer stressed that this market has the same needs as those in the developed markets but were only disregarded because of the dominant logic that the companies and private sector have about it And therefore companies need to develop and architect their system according to these needs.

Lessons Learned A new philosophy is emerging in product development. This new philosophy is set against the needs and realities of the markets in BOP. Integrative Questions 1. What challenges are offered by BOP markets to companies? 2. What is the new philosophy of innovation all about? 3. What are principles of innovations developed for companies? 4. What can companies do to have zero-based view? 5. What are the basic economics at the BOP markets?

Name of the Book: “The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid” Book Review Chapter: Chapter 3- BOP: A Global Opportunity Quote: “ What we see here is the convergence of the traditional roles of the firm and the consumer and the distributor and the consumer ”- C.K. Prahalad

Learning Expectations: In reading this chapter, I expect to learn about the global opportunity that BOP market offers. I am also expecting to know the sources of global opportunities for companies who want to produce products and services for BOP markets. Review The writer is enthusiastic about the global opportunities that BOP markets offer to companies. The sources of opportunities for companies who wish to cater to these markets are: some BOP markets are large and attractive as stand-alone entities; many local innovations can be leveraged across other BOP markets; some innovations from the BOP markets will find applications in developed markets; and lessons from the BOP markets can influence the management practices of global firms. According to the writer a new approach is needed by companies to operate in these markets. This approach involves a deep understanding of the nature and the requirements of the consumers at the BOP markets and then architect the business models and management processes around these requirements. Companies stand to learn from the BOP markets. Because the BOP forces an extraordinary emphasis on price performance, firms must focus on all elements of costs. Lessons Learned:

The chapter also help me understand the challenge for companies learning to live with a wide variety of relationships. Integrative Questions: 1. What global opportunity are present in the BOP markets? 2. What are the sources of opportunities at BOP markets? 3. What is the concept of the new approach in engaging at BOP markets? 4.

What is price performance means?

5. What are the gains of companies in engaging in BOP markets? Name of the Book: “ The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid” Book Chapter Review: Chapter 4- The Ecosystem for Wealth Creation Quote: “Ultimately the goal in development is to bring as many people as possible to enjoy the benefits of an inclusive market”-C.K. Prahalad.

Learning Expectations: I wish to know what market-oriented ecosystem is; and what are its constituents. I also intend to learn the nature of symbiotic relationship within ecosystem.

Review Market-based ecosystem is defined as a framework that allows private sector and social actors with different traditions and motivations, varying in sizes and areas of influence to act together and create wealth in a symbiotic relationship. In the symbiotic relationship each constituent has a role to play and is dependent of each other. The system adapts and r\evolves and can be resilient and flexible. While there could be distortions at the margin, the system is always oriented toward a dynamic equilibrium. The market-based ecosystem provides social collateral of open and honest entrepreneurship. It provides the tools for the poor and the disadvantaged to be connected seamlessly with the rest of the world in a mutually beneficial and non-exploitative way. Lessons Learned I learned about the importance for companies to learn to live in a network of relationships as their boundaries expand. Integrative Questions:

1. What is a market-oriented ecosystem? 2. How does symbiotic relationship works in the ecosystem? 3. How can the market-based ecosystem help the poor? 4. What is the role of market-oriented ecosystem in wealth creation in the BOP markets? 5. What are the steps in creating transaction governance? Name of the Book: “ The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid” Book Review Chapter: Chapter 5- Reducing Corruption: Transaction Governance Capacity Quote: “Corruption is about providing privileged access to resources and recognizing the time value of money”C.K. Prahalad. Learning Expectations: I expected to learn about the requirements of TGC as well as the different criteria for transaction governance capacity. I also intend to learn about the effects of corruption in solving poverty problems. Review: According to Mr. Prahalad, transaction governance capacity is about making the entire process as transparent as possible and consistently enforced. In a way this is a way of reducing corruption in the government by minimizing the frictional losses in doing business at BOP. And for the evolution of a market economy in the BOP market transaction governance capacity is very important. The initial requirements for active private-sector involvement in the development lies in the nation’s TGC. According to the writer fundamental to the evolution of capital markets and a vibrant private sector is the need for a transparent market for capital, land, labor, commodities and knowledge. Lessons Learned These lessons help me realize why countries like the Philippines could not solve poverty problems is due to their inability to make easier for companies to do business in the country.

Integrative Questions: 1. What is transaction governance capacity? 2. What is necessary in the evolution of market economy at BOP?

3. How is transparency in transaction possible? 4. What are the specification for transaction governance capacity? 5. What are the different spectrum of TGC? 6. What are the outcome and lessons from Andhra Pradesh?

Name of the Book: “ The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid” Book Review Chapter: Chapter 6- Development as Social Transformation Quote: “ For the BOP consumers, gaining access to modern technology and good products designed with their needs in mind enables them to take a huge step in improving their lives”- C.K. Prahalad. Learning Expectations: This is the last chapter of the book and I expect to learn about the impact of development in terms of social transformation Review

.

Women are central to the entire development process. They are also at the vanguard of social

transformation. The access to economic independence can change the long tradition of suppression of women and denial of opportunities.Social transformation that is taking place in markets where the public and private sectors are involved at the BOP is impressive. The elite found themselves surprised by the ability of the BOP consumers to adapt and their resilience. They adapt to new technology without much difficulty and are willing to experiment and find new and unforeseen applications for it. This technology breaks down the barriers to communication. BOP consumers constantly upgrade and improve their lives. Gaining access to products and services the BOP consumers also gain legal identity. Finally, women are emancipated.The real goal of the social transformation is poverty alleviation. The pyramid which has been used to measure income inequalities will morph into diamond. A diamond assumes that the bulk of the

population is middle class, propelled by growing number of people who believe that they can aspire to a middle-class lifestyle. The diamond morphing is the evidence of opportunity, role models and real signals of change that allow people to change their aspirations. This is in fact the ultimate goal of development of market at BOP, to put as many people in the diamond and not at the bottom of the pyramid. This pyramid has morph into diamond. Lessons Learned They are very resilient and could easily adapt to changes. The writer likewise taught about the creativity of these people and always working towards improving and upgrading their lives. Integrative Questions: 1. What is the reason for expecting rapid transformation for people at BOP consumers? 2. What is the role of women in the market economy at BOP? 3. What is the impact of gaining legal identity for people at BOP? 4. What does diamond symbolizes at the scheme of market development at BOP? 5. What is the ultimate goal of development at the BOP markets?

CYBERETHICS Name of the Chapter ETHICS AND THE INFORMATION REVOLUTION Quote: For this reason, computing is changing everything—where and how we work, where and how we learn, shop, eat, vote, receive medical care, spend free time, make war, make friends, make love (Rogerson & Bynum, 1995)

Learning Expectation: It is further to understand the values and importance of relaying out information. It also underlies the study of ethics in the cyberspace and the significance of understanding the effect of computer to mankind. Review: The impact of computers on our society was probably best seen when in 1982 Time magazine picked the computer as its "Man of the Year," actually listing it as "Machine of the Year." It is hard to imagine a picture of the Spirit of St. Louis or an Apollo lander on the magazine cover under a banner "Machine of the Year." This perhaps shows how influential the computer has become in our society.

The computer has become helpful in managing knowledge at a time when the amount of information is expanding exponentially. The information stored in the world's libraries and computers doubles every eight years. In a sense the computer age and the information age seem to go hand in hand. The rapid development and deployment of computing power however has also raised some significant social and moral questions. People in this society need to think clearly about these issues, but often ignore them or become confused. In a sense, computer fraud is merely a new field with old problems. Computer crimes are often nothing more than fraud, larceny, and embezzlement carried out by more sophisticated means. The crimes usually involve changing address, records, or files. In short, they are old-fashioned crimes using high technology.

Lesson Learned: I have learned that the computer technologies do not constitute a safe medium of providing relevant information that could be used by different government agencies. We must be conscious on what information we would like to divulge about ourselves for self-preservation purposes. Furthermore, it is necessary to read the terms of conditions of any site we would like to visit in order to be certain on how the personal information relayed will be used. Integrative Questions: What is Cyber ethics? What is the significance of understanding the concepts of ethics in the cyberspace? What are the tips in order to protect relevant information about you? How is information being distributed to interested parties? Why is cyber ethics important?

Name of the Chapter ETHICS ON-LINE

Quote: The gap between rich and poor nations, and even between rich and poor citizens in industrialized countries, is already disturbingly wide. As educational opportunities, business and employment opportunities, medical services and many other necessities of life move more and more into cyberspace, will gaps between the rich and the poor become even worse?

Lesson Expectation:

I am aware that on-line communications do not only encompass communicating along with other people. I would like to learn the laws governing on-line communications. Furthermore, to assess the crime being committed through on-line activities.

Review: In 1967, the World Intellectual Property Organization was founded in order to establish intellectual property boundaries and rules, so that people's hard-fought work would remain the property of the people who created it. The Organization decided that intellectual property refers to: "Literary and artistic works, which includes every production in the literary, scientific, and artistic domain, whatever the mode of expression, dramatic and dramatic-musical works, choreographic works, photographic works, and works of applied art." As a member of the WIPO, The United States has laws stating that only the author of this work has the right to display, copy, perform, or distribute intellectual property. However, with the Internet as a new method of distributing information, many of these intellectual property laws were challenged. Very few people would photocopy and sell pages from books, for example, but what about copying and selling computer programs? It's very much the same thing. Computer programs are protected exactly the same way as books, so if people distribute programs without the author's permission, it is illegal. This isn't the biggest problem, however. ; not an issue for everyday people. What is an important issue, though, is the illegal copying of information on the Internet, such as text and images on web pages. It is even argued that caching web sites (the way that browsers automatically store web sites on one's desktop for a faster load next time that page is accessed) is illegal by the WIPO laws, because the information is copied onto one's hard drive. Also controversial is the trading of copywritten songs via MP3's online. While recently the Recording Industry Association of America has succeeded in shutting down Napster, the most widely used song trading program, there are still places and programs that allow users to illegally download and trade music online. This is a much wider problem than copying programs. Millions of songs are traded online each day, all without the permission of the creator. Lesson Learned: Most of the crime being committed is stealing private property of one another. Even the identity of these people could be stolen as well. The government still needed to provide extensive laws to govern the internet. Integrative Questions:

What is on-line ethics? What are the crimes being committed when on-line? What are the laws that govern on-line activities? What is theft? Who is Deborah Johnson?

Name of the Book: Name of the Chapter: REASON, RELATIVITY, AND RESPONSIBILITY AND COMPUTER ETHICS QUOTE: The second generation of computer ethics, therefore, must be an era of “global information ethics.” The stakes are much higher, and consequently considerations and applications of Information Ethics must be

broader, more profound and above all effective in helping to realize a democratic and empowering technology rather than an enslaving or debilitating one. (T. Bynum, S. Rogerson, 1996) Learning Expectation: We must respect others and their core values. If we can avoid policies that result in significant harm to others, that would be a good beginning toward responsible ethical conduct. Some policies are so obviously harmful that they are readily rejected by our core-value standards. Review: The computer revolution has a life of its own. Recently, in northern California about one-sixth of the phone calls didn’t connect because of excessive use of the Internet. People are surging to gain access to computer technology. They see it as not only a part of their daily lives but a necessary venue for routine communication and commercial transactions. In fact, the surge has become so great that America On Line, a prominent Internet service provider, offered its customers refunds because the demand for connection overwhelmed the company’s own computer technology. The widespread desire to be wired should make us reflect on what awaits us as the computer revolution explodes around the world. The prospect of a global village in which everyone on the planet is connected to everyone else with regard to computing power and communication is breathtaking. What is difficult to comprehend is what impact this will have on human life. Surely, some of the effects will be quite positive and others quite negative. With the newly acquired advantages of computer technology, few would want to put the genie completely back into the bottle. And yet, given the nature of the revolutionary beast, I am not sure it is possible to completely control it, though we certainly can modify its evolution. Aspects of the computer revolution will continue to spring up in unpredictable ways – in some cases causing us considerable grief. Therefore, it is extremely important to be alert to what is happening. Because the computer revolution has the potential to have major effects on how we lead our lives, the paramount issue of how we should control com- puting and the flow of information needs to be addressed on an ongoing basis in order to shape the technology to serve us to our mutual benefit. Lesson Learned: Selling computer software which is known to malfunction in a way which is likely to result in death is an obvious example of responsibility in computer ethics. Other policies easily meet our standards. Building computer interfaces which facilitate use by the disabled is a clear example. And of course, some policies for managing computer technology will be disputed. However, as I have been emphasizing, some of the ethical policies under dispute may be subject to further rational discussion and resolution. The major resolution technique, which I have been emphasizing, is the empirical investigation of the actual consequences of proposed policies. Integrative Question: Who is Terry Bynum? What is the importance of responsibility in computer ethics? Why is reason and relativity significant in the daily aspect of computer technology? How is computer ethics being practice? Is computer informationally enriching? Name of the Chapter: Disclosive Computer Ethics Name of the Book:

Quote: Ethics is always and already the 'other' side of politics (Critchley 1999) Learning Expectation: The essay will also provide me of an indication of the effects of disclosive ethics to morality. More particularly, we are concerned with the way in which the interest of some become excluded through the operation of closure as an implicit and essential part of the design of information technology and its operation in social-technical networks. Review: When we use the term 'politics' (with a small 'p')--as indicated above--we refer to the actual operation of power in serving or enclosing particular interests, and not others. For politics to function as politics it seeks closure--one could say 'enrolment' in the actor network theory language. Decisions (and technologies) need to be made and programmes (and technologies) need to be implemented. Without closure politics cannot be effective as a programme of action and change. Obviously, if the interests of the many are included--in the enclosure as it were--then we might say that it is a 'good' politics (such as democracy). If the interests of only a few are included we might say it is a 'bad' politics (such as totalitarianism). It is the excluded--the other on the 'outside' as it were--that is the concern of ethics. Thus, every political action has, always and immediately, tied to its very operation an ethical question or concern--it is the other side of politics. When making this claim it is clear that for us ethics (with a small 'e') is not ethical theory or moral reasoning about how we ought live (Caputo 1993). It is rather the question of the actual operation of closure in which the interests of some become excluded as an implicit part of the material operation of power--in plans, programmes, technologies and the like. Lesson Learned: As those concerned with ethics, we can see the operation of this 'closure' or 'enclosure' in many related ways. We can see it operating as already 'closed' from the start--where the voices (or interests) of some are shut out from the design process and use context from the start. We can also see it as an ongoing operation of 'closing'--where the possibility for suggesting or requesting alternatives is progressively excluded. We can also see it as an ongoing operation of 'enclosing'--where the design decisions become progressively 'black-boxed' so as to be inaccessible for further scrutiny. And finally, we can see it as 'enclosed' in as much as the artifacts become subsumed into larger socio-technical networks from which it becomes difficult to 'unentangle' or scrutinize. Integrative Questions: What is disclosive computer ethics? Why is ethics is always the other sides of politics? Who is Phillip Brey? What is totalitarianism? Is disclosive computer ethics selective?

Name of the Chapter Gender and Computer Ethics Although I do not want to belabour this point here, it is worth noting that ‘mainstream’ ICTs studies have tended to view the idea of gender as an analytical dimension as, at best, something to be added on after

the main business. Witness the way that edited collections of ICTs studies often have just one paper on gender (e.g. Dutton, 1996). Lesson Expectation: To be able to grasp the idea that women contribute to the growth of computer ethics in the world. Furthermore, to become aware of how women are treated in the cyberspace. In addition, what are the laws that are being implemented to protect the well-being of the women. Review: Gender and technology studies have proved successful in exposing power relations in the development and use of technologies. At the same time, major developments in feminist ethics over the last two decades, particularly in terms of Gilligan’s (1982) ‘ethic of care’ make this an area at least as important as computer ethics in terms of overall contribution to philosophical ethics. I claim that bringing feminist ethics to bear on computer ethics offers a novel and fruitful alternative to current directions in computer ethics in two major ways: firstly in revealing continuing inequalities in power and where liberal approaches to power do not work; and secondly, in offering an alternative, collective approach to the individualism of the traditional ethical theories encapsulated in computer ethics. Nowhere are these issues more important than in thinking about gender and computing in a networked age. I am suggesting that a pressing problem for computer ethics involves formulating a position on the way that women, and indeed other social groups such as ethnic minorities and the differently able, may be disadvantaged or even disenfranchised with regard to information and communications technologies. This is a well recognized phenomenon. Recognizing it is one thing; suggesting what to do about it is quite another. But I argue that the sort of liberal, inclusive, consultative measures, already becoming enshrined in computing bodies’ codes of ethics and other policy documents, may not have the effect of properly involving women users in decision making about computer systems and women in computing in general, despite the will to do so. In debates about including women in technology, we can see a very clear example of where a liberal view has not had the effect it desired. I am referring to the various campaigns to attract more women into science and engineering or information technology which were popular in the UK and other Western countries in the late 1980s and later (Henwood, 1993). Lesson Learned: I have learned that women are being harassed every now and then in the internet. Through the spread of pornography, women became vulnerable to men. It is about time that the government should implement grave laws to preserve women as they are.. Integrative Questions: What is pornography? How women were harassed on-line? What are the laws governing pornography? What are the effects of pornography to mankind? How can we preserve our well-being?

Name of the Chapter: Is the Global Information Infrastructure a Democratic Technology? Name of the Book:

Quote The world is slowly witnessing the development of the global information infrastructure (GII), a seamless web of communication networks, computers, databases and consumer electronics that will put vast amounts of information at user's finger tips (United States. Information Infrastructure Task Force 1994). Lesson Expectation: To learn the impact of global information infrastructure to the humanity and to be able to confirm users of said information. Furthermore, to be able to identify the uses of information infrastructure. In addition, to define global information infrastructure and its effect to democracy. Review: The world is slowly witnessing the development of the global information infrastructure (GII), a seamless web of communication networks, computers, databases and consumer electronics that will put vast amounts of information at user's finger tips (United States. Information Infrastructure Task Force 1994). Through the global information infrastructure, users around the world will be able to access libraries, databases, educational institutions, hospitals, government departments, and private organisations located anywhere in the world. The Internet, a global network of computers and networks is being seen as the front runner to GII, and is providing an opportunity and infrastructure for publishing and distributing all types of information in various formats in the shortest possible time and at the lowest cost. With millions of people around the world accessing the Internet and still a large number trying to do so, providing information content on the Internet has become a major business, economic, cultural and even political activity. Both large and small business institutions are marketing their products through the Internet. Cultural institutions such as music and film industries, national libraries, archives and museums are also establishing their presence on the Net. Lesson Learned: Certainly the information which comes from Western countries has embedded within it certain ideals and beliefs which are inherently Western. Yet the idea that the myriad and diverse cultures of the world will simply conform and change, becoming homogenized and as monotonous as this information is a bit ridiculous, given the many years which these cultures have thrived. One must also remember that the nature of culture itself is changeable. It is simply not one solid or static thing. And despite the many differences which exist from culture to culture and country to country, the globalization of information provides opportunities for a better understanding of all of these. Therefore, despite cultural differences, certain universal understandings of ethical concepts are possible and universal rules can be reached to govern this new global village of sorts. Integrative Questions: What is global information infrastructure? What is the effect of global information infrastructure to democracy? What are the uses of global information infrastructure? Are all nations benefited by global information infrastructure? How is global information infrastructure being distributed?

Name of the Chapter: Applying ethical and moral concepts and theories to IT Contexts: Key Problems and Challenges

Name of the Book: Quote Two years later he published The Human Use of Human Beings (1950), a book in which he explored a number of ethical issues that computer and information technology would likely generate. Lesson Expectation: In most countries of the world, the “information revolution” has altered many aspects of life significantly: commerce, employment, medicine, security, transportation, entertainment, and so on. Consequently, information and communication technology (ICT) has affected — in both good ways and bad ways — community life, family life, human relationships, education, careers, freedom, and democracy (to name just a few examples). “Computer and information ethics”, in the broadest sense of this phrase, can be understood as that branch of applied ethics which studies and analyzes such social and ethical impacts of ICT. The present essay concerns this broad new field of applied ethics. Review: When the War ended, Wiener wrote the book Cybernetics (1948) in which he described his new branch of applied science and identified some social and ethical implications of electronic computers. We are but whirlpools in a river of ever-flowing water. We are not stuff that abides, but patterns that perpetuate themselves. (Wiener 1954) The issues that he identified in those two books, plus his later book God and Golem, Inc. (1963), included topics that are still important today: computers and security, computers and unemployment, responsibilities of computer professionals, computers for persons with disabilities, computers and religion, information networks and globalization, virtual communities, teleworking, merging of human bodies with machines, robot ethics, artificial intelligence, and a number of other subjects. (See Bynum 2000, 2004, 2005, 2006.) Although he coined the name “cybernetics” for his new science, Wiener apparently did not see himself as also creating a new branch of ethics. As a result, he did not coin a name like “computer ethics” or “information ethics”. These terms came into use decades later. (See the discussion below.) In spite of this, Wiener's three relevant books (1948, 1950, 1963) do lay down a powerful foundation, and do use an effective methodology, for today's field of computer and information ethics. His thinking, however, was far ahead of other scholars; and, at the time, many people considered him to be an eccentric scientist who was engaging in flights of fantasy about ethics. Apparently, no one — not even Wiener himself — recognized the profound importance of his ethics achievements; and nearly two decades would pass before some of the social and ethical impacts of information technology, which Wiener had predicted in the late 1940s, would become obvious to other scholars and to the general public. Lesson Learned: According to Wiener's metaphysical view, everything in the universe comes into existence, persists, and then disappears because of the continuous mixing and mingling of information and matter-energy. Living organisms, including human beings, are actually patterns of information that persist through an ongoing exchange of matter-energy. We are but whirlpools in a river of ever-flowing water. We are not stuff that abides, but patterns that perpetuate themselves. Integrative Questions: What is moral ethics? Who is Norbert Wiener? What is cybernetics?

What is information revolution? Who is the author of God and Golem, Inc.?

Name of the Chapter: Just Consequentialism and Computing Name of the Book: Quote A framework to analyse the security risks of agent computing will create and raise awareness of how secure agents are.

Lesson Expectation: Because of the global impact of computing in recent years, and because of the merging of computing and communications technologies that has also recently occurred, the field of computer ethics might be perceived as one that is currently in a state of flux or transition. Review: Computer users may be classified as either aware or unaware of security aspects. The former group mistrusts unfamiliar agents while the latter group are not at all aware of potential security risks associated with agent computing. Computer ethics is a field of professional ethics concerned with issues of responsibilities and conduct for computer professionals, Gotterbarn (1991). Intuitive assessment of agent behaviour may be misleading and it can be argued that a systematic ethical analysis will provide a more reliable basis for assessment. For example the actions of Clippy may be considered as unethical by an expert user due to Clippy’s obtrusive character – however the systematic ethical analysis of Clippy’s actions in section 4.2, reveals that Clippy’s actions can at most be considered irritating, but certainly not unethical. An a posteriori systematic analysis of the behaviour of an agent can assist developers of said agent to improve the modelling of the secure and ethical behaviour of future versions of the agent. Once the behaviour of a number of agents have been analysed in this systematic fashion, norms and criteria for the design of new agents that will exhibit acceptable secure and ethical behaviour can be formulated and continually refined. Lesson Learned: Moor (2001) summarises the theory of just consequentialism to imply that the ends, however good, “do not justify using unjust means”. Regarding the contemplation, and in particular the performance of some action, one would thus need to determine whether unjust means would be required to facilitate performance of the action by the user, the agent or the host. Therefore, if it is not possible to achieve the envisaged end (performance of the action) without utilizing unjust means, the requirement of just consequentialism is not satisfied. Integrative Questions:

Who is James Moor? What is computer ethics? Why are computers malleable according to Moor? Who is Deborah Johnson? What are the uses of computer?

Name of the Chapter: The Internet as Public Space: Concepts, Issues and Implications in Public Policy Name of the Book: Quote: Helen Nissenbaum has recently shown how certain intrusions into the activities of online users are not currently protected by privacy norms because information available online is often treated as information in "public space" or what she describes as a sphere "other than the intimate." Lesson Expectation: It is very much important to understand ethics and its connection to internet. It is furthermore important to consider privacy in the computer context as a delicate subject. The paper will aim to answer the question regarding the internet as a public space Review To answer such a question, perhaps it would help to consider a particular computer ethics issue, such as personal privacy and computers, vis-à-vis the Internet. A framework to analyse the security risks of agent computing will create and raise awareness of how secure agents are. She also notes that few normative theories sufficiently attend to the public aspect of privacy and that philosophical work on privacy suffers a "theoretical blind spot" when it comes to the question of protecting privacy in public. Agreeing with Nissenbaum that activities on the Internet involving the monitoring and recording of certain kinds of personal information can cause us to reconsider our assumptions regarding the private vs. public character of personal information currently available online, Tavani argues that Moor’s "control/restricted access theory" of privacy can be extended to resolve issues involving the protection of personal privacy in the "public space" of the Internet. Despite the challenges that the Internet has posed with respect to protecting certain kinds of personal information, however, there is no compelling evidence that any genuinely new privacy issues have been introduced by that medium or that we need a new category of "Internet privacy," as some have suggested. Analogously, there does not appear to be a convincing argument for the claim that a separate field of "Internet ethics" is needed, either. Lesson Learned: If you take precautions (such as forcing people to log in with laborious security measures) then I'd argue perhaps your private areas could be effected - you can't very well argue you stumbled inadvertently into an area that forces you to log in with a secure password). If you end up offended... oh well :p However, if crimes are committed there, especially against children, I will support law enforcement in stringing up your sorry tuck us - online or not.

Integrative Questions: What is internet? What is internet ethics? What must we realize about internet being a public space? What is computer ethics? What are the laws implemented to safeguard privacy in the computer world?

Name of the Chapter: The Law of Cyberspace Name of the Book: Quote: He does, however, evince an unusual appreciation of the common law as a spontaneous order.

Lesson Expectation: It is problematic in our global information society to assert that the grounds for ethics, in particular information ethics, lies in this Western tradition. If we are trying to create a genuine dialog about ethical values and ethical reasons in the multicultural internet world, we cannot be bound solely to this tradition, because, for example, Chinese and Indians have engaged in ethical thought and ethical reasoning and the grounds for the resolution of their ethical dilemmas may or may not be the same as those offered in Western society. Review But can common law courts do any better? Huber convincingly argues that they can. "The telecoms is too large, too heterogeneous, too turbulent, too creatively chaotic to be governed wholesale, from the top down," he explains. "In a place like that, nothing except common law can keep up". Huber is not alone in touting the common [p. 1750/p. 1751] law's unique ability to grapple with cutting-edge legal issues. "The telecoms is too large, too heterogeneous, too turbulent, too creatively chaotic to be governed wholesale, from the top down," (Huber) Huber understands that common law originates not in the holdings of any court or courts, but rather in the actual practices of those who have to live with the law. "Rules evolve spontaneously in the marketplace and are mostly accepted by common consent. Common-law courts just keep things tidy at the edges" (p. 8). Even when practical rules face litigation, the common law continues to grow and develop "out of rulings handed down by many different judges in many different courtrooms." Looping back to the real

world, judicial rules then once more face the acid test of experience. "The good rules gain acceptance by the community at large, as people conform their conduct to rulings that make practical sense" (p. 8). By attributing only modest powers to courts, Huber's account contrasts with that of Lawrence Lessig, another prominent advocate of applying judicial procedures to new and puzzling legal issues. Lessig claims of the Internet "that we are, vis-à-vis the laws of nature in this new space, gods; and that the problem with being gods is that we must choose. These choices . . . will be made, by a Court . To the contrary, like the market place, the English language, or the common law, the Internet arose out of human action but not human design. No one person or institution can create or predict such spontaneous orders. Lessig's claim that officers of the court enjoy god-like power over the Internet thus smacks of hubris. Huber's account of the modest powers of common law courts at least avoids that tragedy. Lesson Learned: Law and Disorder in Cyberspace presents a thesis revolutionary in the truest sense of the word: it argues for overthrowing the existing corrupt order by returning to earlier, better, more fundamental values. So defiant a book naturally reads, to quote its dust jacket, as a "polemic." Yet Law and Disorder in Cyberspace merits serious attention from scholars and policy wonks. Huber makes a strong case for abolishing the FCC and relying on common law to rule the telecosm. The flaws of Law and Disorder in Cyberspace make it not irrelevant, but all the more interesting. Integrative Questions: What are the laws of cyberspace? Who is Kellogg Huber? What are the means of implementing the laws of cyberspace? What is information ethics? What is cyberethics?

Name of the Chapter: Of Black holes and Decentralized Law-Making in Cyberspace Name of the Book: Quote: An excellent example is the 2007 North American meeting of IACAP, which keynoted free software and open access. The argumentative approach I have selected is borrowed from the philosophy of technology, in particular the work of Carl Mitcham and Andrew Feenberg, to present practical and moral advantages of the FOS option. Finally, I will offer a third approach based on its potential epistemological advantages.

Lesson Expectation: This study seeks to identify significant philosophical implications of the free, open source option as it has emerged in global software development communities. A three part approach inspired by the Carl Mitcham's philosophy of technology has been employed. Each section has touched on some ideas whose elucidation are in no way complete

Review James Moor suggested that "conceptual muddles" and "policy vacuums" exist where there are problems lacking a philosophical framework to address them, and this is particularly true of computer technology (Moor, 1985). Likewise, Walter Maner proposed that innovations in computer technology create unique, new ethical problems (Maner, 1995). For years, this conceptual vacuum has been filling with the musings of self-proclaimed accidental revolutionaries like Richard Stallman, Eric Raymond, and Linus Torvalds, the creator of the Linux kernel, as well as industry leaders like Bill Gates and Tim O'Reilly. While subject area experts have arisen in the field of computer ethics and the philosophy of computing and information, articulation of the ethical implications of trends favoring free, open source software are only beginning to be featured in academic publications and conferences. knowns; there are things we know we know. We also know there are known unknowns; that is to say we know there are some things we do not know. In Thinking through Technology: the Path between Engineering and Philosophy, Carl Mitcham introduced the Engineering Philosophy of Technology (EPT) as the field of study focused on determining the best way to conduct engineering and technological endeavors (Mitcham, 1994). This work is from the insider's perspective, and the obvious starting point to transfer insights from the technical arena to the academic study of FOSS. There is a ready set of commonly cited practical benefits supported by empirical research as well as the methodologies used to evaluate, organize, and execute such projects (Lerner and Tirole, 2005). Practical ethics have to do with making everyday choices and judging which are appropriate based on their anticipated outcome. In this respect, technologists engage ethics in the early stages of project management when they evaluate options. A fundamental differentiation of options to be considered has always been between in-house versus third party, or build versus buy (Weinstock and Hissam, 2005). Other 'practical ethics' employed by technology decision makers include minimizing the total cost of ownership (TCO), using the best tool for the job, standardizing on a particular technology tool set, and outsourcing where there is no competitive advantage, which is to leave the decision to a third party. One ought to add, "utilizing free, open source options where feasible." Lesson Learned Software piracy is very tempting due to the relatively high cost of commercial applications, the easy transfer of digital information, and the lack of a perception of doing harm. Software piracy is especially common among curious academics and hobbyists Integrative Question: why not avoid the moral dilemma by selecting FOSS? What is the FOS option? Who is Walter Maner? Who is James Moor? Who is Deborah Johnson? Name of the Chapter: Fahrenheit 451.2: Is Cyberspace Burning? Name of the Book: Quote: The ACLU and others in the cyber-liberties community were genuinely alarmed by the tenor of the White House summit and the unabashed enthusiasm for technological fixes that will make it easier to block or render invisible controversial speech. (Note: see appendix for detailed explanations of the various technologies.)

Lesson Expectation: This paper examines the free speech implications of the various proposals for Internet blocking and rating. Individually, each of the proposals poses some threat to open and robust speech on the Internet; some pose a considerably greater threat than others. Review: The ashes of the CDA were barely smoldering when the White House called a summit meeting to encourage Internet users to self-rate their speech and to urge industry leaders to develop and deploy the tools for blocking "inappropriate" speech. The meeting was "voluntary," of course: the White House claimed it wasn't holding anyone's feet to the fire. Any content-based regulation of the Internet, no matter how benign the purpose, could burn the global village to roast the pig." U.S. Supreme Court majority decision, Reno v. ACLU (June 26, 1997) Industry leaders responded to the White House call with a barrage of announcements: Netscape announced plans to join Microsoft together the two giants have 90% or more of the web browser market in adopting PICS (Platform for Internet Content Selection) the rating standard that establishes a consistent way to rate and block online content;

Lesson Learned: One of the most dangerous aspects of ratings systems is their potential to build borders around Americanand foreign-created speech. It is important to remember that today; nearly half of all Internet speech originates from outside the United States. Integrative Questions: What are the six reasons why self-rating schemes are wrong for the Internet? What is self- rating Schemes? Internet Ratings Systems How Do They Work Who is Ray Bradbury? Is cyberspace burning?

Name of the Chapter: Filtering Internet in the USA: Is Free Speech Denied? Name of the Book: Quote: The New York Times has published articles of how political candidates gather information about you when you visit their website.

Lesson Expectation: Perhaps you are now aware how the internet has empowered us to access vast body of information so easily. However, that same ease in accessing information is a "double-edged sword" -- it enabled others also to invade our privacy just as easily. Nothing seems to be inviolable anymore. Review: While many have seen the danger of such invasion of privacy from the government, we fail to recognize or prefer to ignore a greater source of intrusion to our privacy -- private companies and institutions (many we do not suspect), including "non-profit" organizations, medical institutions, etc. To give up the fight, without exhausting our defenses, could cost the surrender of our "soul". (Leo Tolstoy) Before the crash of the "dot.com" industry, some of the business "policy makers" [sic] considered archived personal data, as a commercial commodity that could be gathered and traded at will by the "dot.coms", even without the person's consent. "Cookies" are left in computers or other diabolical codes are integrated surreptitiously in formatted internet page, advertisements, etc. All these were meant to track your internet viewing habits. The moment you get into a commercial website in the internet, most likely data is gathered about your internet activities -- what sites you have visited, how often, when and what you are looking for, to mention just a few that can be accessed readily about your activity. While you may be able to employ some diabolical subterfuge (e.g., using a different internet name) to hide your identity, many software programs have been developed to thwart your efforts so that they will be able to identify even your location or name. Many savvy websites can even access the code of your computer by planting "cookies" in your computer. Armed with other information that can be bought readily from other sellers of personal information, these sites have the power to identify you more specifically -- social security number, address, financial and medical records, debt history, etc. -- if they have interest to do so. Lesson Learned: Many people decry this state of the internet -- invasion of privacy, over commercialization and monopolistic trends in the building of the infrastructure of the internet -- where we as individuals are viewed merely as "consumers". If all of us who care about these issues can band together, we may be able to shape the future of the internet so that we can create an internet community that would be more respecting of our privacy and humanity. This is almost a quixotic goal and many of my friends have dissuaded me from embarking on such path. Integrative Questions: What is freedom of speech? Who is Leo Tolstoy? What is Internet? What is privacy? How internets do invades our privacy?

Name of the Chapter: Censorship: The Internet and the Child Pornography Law of 1996: A Critique

Name of the Book: Quote: He uses the example of nudists, who must where clothes in public, but in private camps or homes can dress or not dress as they please, to illustrate the majority’s right to an inoffensive public space and a minority’s right to a private moral space (Gastil 1997, 190). Lesson Expectation: In this case it may be instructive to look at the legal definitions of obscene or pornography for ways of incorporating sexual obscenity in to the term more closely. Therefore, courts, when examining whether material is obscene, consider whether the material tends to "deprave or corrupt" people who are likely to use the material. The focus on the consumer of the material has been criticized on the grounds that it fails to acknowledge harms to the non-consumers of the material like women. Review: Raymond Gastil argues that pornography should be subject to censorship and regulation because the majority has the right to regulate non-political, public speech that is harmful or offensive to the majority. His argument starts with the assertion that a distinction between the public and private spheres of life are valid, and that the majority has a right to regulate the public space in some way (Gastil 1997, 190). If Pornography offends the moral standards of a community, then the community can regulate pornography to defend its moral character (Easton 1998, 614). He then goes on to argue that only the free speech which bears on the consideration of voters choices and the public interest is protected by the First Amendment, not private speech in the private interest (Gastil 1997, 191). He argues that freedom of speech should "be protected by a more absolute but less all inclusive principle that refers to rational political discourse as an ineluctable requirement of political democracy." (Gastil 1997, 191). From these arguments he concludes that the regulations on privately interested speech in the public space can be subjected to censorship if it is deemed harmful. He then concludes that pornography is harmful because 1) it diminishes the specialness and dignity of human life and 2) it reduces the creativity of artists and society by diverting public resources to activities that are wholly uncreative and of little redeeming value. Lesson Learned: Child pornography is a special case in United States. For example, as a result of New York v. Ferber, the Miller obscenity standard does not apply because the Supreme Court ruled that child pornography is by definition obscene (Akdeniz 1996). The court took this stand for a number of reasons. First, the production of such pornography with children as subjects is harmful to them; second, the value of the material is negligible at best; and third, the distribution of child pornography is inseparable from its role in the abuse of children (Akdeniz 1996). Integrative Question: What is Pornography? Who is Raymond Gastil? Who is Leo Groarke? Who is Loren Clark? What is Communication Decency Act?

Name of the Chapter: PICS: INTERNET ACCESS CONTROLS WITHOUT CENSORSHIP Name of the Book: Quote: A second method-one used in products such as CyberPatrol and SurfWatch-is to perform this operation as part of each computer's network protocol stack. Lesson Expectation: When PICS was announced by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) in September 1995, it was widely hailed as a stroke of genius. The developers, a group of computer scientists and software manufacturers, promoted PICS as "Internet Access Controls without Censorship". PICS publicity emphasized a multiplicity of rating systems, voluntary self-rating and labeling by content providers and blocking software installed on home computers. Review: In general, PICS specifies only those technical issues that affect interoperability. It does not specify how selection software or rating services work, just how they work together. One possibility is to build it into the browser on each computer, as announced by Microsoft and Netscape. Restricting inappropriate materials at their source is not well suited to the international nature of the Internet, where an information source may be in a different legal jurisdiction than the recipient. Moreover, materials may be legal and appropriate for some recipients but not others, so that any decision about whether to block at the source will be incorrect for some audiences. (Paul Resnick) A third possibility is to perform the operation somewhere in the network, for example at a proxy server used in combination with a firewall. Each alternative affects efficiency, ease of use, and security. For example, a browser could include nice interface features such as graying out blocked links, but it would be fairly easy for a child to install a different browser and bypass the selective blocking. PICS does not specify how parents or other supervisors set configuration rules. Even that amount of configuration may be too complex, however. Another possibility is for organizations and on-line services to provide preconfigured sets of selection rules. For example, an on-line service might team up with UNICEF to offer "Internet for kids" and "Internet for teens" packages, containing not only preconfigured selection rules, but also a default home page provided by UNICEF. Some clients might choose to request labels each time a user tries to access a document. Others might cache frequently requested labels or download a large set from a label bureau and keep a local database, to minimize delays while labels are retrieved. Lesson learned: Some people allege that opposition to PICS results from ignorance and fear. Others regard that as the pot calling the kettle black. PICS was, after all, developed by people fearful of government censorship and who were apparently ignorant of the repressiveness of some governments. Integrative Question: What is PICS? What is Metadata? Who is Paul Resnick?

What is Multiplicity Rating Systems? What is Labeling?

Name of the Chapter: Internet Service Providers and Defamation: New Standard of Liability Name of the Book: Quote: The author argues that a liberal judicial interpretation of the relevant provisions of the U.S. Communications Decency Act of 1996 has exceeded the scope of government policy, whereas the U.K. Defamation Act 1996 does little to recognize the Internet as a unique communications medium.

Lesson Expectation: Several factors make ISPs attractive defendants in defamation claims, many of which relate to the costs associated with litigation. For example, the author of a defamatory statement will often reside outside the jurisdiction of the plaintiff, whereas the ISP that carried the statement does business in the plaintiff's jurisdiction. It might be difficult, time-consuming, or even impossible, to determine the actual author of the message. And even if the author can be identified, he or she may be judgment proof, whereas the ISP likely has 'deeper pockets'. Review: The liability of ISPs for defamation in the United States and Britain has been addressed by both the courts and legislatures in the respective countries. Early American decisions focused on distinguishing between ISPs that acted as publishers or distributors. Subsequent legislation in both jurisdictions has resulted in marked differences in the potential for legal liability of ISPs in America and Britain that supposedly reflect the inherent government policies of each country. These policies reflect a balancing of such interests as freedom of speech, personal reputation, and the promotion of electronic communication and commerce. "It is not reasonable to expect editors, producers and journalists to know and apply eight separate defamation laws in publishing newspapers and magazines circulating throughout Australia and in selecting material for transmission on national broadcasting and television programs." The advent of the Internet has resulted in legislatures and courts around the world re-evaluating laws and policies on issues as diverse as taxation, privacy, and contract formation. The liability of the Internet Service Provider (ISP), the company that is the vehicle for the user's access to the Internet, and which brings information to the user from around the world, is potentially staggering if one applies to it longestablished legal principles for issues such as distribution of pornography, breach of copyright, or misrepresentation. Defamation of character over the Internet is illustrative of the problem. ISP liability must reflect the need for law makers to balance the interests of its citizens who may be libeled because of postings accessed around the world, with the interests of society generally that use ISPs as conduits to this largely unfettered global communication medium.

Lesson learned: The liability of intermediaries for defamation has a long history in the common law. 'Publishers', such as newspapers, which traditionally exerted editorial control over content, are generally liable for the defamatory statements that they publish. 'Distributors', such as bookstores or newsstands, exert very little

if any editorial control, and have the benefit of the 'innocent disseminator' defense. Innocent disseminators are protected from liability for defamation if they did not know of the libelous statement, there were no circumstances that ought to have led them to suppose it contained a libel, and they were not negligent in being ignorant of the libel. Integrative Question: What is Internet Services Provider? What is defamatory publication? What is libel? What is pornography? What is Defamation Act of 1996?

Name of the Chapter: Digital Millennium Copyright Act Name of the Book: Quote: While working for Elcomsoft in Russia, he developed The Advanced eBook Processor, a software application allowing users to strip usage restriction information from restricted e-books, an activity legal in both Russia and the United States. Lesson Expectation: This article will further expand the meaning of Digital Millennium Copyrights Act. It will also highlight the importance of DMCA for the mankind. Likewise, it will also enumerate the disadvantages of the said act. Review: The DMCA has had an impact on the worldwide cryptography research community, since an argument can be made that any cryptanalytic research violates, or might violate, the DMCA. The arrest of Russian programmer Dmitry Sklyarov in 2001, for alleged infringement of the DMCA, was a highly publicized example of the law's use to prevent or penalize development of anti-DRM measures. The DMCA is anticompetitive. It gives copyright holders — and the technology companies that distribute their content — the legal power to create closed technology platforms and exclude competitors from interoperating with them. Worst of all, DRM technologies are clumsy and ineffective; they inconvenience legitimate users but do little to stop pirates. Timothy B. Lee Sklyarov was arrested in the United States after presenting a speech at DEF CON and subsequently spent nearly a month in jail. The DMCA has also been cited as chilling to legitimate users, such as students of cryptanalysis (including, in a well-known instance, Professor Edward Felten and students at Princeton), and security consultants such as Niels Ferguson, who has declined to publish information about vulnerabilities he discovered in an Intel secure-computing scheme because of his concern about being arrested under the DMCA when he travels to the US. Lesson Learned: The DMCA has been criticized for making it too easy for copyright owners to encourage website owners to take down allegedly infringing content and links which may in fact not be infringing. When website

owners receive a takedown notice it is in their interest not to challenge it, even if it is not clear if infringement is taking place, because if the potentially infringing content is taken down the website will not be held liable.

Integrative questions: What is DMCA? What is copyright? What is cryptography? What are the provisions of DMCA? What are the advantages of DMCA?

Name of the Book Name of the Chapter NOTES ON THE DeCSS TRIAL Quote: Johansen testified on Thursday that he announced the successful reverse engineering of a DVD on the mailing list of the Linux Video and DVD Project (LiViD), a user resource center for video- and DVD-related work for Linux.

Learning Expectation: Linux came to the forefront of the ongoing DeCSS trial late last week. That's because, in a very real way, Linux started the uproar that has resulted in eight movie studios suing Eric Corley. The trial could ultimately affect the way consumers use products they purchase and the way researchers advance technology. Journalist Eric Corley -- better known as Emmanuel Goldstein, a nom de plume borrowed from Orwell's 1984 -- posted the code for DeCSS (so called because it decrypts the Content Scrambling System that encrypts DVDs) as a part of a story he wrote in November for the well-known hacker journal 2600. The Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) claims that Corley defied anticircumvention provisions of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) by posting the offending code for anyone to download from his Website.

Review: The whole affair began when teenager Jon Johansen wrote DeCSS in order to view DVDs on a Linux machine. The MPAA has since brought suit against him in his native Norway as well. "The software which Sigma Design plans on releasing works only on their card, whereas the design for LiViD will work on a variety of cards or on systems that do not have a card at all."

Lesson Learned: Still open is the question of whether the injunction against Corley, or the fight against DeCSS itself, is not a vain struggle in the face of inevitable change. Judge Kaplan, whom the defense requested recuse himself based on conflict of interest, said last Thursday to Mikhail Reider, the MPAA's chief of Internet antipiracy, "You are asking me to issue an injunction against the guy who unlocked this barn, [telling him] not to unlock it again --- even though there is no horse in it." Integrative Questions: What is DeCSS Trial? What is the significance of understanding the concepts of ethics in the DeCSS Trial? What are the tips in order to protect relevant information about you? How is information being distributed to interested parties? Why is DeCSS Trial is important?

Name of the Chapter: A Politics of Intellectual Property: Environmentalism for the net Name of the Book: Quote: The first generation of analyses saw the insider trade as the entrepreneur's incentive and reward for Faustian recombination of the factors of production. Lesson Expectation: Everyone says that we are moving to an information age. Everyone says that the ownership and control of information is one of the most important forms of power in contemporary society. This article will tend to review the importance of politics of intellectual property. Review: The most succinct encapsulation of the problem comes from an article co-written by the current head of the President's Council of Economic Advisors, who in a former life was one of the most distinguished scholars of information economics. "There is a fundamental conflict between the efficiency with which markets spread information and the incentives to acquire information." This problem is often, though not always "solved" by ignoring it. A pre-theoretical classification is made, conventionally ascribing a certain problem to one or other realm and the discussion then continues on that basis. Thus for example, we tend to look at the field of intellectual property with a finely honed sensitivity to "public goods" problems that might lead to under production, while underestimating or failing to mention the efficiency costs and other losses generated by the very rights we are granting. Some conventional ascriptions visibly switch over time. The contemporary proponents of legalizing insider trading use the idea of the efficient capital market to minimize or defend the practice. "With air pollution there was, for example, a desire of the people living in Denver to see the mountains again. William Ruckelshaus An alternative method for smoothing over the tensions in the policy analysis is for the analyst to acknowledge the tension between efficiency and incentives, point out that there are some limitations

imposed on intellectual property rights, to conclude that there are both efficiency-promoting and incentive promoting aspects to intellectual property law, and then to imply that an optimal balance has been struck. Lesson Learned: In general, then, I would claim there is a tendency to think that intellectual property is a place to apply our "public goods/incentives theory" rather than our "anti-monopoly/free-flow of information" theory. All by itself, this might push rhetoric and analysis towards more expansive property rights. The tendency is compounded, however, by two others. First, courts are traditionally much less sensitive to First Amendment, free speech and other "free flow of information arguments" when the context is seen as private rather than public, property rather than censorship. Integrative Question: What is intellectual property? What is politics? What is environmentalism? Who is James Boyle? What is public’s good theory?

Name of the Chapter: Intellectual Property, Information and the Common Good Name of the Book: Quote: I can exclude others from using it and use it myself for whatever I want, as long as I do not threaten the lives or property of others. Lesson Expectation: The question is, how much protection is required, and when and to what extent should it apply? This paper addresses that question. First it presents some cases that illustrate the range of possible intellectual property rights. Next it examines the traditional justifications for such rights. It then critiques those justifications, not to refute them, but to show their limits. Finally it proposes a different way of looking at the problem, using traditional natural law ethics. Review:

Intellectual property is an odd notion, almost an oxymoron. Property usually refers to tangible assets over which someone has or claims control. Originally it meant land. Now it could also refer to a car, a milling machine, a jacket or a toothbrush. In all these cases the property claim is of control of the physical entity. If I claim a plot of land as my property, I am saying I can control who has access to that land and what they do there. I can build a fence around it, rent it out, or drill for oil on it. If a car is my property, I get the keys to it. Without that balance, there is a danger of absolutizing the claims to ownership and control to the detriment of other interested parties, something we have noted in recent legislative proposals. Samuelson, 1997) Intellectual property is different because its object is something intangible, although it usually has tangible expression. The intellectual property in a book is not the physical paper and ink, but the arrangement of words that the ink marks on the paper represent. The ink marks can be translated into regions of magnetic polarization on a computer disk, and the intellectual property, and whatever claims there are to that property, will be the same. Lesson learned: Computer technology has created a new revolution in how intellectual property is created, stored, reproduced and disseminated; and with that has come new challenges to our understanding of intellectual property and how to protect it. Of course computers have given rise to a whole new category of intellectual property, namely computer software. A major commercial program can take a team of one hundred or more highly skilled and highly paid programmers years to create and can sell for hundreds, or even hundreds of thousands, of dollars per copy. Yet someone with access to such a program can make a copy in moments at practically no cost. There is clearly great incentive for the user to make copies without paying for them, while the creator in many cases insists on being paid for each copy in order to recoup the investment in creating the product, plus a reasonable (or unreasonable) profit. In addition, as more and more traditional forms of intellectual property, such as writing, music and other sound, movies and videos, photographs, and so on, are being made publicly available on computer networks, they can be copied, manipulated, reworked, excerpted, recombined, and distributed much more easily than before. Integrative Question: What is intellectual property? What is information? What is copyright? What is plagiarism? What is computer technology? Name of the Chapter: Is copyright ethical Name of the Book: Quote: This approach assumes that the content of products of mind (not the objects in which they are embedded) belong to society as a whole, but that society would benefit more if more such products were available, and that in order to encourage production the creator of such products should be given rights that will allow him or her to reap some economic benefits from the creation. As Branscomb (1984) observed this is encouraging access by legislating scarcity.

This paper examines the relationship between intellectual property rights and ethics, focusing for the most part on copyright. The focus is on two key questions: 1) what is the relationship between ethics and

copyright law and practice in the United States; and, 2) is the concept of private ownership of intellectual property inherently ethical? These questions are important because access to an overwhelming number of the elements of daily life is now controlled by intellectual property law. Is non-conformance with these laws a calculated risk against being caught, equivalent to parking at a meter beyond the specified time period, or is it a matter of ethics? Review: The ethics of copyright can be approached in two ways: (1) If, as Hettinger suggests, every creator stands on the shoulders of giants what is the essential morality in allowing the last contributor to reap the full reward or to have the right to prevent others from building on her contribution; and (2) If, as postulated by Locke, an individual is entitled to what he or she creates, what are the ethics of limiting a creators rights in regards to his or her creation? Theoretically copyright law in the United States takes the first view, stating that authors have no natural right in their creation but only the rights that the state has conferred by reason of policy to encourage the creation of new works (H.R. REP. No. 2222). Lesson Expectation: Lesson learned: The Software Publisher’s Association (SPA), which merged with the Information Industry Association (IIA) in January of 1999 to form the Software & Information Industry Association (SIIA), offers a guide on Software Use and the Law (SPA 1997) which states it is intended to provide “a basic understanding of the issues involved in ethical software use.” The same document declares that it is “wrong” for a school to duplicate software. While copying software except for backup or archival purposes is clearly illegal does this automatically make such actions unethical? Unless one considers all laws ethical, and that breaking any law to be unethical, illegality and unethicality can not be automatically equated. One also might question whether the efforts by the SIIA and its predecessor organizations to have Congress enact legislation that provides greater rights to creators (and their assigns) than to users were prompted by an ethical position or by a desire for greater profits. Integrative Question: What is property right? What is copyright? Is copyright unethical? What is Software Publishers’ Association? What is intellectual property?

Name of the Chapter: On the Web, Plagiarism Matters More Than Copyright Piracy Name of the Book: Quote: It would be plagiarism but not piracy for us to take the works of an obscure 18th century poet and try to use them as our own. Since the copyright will have expired on such works, this is not piracy.

Lesson Expectation: Plagiarism and academic honesty have become controversial and widely debated issues. There are worrisome trends in the behaviour and attitudes of students towards plagiarism and cheating in their academic work. A new term ”cyber-plagiarism” has since been introduced to describe the process by which students copy ideas and information from the Internet without giving attribution, or downloading research papers in whole or in part, and submit the paper as their own work. Review: Plagiarism can be briefly defined as the expropriation of another author’s text, and its presentation as one’s own. This includes using others’ ideas, information without giving credit and acknowledgement. It is clear that piracy is the infringement of copyright, and plagiarism is the failure to give credit to the author. However, many people easily get confused between those two terms, and one may usually commit both offences. This approach assumes that the content of products of mind (not the objects in which they are embedded) belong to society as a whole, but that society would benefit more if more such products were available, and that in order to encourage production the creator of such products should be given rights that will allow him or her to reap some economic benefits from the creation. But it still remains plagiarism, because we have used the author’s words and ideas without accrediting the authorship properly (Snapper, 1999). Most people are aware that taking the exact texts or words of another person without attribution is plagiarism, but they then believe that paraphrasing the original work is acceptable. Yet taking someone else’s idea and changing the words is like stealing a car and changing its colour. However, literary works that are stolen differ in many ways from physical properties that are the targets of ordinary theft. Ideas are less tangible and identifiable than physical objects. Objects that are stolen remain stolen even if they are taken apart and recombined, but not for ideas. Building new ideas from old ones, using existing information and combining them, might be called creativity, not plagiarism. There is hardly a clear way to determine which idea counts as a brand new and which requires acknowledgment as a variation on old ideas. In areas such as computer programming and musical composition, what counts as plagiarism is usually highly ambiguous and debatable. Snapper (1999) indicated that cyber-plagiarism was growing rapidly and raising many concerns over its impacts. [9]He also stated that in a period of a few years, students have been able to buy papers on a various subjects from the Internet. Lesson learned: Unlike physical objects those belong to, and are in possession of someone else alone, we can pick up ideas somewhere and treat them as our own. We may remember ideas without remembering where they come from because without careful notations, recalling a source is much more difficult than recalling the idea itself. Therefore it is not easy to totally avoid unintentional plagiarism. However, beside the careless paraphrasing or accidental misleading citations, there are other harmful plagiarism acts that are negatively influencing the scholarly communities. Integrative Question: What is plagiarism? What is piracy? What is copyright? Which is more grave: plagiarism or copyright? What is cyber-plagiarism?

Name of the Chapter: An Ethical Evaluation of Web Site Linking Name of the Book: Quote: Characteristics of the program, particularly its stage of development and context, will influence the evaluation’s purpose. Four general purposes exist for conducting evaluations in public health practice. Lesson Expectation: The evaluation cycle begins by engaging stakeholders (i.e., the persons or organizations having an investment in what will be learned from an evaluation and what will be done with the knowledge). Public health work involves partnerships; therefore, any assessment of a public health program requires considering the value systems of the partners. Stakeholders must be engaged in the inquiry to ensure that their perspectives are understood. Review: Articulating an evaluation’s purpose (i.e., intent) will prevent premature decision-making regarding how the evaluation should be conducted. Gain insight -- evaluations done for this purpose provide the necessary insight to clarify how program activities should be designed to bring about expected changes.

1. Change practice -- evaluations done for this purpose include efforts to improve the quality, effectiveness, or efficiency of program activities.

2. Assess effects -- evaluations done for this purpose examine the relationship between program activities and observed consequences.

3. Affect participants -- evaluations done for this purpose use the processes of evaluation to affect those who participate in the inquiry. The logic and systematic reflection required of stakeholders who participate in an evaluation can be a catalyst for self-directed change. An evaluation can be initiated with the intent that the evaluation procedures themselves will generate a positive influence. Lesson learned: Public health programs mature and change over time; therefore, a program’s stage of development reflects its maturity. A minimum of three stages of development must be recognized: planning, implementation, and effects. During planning, program activities are untested, and the goal of evaluation is to refine plans. During implementation, program activities are being field-tested and modified; the goal of evaluation is to characterize real, as opposed to ideal, program activities and to improve operations, perhaps by revising plans. During the last stage, enough time has passed for the program’s effects to emerge; the goal of evaluation is to identify and account for both intended and unintended effects.

Integrative Question: What is the ethical evaluation? What are the harmful effects of ethical evaluation of web site linking? How to combat web site? What are the laws implemented to prevent evaluation? Define ethical evaluation of web site linking.

Name of the Chapter: The Cathedral and the Bazaar Name of the Book: Quote: Raymond's uncanny ability to convince is as unrestrained as his capacity for extrapolating upon the promise of open-source development.

Lesson Expectation: The Cathedral and the Bazaar takes its title from an essay Raymond read at the 1997 Linux Kongress. The essay documents Raymond's acquisition, re-creation, and numerous revisions of an e-mail utility known as fetchmail. Raymond engagingly narrates the fetchmail development process while elaborating on the ongoing bazaar development method he uses with the help of volunteer programmers. The essay smartly spares the reader from the technical morass that could easily detract from the text's goal of demonstrating the efficacy of the open-source, or bazaar, method in creating robust, usable software.

Review: Once Raymond has established the components and players necessary for an optimally running opensource model, he sets out to counter the conventional wisdom of private, closed-source software development. Like superbly written code, the author's arguments systematically anticipate their rebuttals. For programmers who "worry that the transition to open source will abolish or devalue their jobs," Raymond adeptly and factually counters that "most developer's salaries don't depend on software sale value." "Most developer's salaries don't depend on software sale value." Lesson learned: The integrity of the Internet and academic communities is severely damaged. The main reason why students get away with internet plagiarism is that we lack of resources to monitor cheating, and the examiners have to mark too many papers thus cannot give enough attention to each submitted work. Tools that provide automatic detection of plagiarised works can greatly improve the situation. Therefore, computer professionals can provide great help. Firstly, they can implement new algorithm and create new effective software to identify plagiarised papers. Softwares which can detect plagiarism in students’ works have proved to be effective. Integrative Question: What is the cathedral? What are the harmful effects of cathedral and the bazaar? What are the laws implemented to prevent plagiarism? What is effective software? Why do students plagiarise?

Name of the Chapter: Towards a Theory of Privacy for the Information Age Name of the Book: Quote: The essay smartly spares the reader from the technical morass that could easily detract from the text's goal of demonstrating the efficacy of the open-source, or bazaar, method in creating robust, usable software.

Lesson Expectation: As scholars are more exposed to the web environment, and use more online resources for research, the need for protections against plagiarism increases. Because of the volatility characteristic of the web environment, it is usually difficult to establish or preserve the provenance. Review: It may be foolish to consider Eric Raymond's recent collection of essays, The Cathedral and the Bazaar, the most important computer programming thinking to follow the Internet revolution. But it would be more unfortunate to overlook the implications and long-term benefits of his fastidious description of opensource software development considering the growing dependence businesses and economies have on emerging computer technologies. The Cathedral and the Bazaar takes its title from an essay Raymond read at the 1997 Linux Kongress. The essay documents Raymond's acquisition, re-creation, and numerous revisions of an e-mail utility known as fetchmail. Raymond engagingly narrates the fetchmail development process while elaborating on the ongoing bazaar development method he uses with the help of volunteer programmers. Few students enter college fully understanding the relationship between plagiarism and the rules about quoting, paraphrasing and documenting material” (Wilhoit, 1994). Once Raymond has established the components and players necessary for an optimally running opensource model, he sets out to counter the conventional wisdom of private, closed-source software development. Like superbly written code, the author's arguments systematically anticipate their rebuttals. For programmers who "worry that the transition to open source will abolish or devalue their jobs," Raymond adeptly and factually counters that "most developer's salaries don't depend on software sale value." Lesson learned: The Internet has greatly reduced the efforts to plagiarise among students and scholars. The integrity of the Internet and academic communities is severely damaged. The main reason why students get away with internet plagiarism is that we lack of resources to monitor cheating, and the examiners have to mark too many papers thus cannot give enough attention to each submitted work. Tools that provide automatic detection of plagiarised works can greatly improve the situation. Therefore, computer professionals can provide great help. Firstly, they can implement new algorithm and create new effective software to identify plagiarised papers. Integrative Question: Why do students plagiarized? What are the harmful effects of plagiarism? How to combat plagiarism?

What are the laws implemented to prevent plagiarism? What is cyber-plagiarism? Why do students plagiarise?

Name of the Chapter: The Structure of Rights in Directive 95/46/ec on the Protection of the individuals with regard to the Processing Personal Data and the free movement of such Data Name of the Book: Quote: Lesson Expectation: To understand the importance of personal data protection. To establish the directive a necessary medium in protecting individual data. And furthermore, to importance of implementing personal data protection. Review: The principles of personal data protection established in the Directive 95/46/EC were implemented into the Polish legal order by the Act of 29 August 1997 on the Protection of Personal Data (unified text: Journal of Laws of 2002 No. 101, item 926 with amendments). The Act on Personal Data Protection introduced detailed rules on personal data protection in Poland, and up to 1 May 2004, i.e. up to Poland’s accession to the European Union, included in the Polish legal order all principles specified in the Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council. The provisions of the Act have been in force since 30 April 1998. Implementation of the provisions on personal data protection into the Polish legal system allowed Poland to sign in April 1999 and to ratify in May 2002 the Convention No. 108 of the Council of Europe. The Act on Personal Data Protection determined a legal framework of personal data handling, as well as the principles to be used in the processing of personal data. It also specified the rights and obligations of authorities, institutions and persons keeping personal data filing systems, as well as the right of the data subjects, so as to guarantee maximum protection of the rights and freedoms to each natural person and respect for his/her private life.

Lesson Learned: The Act on Personal Data Protection while realizing the requirements of the Community specified the constitutional right to decide on the fact to whom, in what scope and for what purpose we give our personal data, and gave statutory guarantees of compliance with this right by providing the data subjects with measures used for exercise of this right and competent authorities and services – with the legal remedies which guarantee compliance with this right. The main premise of the Act is granting every individual the right to have his/her data protected.

Integrative Question: What is directive 95/46/ec? What is personal data protection? What is privacy? When was the directive was established? What is the act on personal data protection?

Name of the Chapter: Toward and Approach to privacy in public: Challenges of Information technology Name of the Book: Quote: Other philosophers also have focused on the interdependence between privacy and a personal or intimate realm. Robert Gerstein (1984), for example, contended that "intimacy simply could not exist unless people had the opportunity for privacy.

Lesson Expectation: The articles discuss the importance of privacy in public. It also highlights philosophical views that necessitate the importance of privacy in public. Further more, it also discusses the lack of privacy in the computer technology. Review: Fried (1984) argued that privacy is important because it renders possible important human relationships. Although Fried conceived of privacy as control over all information about oneself, he defended a moral and legal right to privacy that extends only over the far more limited domain of intimate, or personal, information. He accepted this narrowing of scope because even a limited domain of intimate or personal information provides sufficient "currency" for people to differentiate relationships of varying degrees of intimacy. The danger of extending control over too broad a spectrum of information is that privacy may then interfere with other social and legal values. Fried wrote, "The important thing is that there is some information which is protected" , namely, information about the personal and intimate aspects of life. According to Fried, the precise content of the class of protected information will be determined largely by social and cultural convention. Prevailing social order "designates certain areas, intrinsically no more private that other areas, as symbolic of the whole institution of privacy, and thus deserving of protection beyond their particular importance". Privacy provides the necessary context for relationships which we would hardly be human if we had to do without-the relationships of love, friendship and trust. Excluding outsiders and resenting their uninvited intrusions are essential parts of having an intimate relationship". Ferdinand Schoeman (1984) noted that "one's private sphere in some sense can be equated with those areas of a person's life which are considered intimate or innermost" . Privacy's purpose, he wrote, is to insulate "individual objectives from social scrutiny. Social scrutiny can generally be expected to move individuals in the direction of the socially useful. Lesson Learned:

The views of Schoeman, Fried, and Gerstein, though differing in detail, rest on a common core. Each held that properly functioning, psychically healthy individuals need privacy. Privacy assures these people a space in which they are free of public scrutiny, judgment, and accountability, and in which they may unselfconsciously develop intimate relationships with others. A person's right to privacy restricts access by others to this sphere of personal, undocumented information unless, in any given case, there are other moral rights that clearly outweigh privacy. Although many other writers who have highlighted the connection between privacy and the personal realm have not attended merely to the status of the "non-personal" realm. If information is not personal information or if it is documented, then action taken with respect to it simply does not bear on privacy. Integrative Question: Who is Helen Nissembaum? What is privacy in public? What is the importance of privacy? Who is Charles Fried? What are the laws governing privacy?

Name of the Chapter: KDD, PRIVACY, INDIVIDUALITY, AND FAIRNESS Name of the Book: Quote: Lesson Expectation: To be able to define KDD and its impact to the society. In addition to be able to understand its importance and its effect to individuals. And lastly, to understand the importance of privacy. Review: Sometimes, these theoretical views on informational privacy are not much more than implicit assumptions. However, things are different and more articulate where theorists define informational privacy as being in control over (the accessibility of) personal information, or where they indicate some kind of personal freedom, such as the preference-freedom in the vein of John Stuart Mill's individuality, as the ultimate point and key value behind privacy (see, for instance Parent, 1983 and Johnson. 1989).These theorists consider privacy to be mainly concerned with information relating to designating individuals. Applying the narrow definition of personal data and the protective measures connected to that definition to the KDD process is not without difficulties. Of course, as long as the process involves personal data in the strict sense of data relating to an identified or identifiable individual, the principles apply without reservation. However, as soon as the data has ceased to be personal data in the strict sense, it is not at all clear how the principles should be applied. For instance, the right of rectification applies to the personal data in the strict sense itself; it does not apply» information derived from this data. Once the data has become anonymous, or has been processed and generalized, a1l individual cannot exert any influence on the processing of the data at all.

Lesson Learned: It should be observed that group profiles may occasionally be incompatible with respect to individual privacy and laws and regulations regarding the protection of personal data, as it is commonly conceived of. For instance, distributive profiles may sometimes be rightfully thought of as infringements of (individual) privacy when the individuals involved can easily be identified through a combination with other information available to the recipient or through spontaneous recognition. Integrative Questions: What is KDD? What is privacy? What is individuality? What is fairness? What is a distributive profile?

Name of the Chapter: Data Mining and Privacy Quote: Though the term data mining is relatively new, data mining attracts tremendous interest in commercial market place. Lots of businesses pay attention to data mining recently. Why are data mining and data warehousing mushrooming so greatly now?

Lesson Expectation: This paper is aimed at answering the following questions: Can data privacy and data mining coexist? This paper began with an attempt to define the concept of data mining and privacy. And it goes on to explore how exactly data mining can be a threat to privacy, and especially how the Internet is currently associated with the tension between data mining and data privacy. Review: Data can be one of the most important assets of companies for their marketing plan. Thus, businesses became interested in collecting and managing consumer’s data. Data mining is a valuable tool for business. The reason data warehousing is closely connected with data mining is that when data about the organization’s processes becomes readily available, it becomes easy and therefore economical to mine it for new and profitable relationships.

According to Cavoukian (1998), data mining is usually used for four main purposes: (1) to improve customer acquisition and retention; (2) to reduce fraud; (3) to identify internal inefficiencies and then revamp operations, and (4) to map the unexplored terrain of the Internet. Generally, data mining seems a survival strategy for companies in these days. Indeed, Erick Brethenoux, research director for advanced

technologies at the Gartner Group, calls data mining as “necessary for survival.” He says, “If you don’t use it to predict a trend before your competitors, you’re dead” (Ennor, 1998) Lesson Learned: Today we consciously or unconsciously diffuse our data somewhere. Whenever we shop, use credit card, rent a movie, withdraw money from ATM, write a check and log on the Internet, our data go somewhere. Virtually, every aspect of our life discloses information about us. With the development of computing and communication technology, now data can be captured, recorded, exchanged, and manipulated easier than before. By one estimate, the amount of information in the world doubles every 20 months, and that means the size of databases also does, even faster. Integrative Question: What is data mining? What is privacy? What is data mining relation to privacy? What are the purposes of data mining? Can data privacy and data mining coexist?

Name of the Chapter: Workplace Surveillance, Privacy and Distributive Justice Name of the Book: Quote: This paper explores and challenges these claims by examining in detail ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ versions of the story through the work of Sewell and Zuboff respectively, before looking briefly at recent debates on call centers. In addition, social scientists must be careful not to assume that developments in workplace surveillance are transferable to the broader social terrain, or vice versa.

Lesson Expectation: Surveillance and work is examined as the central theme of the issue. Two interpretations of the phrase are made – first, surveillance of work, and second surveillance as work. After a focus on the second, a review of recently published work which informs this perspective is undertaken, and then two issues for future research are discussed. Review: While surveillance has long been recognized as part of the armoury of managerial practices in the workplace, there has been increasing claims that electronic or panoptic surveillance is a new and successful model of control. It concludes by arguing that through there has been some shift towards surveillance practices, there is insufficient evidence that a combination of electronic panopticon and peer pressure is effective and distinctive enough to constitute a credible new model of control of the labour process. Lesson learned:

These issues concern how the surveilled subject might come to be understood, and how connectivity between different surveillance locales may be examined. It is concluded that examining surveillance as work renders new types of occupational category and organizational activity significant, as well as the labours involved in the social processes of identity work and representation management.

Integrative Question: What is surveillance? What are the privacy and distributive? What are the laws implemented to prevent justice? What is the workplace surveillance? Why do students distributive justice?

Name of the Chapter: Privacy and Varieties of Informational Wrongdoing Name of the Book: Quote: Communitarians typically argue that the community benefits significantly from having knowledge about its members available. Learning Expectation: I expect awareness of informational wrongdoing. It will also define different varieties of informational wrongdoing. It will also define privacy. Review: The privacy issue lies at the heart of an ongoing debate in nearly all Western democracies between liberalists and communitarians over the question how to balance individual rights and collective goods. The privacy issue is concerned more specifically with the question how to balance the claims of those who want to limit the availability of personal information in order to protect individuals and the claims of those who want to make information about individuals available in order to benefit the community. This essential tension emerges in many privacy discussions, e.g. undercover actions by the police on the internet, use of Closed Circuit Television in public places, making medical files available for health insurance purposes or epidemiological research, linking and matching of databases to detect fraud in social security, soliciting information about on-line behavior of internet users from access providers in criminal justice cases. “It is not non-exclusion that makes retaliation impossible (for there may be other ways of punishing the free-rider than by excluding him), but anonymity of the free-rider. Clearly in a small group it is easier to spot the free rider and sanction him in one of many possible ways once he is identified than in a large group, where he can hide in the crowd". De Jasay Who could object to having his or her data accessed if honorable community causes are served? Communitarians also point out that modern societies exhibit high degrees of mobility, complexity and anonymity. As they are quick to point out, crime, free riding, and the erosion of trust are rampant under

these conditions. Political philosopher Michael Walzer observes that "Liberalism is plagued by free-rider problems, by people who continue to enjoy the benefits of membership and identity while no longer participating in the activities that produce these benefits. Communitarianism, by contrast, is the dream of a perfect free-riderlessness". The modern Nation States with their complex public administrations need a steady input of personal information to function well or to function at all. In post-industrial societies 'participation in producing the benefits' often takes the form of making information about one-self available. Those who are responsible for managing the public goods therefore insist on removing constraints on access to personal information and tend to relativize the importance of privacy of the individual. Lesson Learned: Both in the private as well as in the public sector IT is seen as the ultimate technology to resolve the problem of anonymity. Information and communication technology therefore presents itself as the technology of the logistics of exclusion and access-management to public goods and goods involved in private contracts. Whether IT really delivers the goods is not important for understanding the dynamics of the use of personal data. The fact that it is widely believed to be effective in this respect is I think sufficient to explain its widespread use for these purposes. Integrative Question: What are the different varieties of informational wrongdoing? What is informational injustice? What is informational inequality? What are panoptic technologies? Define privacy. Name of the Chapter: Defining the Boundaries of Computer Crime Name of the Book: Quote: Patrol officers and detectives use this data to prevent future crimes and to apprehend offenders. Therefore, to count computer crime, a general agreement on what constitutes a computer crime must exist.

Learning Expectation: For individuals and organizations to intelligently assess their level of risk, agencies must provide accurate data about criminal threats. Access to reliable and timely computer crime statistics allows individuals to determine their own probability of victimization and the threat level they face and helps them begin to estimate probable recovery costs. Law enforcement organizations traditionally have taken a leading role in providing crime data and crime prevention education to the public, which now should be updated to include duties in cyberspace.

Review:

Crime analysts use criminal statistics to spot emerging trends and unique modi operandi. Businesses and individuals rely on law enforcement crime statistics when making important decisions about their safety. Many citizens contact a local police station prior to the purchase of a home in a particular neighborhood to inquire about the number of burglaries and violent crimes in the area. Just as these data provide important information for communities in the "real world," the same is true in cyberspace. In many police departments, detectives often compile and report crime data. Thus, homicide detectives count the number of murders, sexual assault investigators examine the number of rapes, and auto detectives count car thefts. For example, the child abuse unit likely would maintain child pornography arrest data and identify the crime as the sexual exploitation of a minor. A police department's economic crimes unit might recap an Internet fraud scam as a simple fraud, and an agency's assault unit might count an on-line stalking case as a criminal threat. Because most police organizations do not have a cohesive entity that measures offenses where criminals either criminally target a computer or use one to perpetrate a crime, accurate statistics remain difficult to obtain. Lesson Learned: Generally, crime statistics can provide approximations for criminal activity. Usually, people accurately report serious crimes, such as homicide, armed robbery, vehicle theft, and major assaults. Many other criminal offenses, however, remain significantly underreported. Police always have dealt with some underreporting of crime. But, new evidence suggests that computer crime may be the most underreported form of criminal behavior because the victim of a computer crime often remains unaware that an offense has even taken place. Sophisticated technologies, the immense size and storage capacities of computer networks, and the often global distribution of an organization's information assets increase the difficulty of detecting computer crime. Thus, the vast majority of individuals and organizations do not realize when they have suffered a computer intrusion or related loss at the hands of a criminal hacker. Integrative Question: What is computer crime? What are the boundaries of computer crime? What is a crime in general? What are the precautions being offered to combat computer crime? What are the punishments for computer crime?

Name of the Chapter: Terrorism or Civil Disobedience: Toward a Hacktivist Ethic Name of the Book: Quote: The effect of the protest in Washington was that many persons might have been late to work – losses that are easily made up. An attack that shuts down a busy commercial or public website for a few hours can easily affect hundreds of thousands of people. If the website’s activity is vital to the economy, this can translate into morally significant losses of revenue, which will usually be shifted to employees and consumers.

Learning Expectation: In First, I argue that it wrongly presupposes that committing civil disobedience is morally permissible as a general matter of moral principle; in an otherwise legitimate state, civil disobedience is morally justified or excusable only in certain circumstances. Second, I attempt to identify a reliable framework for evaluating civil disobedience that weighs the social and moral values against the social and moral disvalues. Third, I apply this framework to acts of electronic civil disobedience. Review: It is true, of course, that most civil disobedience has effects on third-parties, but digital civil disobedience can potentially do much more damage to the interests of far more people than ordinary non-digital civil disobedience. Recently, a number of writers, such as Manion and Goodrum (2000), have begun to argue that attacks on government and corporate sites can be justified as a form of political activism – that is, as a form of “hacktivism.” The argument is roughly as follows. Since civil disobedience is morally justifiable as a protest against injustice, it is sometimes justifiable to commit digital intrusions as a means of protesting injustice. Insofar as it is permissible to stage a sit-in in a commercial or governmental building to protest, say, laws that violate human rights, it is permissible to intrude upon commercial or government networks to protest such laws. Thus, digital attacks that might otherwise be morally objectionable are morally permissible if they are politically-motivated acts of digital civil disobedience or hacktivism.

Lesson Learned: One should say much more by way of justification for hacking 300 sites than just a vague slogan like this. The victims of such an attack, as well as third-parties, have a right to know exactly what position is motivating the attack and why anyone should think it is a plausible position.The willingness to impose morally significant costs on other people to advance fringe positions that are neither clearly articulated nor backed with some sort of plausible justification is clearly problematic from a moral point of view. It seems clear that such behavior amounts, at least in most cases, to the kind of arrogance that is problematic on ordinary judgments. Integrative Question: Why might companies who try to privatize the internet be intimidated by hacktivism? What is the difference between a hacktivist and a cyberterrorist? How can one differentiate the two? Should the laws regarding hacktivism be loosened? Explain your answer. How does M&G's notion of hacktivism fare under the various ethical frameworks we studied in Chapter 1, in particular: Johnson's ``three rules'' (Ethics On-Line), Moor's ``reason within relative frameworks'' (Reason, Relativity and Responsibility...), his Just Consequentialism..., Brey's Disclosive Computer Ethics, and Adam's ``feminist ethics'' (Gender and...) ? Define hacking.

Name of the Chapter: Web Security and Privacy: An American Perspective

Name of the Book: Quote: Ethical theory explains why moral rules are desirable. It can draw on a rich history of justificatory ideas ranging from duty (deontology) to utility (teleology) to the individual character (virtue ethics). Lesson Expectation: The main argument of this paper is that there are discourses concerning privacy and security that focus on the ethical quality of the concepts and that the resulting ethical connotation of the terms is used to promote particular interests. In order to support this claim, I will briefly review the literature on privacy and security, emphasizing the ethical angle of the arguments. Review: We value privacy as well as security because they represent moral values which can be defended using ethical arguments. This paper suggests that the moral bases of privacy and security render them open to misuse for the promotion of particular interests and ideologies. In order to support this argument, the paper discusses the ethical underpinnings of privacy and security. It will then introduce the critical approach to information systems research and explain the role of ideology in critical research. Based on this understanding of the centrality of ideology, the paper will discuss the methodology of critical discourse analysis which allows the identification of instances of ideology. This will then lead to the discussion of an ideology critique based on Jürgen Habermas's theory of communicative action, which will be applied to the websites of Microsoft Vista and Trustworthy Computing. The results of this discourse analysis support the contention that privacy and security can be used for ideological purposes. Lesson Learned: In this paper I have argued that privacy and security are concepts with important moral connotations. I then suggested that these moral qualities render the concepts open to be used to promote certain ideologies. In the final step, I have attempted a brief critical discourse analysis on Haberma's Theory of Communicative Action to support the suspicion that the moral nature of privacy and security can be used for ideological purposes. Integrative Question: What is the difference between security and privacy? Why secure information is not necessarily private? What are the goals of security? What aspects of security can both be protecting and limiting privacy at the same time? What are the tools used to provide security?

Name of the Chapter: The Meaning of Anonymity in an Information Age Name of the Book: Quote:

A poem or pamphlet is anonymous when unattributable to a named person; a donation is anonymous when the name of the donor is withheld; people strolling through a foreign city are anonymous because no-one knows who they are. Learning Expectation: Why does this matter? Although answers to this foundational question will not immediately yield answers, it is essential to understanding what is at stake in the answer to these question. For, after all is said and done, we would not want to discover that the thing we have fought so hard to protect was not worth protecting after all. Review: An understanding of the natural meaning of anonymity, as may be reflected in ordinary usage or a dictionary definition, is of remaining nameless, that is to say, conducting oneself without revealing one's name. It is this level of understanding that would make people more cautious, more guarded, more mindful of the information they divulge to others in various transactions, and as a result, more capable of protecting the possibility of anonymity. Extending this understanding into the electronic sphere, one might suggest that conducting one's affairs, communicating, or engaging in transactions anonymously in the electronic sphere, is to do so without one's name being known. Specific cases that are regularly discussed includes ending electronic mail to an individual, or bulletin board, without one's given name appearing in any part of the header participating in a "chat" group, electronic forum, or game without one's given name being known by other participants buying something with the digital equivalent of cash being able to visit any web site without having to divulge one's identity The concern I wish to raise here is that in a computerized world concealing or withholding names is no longer adequate, because although it preserves a traditional understanding of anonymity, it fails to preserve what is at stake in protecting anonymity. Lesson Learned: For situations that we judge anonymity acceptable, or even necessary, we do so because anonymity offers a safe way for people to act, transact, and participate without accountability, without others "getting at" them, tracking them down, or even punishing them. This includes a range of possibilities. Anonymity may encourage freedom of thought and expression by promising a possibility to express opinions, and develop arguments, about positions that for fear of reprisal or ridicule they would not or dare not do otherwise. Anonymity may enable people to reach out for help, especially for socially stigmatized problems like domestic violence, fear of HIV or other sexually transmitted infection, emotional problems, suicidal thoughts. It offers the possibility of a protective cloak for children, enabling them to engage in internet communication without fear of social predation or -- perhaps less ominous but nevertheless unwanted -- overtures from commercial marketers. Integrative Question: What is anonymity? What is pseudonym? What is anonymity in a computerized world? How is the concept different from that prior to the computerization of the society? What's the difference between anonymity and pseudonimity?

Name of the Chapter: Double Encryption of Anonymized Electronic Data Interchange Name of the Book: Quote: inexpensive "rip and read" solutions or use outsourced EDI solutions provided by EDI "Service Bureaus". Lesson Expectation: Collecting medical data electronically requires, according to our moral belief, also some kind of encryption. To be sure that the data are really sent by the sender of the electronic message, the double encryption of PGP is a suitable and widely used protocol. The sender encrypts his message with his secret key firstly and with the public key of the receiver secondly and afterwards he sends the message. The receiver must decrypt that message first with his own secret key and second with the public key of the sender according to the header. When the message is readable after this double decryption, one can be sure that the message was meant to be received by the decrypting receiver and the message was really sent by the sender named in the header of the message. Review: Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) refers to the structured transmission of data between organizations by electronic means. It is used to transfer electronic documents from one computer system to another (ie) from one trading partner to another trading partner. It is more than mere E-mail; for instance, organizations might replace bills of lading and even checks with appropriate EDI messages. It also refers specifically to a family of standards, including the X12 series. However, EDI also exhibits its pre-Internet roots, and the standards tend to focus on ASCII(American Standard Code for Information Interchange)formatted single messages rather than the whole sequence of conditions and exchanges that make up an inter-organization business process.

Lesson learned: The National Institute of Standards and Technology in a 1996 publication defines Electronic Data Interchange as "the computer-to-computer interchange of strictly formatted messages that represent documents other than monetary instruments. EDI implies a sequence of messages between two parties, either of whom may serve as originator or recipient. The formatted data representing the documents may be transmitted from originator to recipient via telecommunications or physically transported on electronic storage media.". It goes on further to say that "In EDI, the usual processing of received messages is by computer only. Human intervention in the processing of a received message is typically intended only for error conditions, for quality review, and for special situations. Integrative Question: What is double encryption? What are the electronic data interchange? What is the system of electronic data interchange? How we use the electronic data interchange? What are the effects of encryption of anonymized electronic ?

Name of the Chapter: Written on the Body: Biometrics Identity Name of the Book: Quote: “Biometrics will soon hold the key to your future, allowing you and only you to access your house, car, finances, medical records and workplace. Learning Expectation: The technology is easy to explain and trust. The primary advantage that signature verification systems have over other types of biometric technologies is that signatures are already accepted as the common method of identity verification. This history of trust means that people are very willing to accept a signature based verification system. Review: Biometrics is a technology that verifies a person’s identity by measuring a unique-to-the-individual biological trait. Biometric technologies include dynamic signature verification, retinal/iris scanning, DNA identification, face-shape recognition, voice recognition and fingerprint identification. Biometrics is the measuring of an attribute or behavior that is unique to an individual person. Biometrics includes measuring attributes of the human body - such as DNA, iris/retina patterns, face shape, and fingerprints - or measuring unique behavioral actions, such as voice patterns and dynamic signature verification. Before biometrics only physical objects or behaviors based-on-memory were used to identify a computer user. Physical objects include smartcards or magnetic-stripe cards - behaviors based-on-memory includes the act of entering a PIN number or a secret password.

Lesson Learned: Some strengths of using biometrics come from the “distinguishable (rather than unique) physiological and behavioral traits (Chandra, Akhilesh 2005)” that make up one’s body and the ease at which they can be used for identification and authentication. Unlike your passwords, you will not forget your fingerprints, irises, or DNA when you go to work.They are a part of you. They are also extremely distinguishable from another person’s biometrics. This means that they can be used with great confidence. Since they are a part of you they are difficult for another person to obtain or fake. They are also easy to use. All you may have to do is put your finger into a device and it gives you access if you are authorized or denies you if you aren’t.For these reasons and others, biometric systems are becoming more mainstream and commonplace. Integrative Questions: What is the entry-point paradox as defined by Roger Clarke? In what ways are name, code, knowledge, and token-based identification schemes deficient? What factors have led to the emergence of a consortium-based specification for a global standard for biometric technologies?

In the context of identity determination and verification, what are the distinctions between a 'one to many' and 'one to one' match? In what ways are verification and identification procedures inter-dependent?

Name of the Chapter: Software Engineering Code of Ethics: Approved! Name of the Book: Quote: For Aristotle, on the other hand, the purpose of moral rules was to promote individual moral virtues and the development of a good will or moral character. Put in more general terms, the rights/obligations ethicist starts with rules stating obligations about how one should behave and rights about how I am to be treated, while the virtue ethicist starts with the human character and its ethical dispositions. Lesson Expectation: How were these two approaches to ethics reflected in the initial development and responses to the Code? There are several purposes of a code of ethics. Several principles that were suggested for the code used imperative language. Review: In 1993, the IEEE Computer Society (IEEE-CS) and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM) formed a joint committee to help organize software developers and engineers into a profession. As part of this project, a sub-committee of professionals, academics, and members of ACM and IEEE-CS began work drafting a code of ethics for software engineers through electronic mail. After four years of online discussion and revision, version 5.2 of the Software Engineer’s Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice was adopted by IEEE-CS and ACM in 1998, and since then, the code has been adopted by software engineering and computer societies worldwide. The IEEE-CS/ACM Software Engineering Code of Ethics Archive documents the drafting, debate, and final adoption of the joint IEEE Computer Society /ACMSoftware Engineering Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice. Indirectly, the archive illustrates how software engineering developed from an occupation to a profession. The drafting and approval of the Software Engineering Code, carried out in substantial part by email, has produced a detailed record of the development of a professional code of ethics. This correspondence, as well as related documents, interviews, and publications, make up the contents of the IEEE-CS/ACM Software Engineer’s Code of Ethics Archive. Lesson Learned: Addressing computer ethics issues for the professional and in the classroom needs to include both of these approaches. The software engineer as a practicing professional acts from a higher level of care for the customer (virtue ethics) and conforms to the development standards of the profession (right/obligations ethics). Both types of ethics are needed for the Professional engineer. Integrative Questions: What does IEEE-CS stands for? What does ACM stands for? Why did they develop a joint force ethical approach for software engineering?

Enumerate and explain the short version of the software engineering ethics. What is Virtue Ethics

Name of the book: Name of the Chapter: No,Papa,: Why incomplete Codes of Ethics Are Worse Than None at All” Quote: It is better to adhere to the spirit of an ethic rather than the letter, to be ethical by holding your behaviour accountable to your own sense of good and right, not some arbitrary third party construction.

Learning Expectation: A code of ethics from, say, instruction from a teacher or parent? It is one thing to tell people what they ought or ought not do - even I do that. And quite another to codify that. Review: When something like ethics is codified, then this gives people room to be 'ethical' by watching for loopholes or playing legal games. "It is better to adhere to the spirit of an ethic," but that doesn't mean that should be no letter.”

Lessons Learned: I would prefer to see the possibility of the spirit informing the letter, and the letter informing the spirit, with each mutually reinforcing the other. Also, as far as codes leading people to watch for loopholes as distinct from telling people to do, you should meet my seven-year-old son. He remembers everything I tell him to do and not to do, and is constantly formulating exceptions. So, we might consider codes simply as the pragmatic recognition of the fact that not everyone possesses or "adhere[s] to the spirit of an ethic." Thus, rather than being "arbitrary," they often are evolving adaptations by a concerned party to historical evasions of ethics. Having said that, it would be appropriate to bring the other concerned party, the students, into the writing (and ongoing re-writing) of a code of ethics.

Integrative Questions: Why should rules be complete in order to be valuable? Is this action really an exception?

In what ways does this exception inform our understanding of the rule? Should we change the rule or simply? Is there noting the exception, complexify our understanding of the rule?

Name of the book: Name of the Chapter: Subsumption Ethics Quote: "Subsumption Ethics" published in Computers and Society, Learning Expectation: Subsumption ethics is the process by which decisions become incorporated into the operation of information technology (IT) systems, and subsequently forgotten. IT systems, by nature, repeat operations over and over. Review: Unlike a human operator, there is no point in the cycle where the machine pauses to ask, "Should I do this?" Subsumption in general is the process of building larger components from smaller ones. In this sense, a cell subsumes DNA function, American common law subsumes judicial decisions, and a hairdryer subsumes an electric motor. Subsumption in computers is different because there is so much more of it going on than in simple machines. In computer systems, small components are developed and tested, and once they are working reliably they are subsumed into larger systems. This is the enabling technique of object oriented programming. The larger systems, in turn, are subsumed into still larger systems. Once components, subsystems and applications are operating, the subsumed process becomes invisible and unavailable to the user, what James Moor calls the "invisibility factor."

Lessons Learned: Information systems subsume design, policy and implementation decisions in programming code and content. Code segments and content become "subsumed objects." While it is demonstrable that systems are built from subsumed components, it is less easy to show exactly how decisions are subsumed. This axiom posits that the decisions themselves, including many subtle factors, are incorporated into systems operation.

Integrative Questions: What is sumbsumption ethics? What is ethics? What is Moral in the sumbsumption? What is psychological ethics ? What is subsumed objects?

Name of the book: Name of the Chapter: Ethical Issues in business computing Quote: “Businesses operate and enlarging the opportunities available to them to reach and service customers.” Learning Expectation: To provide a comprehensive overview of the most important ethical issues associated with the expanding world of e-business. Grounded solidly in the most recent scholarship in business ethics, the book will apply the most relevant theoretical frameworks to ethical issues in all significant areas of e-business. Review: Grounded solidly in the most recent scholarship in business ethics, the book will apply the most relevant theoretical frameworks to ethical issues in all significant areas of e-business. The book will be written for scholars, professionals, and students interested in gaining a better comprehension and appreciation of the moral issues encountered in the multifaceted world of e-business. It will provide readers with a clear knowledge of the complex ethical issues involved in e-business and improve their understanding of widely discussed current issues in e-business such as those of privacy, information management, data mining, intellectual property, and consumer tracking. Lessons Learned: It is important to understand and respond to the unique ethical issues associated with e-business. As e-business models become more common in the world of business, there must be an effort to integrate e-business more fully into the field of business ethics so that scholars and professionals working in the field can better appreciate and respond to these ethical issues. There thus exists a clear need for an edited collection of articles that provides a comprehensive and thorough treatment of ethical issues in e-business. The target audience of this book will be composed of researches and professionals working in the field of e-business and business ethics in various disciplines, e.g. business and management, information technology, philosophy, communication sciences, computer science, and consumer studies. In providing a broad overview of the various ethical issues involved in all aspects of e-business, the book will also provide a useful resource for all persons involved in e-business. The book will also provide a useful tool for educators and students studying e-business, business ethics, and related topics. Integrative Questions: What are the ethical issues?

What is business computing? What is e-business? What is the system to computing? What is the issue in business computing? Name of the book: Name of the Chapter: The Practitioner from Within: Revisiting the Virtues Quote: “Information revolution” has altered many aspects of life significantly: commerce, employment, medicine, security, transportation, entertainment, and so on.” Learning Expectation: Consequently, information and communication technology (ICT) has affected — in both good ways and bad ways — community life, family life, human relationships, education, careers, freedom, and democracy (to name just a few examples). “Computer and information ethics”, in the broadest sense of this phrase, can be understood as that branch of applied ethics which studies and analyzes such social and ethical impacts of ICT. The present essay concerns this broad new field of applied ethics. Review: The more specific term “computer ethics” has been used to refer to applications by professional philosophers of traditional Western theories like utilitarianism, Kantianism, or virtue ethics, to ethical cases that significantly involve computers and computer networks. “Computer ethics” also has been used to refer to a kind of professional ethics in which computer professionals apply codes of ethics and standards of good practice within their profession. In addition, other more specific names, like “cyberethics” and “Internet ethics”, have been used to refer to aspects of computer ethics associated with the Internet. Lessons Learned: In laying down a foundation for information ethics, Wiener developed a cybernetic view of human nature and society, which led him to an ethically suggestive account of the purpose of a human life. Based upon this, he adopted “great principles of justice” that he believed all societies ought to follow.

Integrative Questions: What is the revisiting virtue of ethics? What are the human nature and society? What are the ethical concepts of revisiting virtues? What is the moral? Define ethical virtues?