Great Siberian Railway

?i^

UC-NRLF

I

B H

S7D E^^

THE

INDUSTRIES OF RUSSIA

SIBERIA AND

THE GREAT SIBERIAN RAILWAY WITH

A

GENERAL MAP BY THE

Department of Trade and Manufactures Ministry of Finance FOB THE

WORLD'S COLUMBIAN" EXPOSITIOJT

CHICAGO EDITOR OF THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION JOHN MARTIN CRAWFORD U

S

CONSUL GENERAL TO RUSSIA.

Vol

V

ST yETERSBUlU; 1893

Published by the

Department of Trade and Manufactures Imperial Ministry of Finance.

^: /

Printers E. A.

Evdokimov,

Great Italianskaia 11.

.

PREFACE

Ill

PREFACE. The beginning way, which

construction of the Great Siberian Rail-

of the

will unite the

most

distant points of

Europe and Asia

and will draw the Old World nearer to the New, practically coincides with the celebration

of the 400th

anniversary

of the discovery of

America.

The accomplishment

of this

magnificent and historic task has

fallen to the lot of Russia. Notwithstanding the enormity of the

ma-

accepted

the

terial

Russia has

expenses,

cheerfully

undertaking, one of the most acquisition,

of knowledge

The Great

Siberian

and earnestly

important in the history

of peaceful

and ot labour.

Railway

will

benefit

not

only Russia,

it

will do great service to the material and spiritual cuhivation of hu-

manity, and from this point of view will acquire

and

whole

interest for the

civilized

world.

much importance

Following

this idea,

Mr.

S. J. Mtte, Minister of Finance, commissioned the Department of Trade and Manufactures, to prepare for the World's Columbian Ex-

position at Chicago a description of this great railroad, and also of Siberia,

a land little

The

present

volume

and colonization of the review of

its

questions

to the people outside of the. Empire.

therefore contains a history of the occupation

this extensive territory, its

geographical description,

industry and trade, the description of

communications, the

known

its

land and water

and finally the history and contemporary state

concerning

the

construction

iv;270858

of

the

Great

oi

Siberian

SIBERIA.

lY

Railway. land,

In

this

order to

work

is

explain

furnished

more with

clearly

a

map

the geography of the

of the Russian Empire

showing the general network of Russian railways, together with the Great Siberian Railway as well as the principal deposits of the noble metals, with which the country

is

richly provided.

present edition has been accomplished under the

The of Mr. V.

I.

direction

Kovalevsky, Director of the Department of Trade and

Manufactures, and President of the Imperial Russian Commission for the

World's Columbian Exposition assistance of Senator

Russian

Geographical

P. P.

at

Chicago, together with the active

Semenov, Vice-President of the Imperial

Society,

a

man

well

known

world through his geographical works. This volume

to the is

civilized

being

simul-

taneously translated into the English language with the kind assistance of the Consul-General of the United States, Mr.

consented

at

the

request

of the

Imperial

J.

M.Crawford, who

Ministry

of Finance

supervise and edit the English translation of this work.

-^s^^-

to

PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION.

PREFACE TO THE

ENGLISH TRANSLATION. Of

that

great expanse of territory reaching

Ocean and from

the Ural mountains to the Pacific

Empire

to the borders of the CelesticU

there

Yet with its

wide-stretching plains,

its

unknown wealth buried in

posits

bosom, there

its

With

the

steady

way through

completing

the

about the

30th

world,

the

great

our

whole

of the

satisfaction

that

The Industries Exposition,

and

is

such a land a tuture too

for

Railway piercing the Far East, thus

of the circle that in direct of north

latitude,

great

Pacific

United

slopes,

States. this the

It

5th

the

invitation

lines,

winding

steam around the

will

unknown become

of Russia, designed

accepted

Siberian

country to

vast

the

welcomed

I

to the general public.

magnificent water systems and

Great

of the

of this

own

importance to people

arc

parallel

resources

more

at the present day.

rails

steel

little

metals and other valuable mineral de-

of noble

great to be overlooked

their

its

way from

the Frozen seas

perhaps

is

known

than the name, Siberia, authentically

the

all

of immediate

and through them to the

was

therefore

volume for the

of

the

with great

of the

series

on

World's Columbian Imperial

Minister

PKEFACE TO THE ENGLISH TRAXSLATIOX.

VI

of Finance to edit and supervise of

realization

ican people

its

unquestionable

its

translation into English. In

and

interest

have laboured hard to make

I

this

the

to

Edition

lull

Amer-

as faithful

limited time and exigencies of the case

as the very

to the original

value

would permit. Together with an

a

petty princedoms

and fauna, of trade,

and of

its

its

modes of

be found a

will

pursuits,

industrial

and

full

mineral resources,

a

climatic and

several

covering the

general

a

map,

industries

life

and

and engage

in regular

resume of

scientific

its possibilities

its

of agriculture

physical characteristics.

This work contains also numerous

with

with

review of the efforts of the Government to induce the various

Siberian tribes to adopt settled

flora

and nomads,

of the colonization going on up to the present day, and

glimpse with

of the

subjugation

of the

account of the conquest of Siberia,

historical

official

and

tables

of the country, and

is

statistics

accompanied

showing among other matters of

interest the

various railway surveys that have been made, examined and rejected, as well as the line

way on

along the its

way

which now,

rivers,

to

process of construction, winds

in

its

over the mountains and across the vast plains

the eastern shores, thus to form a through railway

route from ocean to ocean in the

Old

as in the

New

\\^orld, to the

mutual advantage of the two great and friendly nations, the Empire of Russia and the Republic of the United States of America.

To

His Excellence, Mr. V.

Kovalevsky, Director of the De-

I.

partment of Trade and Manufactures,

Councillor

Actual

of State,

and President of the Imperial Russian Commission, World's Columbian Exposition, ably assisted by Senator P. P. Semenov, Vice-President of the Imperial Russian Geograpliical Society,

earned

credit

with

editing and

due the well-

and honour of formulating and of carrying out the

original idea of His Excellence, Mr.

Finance,

is

reference

publishing the

to

the

same

S.

J.

\'ittc,

preparation in

Imperial Minister of

of this work, and

the Russian language.

ot

PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION.

Although prepared in it

this

pleasure

avoid

and

errors,

profit

resume of the present

immensely Empire,

all

the others of this series, has been

extreme haste and under very great

impossible to

find

vohime, Hke

rich country,

separated

only

in

nevertheless,

examining

and future

VII

I

the

authentic

this

interests

difficulties,

trust

of that

rendering

reader

and

official

enormous and

Siberia, the Great East of the Russian by

pacific

of the United States, and which

waters

from

are destined

in

the

Great

J.

Petersburg, August 15, 1893.

W'est

the near future to

be in intimate commercial relations with each other.

St.

will

M. Crawford.

CONTENTS.

IX

CONTENTS. Page. Preface

^^^

Preface to the English Translation Russian weights and measures

XI

"^^

CHAPTER

I.

Historical sketch

•

.

1

Geographical and administrative division of Siberia; its occupation, exploration and settlement; the first contact of the Russians with Siberia; their appearance

upon the Amour; struggle with China; beginning of permanent colonization; of Russo-American possessions to the United States Government;

surrender

Amour

scientific explorations in the

country; occupation of the Kirghiz steppe;

annexation of Semirechinsk and Zailisk; necessity of building a great railway; Grand Duke Tsessarevich; visit to Siberia of His Imperial Highness the foundation of the Siberian Railway Committee.

CHAPTER

II.

Western

component parts; review of the Altai

their division into three

slopes

22

Geographical Review of Siberia Siberia: its

and

valley;

climatic

their

zones;

fauna

conditions;

Western Siberia;

of

slopes; the lowlands;

of

flora

the

Altai

population; distribution of

its

domestic animals.

CHAPTER Its

34

Eastern Original Siberia

III.

tic conditions of

Eastern

division of

Sayan borderland; the

each; the flora and fauna

of

Siberia

into three zones; clima-

Eastern Siberia;

population;

its

distribution of domestic animals.

CHAPTER

44

IV. The Yakutsk Frontier Country

Orographic and hydrographic

review; division

two

into

zones;

their climatic

conditions; vegetation and fauna; composition of population; natives of

borderland; Arctic ocean,

CHAPTER

The

V.

its

Amour-Littoral

Division into four regions;

islands, flora

Yakutsk

and fauna. 55

Borderland

the contours,

climatic

conditions,

flora,

fauna and

population of each of them; Okhotsk and Behring seas.

CHAPTER of

76

YI. The Kirghiz steppe Region

Its division into the

each;

flora;

mountain and steppe population,

fauna;

its

mountain and steppe zones; importance of

CHAPTER

YII. Tenure and use

Foundations of land character;

industry

composition

and

distribution

in

the

cattle breeding. Sf)

of land

tenure;

agriculture;

among

orography and hydrography

territories;

dividing

production

the Kirghiz.

of

Siberia

into

breadstuffs;

districts

and

their general

raising of cattle; live stock

Page.

CHAPTER

116

YIII. The forest wealth of Siberia

mountain

forest; northern tall tree forests; birch forest zone;

Area occupied by

woodlands; obstacles to the introduction of forestry into Siberia; Forest Adminhusbandry in Eastern Siberia; Crown forests in the Amour region.

istration: forest

CHAPTER

IX. The industries

of the rural

122

population

and hunting; gathering of cedar nuts; bee keeping;

Industrial earnings; fishing

hewing of timber and w^ood

fuel; kustar industries; carrying trade; concluding

remarks.

CHAPTER

X. Hunting and

129

the fur industry in the Far East

Seal industry; Russian American Company; Hutchinson,

Cool, Filipeus and Co;

internayield of seal skins; trade in skins; piratical destruction of the seals; for the seal industry; beaver, arctic fox, morse and whale

tional agreements

trades; fur industries;

CHAPTER

XI.

mammoth

ivory.

Commerce and Ways

Industry,

of

145

Communication

Mineral wealth and the mining and metallurgical industries; gold, silver, lead and copper; iron, tin, mercury and sulphur; coal, graphite, naphtha, salt; precious minerals and building materials.

194

XII. iWanufacturing Industry and the home trade

CHAPTER

and mead; beet sugar, tobacco and Excisable industries, matches; non-excisable productions; trade dues; turnover and profits; trade in beer

vodka,

spirit,

towns; fairs and their importance.

CHAPTER

XIII. The foreign trade

of

China;

ports

of

the

Arctic

206

Siberia

The Far East; import and export

of

Ocean;

and foreign goods; trade with tea trade; freights; western China and Russian

Turkestan.

CHAPTER

XIV. Water and overland communication Volga and Transport of goods between European Russia and Siberia by the and Amour basin; Obi; Obi-Yenisei canal; Yenisei and Angara; the Baikal; Lena

223

the Volunteer Fleet; overland communication.

CHAPTER XV.

The Great Siberian Railroad;

historical review of the question concerning

238

the Siberian railway

The

first

engineers its

northern,

Ostrovski

and

condition on

CHAPTER and

proposals;

XVI.

its

March

central

Siedensner;

and southern directions

the

road;

construction of the road in Vladivostok;

10, 1893.

Topographical and

technical

conditions of

the Great

Siberian

Railway

248 Obi-Irkutsk;

Irkutsk- Mysovsk;

Mysovsk-Sretensk;

Khabarovka; Khabarovka-Grafskaia; Grafskaia-Vladivostok; the

Its

the

cost

Cheliabinsk-Obi;

CHAPTER

of

XVII. Importance

importance for

home and

of the

agriculture,

Sretensk-

total cost.

260

Great Siberian Railway colonization,

foreign trade.

^<$-

metallurgy, gold

industry and for

RUSSIAN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

XI

RUSSIAN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

The following terms

tables

French

the

of

serve

wil

Metric

those

also

as

Russian

the

define

to

System,

weig'

which

are

ts

and measures

used

in

the

in

L'nited

States.

Long measure.

I.

The

lineal

measures of Russia have for a unit

laws of Peter the Great,

foot, which, according

» »

=z 0-66269 English mile.

»

Russian arshine

1

Russian sagene

foot.

2^'3

»

» »

Russian verst

geographical mile »

feet.

=

=

6-956 versts

=

4-601 English miles

:= 49

=

>>

1,2<)0

^'9

sq.

5-4444

=

feet sq.

7-420 kilometres.

Square measure.

II. sagene

1 square

1

the

as the English foot.

lines

1

1

same

1

»

1

the

= English or United States = points. = 12 inches = 120 = 0-304794 metre == 30-4794 centimetres. = 16 \ershoks = 28 inches. = or 0-77778 yard = 0-71118 feet = = 7 feet = 3 arshines. = 2-13356 metres = 213-356 centimetres. = 2-3333 yards. — 500 sagenes = 3,500 = 1066-78 metres = 1-06678 kilometres.

Russian foot

1

is

4-5521

sq.

metres.

yards.

= 2,400 sagenes. = 1-0925 hectars = 2-6997 — 250,000 sagenes =: 104-17 = 1-1380 kilometres. = 0-43916 English

dessiatine (Russian land measure)

sq.

acres.

»

1 square

verst

dessiatines.

sq.

»

sq.

»

mile.

sq.

1 square geographical mile •>

»

= =

48-38 square versts. 55-06

»

kilometres.

r= 21-25

»

English miles.

ni. Cubic measure. 1 cubic inch 1 cubic » »

sagene

= = = =

16-386 cubic centimetres.

343 cubic

feet.

9-7J2 metres.

12-704 cubic yards.

metre.

to the

XII

AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

Dry 1

chetvert

=

8 chetveriks

m e a

IN RUSSIA.

u r

s

e.

2-099 hectolitres.

5-9567 American bushels. 1 chetverik

—

8 quarts

1601-22 cubic inches.

the volume of 64 Russian pounds of water at 13^3° R. temperature.

26-238 litres

=

0-26238 hectolitre.

0-7446 American bushel.

Liquid measure. 1

vedro

\'
of a barrel

—

10

shtoffs or

krouzhki

volume of 30 Russian pounds of water at 12-299

=

750-57 cubic inches

ISS'a*'

=

R. temperature.

litres.

2-707 English or 3*249 American gallons.

IV. Avoirdupois weight. 1

berkovets

10 pouds

=

= 163-80 kilograms. = 3*2243 cwt. = 0-01638 metric ton = 16-380

0-1638 metric ton

0-161217 English ton 1

poud

40 Russian pounds

0-32243 cwt. or 32-243 Eng. 1

Russian pound

32

lots

=

at 13^3°

96 zolotniks

R. in

weight

vacuo.

0-40951 kilogram

=

409.51 grams.

0-90282 English pound.

T R

=

kilograms.

lbs.

of 25-019

cubic

inches of

water

HISTORICAL SKETCH.

1

SIBERIA. AND THE

GREAT SIBERIAN RAILWAY. CHAPTER Historical Sketch. I.

Geographical and administrative division of Siberia; historical review of its occupation, explogeographical regions; its administrative its subdivision into five large division; the first contact of the Russians with Siberia by means of the Stroganovs; annexation of a part of Siberia to Russia at the end of the sixteenth century; gradual occupation by the Russians of the whole of Siberia in the course of the seventeenth century; first attempts at navigating the Arctic Ocean, and the Behring and Okhotsk seas; appearance of the Russians upon the Amour; struggle with China for the possession of the Littoral-Amour country; the Nerchinsk treaty; beginning of permanent colonization of Siberia at the end of the seventeenth, and its gradual realization during the eighteenth century; establishment of frontier defense lines called forth by the necessity of protecting colonization; development of colonization under the shelter of these lines; scientific explorations by sea and land in Siberia in the eighteenth century; surrender of Russo- American possessions to the Government of the United States; acquisition of Sakhalin and surrender of the Kuril Islands to Japan; settlement and exploration of Siberia in the first half of the nineteenth century; annaxation of the Amour tract in the beginning of the second half of the nineteenth century; scientific explorations in the Amour Littoral country; gi-adual occupation of the Kirghiz steppe country in the course of the nineteenth century; annexation to Russia of the country of Semirechinsk and Zailisk in the beginning of the second half of the nineteenth century; significance and consequence of this fact so important to the history of Asiatic Russia; colonization of Siberia in the second half of the nineteenth century, and the position of the colonization question at the present time; recognition of the necessity of building a great railway through Siberia; visit to Siberia of the Tsarevich; and the foundation of the Siberian Railway Committee.

ration and settlement;

UiSDER all

territory

would

the

name

Siberia, in the

most widely accepted meaning of the word, are understood

possessions, with the

Russia's Asiatic

exception of Transcaucasia, the Transcaspian

and the Turkestan governor - generalship.

appear

Ural chain,

to

be

the

colossal in its linear extension,

almost imperceptibly eastern slope,

in

was never

Accordingly the

its

lowest passes,

like other

great

but not

with

and river

But the

its

attaining any elevation and traversable

mineral wealth scattered chiefly over

life

its

of the peoples, but on the contrary, from

the time of the occupation of Siberia by the Russians, proveii as

it

were, a line uniting Euro-

Asiatic Russia.

The Transural the Urals

chain

mountain chains on the earth's surface, a separa-

ting barrier in the etnographical and economical

pean and

Ural

natural boundary between European Russia and Siberia.

is

districts

of

the

Perm government,

in

which

the

most abundant, and which are the largest furnishers of grain

mineral to the

population, have long been reckoned not to Siberia but to European Russia. In

wealth

of

Ural mining like

manner 1

Ural aud Turgai regions, passing far beyond the Ural

also the steppe

and penetrating

river

deeply into the interior of Asia, are not counted as belonging to Siberia, because the centres of gravity of these regions, that

Thus, Siberia

is

is,

river Obi, namely, Tobolsk and

entered formerly into the

European Russia.

their administrative centres, are situated in

composed of the following parts:

Two

1.

governments of the basin of the

Tomsk, forming the so-called Western Siberia; these governments

now

governor-generalship

special

composition of a

but

abolished,

are at present governed, each separately, upon identical lines with the governments of European

Two

Russia, 2.

ming the

governments of the basin of the Yenissei, namely Yenisseisk and Irkutsk, for-

so-called Eastern Siberia, in the strict sense

composition of the East Siberian governor-generalship.

form the original Siberia, that

by Russian

population

to ninety per cent of the

parts of Siberia form those outskirts of

The remaining

the Russian race.

and entering into the

term,

the

which was long ago and constantly occupied

that Siberia

is,

and where from eighty

colonists,

of

These two component parts of Siberia

from their very nature or from their remoteness are yet very

and either occupied by primitive Asiatic or native peoples or are deserts and even uninhabited, and States.

To

may be compared

Yakutsk

respect to administration the territories, occupies the

The Yakutsk

the

territory alone. This, the

immense basin of the Lena and the

the

all

considerable

less

United

constituting

region,

most vast of

territory in administrative respects forms a part of the

4.

Amour

The Yakutsk

in

Siberian

basins

of the

example, the Yana, Indighirka and Kolyma falling into the Arctic Ocean.

smaller rivers, for

generalship.

absolutely

not with the states but with the territories of the

these outlying regions of Siberia belong: 3.

which

by the Russians

settled

little

belong to

the country,

The Amour and

Littoral region; this consists of three

whole of the Russian part of the

territories,

Amour and

governor-generalship, namely Transbaikalia, the

territories cover the

East Siberian governor-

basin

constituting

These

Littoral.

Amour and

the

of

the

whole

the

coast zone belonging to the basin of the Pacific or rather of the Japan, Okhotsk and Behring seas, including the vast peninsula of

Kamchatka and

Kirghiz region; this consists of three territories,

of Sakhalin.

the island

5.

known under

namely: those of Akmoliusk, Semipalatinsk and Semirechensk, in former times the collective

name

Hordes and Steppes. Composed as above, Siberia

Kirghiz-Kaissak

of the

The steppe

comprised in the Steppe governor-generalship,

occupies the immense area of 250,000 square geographical miles, being twenty-five times gi'eater

than Germany and two and a half times Euporean Russia.

The annexation

Siberia

of

to

The occupation by

sixteenth century.

any particularly bloody wars and

the

Empire took place

hardly cost the Government an

very rapidly conquered Siberia, and aftor like a

Russian

the Russians of this vast country

them other

end

the

of

effected without

The

effort.

seekers

intrepid

the

at

was

free Cossacks

of booty

poured

in

wave.

The

principal

such as traders,

pioneers

sable

hunters,

in

the

occupation

trappers

of Siberia at that time

and fishermen.

Organizing

were

artel s

distanced by far the Government colonization, and scattered themselves over

In one spot animals, and

they

collected

looked

for

yassak, or a and mammoth

fish

tax

on

furs;

tusks; tliey

belonging to the natives; they established whole

in

another

drove

off

or

adventurers,

or societies

they

unknown

destroyed

bartered

the

they

wastes.

wild cattle

industries by collecting hops, cedar nuts et

UISTOKICAL SKETCH.

cetera. In the steps of the

became transformed

the Siberian pioneers

The

Government had afterwards

A

short

history

first

raids

upon the

Tobolsk, were

whom

More

made

may

Siberia

of

These

peltry.

across

the Urals,

Siberian

possession of the whole

and

under the

came

Tsar would restrain

and help of the

but

expectations were uot realized.

and on the

by

as before

accession

it

great

importance

The Russian

them temporarily

the

in

Yediger

and other Siberian

he

should as

send them

some of

his

Yediger hoped that the

enemies from attacking his possessions, help, and

he began to pay his tribute irregularly, this tribute

killed.

movement

said

The

ceased

firm

and

altogether,

allegiance

of

the

Transuralia

of the Russian population undertaken with

Kama

industry,

difficult for the

of its remoteness,

and

the

movement attaches

to the

family of the

every

possible

them

settle

such

privilege,

as

their great wealth appear as the chief settlers of the great north-

these rich manufacturers ami traders penetrated

Kama, and

in

1558 petitioned the

Chussovaya on condition that

to the

raise

they

should

Tsar

grant

to

build

town

a

troops and defend the region from the attacks of wild hordes.

Government at

afforded

and the right of administering justice to the

duties,

the

to

defend the

same time

it

forcible devastations on the part of the Cisural

made by

this

being

pioneers

In the reign of Ivan the lY,

them land along the develop

of

history

into the depths of the river region of the

sition

began

to their sovereignty.

and rich people on the condition that they should

to enterprising

The Stroganovs with

eastern tracts.

was

these pioneers were

praying to be accepted as his subjects,

his

Kuchum

Khanate, of

freedom from taxes, trade unfettered by

It

the

princes possessing vast tracts of unsettled lands, very willingly assigned

and cultivate the land, the

there,

with

and commercial objects towards the north-east.

Stroganovs.

settlers.

only

Xot receiving the desired protection and

were not infrequently

only came about in consequence of the

A

began

region

that

his hostile neighbours,

the

to

Russians who came for

industrial

had no of costly

protection of Ivan the Terrible

was very unstable

assented, but such allegiance

protection

as hard pressed

form

wandering over the

or

Tsar from

the

to

agi'ceing to the imposition of a tribute on condition

these

the

basin of the river Volga,

extensive

and then

to their influence,

first

oppressed by their southern co-tribesmen,

The Tsar

peoples

from Novgorod,

observed,

it

into the depths of the Urals, with its

inhabiting

tribes,

powerful hand and

In the year 1555/ ambassadors

people.

be

ended with the taking of ransom in

with Tartar

conflict

into

gi-adually to subject them, at

princelings,

traders

raids,

facts.

government of

present

wealth. Passing over the easily traversed Ural chain,

abundant mineral

come

the

namely, with the time when Russia, after destroying the Tartar kingdoms

Kazan and Astrakhan, took

to

be marked by the following

century by enterprising

whose branches brought pioneers of Russian colonization

bound

(kur-

for riches

and nomad adventurers, so that

one Inhabiting

tribe,

valuable

their

vagabonds

into

in the twelfth

always

but

or excavators of barrows

great efforts to bind them to the land.

relations of the Russians to the

definite

sixteenth century, of

make

Yugra, a Finnish

attracted by

character of conquest furs.

to

conquest

of the

already

Yugra

the

mound men

the

contained in them. Under the influence of searches

gans) for the precious objects

the

fuUoweil

tviKh'is

:^

Strogonovs

Kama

region with

its

own

forces,

was constantly being subjected and Transural

seemed very advantageous;

tribes. tlioir

Therefore,

prayer

on account

to attacks

the

and

propo-

was granted, 1*

all

own

build stockades and to maintain troops at their

and their

then unknown to

till

Russian

gave

hut

settlers

hound themselves to

few small towns quickly itself

Thus, the Stroganovs, thanks to their vast resources

it.

not only consolidated the Russian sovereignty in

enterprise and energy,

intrepidity,

the Urals,

settlers

A

Russian population grew and estahlished

the

industry increased,

appeared on the spot, firmly in places

and the expense.

wore given them for 20 years,

of priviloges

kinds

Eastern side of

possihility of passing over to the

the

the mountain range so richly endowed hy nature.

Ceaseless collisions with

a

wider

tenitory

induced

the

and the striving

natives

the

Stroganovs

The

places on the other side of the Urals also.

Kama

had demonstrated

district

this kind.

The permission was

nature.

offensive find

them

authorize

to

example

hrilliant

to settle

settlement

the

of

of

the

advantageousness of undertakings of

Government the

and the Stroganovs hound themselves hy the same condi-

given,

were even empowered

and

tions as hefore,

to the

develop their industry over

to

Tsar

heg the

to

For more extended

to

offensive

wage war not only

an

of a defensive hut of

operations the Stroganovs could not at once

enough armed men, hut these were not long forthcoming. In the second half of the sixteenth century,

mass of people

new

forming the

ease and

liberty,

acquisitions of Russia.

There in those

reign of Ivan the Tenihle,

the

a

regions the fugitives found

outlying

bands were formed out of chance associates, who

whole

abundant space;

during

a few hent their steps into the waste regions

not

while

Lithuania

fled into

almost completely severed themselves from the State, paid but scant attention to the latter and lived their free Cossack

life.

But the Cossacks, engaged

their brigandage. itself

by

troops,

One

Don

of these parties of

in

robbery,

proceeded under the leadership of

reached the Stroganov possessions.

was being pursued by the Tsar's

ataman Yermak Timofeev up the

its

by the Stroganovs and with Yermak

The

started

and so

and in a short time, equipped

latter consented

at their head,

Kama

of the opportunity and

The Stroganovs availed themselves

invited the Cossacks to enter their service.

also the teiTitories

Cossacks, which had particularly destinguished

freebooting expedition on the Volga, and which

its

hamed

and were prosecuted by the Government for

which were under the authority of the Tsar,

across

mountains and

Ural

the

entered the limits of Kuchum's kingdom.

In 1580

Yermak was

already on the banks of the Tiira, defeated the Tartar princelet

Yepancha, then took by storm the town of Shingi-Tura, upon whose

subsequent year

Yermak moved on

to the capital of

Having navigated the Tura, Tobol and Irtych reached the

Khan's residence, and after a

Kuchum,

in barges, the

fierce fight

with the remains of his troops into the southern steppes. Koltso, with the

lieutenant and ataman,

him with

costly furs

Terrible with the

farmer

faults,

assistance.

and

acquisition of the

presented

news

commanded him

new

«to

took

In

Tartars,

spring of the

Cossacks on October 26, 1581, possession of

it.

Yermak immediatety

Kuchum

fled

sent his trusty

of this conquest to

Moscow, having furnished

humbly

Lord

Siberian

Yermak Timofeev was however

the

the town of Isker or Siberia,

salute

kingdom^.

the

Ivan

A'asilevich the

The Tsar forgave Yermak

him with a cloak and medal, and sent the

too far by the cunning of the

stands at the pre-

site

sent time the town of Tinmen, and there took up his winter quarters.

leader

Glukhov

his

to his

not long fated to rule Siberia. In 1584. enticed

he perished

together with his band in a fight

upon

O

HISTORICAL SKETCH.

the

banks of the

Yermak, and

meanwhile,

In Moscow,

Irlysli.

on

1586 arrived

in

Tura a

the

destruction

of the

300 men

of

reintoroiMumit

Miasnov and Chulkov, who founded upon

leaders Sukin,

known

nothing was

fresh

town

this river the

under

of

their

Tinmen and

of

natives. In thence began to spread the Russian authority over the Siberian

1587 yet anotlier

500 troops were sent from Moscow into Siberia, and the order was given

to build

sian town of Tobolsk in the place of the ruined capital of

and the

It

was compelled

to the

the Govern-

possessions

Russian

about the strengthening of the bond between the new possessions and could not have the extensive countries, seized by the Russians, deserted,

concern

to

old.

kingdom was united

as the Siberian

As soon ment began

the Rus-

Kuchum.

to

itself

move

certain

forth

portions

of

own

its

population

cadres of the future natural colonization. Such

resistance, or so to say,

create

to

points

ot

of resistance,

points

Tobolsk, Verkhofounded beyond the Urals in the sixteenth century, were besides Tinmen and these little towns All Tara. and Ketsk Narym, Obdorsk, Surgut, Beriozov, turie, Pelym,

served only as centres

from which the conquerors were able

collecting from

by means of

them y a

s s

further and further to the of which

east.

In the seventeenth

furs.

points continues, and Russian dominion rapidly

construction of rallying

century the

natives

exploit the Siberian

to

a k and trading with them in

extends

From the year 1604 the following strongholds were gradually

subsequently

grew the towns

built,

out

seisk,

Kansk, Krasnoyarsk, Yakutsk,

Tomsk, Turukhausk, Kuznetsk,

of

Yeni-

Olekminsk, Achinsk, Barguzinsk, Irkutsk, Balagansk,

of the Nerchinsk, Kirensk, and thus the Russian power was quickly extended over the basins

three giant rivers of Siberia, the Obi,

Cossack

Okhotsk, and Yellissei

ing

Yeuissei and Lena. Between 1630 and 1640

parties reached, on the one hand, the Arctic Ocean, to this period

Buza was

belong

and on the

Russian

Sea

other, to the

their first attempts at sea voyages. In

1636

of

the Cossack

followsent from Yenisseisk with the positive instruction to put to sea, and

along the coasts of the Arctic

Ocean, to impose y a

s s

a k upon

1637 did Buza succeed in descending the Lena, coming out by of the Arctic Ocean,

and in making his way along

it

its

to the

its

inhabitants. Only in

western arm upon the coast

mouth

In the

of the Olenek.

following year however, 1638, having built himself two vessels, called «Kocha»,

Buza

sailed

in reaching the

mouth

of the

into

arm

the ocean by the eastern

Yaua. Almost

at the

of the

Lena and succeeded

same time Ivan Postnik reached the Yana and the more

ghirka by laud. In 1644 the Cossack Mikhail Stadukhin discovered the most great rivers

falling into the Arctic

distant Inidi-

eastern of the

Ocean, the Kolyma, and there founded a winter

station,

subsequently transformed into Nizhni-Kolymsk.

From

the extreme point of resistance at that time of the Russian dominion in the east,

expedition was equipped in the year 1647 under the command of the Kholmogorsk emigrant, Fedot Alexeev and the Cossack Semion Dezhniev. In 1647 the expe-

Kolymsk, a complete

consisted of only

dition

penetrating vessels

further.

with

with

any

four vessels; the

it

reached the Chukotsk coast but did not

vessel,

under the leadership

Gerassim Aukuudinov, was more fortunate.

the

intrepid

particular

obstacles

June,

succeed in

other hand in the following year, 1648, an expedition

more than ten men on each

Fedot Alexeev and 30th of

On

sailors

found

the

sea

free

from

of

(»)uitting the

ice,

of seven

Semion Dezhniev,

Kolyma on

the

and without meeting

weathered the cape, called in recent times by

Xordenskjold

SIBEEIA.

6 Cape Dezhniev,

siiileJ

through the whole of the straits dividmg Asia from America and subse-

and gained the Chukotsk Cape. Here the expedition encountered

queutly called after Berend

among

crew was

Ankundinov's vessel perished, hut his

during which

a severe storm,

On

the vessels of Dezhniev and Alexeev.

the 30th of September the

distributed

Russians landed,

but here had a skirmish with the Chukchis in which Fedot Alexeev was wounded. After this

storm separated forever the

a frightful

Dezhniev bravely struggled

away

to

right

beyond Cape

Oliutor near the

m.ade their

way

to

Cl'^

Semion Dezhniev and Fedot Alexeev.

of

vessels

open sea with storms and opposing winds, which bore him

the south of the entry into the

Kamchatka between

Anadyi-

in the

Anadyr

mouth

upon the limits of

is,

and 60° X. L. From there Dezhniev and his twenty-five companions

Anadyr where he founded a winter anived soon

stronghold, as hither

after

station,

by Land

afterwards became the

which

Russians

Semion Motora from the Kolpna. Dezhniev himself returned 1653. In the meanwhile

was cast upon the coast

bay, and finally he

of the river Oliutora, that

to the

the

uinler

command

of

Kolyma not earUer than

Fedot Alexeev parted from Dezhniev by the

storm,

according to

information collected subsequently by the describer of Kamchatka, Krasheuinnikov, traversed, it

would seem, the whole

of

Kamchatka and

perished on the river Tighila, that

is,

on the

western shore of the peninsula.

Only in 1697 Kamchatka was discovered afresh and occupied by the Cossack Vladimir Atlassov,

who

of

Koriak towns and having

starting from the Anadyi- stronghold, destroyed four

founded on the river Kamchatka the stockaded

fort of

Xizhni-Kamchatsk reduced the whole

Kamchatka.

At

same time the movement

the

more southern

of the Russians towards the coast

latitudes. After the foundation on the middle course of the

by Peter Beketov, parties of Russians began

fort

novoi

range. It

was by

vitin's party, sent in

Ud

river

to

s s

a k upon

and so reached the Sea of Okhotsk. After

Ud and

mouths of the

all

the

this,

Tungus

o e

Yakutsk

Cossack

tribes,

Ivan Mosko-

came out upon

the

stockaded forts were founded at the

Tungura, and in 1643 the Russians for the

Amour. Equipped by the Yakutsk v

course in

its

of the

ascend the Aldan and to reach the Sta-

this road, passing the Stanovoi range, that the

1639 to impose y a

went

Lena

first

time

v o d e the elder Vassili Poyarkov

appear upon the

with 130 Cossacks

ascended the rivers Aldan, Uchur and Gonam, crossed the Stanovoi range and then came out

by the Brianda and Zeya upon the

Amour

and, descending the river, sailed into the

Okhotsk. In 1647 the Cossack Shelkovnikov crossed from the mouths

mouth of

But by

river

till!

one time with

ited

cities

by him.

the hitherto

Amour

Sea of the

to

fort of Okhotsk.

himself

upon the Amour. This intrepid Cossack who had formerly occupied himself at

com

Amour

growing, at another with country.

salt

boiling,

undertook

at

his

own

Having received the authorization from the Yakutsk v

he in 1649 and 1650 reached the

Daur

the

was the Cossack elder Yerofei Khabarov w^ho specially distinguished

it

his exploits

subjugate the

Okhota and here founded the

of

Amour by

the rivers

Olekma and Tunghir, destroyed

and having personally convinced himself of the natural riches of the liurriedly

costs

to

o e v o d a,

a

few

country vis-

returned to Yakutsk in order to there excite interest and atii-ntion to

unknown country which

party of volunteers to the

w^as so

remarkable in every respect. Having mustered

number of 150 men, and

liaving

received

three

guns from

a the

nisTorxicAL SKETCH.

voevodc,

1651 ho

in

opposition

of

cnnrse of

tiio

the

math^ his apitcaniiico

aii:aiii

Alhazin luiuuhMl by

to winter in the station of

Manchuro who

of

voevodeships

through the Siberian barov was recalled to

Moscow

make a

to

successor

of

Khabarov

newly built Kamora

numerous Manchur army. Later, he

Amour,

to the

Pashkov proposed

d a

e V

Amour, and the whole

approved and an expedition

was obliged

1655 withstood a severe

Amour was opened

through

it

undertake

might

Amour was

to the

Amour were

where

under the

summons,

stockaded

fort.

command

to

of

Here he wished Stepanov,

but

gather

to

all

newed the

the

all

This

mouth founded

its

in

1658

Amour bands which had latter these

of Xikifor

fortress there,

began

y a

to collect

and founded some strongholds. In 1677 the

s s

parties to his

fort

The voevode T

against a horde of 15,000 Manchurs,

wooden

o

was obliged

fortification

built on the

upper waters

1

to

June of the same year

of

b u z

i

n,

with a body of 500

surrender

Albazin

to his aid,

and

forces,

commenced

men

retreat;

pitched

but

an earthern entrenchment. The Manchurs

and his successor Afanasi Beiton stubbornly continued

siege. In 1688, a congress

was appointed

which the Chinese gained a diplomatic signed, confirming the

Amour

to hold his

observing

victory.

In August

to the Chinese,

of the possession of this outskirt of Siberia.

27,

and for 160

was

earthworks for a whole

Manchurs were themselves compelled of the plenipotentiaries

in

he returned and built upon

of Albazin undertook a second siege in 1686, during which Tolbuzin

year, until at last in 1687 the exhausted

re-

For almost 20 years Albazin enjoyed

troops, with ^considerably superior

same year, reinforced by fresh troops that had come

restablishraent

was

Yerkhozeissk

devastated the environs of Albazin and from the l2th the celebrated siege of this town.

consisting

Albazin,

of

a k from the previous tributaries, the Tunguzes,

Manchur

comparative tranquillity, but in 1685 the

the site of the burnt

Chernigovski

wishing to earn their pardon, appeared upon the ruins

of the Zeya, followed by forts Selimbaevsk aud Dodonsk.

was

the

as upon the death of the

In 1665 a crowd of Russians under the leadership

killed

same time

ordered to place themselves under Pashkov's orders.

undertake any decisive operations and thus his expedition met with no success.

of fugitive criminals,

the

force

His plan was

Pashkov did not venture, with the miserable remnants of those who answered

scattered,

the

of the

warlike

the

all

him; at the

Yeirisseisk

subjugation

movements.

offensive

entrusted to

The

Transbaikalia.

the expeditious

Government, for

the

to

d e then, from Yenisseisk, following the Upper Tunguzka, Baikal, the Selenga and the

Xerchinsk

been

of a

the Manchurs,

with

struggle

hands

the

at

in the

himself

fortify

to

siege

Khilka, reached the river Nerch, and at a distance of four versts from the

of his

of the Cossack Onufri Stepanov. This worthy

to select in the vicinity of the steppes a rallying point,

detachments along the e V

1654 Kha-

hinrself, so that in

after three years of obstinate

might be concentrated and whence

V

the

whole

tlie

by Kha[)arov ([Uickly spread not only

personal report upon the

in

occupied

a skirmish in 1658.

fell in

Meanwhile, a road V

and

\w

Yakulsk.

closely pressed by the enemy,

stronghold

nutwitlistamling

years

side

hut reached the Tsar

command

hrave company was placed under the

every

river couiiucrod

ilie

two

During

him tm

his success to

wealtli of

tlio

the liuiiks uf the Aiiiuiir ami stopped

iipuii

liim.

siirniundcil

Aimiur and reported

The rumour

7

to

raise

the

of the two warring sides, at

1689, years

tlie

Xerchinsk treaty

depriving

the Russians

8

SIBERIA.

Only from the end of the seventeenth century when the boundaries of Siberia in the large sense of the term

were already indicated more or

by the points of defense, could the

less

yam as, or

actual permanent colonization be effected; the Government besides building cities and

com

posting stations, strove to create a class of peasant artisans and to spread this object,

With

growing.

by command of the Tsar Feodor Alexeevich, volunteer ploughmen were sent

from Solvychegodsk and other towns of the Permia of that time, who received besides every kind of privilege, agricultural implements

and

assistance

The road

money.

in

of

settlements lay by the rivers Tura, Tavda, Tobol, Irtysh, Obi and their tributaries.

the

first

The emi-

very heart of the native population; the Chudic tribes thrust back in the

gi-ants cut into the

by the Tiurks people, themselves pressed forward by the Mongolian movement

fifteenth century

and known by the general name of Tartars, remained in their places. From the south the greater

had wandered away further into the depths of the steppes, while the Ostyak

part of the Tartars

and Samoyed tribes were moved back to the north and

The Goveniment had

who required

east.

to concern itself with the provisioning of the people

it

had

settled,

Grain was imported from Perm, Viatka and Solvyche-

to be supplied with everything.

godsk. In consequence of the bad roads the furnishing of provisions was delayed, and hence Govern-

ment servants suffered

terrible want.

But trade

colonists with goods.

The merchants occupied themselves with

relations of the

and were effected but once a year.

difficult

the rivers.

new country with

The wares were transported on barges

The method

trading

of

Moscow were

very

Communications were accomplished by means of

«narta» were dragged over the portages by men. quarters on their way.

the furnishing of the

metropolis

its

The Siberian

or plank levats.

sledges called

The merchants sometimes took up winter was slow and

therefore only

a

few dealers

penetrated into Siberia, but having reached there, from the absence of competition, became at

once monopolists.

The spread

them

of agriculture and the establishment

new country were

of the

girls to

among

By

the care of

Russian

the

Tinmen and Turinsk villages

drivers,

and with

districts.

The

but

among

agricultural

was

the region

life in

growing of grain was spread not

Government the

the

population

laid

when

the

Tartars

population

formed the chief foundation of colonization

foundation of

post

be manled to the Cossacks, and also by the alleviation of the burdens imposed

by the voevodes. only

of fixed settlements within the limits

supported by the sending out of ploughmen,

and

Voguls of the present

having dotted the

in the east.

the conquerors

It first

may

country with

be said that the true

grain of corn

fell

into the

of the conquered countries.

soil

Beginning with the end of the seventeenth century, this permanent colonization obtained in

the

at the

back

eighteenth

a

more regular form. The Government,

same time took care

to secure

them from the

into the steppe regions of Central Asia,

young

colonies.

century.

To

in the

protect

colonization as

Omsk, Yamyshevsk and Petropavlovsk were Semipalatinsk and LTst-Ivamenogorsk.

spots,

driven

yet

not

built, as well

to the

of agricultural settlements in Siberia

end of the seventeenth but also in the

the

unoccupied

who had been

the

and which were so frequent and so destructive

Such raids indeed an-ested the development

and Zavolzhia not only eenth

settling

raids of the nomads,

first

half of the eight-

firmly established, the fortresses of

as

among

others the towns of Biysk,

As

al the very begiimiiig of Uussia'.s aciiaaiiitauce

movemeut

vate persons had a great sigiiificauce in the

9

SKETCH.

HISTORICAL

witli

of

the

and traces of

the

and on the small stream of the Loktevka falling into the Allei was built

works, called Kolyvansk.

1747 the works of Kol^Tansk

Soon other mines were discovered

To meet

workmen.

demand hundreds

this

Russia to the works ami attached to the

the Russian population of Siberia

grew every

of families anil

latter,

in

year.

unite the limits of conquest already indicated by stockades and fortresses to inter-

To

In

of

interior of

were sent forth from the

tracts

neighbourhood of

and Yoskresensk were taken over from Demidov by the Crown.

was required an increased number

mediate

in the

Government and by an ukaz of the year

to the

the development of mining in the Ural, Altai and at the Nerchinsk works, there

With

way

tiie

In 1723 his parties penetrated, with trading and industrial objects

whose existence Demidov presented a report

-this

so in

Government by the

In 1726 artisans and clerks were sent here by Demidov from his Nevian

ores.

in the Urals,

first

the

mountains to Mount Siniukha near lake Kolyvans, and here found Chudie mines

in the Altai

works

eulcrprise of pri-

Russians eastward,

beginning of the eighteenth century no slight services were rendered rich trader Akinfi Deniidov.

the

Siberia

points

mining works from the raids of nomads,

also for the defense of the

as

main

or

routes

w^ere settled,

and Cossack defense posts

the

and settlements established.

1744 to 1745 the tract between Tobolsk and Tara was so inhabited, followed by those be-

tween

Ishim and Omsk, and the Chauss stockade and Tomsk. In 1762 to 1780 the tract be-

tween Tara and the Chauss stockade was built.

Among

the Cossack defense

]

720

1773 was constructed that of the Irtysch,

to

Further, with the

between Omsk and Zveriuogolovsk.

in 1755 that

and in 1763 the Ekaterinburg road was

settled,

in

lines

movement

depths of the Altai, the Kolyvan-Kusnetsk, Novokolyvan-Kusnetsk,

into the

Bukhtarminsk

of colonization

and

in

1780 the

lines.

Parallel to the colonization patronized by the Government, at times during the critical

moments

in Russia's historical

colonization

was

The government country, of

and economical

was more

enclosures,

another kind of colonization, namely, secret

of Tobolsk,

as

the

and

cleared

first

zone lying on the road

to

the

little

known

thickly populated with fugitives belonging to those groups of the population

European Russia who were there faring

of dense forests

life,

effected.

swamps

forests

raised their

and introduced

ill.

In Siberia these fugitives under the protection

solitary tillage.

dwellings,

made

so-called

The voevodes on

ments did not destroy them but only levied upon them state taxes.

«zaimkas;'>

or

discovering such settle-

Such emigrants,

settling

and at the same time securing the possession of an alien region, were not without their advantages to the voevodes. Thus the acceptance with an amnesty of the allegiance of the so-called

Bukhtarmin masons, the

fugitive families of dissenters

abodes beyond the Kamen,

and criminals who had taken up their

one of the ridges of the Altai,

spread the dominion of Russia to

one of the best valleys of the Altai.

With

the extension of the settlements the people

ing spots and finding suburbs. ever,

Each

settled

more convenient

places,

built

became acquainted with the surroundo themselves

he did not wish to remain any longer in the same place,

another and sought a

new

outlying

hamlets and

upon a separate patch over which he had arbitrary control; when, how-

new home.

he handed

over

his land to

SIBERIA.

]

Such secret colonization

dimensions, so that the

attained fairly considerable

at times

Stale authority had to take severe measures to stop this undesirable movement.

Together with the settlement of Siberia in the course of the eighteenth century appeared the

necessity

for

exploration.

its

The Emperor

Peter

becomes

Great

the

Recognizing that the attempts to

in this matter, as in everything else.

the

initiator

regular sea

establish

communication with Kamchatka in place of the distant and circuitous road through the northern

Busch the

first

succeed, from

not

did

tundras,

Swedish prisoners

acquainted

Kamchatka was there

was made

attempt

voyage of the Cossack

with

Sokolov,

the ship

in 1716,

of

solution

this

by

the

equipped for the purpose of deciding

the

command

out

ship

account

this

by Henry

built

interested in the question of whether

was

Dezhniev

of

this

unknown

being

Emperor.

the

to

under

Northern Expedition,

question a great

of the Danish sailor in the Russian service, Vitus Berend, Lieutenant Shpanberg

Chirikov.

The

expedition

started

from

into the sea

Kamchatka through

covered the island of

St.

64" 30' X. L.,

Lawrence and on the 26th

on the

August saw

of

Siberia.

31st of July, 1728, on

from Xizhui-Kamchatsk on the

August, approached the Chukot peninsula under

of Peter the

Petersburg in the year

St.

Great's death, 1725, and only after three years reached sailed

a

between the Asiatic and American continents, the

voyage

He

and Alexei

On

Okhotsk.

and in 1717 took place the perfectly successful

established. Xext, Peter the Great

question

on

build ships, he sent

to

to

which regular communication between Okhotsk and

after

a passage into the Arctic Ocean

is

inability

building

21st

August

of

under 67°

Berend of

19th

the

dis-

X. L. the

18'

north-eastern extremity of Asia, Cape Dezhniev, and considering the question of the existence of a strait

between Asia and America completely

solved, returned

to

Xizhni-Kamcliatsk.

Berend's successful voyage did not remain without consequences.

The Russians commenced a whole the

1739 the expedition of Lieutenant Pronchischev the

problem of exploring the

But the expedition himself

chischev

of

series

attempts

^vith

Ocean and thus discovering a passage

coasts of the Arctic

seacoast

succeeded

only

and his

wife

fitted

America. In

to

Lena had imposed upon

out for the

it

between the mouths of the Lena and the Yenissei.

in getting as far as the

died

it

exploring

of

the object

through

on the desert

mouth

of the Olenek

shore of the

ocean.

and Pron-

The expedition

of

Lieutenant Laptev, which followed next, succeded in reaching the Taimir peninsula, namely, to

Cape

St.

Thaddeus,

Cheliuskin,

1739 to of the

17-10,

mouth

Medviezhi

but was not able to weather Cape

was obliged

to survey it only

from the land

Cheliuskin side.

At

and Laptev's companion,

the

same time, that

Lieutenant Dmitri Laptev was commissioned to describe the of the Lena.

Islands, reach

Only

after

these two

years

Cape Baranov, but was unable

efforts did

to

make

Laptev,

the

is,

in

littoral to tbe east

passing

passage

into

by the Behring

Strait.

from 1733

to

1743 belongs the remarkable

scientific land rxpedilion fitted out to explore

the whole of Siberia under the guidance of the best

Gmelin, subsequently autlior of the

first

men

of science of the time, the naturalist

Siberian Flora, and the historian Miiller,

the

author

of the History of Siberia. Into the composition of this remarkable scientific expedition entered also the astronomer Delille, Professor Fisher, assistant Steller, several students

The expedition returned from Yakutsk, but

Delille,

Steller

antl

the

student

and geodesists. Krasheninnikov

li

EISTORICAL SKETCH.

Kamchatka.

leacheil

by

Government

tlie

Dclil!(>

in 1740,

ami Steller formed part of the second Berend expedition, equipped which on this occasion had for its principal object the problem

chatka, bnt on

between

G8''

and

of Jnly a storm separated them.

first

tlie

69", in

the

stormy

called subsequently by

Lieutenant to

Waxel and

Kamchatka

sea,

his

of the

line

suffered

name,

Stcller,

left

on

the

American shore

November

and died after having landed, on

the

shore

to the south, under 56° X. L., that

is,

American

Delille putting to land anyw^here, and with frightful losses from scurvy to which

Steller,

best

result of the expedition

who with Krasheninnikov composed the

practical results of tion

The

returned

old,

much

further

opposite the island Sitkha: but having lost two of his boats

with their crews, destroyed by the natives on lauding, sailed along the

leturned to Kamchatka.

an island

at

of the island.

having built a new ship from the fragments of the

after foui'teen months voyage. Chirikov's vessel reached America

long

by his

sick and tortured

of

5th

Kam-

St. Elias. Tlien after a

Alleutian islands, Berend,

shipwreck

tlie

two

the

Petropavlovsk for

Berend reached

view of the marvellous giant volcano of

and tiring voyage along the voyage over

the 15th of Jnne, 1741, both vessels

On

vessels of the expedition.

commandeil

Chirikov

and

of exploring the north-western shore of America. Berend

coast,

fell

not

a victim,

were the splendid observations of of

first descriptions

Kamchatka.

But the

Berend and Chirikov's expedition wore the gradual discovery and occupa-

the by the Russians of the north-western part of the American Continent. Thus, in 1743 Behring Island, and from 1745 to 1764 all the

lUissian trader Bassov already wintered upon

Alleutian islands were discovered and occupied.

Much greater

Captain Shpanberg and Lieutenant Walton in 1738, 1739

and the Kuril

success attended the expeditions of

and 1742,

from Okhotsk

to

Japan

islands.

Catherine II, In the second half of the eighteenth century, during the reign of the Empress

began a new and of Siberia.

geographical

brilliant era in the history of the

and

The Yakutsk merchant Shalaurov, one of the prominent

equipped at his own cost a sea expediton, having for

its

explorations

scientific

local

Siberians,

having

object the passage into Behring

sea

neighbouring from the mouth of the Lena, doubled in 1761 the Holy Noss and discovered the Island of Liakhov one of the

new

Siberian group. In the course, how^ever, of the three years,

he was unable to penetrate to the east further than Cape Shelag,upon wdtich he met his death during his second expedition undertaken in 1766. At the same time in consebeen quence of the indications of the existence of lands in the Arctic Ocean, which had known from the times of Dezhniev, attempts were made to reach these lands in winter on 1761

to 1763,

sledges over the ice.

One

of such successful attempts

was the journey

of Sergeant

Andreev,

of former habiwdio discovered in 1763 a whole group of islands upon which he found traces with the people acquainted only with the use of stone implements and unfamiliar tation

by

metals. This group of Islands in the opinion of Nordenskjold discoveries of the Russians touched the

group

of

the

was Wrangel

New

Siberian

In 1770 the

land.

Islands.

In

that

year

as far as Liakhov not only investigated the island subsequently called by his name, but went

Kotel island.

The WAS

particular attention of the enlightened

Government

of

the

Empress Catherine

of Siberia. directed to the scientific exploration of the southern colonizatioual zone

the expeditions which

marked an epoch

in geographical science,

equipped by the

yr.

Among

Academy

of

1

SIBERIA.

2

Sciences at the desire of the Empress Catherine little

known

1774

Siberia, accomplished in 1770 to

hy the Academicians Pallas and Lepekhin, take almost the

account

on

place

first

the

of

the many-sided investigation

for

11,

parts of the Empire, the expeditions into

their

of

scientific valne.

The

attention of the

Empress was

extreme east with

also directed to the

its

Behring Sea and

north-western corner of America. The expedition fitted out by the Government in 1768 to 1769

under Captain Krinitsin and Lieutenant Levashov,

Alaska.

Alleutian

visited the

and gained

islands

In 1789 the trader Pribylov discovered the island, called by his name, and

become the centre of the sealing and whaling trade

Behring Sea. From 1790

in

to

has since

it

1794 Captain

and Lieutenant Sarychev's expedition quickly regulated the developing and too rapa-

Billings

cious fishing of the Behring Sea. Li 1792 a private company, consisting of Deliarov, Shelekhov

and Golikov founded the Russian settlement

upon Kadiak

harbour

Paul

in

and

island,

in

1796 Novoarkhangelsk, on the island of Sitkha, upon which Russian authority was firmly estab-

by Baranov, only in 1799. Similar permanent settlements arose also upon several

lished

the Alleutian and

Commander

islands

of

and even upon the peninsula of Alaska, then consisting

of the Alleutians.

In 1799 a great company was organized in St. Petersburg under the name of the Russian

It

privileges, to secure

as necessary to conclude a convention with

Britain in 1825.

subsequently exist

till

The term

of the privileges

renewed,

times

several

so

the

was that

1867 and was compelled to liquidate

United

States

its

aflairs only in

islands

to

concluded

treaty

the

Government

the

on this

wishing to cement the good understanding existing

in

then held by His Majesty on the American Continent, as the

Simultaneously therewith arose the question of over Sakhalin with Japan, and wishing to put an reference to this subject,

ment with Japan. The

Japan

it

result

of

this

From

this time the

With formed

agreement was

ceal oneself. authorization

But

it

when a complete

became extremely

The passport system and fettered

on the othrr hand,

a wide

torrent.

the

of

the

the

Government

sovereign

of joint

rights

conclusion

of

of

an

in

agree-

treaty

the

of

dominion

which arose

enter in 1875 into

island

the

with

Russia of the

Sakhalin

or

Krafts.

whole island of Sakhalin came under the sway of the Russian sceptre.

the nineteenth century,

in Siberia,

inconveniences

to

of

on

also the adjacent islands.

upon the mutual surrender on the part

group of the Kuril islands and on the part of Japan

the

to misunderstandings

end

was recognized as advantageous

of the 25th of April, 1875,

subject

with

of the United States, surrendered to the latter the whole territory with the thereto,

to

consequence of the surrender

3rd of May, 1867,

said

was

it

Russs-American Company continued

the

Emperor,

is

and with Great

1820,

in

United States. The

as

Okhotsk.

of

which the Government recognized

originally fixed for twenty years but

American possessions with the Pribylov's

of the Russian

Sea

and of the

ican Continent, as also the shores and islands of Behring Sea

The company was granted very ample

upon the Amer-

the Russian possessions

American Company with the object of working

the

administration and civil government was

wander

freely over the country or to con-

the prohibition of founding settlements or villages, without

the emigrational

when

difficult to

movements,

keeping

Government opened an

them

within

issue to colonization

narrower it

limits.

poured in like

13

HISTORICAL SKETCH.

In the

first

half of the nineteenth century,

as

men

New

Bielkov island and

New

for the exploration of the

New

1810 the

to

Siberian islands,

under the leadership of Hedenstrom. In 1821 out under the

ofitted

command

In

of the best

first

the

Bielkov,

was undertaken

by order of the Chancellor Count Rumiantsev

to 1824,

expeditions for their exploration were

Russian navigators

ami Vice President

Count

and

scientific expedition

two parts of the

in

Ocean, situated wide apart from each other. One of them under the gailor Littke, stibsequently

Ocean, San-

Arctic

tiie

Siberian group, the Stolbovoi island,

1809

Siberia. In

was

attention

of science, to the exploration

of Siberia from both a geographical and scientific point of view.

nlkov in 1805 discovered in the

much

the eighteenth,

in

directed by both the Russian Government, and by Russian

of

command

Arctic

of the energetic

Russian Geographical Society,

the

attempted during four successive years to reach the Siberian Frozen Ocean, at one time trying to

double

Kara

Nova Zembla,

at another striving to force its

tific results,

way

Kara sea through

into the

Extremely valuable investigations, on account of

gates, but without success.

were carried out at the same time by the expeditions under Captain Wrangel and

Lieutenant Anjou in the eastern part of the Siberian Frozen Ocean, between the

the

their scien-

also circumstantially explored

Lena and Kolyma. Behring Sea was

Russian navigators Kotsebu, 1815

to 1818,

The Russian Government was

still

and Littke, 1826

mouths of

the

by the two celebrated

to 1829.

more concerned about the exploration of the southern

area of colonization. The expedition of Ledebur, Meier and Bunge in 1826 made an excellent

Hum-

investigation of the peculiar and interesting flora of 'the Altai and the expedition under boldt,

Rose and Ehrenberg,

fitted out

logical formation of the Altai

for

the

sciences

',in

Siberia.

by the Emperor Nicholas

tableland.

In

Local

men

the beginning of

I,

same

did the

and observers did much

of science also

the thirties. Dr. Gebler in the

district,

The

due

to

Altai,

the

town of Barnaoul, the centre of the government

solid

scientific

other

important

scientific

of the Altai mining

foundation of the mining engineers living there, became

one of the three principal centres of culture of Siberia, position of the Altai

and

Altai

Turchaninov in Circumbaikalia made excellent studies, one of the entomology and the of the flora.

geo-

for the

was well explored

thanks to

w^hich

metalliferous

the

Between 1842 and 1845 two

in geological respects.

journeys were undertaken into Siberia, that of Peter Chikhachov, into the

least accessible parts of the Altai,

and that

of

Middendorf,

the Okhotsk Sea as far as the Shantar Islands.

lowing the southern slope of the

Stanovoi

two

to

little

Middendorf reached the

range, which

known and

extreme north, and

explored outskirts of Siberia, the Taimir peninsula in the

the

little

coast

latter region

by

of fol-

became a Russian possession only

subsequently, namely in the early years of the second half of the nineteenth century, in con-

sequence of the annexation to Russia of the whole

Amour

tract.

This great achievement in the history of Siberia owed

its

accomplishment

to the extraor-

dinary energy of the then Governor-General of Eastern Siberia, Muraviov, afterwards as Count care,

Muraviov Amoursky.

Immediately on his

arrival in the region

Muraviov clearly perceived that Eastern Siberia with

unfitted to

permanent settlement, had very small prospect

and sole river in Siberia, flowing eternally closed by ice.

To

its

whole course of

to east,

this river

known to his

vast region of Yakutsk, quite

in the future,

whole course from west

seize the

its

committed

without the gigantic

which leads

to a sea not

was the task which Muraviov

4

1

SIBERIA.

firmly and

carefully

entrusted to him.

when he began

about

himself

set

The

the

administration

step for the attainment of this object

first

was

of the country

to avail himself of the

transport «Baikal», sent by the Government already in 18i8 to carry cargoes from the Naval

Department upon

Amour. in

command

Petropavlovsk under the

to

this sturdy

and enterprising

Having received but an

on

shore

Sakhalin,

of

the

31st

May,

of

thence

authorization, limited

by various conditions, Muraviov found

Obman, 28th

the mouth of the

the

A

river.

Continent and the western

proved

an

to be

mouth

of the

From

called

of

La

Perouse,

Amour, he turned back northwards

this

to

efforts

eastern

making

Amour. He soon found straits

between the

him Lazarev and Muand others,

Krusenstjern

Sakhalin

enter with the transport Baikal the

into the sea of Okhotsk.

time the question of the annexation of the

Amour

obtained more serious significa-

Government spheres. In 1850 the Amour expedition was formed, having

tion in

the

of his transport, and

frith of the

of Sakhalin at the Capes called by

opinions

for

doubled the northern extremity of

name

after the

it

of June, entered the

his cargo in Petro-

Baikal

transport

He

explorations.

After forty-five vain

island.

the

few days afterwards Nevelskoy entered the shore

Thus, contrary to the

raviov.

with

started

to begin his

the island, entered the bay of

Nevelskoy having landed

his plans.

1849,

further investigations

on

accordingly imposed

and exploration of the mouth of the

Nevelskoy an excellent performer of

pavlovsk

He

of Captain Nevelskoy.

sailor the discovery

for its chief object

the foundation upon the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk near the frith of the Amour, at a point for the establishment of relations

commander

of the

Amour

Peter winter station, and military flag,

founded

at

declared

to

and trade with

expedition. in

August he

the

Giliaks

point, twenty-five

this

On

the

first

that

versts

the Giliaks,

29th

of

and Nevelskoy was appointed

June he founded

hoisted on the shores of the

in

Fortune Bay the

Amour

the llussian

they were coming under Russian protection and

from

the

mouth the post

of Nikolaevsk.

Between

1851 and 1853 were founded the posts of Ilinsk at the mouth of the river Kusunaya, Alexandrovsk in the bay of De Castri and Mariinsk near lake Kizi. In 1854, thanks to his repeated requests and perseverance, Muraviov received the Imperial authorization to «navigate the Amour». first

The Chinese government was warned

voyage on the river and without waiting for any answer from

command

flotilla

under the

Amour

on the 18th of May,

of the Governor-General himself

solemnly took the waters of the

On

descending to this river from the Shilka.

the expedition already reached the pool of Mariinsk, and thus the road

Russian upper waters of the

Amour

to the

of the intended

small but powerful

tlie

it,

the 14th of June

was opened from the

lower reaches of this great river

only just occu-

pied by the Russians.

The success

of this

first

The convenience and -possibility

expedition marks an important epoch in the history of Siberia. of the settlement of the shores of the

Amour, on account

of

the sparsely inhabited condition of the country, the peaceable character of the natives and the

weakness of the Chinese, were demonstrated. The importance of the acquisition of the Amour

was proved to

also

Kamchatka

by the fact that thanks

the port of Pelropavlovsk

to

the sending in good time

was saved. Near

this

port

of provisions and

the

stood in Avvachinsk bay with distinctly hostile intentions, and even opened tifications.

out success.

Attempts of a similar nature were made in the

following-

arms

Anglo-French

fleet

uiion the

for-

fire

year

but

alsu with-

15

HISTORICAL SKETCH.

In 1855 Governor -General

Mouraviov

upon

laid

successor General Korsakov the

his

task of the immediate and rapid realization of a Russian colonization along the course of the invited from the governments of Irkutsk and Zabaikal and owing to

Amour. Emigrants were

the numerous advantages offered in the form of liberation from military service, State

provi-

two years and the supply of agricultural implements, the number of applicants proved

sion for

was

far greater than

The

at first thought necessary.

notwithstanding

flow of emigrants and arras continued during the following years,

meanwhile

the expressed dissatisfaction of the Chinese authorities and in the

the diplomatic

negotiations led to no results, due to the voluntary dilatoriness of the Chinese offlcials.

At length a

of

project

a

treaty

was composed

the case of any misunderstanding General Mouraviov entrusted the

negotiations to Perovski and thanks to the firmness of

to

The

16th day of May.

the

left

banks of the

to navigate the

the left banks of the

remain

were

to

there

was

gun

the

the

tn

to

ultimate direction of the

was signed on

treaty

the

latter

Amour from Argun

Russia and the right banks as far as the Ussuri,

were allowed

1857 and hanih'd

at ilignn in

In order to reserve himself the higher authority in

consideration of the Chinese Government.

to the

mouth were ceded

China; only Russian and Chinese vessels

Amour, Sungari and Ussuri; the Mandzhurian inhabitants

Amour, from the

under the rule of a Mandzhurian governor,

in their former places of habitation,

to be free trade along

all

three

of

Harmandziu

river Zei on the south to the village of

These wore the

rivers.

conditions

the

of

Ai-

treaty.

In order to enjoy the

full

advantages of this treaty

it

province of the Amour; to cultivate a Russian population in tion along the to Institute

Amour. And hence the Government came

was necessary it

and

to

colonize the

to

open a steam naviga-

to the conclusion that

was necessary

it

an obligatory Cossack colonization of the Amour, Ussuri, and of

all

the region of

the Ussuri. In 1858 Cossack stations were established along the left banks of the river from the beginning of the Little

Hingan mountain range

to the

mouth

of the Ussuri,

colony was founded at the junction of the latter with the Amour,

queror of the

Amour, Khabarovski;

was followed by the colony

this

the mouth of the Zei, of Sophisk and others.

vast region of the

thousand

twelve

Cossack

colonists

stations. In the

And

in this

established. In

Amour, was ultimately

named

first

con-

Blagovescheusk at

manner the Russian

rule

over the

1860 there were already as many as

of both sexes in the province of the

same year Count Ignatiev

of

and a Cossack

after the

after

Amour and

prolonged

were 61

there

negotiations

with

the

Chinese Government succeeded in concluding the Pekin treaty by which the Chinese Govern-

ment ultimately recognized the Russian the Ussuri. This treaty also confirmed treaty previously

made by Count

The occupation toral

region.

of the

opened, an Eastern

geologist

the points of the

Amour and

the

entire

Aigun treaty and

region of

of the Tiantsin

Putiatin with the Chinese.

Amour was

followed by tf scientific

survey of the Amuur-Lit-

This was inaugurated by the Russian Geographical Society, which in 1858 had Siberian branch at Irkutsk. In 1854 the Society equipped

rian expedition for the Littoral

rule over the river

all

province.

This

its

great Sibe-

exploration of the regions of the Baikal, and especially of the

expedition included

the

astronomer

Schwartz,

naturalist

Amour

Raddey,

Schmidt, the envoy of the Eastern Siberian branch, R. Maack, and alsu the envoy

]

SIBERIA.

Q

Academy

of the

dens.

Maximov,

Grand

Shrenk, zoologist, who was sent at the initiative of the

of Sciences,

Academy, and

Constantin, then President of the

Duke

envoy of the Botanical Gar-

lastly the

knowl-

botanist. This expedition rendered incalculable service to the scientific

edge of the region. The Eastern Siberian branch which subsequently became the most promof

centre

local

inent

culture In Eastern Siberia and

and at a later period the

activity,

district

under the protection of the Society and at Dybovski,

be made of Chekanovski,

and many

zhinski

in all parts

Among

expense.

its

frontiers

its

was explored

Among

magnates

those persons

of

are

exploration and daring like

persons,

these

rivers, while others like

support

sent

may

mention

Kor-

Ditmar,

I.

equipment

even

provinces and adjacent

Sibiriakov

i\I.

of

powers of their vast

a prudent exploitation

Some

Siberia.

to

labour

K. Sidorov have spared neither

and lukachev have

mouths of the

Siberian

expense for

spared no

to the little

expeditions

scientific

of the

patrons of every

the

which could bring advantage

enterprise

observable on

already

many who have shown themselves

M. Sibiriakov and M.

A.

effort is

productive

to investigate the

exploration and discovery of a sea route to the

nor money for the

and

useful

its

scientists

these explorers

who have enriched themselves by

natural Avealth of Siberia there scientific

local

Yadrintsev, Kropotkin, Cherski,

Potanin,

In general, during the last thirty years, an independent

country.

not

by

others.

part of the local Siberian

the

cease

did

the

kno\vn Siberian outlying

parts of Central Asia, to the exploration of which the

Russian Geo-

graphical Society has given particular attention.

During the

years not

last twenty-five

and American navigators, have been

but

Russian,

only

gi'eatly attracted

English

Scandinavian,

also

by the question of the investigation of

route the climatic conditions of the Arctic Ocean with the object of establishing a regular sea

mouths of the great Siberian

to the

rivers.

As

early as 1868 and 1869 the

successful

first

endeavours to penetrate into the Kara sea were made by Swedish traders. The most convenient

free from is

of year for this

time

ice.

was found

to

be the early autumn, when

the

Kara sea

is

most

Nordenskjold's scientific expedition in 1875 showed that the mouth of the Yenissei

accessible in autumn, naturally for a very short time, and with the exception of particularly

unfavourable years; and that for trading purposes at the

mouth

of the river

it

to erect

would be necessary

warehouses

where the unloading and loading of the vessels could be

effected in

a few days. In 1873 to 1879 Nordenskjold's famous expedition was equipped with cooperation of the Siberian

navigating

magnate Sibiriakov. This expedition was the

expedition

triumph to science,

but as yet

favourable

Behring

along the entire Siberian coast and passing through the

Pacific Ocean. This

the active

succeed in

first to

straits

into the

which extended over a space of two years, was naturally a only proved, that although

it

circumstances to navigate

through the

the Arctic

exception

of

it is

possible

under

Ocean along the

the

above

particularly

entire

Siberian

mentioned access

to the

coast,

even in one year,

yet

mouth

of the Yenissei, this

coast

cannot serve for regul^ar maritime or mercantile

relations.

heroic endeavours of the last

American expedition under Captain Long, whose

vessel the

The

«Jeanetta»

was

witfe

lost on the coast of the

after the death of Captain truth. In the

Novo-Sibirsk islands and the survivors only saved

Long by Russians

at the

meantime the climatic conditions

mouth

of the

Lena

of the entire Arctic

in 1881,

proved the

Ocean have now been

HISTORICAL SKETCH.

a large iiilcnialidiial

by

enliglitciieil

(•(Uisiilcralily

17 namely

fiilripiise,

llic

liy

siiniillaiicoiis

obscivalidiis of a series of polar meteorological stations erected in 1883 to 1884 plan. Willi the consent of

many Powers

were erected by the Russian

staiidiis

the ether

at

staff of the

Xova

The Russian Academy

Zenibla.

Lena observatory,

opening

of the

new

for a

1885 under Bunghe and Raron Tlie

ai

Lena,

the inenili of the

aihantago ef the

tenk

of Sciences alse

exploration of the Neve-Sibirsk islands in

scientific

University in 1888, thanks to the large

and

Tsibulski,

made Tomsk a

donations

of the

centre of culture

third

and greatly aids the direction and development of the young

within Siberia proper

ilies(!

<>f

Toll.

Tomsk

magnates, A. M. Sibiriakov

Siberian

Society, one

((iiiiiiion

Twd

along the shores of the Arctic Ocean.

Geographical

a

(ni

scientific

forces in the depths of Siberia.

The Russian frontier

as early as 1731 fall

of the

by the acceptation of the

Dzhungar kingdom

them

firm ally and obliged

Khan

advanced

gravitate

to ultimately

by

artfully

managed

movement was

Horde

Bali-Khan

Russian

into the

deprived the Kirghiz

towards

other started

The

rule.

Kaissacks of a

The daring and

Russia.

to preserve the

between China and Russia. But

playing

character of his successor

Asia on the

into the depths of

Little Kirghiz

the Chinese in 1769

to

of the Central Kirghiz Horde, Albai,

his people

feeble

gradually

rule has also

opposite the Arctic Ocean, namely the Kirghiz steppes. This

clever

nominal independence of

after his death

and the constant disputes

1781, the

in

among

the

different

Kirghiz tribes and hordes resulted in one tribe after another seeking salvati()n from the oppression of its neighbours by

submitting to the sway and powerful were, between the

protection

hammer and

of

These

Russia.

the anvil, between the plun-

neighbouring tribes, placed, as

it

dering onslaughts of their

independent neighbours, on the one hand, and the Russian pro-

tection of

its

still

already subjected tribes on the other, sought the Russia rule, one after another.

Such a gradual subjection of the Kirghiz steppes obliged the Russian Government its

foreposts far beyond

th(.'

to

advance

Irtysh into the depths of the Kirghiz steppes.

Between 1824 and 1834 the

first

Russian settlements were founded

the steppes of the

in

Kirghiz of the Siberian department; the number of these settlements afterwards increased, but

between 1836 and 1847 the successes of the Russian rule over the Kirghiz steppes, were hindered by a ten years struggle with the energetic grandson of Khan Ablai, the sultan Kenissara, who succeeded during ten years to play between the two neighbouring Russian Governor-Generals, on the

one hand, and the independent Turkestan rulers on the other, until at last he nificant dispute at the

ately

the

Russian

nomadic neighbours, the Karakirgbiz,

hands of his

settlements

quite unfit for a settled

in

the country of the Central horde

agricultural

for example,

life,

Bayan-Aoul,

Atbassar et cetera, and could not therefore serve as points of support

fell

in

in 1847.

founded

were

Karkarala, for the

an insig-

Unfortunin places

Akni(dinsk,

Russian control

over the steppes of the Kirghiz limits of Siberia. But as soon as the beginning of the forties the explorations

naturalists and geologists, stich as Karelin, Kirilov, A. Shrenk

made by Russian

and Tlangali, showed that not contrary, at the foot

of

the

all

of the country

Tarbagataia

convenient lands for agriculture and

Kirghiz liorde, whoso lands were

and

is

unfitted for setthMiient,

Semirecliinsk

cidonizalion. Since the Mibjectioii in

situateil

hut

that on the

Altai, there are excellent

along the beaulHtil ami

lertile

1^47 -^lope-;

id'

the

and

(Ireat

nf the Semi-

SIBERIA.

18 was

found

to

start

a

colonization in the south-east corner of the Kirghiz lands.

Thus

in

ami

recWnsk

was

Zailiisk Altai,

it

built at tho foot of the Semirechinsk

possible

and

Altai,

1854

in

ami

scttli-d

Yornoie

of

fort

\\\o

agiicultuial

town of Kopal

1S47 the

(ni

the

were

slopes of the Za'iliisk Altai, and subsequently, a whole series of consi.lerahle settlements

founded along the foot of this mountain chain.

The occupation

Zailiisk

the

of

was

slopes

similar importance

of

As soon

Asiatic Russia to that of settling the region of the Amour.

had

set,

in

the history of

as Russian

colonization

a firm foot in this frontier land of Central Asia, the pioneers of Russian science pre-

cipitated themselves thither. In 1855 to 1857 and the following years, the Russian Geographical

Society equipped

expedition under the direction of

its first

endeavour for a

region, and subsequently used every

region,

but taking

it

as a starting point,

The names

of the interior of Asia,

Society are connected with

Sacken, Moushketov,

of this

region

Semenov's expedition,

After

countries of Central Asia.

mit

only

this

most active agents of the Russian Geographical

the

of

exploration of

a gradual exploitation of the natural treasures

for

exploration

the

Vice-President Semenov to this

its

scientific

and of the adjacent

Siberia

of

Yi'uiukov,

Severtsov,

Baron

Osten-

Romanov, Przhevalski, Potanin, Beresovski,

P.'vtsuv, Groniclievski, the

Bogdanovich, Obrucliev and

Roborovski appear as the

brothers Groom-Grzhimailo,

Krasnov,

pioneers of science not only in this region but in the depths of the Asiatic deserts and their oases and

hills.

mth

In the interim Vernoie,

its

area, not only bc'-ame

colonized

excellently

the lever point of Russian influence over the neighbouring nomadic tribes, which soon voluntarily

subjected themselves to Russia, but

Turan

the long settled rulers of

In the meanwhile,

on

Syr-Daria

the

also succeeded in binding such a knot

the

1858,

in

taken

spot

it

as could never

from

the

ftirt

have been done from

established along the Syr-Daria from Perovsk

the lowlands of the

was erected on

of Porovsk

Kokand

tribe of

Ak-mecheti and a

At

to Kasalinsk.

end

the

of relations with

distant Orenburg.

tlie

of

line of outposts

the

fifties

the

Russian Government gradually came to the conclusion of the necessity of advancing the frontier to include the tribes

which had gone over

to

Russian

rule,

and

of

entirely

subjecting

the Kirghiz hordes far into the Kirghiz steppes, with the kingdoms of Turkestan, and of occu-

pying the slopes of the mountain chain limiting the north between the meridians of rovsk.

This

tlie

occupation which was begun by Colonel

eourse

upper

already occupied limits

lake

of

Tsimmermann

of the Syi'-Daria

on

the

Issyk-Kule and fort Pein 1860,

and realized by

Colonel Cherniaev in 1864, resulted in the subjection of Tashkend, gradually brought the whole of Turkestan under Russian rule and

sent Transcaspian province

down

the

to

was completed

very

frontiers

1881

in

'

by the occupation of the pre-

of Persia and Afghanistan and the laying

of the Transcaspian Railway.

The

colonization of Siberia proper has followed

ment was very strong before the the. close of the

serfs the

campaign

number

it

manner unprecedented evinced themselves in

From

1855

it

The emigration movedecreased, but after

began

to decrease,

but

after

the

liberation

it

attained

the time of their liberation the peasant population increased in a

in the present century;

many

natural course. llieu in

again increased. Before 1861 at tho time of the liberation of the

of emigrants again

the largest dimensions.

its

Crimean campaign;

so

that

parishes and even districts

evident

signs

of an over population

of Russia, and emigration on a large

HISTORICAL SKKTCn.

Between

scale appeared as a natural necessity.

western Siberian

]

and 1880

1860

governments was estimated at 60,000

tlie

emigration into the two

if

the eastern governments

and

souls,

9

and the Semirechinsk province be included, then the number during that period may be taken

The emigration returns

as about 110,000 souls.

for recent years

show that during

between 1879 and 1885 over 55,000 people passed into Siberia. famine

in

Last year,

European Russia, about ninety thousand were registered

tion to the Altai

mining

district

was

particularly

strong, and

the six years

1892,

the

after

The emigra-

Tinmen.

at

between

1884 and 1889 about

provinces

are given special ad-

95,5C0 emigrants settled there.

Amour and

Since 1861 the emigrants to the

lattoral

vantages, which with certain modifications are in force to the present day and consist in the

Crown land

following:

to the

amount of not over 100

each family or company under

the

years, with the right of buying

it,

that allotted to a family,

And the

in general this

Government

it

can immediately

do

for emigration,

may

more land than

desire to acquire

of

land

dessiatine.

the districts assigned by

in

the pioneer being given the choice of his place of settlement.

Being freed from the payment of taxes and State service for twenty years the freed from military service for ten years, and from the

These advantages attracted

to

twenty

first

by paying three roubles per

so

the price fixed for the purchase

is

allotted

is

or after the lapse of these twenty years, of paying a rent

by the State. In those cases where the emigrant

fixed

per family

dessiatines

condition of a free use of this land for the

the

to

settlers

payment of rural taxes

Amour and

were

settlers

for three years.

they gravitated through the whole of

Siberia to Blagoveschensk and the valleys of the rivers Zei and Bourrei. In 1883 the Govern-

ment started the peopling of the south Ussuri were transported canal.

The

at the

region, whither the peasants of

result of a three years trial

was the settlement of over 4,500 Emigrants

at a cost of over a million roubles to the State. to settle at their

own

and

should

they

600 roubles per family

desire

to

enlarge

expenses, for

their

In speaking of the colonization of Siberia is

to the

farms,

it is

governments and regions extreme, for instance, in

none,

were

is tlie

such

as for

to

mention also the

such transportation

extremely uneven. In

Kainsk and Mariinsk

example

at

certain

wliile in other

Seraipalatinsk,

exiles through marriage, but judging from the reasons it

may

of

be concluded that this increase

criminal olfences are in the majority of

without their husbands; and

as,

is

cases

moreover,

sending

forms

localities

districts of the

one

districts

the

times that of the females, the married couples

of

exiles

they

are

government of

and even

i)ro-

Kamchatka, the region of

Okhotsk, and province of Akmolinsk. Theit; are no accurate data respecting

exiles

advances

given

hardly the case. The distribution of the

is

Tomsk, they form almost one-sixth of the population, vinces there are

farming in the new

starting

they

necessary

generally thought that

the modes of colonizing a country, but this

crowded

were also allowed

for a period of 33 years.

of criminals into that region. It

in the different

souls in this region,

to this region

with the condition that each family should have a capital of

expense,

not less than 600 roubles, beyond the travelling locality;

European Russia

expense of the Government by steamer from Odessa through the Suez

the

increase

of

which hinder the multiplicatiDO of the

very insignificant. The iicoplc transported for single,

number

husbands of

males

made between

without exiled

their

into

wives,

Siberia

the criminals must be

wives is

tea

compar-

SIBERIA.

20

small: besides this the indisposition of the vapahoml exiles to a domestic

ativcly

among

sickness, siphilis el cetera,

tiplication of the exiled settlers

predominance

and the

the natives to enter Into marriage with the criminals

and of

life

of prostitution,

the exiled popolation, all this combines to prevent the mul-

and

paralyze

to

it.

This historical sketch of the conquest and colonizaton of the vast area known under the

name

general half its

territory

then

thus

is

And

it

century

became one

to regulate

it

previously

State

Domains forms

lands

State

who

concerning them to the Ministry of the Interior,

to the south-western Siberian provinces peopled

of the

State.

national

of the

aiil

law

the

where

to State lands

law the Ministry

this

to

for

of

and communicates

settlers

of

conditions

in

necessary

the

satisfy

and excludes those which are deemed

list

outgi-owing

after investigating the local position

the families desirous of emigrating includes those which the emigration

to the

and burghers

According

of settlement.

special allotments on the

come

second

the

fast

The matter was begun by

emigration of peasants

had not the right

they

to

series of measures.

by a

respecting the voluntary

of 1889,

during

most important problems

the

of

Government has resolved

the

When

to the present time.

was discovered that the population was

it

colonization that

and

movement,

comes down almost

of Siberia

present

the

of

unfitted.

Emigration was also allowed

by the Kirghiz, and where Russians were not

was extended

previously admitted, and in 1892 this permission

to

governments of

two

the

Eastern Siberia, those of Yenisseisk and Irkutsk.

The

result of

tliis

emigration movement to Siberia was the settlement of Russian emi-

and Eastern Siberia proper and beyond the Baikal over the basin of of Japan.

and

And

Amour

the

why, during the last ten years, the necessity of uniting

this is

in parts even, interrupted colonized area of Siberia

come more and more evident both of this line only

Urals over Western

from the

grants over the whole of the narrow southern band extending

came

in

Sea

extensive

has be-

by an uninterrupted railroad

Russia and Siberia. But the question of the construction

to the fore after the

the whole of Siberia. On his return

to the

all this

to

memorable journey of the Heir Apparent

throijgh

Russia from his long journey to the East, His Imperial

Highness landed on Russian territory at Vladivostok, on the llth of May, 1891, and read there the immemorial Imperial rescript of the 17th of March, 1891, published at St. Retersburg in

the

name

length of Siberia with the object of

the

ivtiirn

I

I

(d'

commission you

lay

I

have undertaken, serve as a

reginii.

whirh This

occu|iied

fact

is

is

ilie

olliei'

se deal- te

(Iceidcil

IVesli

of

as

Siberia

of

my

the

will

on

East.

Al

at Yladivostdk.

(il

witness o[

my

hoartful desire to

facilitate

poiiions of the Empire, and in such wise

my

the (|uesiieii

the allentinii

(iiie

such

auspicious participation in the inauguration of this truly national

belweeii SiliiTia and

the entire

provinces

upon you the act of inaugurating the construction, at the expense of the

Crown, of the Ussuri section of the Grand Siberian Railway

<May your

aunnuuc(^

to

through

a railroad

niddwrd

richly

these

Russian territory after having visited the foreign lands

lo the

same time

(•(nistruciiou

connecting

network of railways,

with the internal

your

Grand Duke Mcolai Alexandrovich.

of His Imperial Highness the Tsarcvicli and

«Having now commande.l Iho immediat.'

heart, (il'

ilie

my

liveliest

('(Misi

the (idveriiment

care for

inctieii

and

(d'

nati(ni

its

work which

the

to

this

pacilic progress^).

the (ireat Siberian

Railway wWcli had

lor over a third of a century;

of the imist im|)iirlaut events of the present reign.

relations

make known

and

this

21

HISTORICAL SKETCH.

His Imperial Highness,

from Vladivostok

to the Urals,

the

Tsai-evich, in

his

voyage through

the

many

became personally acquainted with

whole

needs of this distant portion of the Empire and from that time the problem tion of this colossal

work took a practical form. The construction was

from the two opposite extremities of Siberia and as

its

immediate

the

of

Siberia

of

the

of

realiza-

started simultaneously

completion necessitated numerous other

subsidiary works having both the object of facilitating the actual construction and the peopling

and industrial

development

of

the

districts

the end of 1892 to institute a special

«Committee of the Siberian Railway» and this

Committee. His Imperial Highness

adjoining the line,

committee

at

it

was therefore decided

St.-Petersburg

under the

title

of

at

the

to concentrate the entire direction of the matter in

the Tsarevich

dent of this Committee, has already instituted

a

named by Imperial decree

series of practical

rapid realization of this line connecting the Russian railway system of Siberia.

—^<^-

measures with

the

for

the the

Pacific

Presi-

most coasts

SIBERIA.

CHAPTER

II.

Geographical Review of Siberia. It

natural

should

may

has already been shown that Siberia

of which, in virtue not

conditions,

be

which are

of

considered

known

vastness of

only of the the

composition of

separately.

separately

as

its

its

component parts each

be divided into

five

area, bat also

from

and

population

of its

The present review

commences

Western and Eastern

Siberia,

the

difference of its

historical development,

with

those

two portions

and together as Siberia pro-

per, in the limited sense of the word.

Western

Siberia.

component parts: the Altai slopes and the western Siberian lowlands; geographical and orographical review of the Altai slopes; the western Siberian lowlands, their hydrography and division into three zones or bands; the cultivated agricultural, the forest, and the polartundrys (frozen marshes); climatic conditions of those zones; the flora of the western Siberian valley and of the Altai slopes; the character of the fauna of Western Siberia; its population and its ethnographical composition and emigration; the distribution of domestic animals. Its

WESTERN of the

Siberia, in the above sense of the term, is in its administrative aspect

composed

two governments, Tobolsk and Tomsk, and from a geographical point of view

occupies the greater portion, that

is,

it

68 per cent, of the basin of the river Obi, or an area of

41,500 square geographical miles, that

more than

is,

two-fifths of the area of the

whole of

European Russia and four times that of Germany.

With

the exception of

north-western limits, where the low mountain

its

Urals, from the sources of the river

Kara

to the northern

extremity

of

the

chain

of the

go\ernments of

Perm, form a boundary between Western Siberia on the one hand and the government of Volog-

da and Archangel on the

and

other,

its

entire south-eastern

corner composed of the vast high-

lands of the Altai, the whole of Western Siberia presents a vast plain, very slightly elevated

above the level of the Northern Ocean and of the

two immense branches

The

entire south-eastern

and lowlands

plentifully

watered by the numerous

tributaries

of the vast system of the Obi, the rivers Irlysli and Ubi.

corner of Western Siberia

forming the Altai

is

Miuiug Region, the wlmle

occupieil by the Altai highlands id'

which,

td

tlie

extent of over

23

GEOGKAl'HICAL REVIEW.

7,800 square geographical miles, lurms a luouutaiuous country eight

380,000 square

versts, or

times as large

as Switzerland, and belonging not to the State but to

forming

is,

liands

Cabinet at the middh^ uf the eighteenth century,

th.'

t.f

tilt!

occupiers

first

and

and

settlers,

Une-third

which form

extremity of the long chain of the Saian mountains the internal

highland of Asia and descends

each

frjm

other

of a half-opened

valleys,

the

m

Bukhtarmiusk

responding Kusnetsk

Alatau,

meridional direction,

while

Xarimsk

the

along

almost

the south, extends

the

whirh

of the Altai

the

known

the mountain

Sailughemsk,

snow

line;

eight theusand

that

tablelands,

of the steppes, rocks,

such

In

is,

more

like

the

of

of «belki», which exactly corresponds to

feet,

wide

or less

highland

with uus

in the

lead

to

and

diorites

as crystalline schists and also of grauvacke.

rian, ilevouian

The

the Chuisk and Kuraisk.

by the crystalline and belong

the

such as

The height

of these

The

on

suuthern aspect

the

extending

plains

Altai

belki

porphyries

zone

consist of crystalline

chiefly

and of metamorphic rocks, such

ancient paleozoic formations,

copper ores, occur at the junction

branches

of the

of

Silu-

upper,

such as the

Cantons

the highest of which,

in

tlu;

river Obi.

Switzerland.

Altyn-Tag,

The

Sailughemsk

ridgi».

other

sources of

Telets which

rises

over

8,000

which

is

feet.

fed

At

sedimentary rocks the

of

Katouu,

one

the

Bea

branches,

these

Immediately over the

declivities of the belki descend straight into the lake, the'

and

the crystalline

and vast Alpine lake

outlet of the wonderful

the lake of the l-'our

falling fruni

form

to

Alpine

and carboniferous systems. Secondary lorjnations like the Jurassic are only met

of the two component

belki,

the

into

most northern branches of the Altai. All the formerly rich deposits uf argeutifer-

and

the

nut under

strata of the sedimentary rocks have been lifted

Considerable glaciers descend from the Beloukha and feed the

forms

is

it

an inclination

evince

Altai

the

belki.

while the snow' line on the northern

feet,

while

purtiun

south-eastern

its

granites, cianites,

as

thousand

Many

the line ol eternal snow,

Kholsunsk and Turgussun

exceeds nine

highest of all

the Beloukha, 11.500 leet high.

beyond

rise

The

Stulby. or Pillars uf Katuun,

Katunsk

the

uf

Mont Blanc, Altai

more than 7,000

feet.

while the cor-

they extend fur a certain distance almost parallel,

name

the

Aigulaksk,

cases

side of the Altai is not

the

Altai

ridges.

known under the name

under

ridges

Chuisk,

mountains in many

after

the rich in ores, but low Salairsk ridge extends to the north-east

includes the picturesque Siberian of

other

thai

is

west

parallel,

being divided from one another by the deep ravines of the mountain streams. ridges

ridges extend in a

the

on the eastern extremity of the Altai highlands, has an almost

the word «Alps»,risefar beyond the

the

boundary ef

ridge which limits the longest of the

between the two above named

in a diagonal direction

The high ranges

Thus

fan.

The

towards

net entirely parallel east to west direction, but slightly diverge

fashion

(if

western

tlie

n.jriluMn

the

in places, transversal valleys.

and,

by longitudinal

at

of mountain ridges separated

number

tbey are lung and consist of a

bread as

are almost as

situated

lowlands of Siberia. The Altai highlands

the

to

the country.

covered by the high mountain masses

is

a mountain chain but an immense highland,

Tliis is not

the Altai.

of the Demidovs,

from those

a true mining industry in

to start

lirst

tlie

mining region

uf the area of the Altai

His Imperial Majesty's

pnipeily of thr Enipfmr. These lands passed into the

private

the

("ahinel, that

in

its

lake this

beauty recalls

rise

point

the

Telets

the steep

by the mountain streams

24

SIBERIA.

Bea and

Till'

majestic

All

(Jbi.

Katoiin

tin-

alieady unite

upper tributaries

the

highlands, for instance, the Auoui,

Altai

from

proceed

streams

upper

Kusnetsk

the uf

the

at

the

immense

Tom

Chumysh,

the

branch

form

aud

Obi have their origin

tlie

the

of

the

in the

hand

on the right

Charysh and Alei, while those

other

thi'

of

Altai

of the

toot

tlie

left

for example,

Altai,

Irtysh,

on

and Chulim. But the

Obi,

on

originate

the

southern declivity of the Altai highlands within the frontier of the Chinese Empire. The reservoir collecting these upper streams

is

lake Zaissan which

Uba

the Irtysh below Zaissan, such as the Bukhtarma,

Altai belki and flow through their finest valleys. It

outside the limits of

lies

branch and

Siberia in the province of Semipalatiusk, while the right

and Ulba, originate

extending

whole of the north-western side of the Altai and of tablelands rian

valley,

country stone

mainly

from

minerals consist

so-called

the

and Kusnetsk Altai,

Salairsk

the

These

occurs.

Korgonsk

quarries,

Korgonsk

the

in

and

lead

over

as

far into the

mineral wealth

the

that

argentiferous

of

Siberian

the

in

in these valleys, as well

is

Western

large upper streams of

copper

valley,

and

the

of

coloured

ores,

alluvia! uuld,

beiween

Kusnetsk coal basin

while vast deposits of coal and iron ore occur in the so-called

the

Sibe-

the Kusnetsk Alataou aud Salairsk mountain ridges. Although the larger half of the Altai iniu-

iug region, owing to sisting as

it

its

which comprises not is

height above the level of the sea aud the

does of rocks aud rocky avalanches,

composed of

less

not

is

character of

habitable,

con-

its soil,

remainiug area

the

still

thau three thousand geographical square miles of the Altai lowlands

fertile plains, hilly

uplands and spacious valleys, and

is

extremely suitable

for

cultivation and colonization.

The remainiug lowlands

in the

vast plain of

world

is

Western Siberia which presents one

covered with alluvial

soil

and

extensive

of the most

no portion of

iu

denuded

any

do

it

rock formations occur.

Ouly fresh water strata

upper tertiary formation have been found

shells of the

which forms the under-soil. These strata consist of sand and clay and are

iu the

friable

chiefly

exposed

No

along the declivities of the right and always slightly elevated banks of the rivers. of these lowlands apparently rises over

Siberian lowland

is

plentifully

above the sea

feet

level.

to the far north.

The Obi-Irtysh

New,

river

Empire

the Obi within Western Siberia and the Chinese

miles and the length of the river course, counting the Irtysh, Zaissan aud

Kara

Irtysh,

its

is

Amazon and the

Mississippi

of the river basin of

The area

besides the neighbouring river systems of Siberia.

over 60,000 geographical

to the junction of the

Bea with

the

gives almost one and the

Katoun aud

same

the Irtysh from

its

the mountain gorge, above Ust-Kamenogorsk aud the tributaries of the system, the Tura, Tavda,

way

of

Chulym and Tom

square

source as either the Obi and Katoun or figure

of

4,900

Moreover the navigable network of the river includes the whole of the Obi from

colossal water

nu-

com-

system

most colossal basins of the earth and can compete with the river regions of

the Yellow and Blue rivers and the Nile of the Old world, or the of the

poiut

Nevertheless the western

watered by the two high rivers Obi aud Irtysh and their

merous tributaries which flow together prises one of the

400

to their

of

aud

is

to its rapids

two

the

chief

v.-rsts.

mouth through

branches

Unforiunately

the

by

the

almost inaccessible to the

^ea

lower

courses.

Western Siberia has the great disadvantage,

ice of the gulf of Obi for the greater part of the year

mouth

its

that

it

is

locked

25

GEOGRAl'UICAL KKVIEW.

and also that

for this reason

two chief

tlie

main

rivers intersect the

lino of the Siberian trade

Although fortunately the junction of the two branches of the Obi forms

traffic at right angles.

an uninterrupted and excellent navigable route between the most important and almost points of this line

route

of

traffic in

too circuitous

is

Western

the

Siberia,

and for the greater part

extrt'iiK'

and Tomsk, and

cultivated

the

outside

lies

Tinmen

of

cities

this

agricultuial

regions of Siberia.

Western Siberia abounds

row

mountain lakes

in lakes. Besides the picturesque

in

and especially in

lowlands,

ern Siberian

Kouloudinsk steppes.

Among

its

West-

which covers over 60 geographical square have no

There are

miles.

In order to explain better the character of the their capacity for settlements

and cultivation,

presenting quite different types. Siberia. It

northern, that

is,

theTarsk

district

eriunent

of

is

The

composed of

all

iirst

is

it

Under

Chan

also numberless small lakes

which

Western Siberian lowlands

vast

necessary to subdivide

of these types is the cultivated agricultural zone

and the greater northern portions of the Tourinsk and Tobolsk

Tobolsk and of

all

the

lowland

portions

Narymsk

is

settled population.

The most important example

district,

with the exception, however, of area

the

of

But

it

may

Tomsk

the

characterized by the fact that

which

are

is

it is

capable of

throughout plentiful in

unfitted

for

cultivation

fori'st.

and

a

of such a locality are the so-called Barabinsk

the. boundary

the

of

salt lakes

and marshes,

cultivated

agricultural

zone

be estimated that six thousand geographical square miles of this

and agriculture. The second type

suitable for colonization

district.

Western Siberian plain occupies

where the stagnant water of the fresh water lakes alternates with

and the vast Vasugansk bog which occurs on

gov-

government of Tomsk which

an agricultural and settled colonization, and at the same time Naturally in this zone there are also large areas

districts, of the

the

of

region which occupies four-fifths of

an area of 8,500 geographical square miles, and

zone.

of

the Berezovsk and Sourgoutsk districts, and also of the lesser northern portions of

these conditions the cultivated agricultural zone of the

steppes,

and

into three zones

it

the districts of the government of Tobolsk, except the two

do not enter into the composition of the Altai mining the so-called

and

as lake

some of vast dimensions, such

although some are fresh water, as well as salt lakes.

outlets,

Western

Barabinsk

Ishimsk,

southern limits, in the

the lakes there are

nar-

tli(!

valleys and cii'cular basins of the Altai, a very large quantity are situated in the

is

represented by the

W^estern

are Si-

berian zone of high-stemmed forests, which comprise the great northern portions of the Tourinsk

and Tobolsk

districts,

the northern portions

of the Tarsk and the southern

Sourgoutsk and Berezovsk districts of the government of Tobolsk, and the regions of

Narym

in the

portions of the

whole of the vast

government of Tomsk. This zone occupies an area greater than that

of the Altai mining region and the cultivated agricultural zone taken together, namely, eighteen

thousand geographical square miles, and

it

is

characterized by the fact that

it

consists, like the

greater part of the government of Archangel and the north-eastern portions of the government of Vologda in

European Russia, of a continuous mass of

only isles or oases in any rivers.

And

districts lying

lastly

way

forests

and bogs,

in

which there are

suitable for settlement, scattered chiefly on the iirm banks of the

the third type comprises the

beyond the parallel of Beresov, that

portions is,

6-1°

of

the Beresovsk

and

Sourgoutsk

north latitude, and forming the polar

marsh land zone which extends over seven thousand geographical

square

iiiiies

of

Western

SIBERIA.

'_»0

portiou

Siberia. lu this

becume thiuuer and smaller and change

forests

llie

The boggy marsh land covered with mosses and year and

low bushes.

into

the

frozen for the gi-eater part of

is

an agricultural settled habitation. The under-soil of the marshes

unfitted for

is totally

lichens

never thaws below a depth of one and a half arshines and consists of intermittent frozen earth and clay and of pure

which thus furms, as

ice,

were,

it

strata

of

rock furraation of

the

the district.

climatic conditions of each of these three zones are naturally very

The them

in

also found

is

European

of

latitudes

the

Russia,

great coutinentality, which

of each

fitness

compared with the climate of the corresponding

In general,

and colonization.

for cultivation

and

different,

comparative

explanation of the difference in the

the

climate

Western

of

Siberia

distinguished by

is

its

seen in the lower average yearly temperature compared with the

is

under one and the same degree of latitude in European Russia, in the gi'eater

localities lying

severity of the winters and consequently in the greater difference between the average temper-

summer ami

ature of

somewhat smaller

is

Western

Siberia, the average yearly temper-

nearly zero, or for the average, taken at eight points of observation -|-0-33°,

same

that uf the

3"

European Russia does not exceed

in

latitudes

—18°,

the coldest months

while in

— 12.5"

and during the coldest mouth -|- 17.5'J

tiie

Celsius.

and that of the warmest mouth

On

-j-

the other

19.5"

Western Siberia

even exceed, although not more than half

is

and

39",

larity

of the coldest and

the corresponding parts of

in

between

average

the

parts of

iu the corresponding

35°, while

is

difference of the average temperatures

uf

the

European Russia.

of

uiuiiihs iu

but

32";

cultivated

Thus

in the agricultural zone of

European Russia

warmest

European Russia

temperatures

is

it

hand the average summer temperature

summer and muter temperatures

average

the

of

difference

— 1T\ and during — U.ry'

corresponding parts of European Russia

a degree, the similar temperatures in the corresponding latitudes the

is

while

The average

Celsius.

winter temperature of the cultivated agricultural zone of Western Siberia

nf

lastly in the

and snowfall.

iu the cultivated agricultural zone of

Thus ature

and between the coldest and warmest months, and

winter,

rainfall

there

agricultural

is

it

28".

The

Western Siberia is

au entire simi-

zone

of

Western

Siberia and the corresponding parts of European iUissia during the five months of vegetation, that

is,

from the

of

first

May

is

a settled agricultural

life

and indeed

European there

is

it

Hence

the

pasturage

because the richer

climatic conditions

ilf north, although

at

Barnaoul

five uiuuihs tur.',

(if

whil.i at

Celsius,

style,

when

the average temperature

Western Siberia

is

not less suitable for

soil

of

Western Siberia

is

fresher than that of

and vaster, the rivers more abundant iu water and

no want of forests. of the

more

more southern lowland and

elevated,

these conditions iu the Altai mining region

Thus

new

October,

this region of

than European Russia between 55" and 58° of the northern latitude,

better fitted,

is

Russia,

The from

to the first of

+ 15".

of one and the other

which

at

of the excellently

valleys of the Altai are

become

still

better.

less favourable as the elevation increases.

an absolute elevation of 460 feet the average temperature during the

vegetation

is

-f 15°, which

is

most favourable for the development of agricul-

Salair at an absolute height of 1,180 feet this temperature scarcely is

sheltered

But naturally

not suitable for the ripeuiug of iho

more wwU'V kimls

exceeds+lS"

of graiu.

27

GEOtiPxAPHlCAL KEVIEW.

more

Tlic

chaiarUT

cuiitiiu'iUal

^r

tlu"

nillivatcd a^riniliiiral zone

as CMinpatvil with the curiespuiuliiig lalitiidcs of Kuiopeaii Jliissia,

amount

under consideration

rain and snow. In the ref-non

nt

is

38U millimetres, while

A

still

corresponding parts of European Kussia

in the

greater difference

seen in the winter

is

annual

the

which

fall,

millimetres while in the corresponding portions of Kuroiican Russia

the difierencc

metres and

namely,

not so great,

is

in the

corresponding

the

parts

of

in

fall

as

is

much

is

it

as 500.

summer

In

175

is

50

only

is

over 80.

Western Siberian zone

the

European

it

the

in

and snowfall

rain

Sib^iian /one

the

in

Weslciii Sibfiia,

(if

also ubservable

is

milli-

185. Hi'iice in the agricultural

Russia,

zone of Siberia the winters are in general far poorer in snow than

in

scratch

that in the southern limits of the agricultural zune the cattle

European

Russia,

away

snow with

the

so

their hoofs and find fodder under their feet in winter, only the winds (bouran) which rise at a

temperatureof not under

away

the

snow

into

— 10-

huge

The Altai lowlands snow

the rain and

fall,

Celsius,

and meeting with no impediment

differ

but

little

only the quantity

is

from the cultivated agricultural zone

600 millimetres, half of which

valley are so powerful that

when

at the

station

Altai

of the

during the three

fall is

The

vegetation of the Altai.

the luxurious

respect

in

to

far greater on the very slopes of the north and north-

west Altai, and especially in the valleys. Thus yeai'ly fall is

sweep

in the vast plain,

and snow ridges.

drifts

summer

and

Oubinsk

along the narrow

pathway

dews, for instance, in the L'lbinsk

weather

sunny

riding in clear

the

clergy Ulal,

inont lis. This explains

the rider becomes quite wet, as his horse breaks through the tall grass. Rut on the other hand,

on the southern Altai, the slopes of the wide valleys facing the south are so dry that they are quite void of forest vegetation and only exhibit the high steppe plants of Central Asia.

called forest and forestry zone of

and sporadic agriculture. Here the average annual temperature corresponding zone of European Russia that of the coldest month,

mean winter temperature temperature,

+

14°, is

is

it

exceeds

(

—

of

is

— 20°, and

European Russia, the

Even

localities of

while in the

2°,

the average

it

winter

of

(40'-'),

European Russia, the

falls in the

and sujnmer,

first

being there 30° and the second

and here and there even, than

tersburg, Bielozersk, Vologda, Ustiug, Slobodskaia and Cherdyn.

perature of the vegetative period reaches, so to say,

being

lost in

ever,

as

its

limit,

does

and shows

not

exceed

itself

on

an

especially

lower,

13°, as

rainfall, its

Western Siberia than

in the

amount

is

it

in

Everywhere where

average

12"

Celsius,

and

is

for the

Pe-

St.

the

tem-

agriculture

only in a sporadic form, scanty cultivated oases

vast areas, covered with forest and morass and uusuited to tillage.

concerns

and

(34°),

more considerable than the

zone under consideration to 12° and

12°,

16°;

-}-

is

even more unfavourable than in the corresponding parts of European Russia, where

most part certainly, stands higher than

summer

European Russia,

however, as concerns the temperature of the vegetative period,

Important for agriculture,

so-

surpasses that in European Russia (17°).

18-^),

mean temperatures

difference for the correspondiug parts of far,

as low as

16°.

lower than that of the corresponding

between the coldest and hottest months,

As

is

the winter temperature

in

Thus, the difference, too, between the

33° Celsius.

+ 1";

— 22°, while the corresponding parts — 14°, and that of the coldest month —

and only the temperature of the hottest month

in particular,

The

Western Siberia presents quite other climatic conditions,industries

very

much more

agricultural zone, forming

As

far,

how-

considerable in the forest zone

470 millimetres a year,

which

of

differs

28

SIBERIA.

very

from the rainfall occiirrin? in the conrse of the year in the corresponiiing parts of

little

European Russia, 480 millimetres. Only a the

summer months, namely 220

of which unfortunately

we

d r a ob-

mean annual temperature

a depth of three-quarters

Judging from these

— 21°,

lower than

not exceed 4-

13°.

and winter of

mean temperature

and even lower, the

5",

soil

and that of the hottest month,

-f-

while the

at Is

summer temperature does

forming a difference between summer

18",

and between the hottest and coldest months, of 49° Celsius. In Beriozov the of the five-month

period

vegetative

fore intelligible that the rivers are here ice forest

—

— 23°,

that of the coldest month, below 5,

34°,

here as low as

falls

obser-

one arshine being perpetually frozen. The winter temperature

to

in

190.

polar tun

by the

conditions presenter!

servations taken on the southern border of the zone at Beriozov.

vations the

falls

European Russia being

are in a position to judge almost exclusively from the

Finally, very various are the climatic

zone,

than in European Russia

larjjer proportion

millimetres, the average for

exceeds

scarcely

and

9°,

there-

is

it

bound forty days longer than on the frontier of the

and agricultural zones, that the cereals are quite incapable of growing and that the forests

attain the extreme range of their existence. Domestic animals

polar tundra zone, with the exception of the reindeer, which

To

this zone.

the north of Beriozov, beyond the

Obdorsk the annual amount

is

also

reach their limit

peculiar

is

circle, the rainfall

arctic

only 218 millimetres, while in Beriozov

of

decreases: in

also is

it

the

in

tundras

the

to

much

as

467

as

millimetres.

The

climatic

conditions

a

of

explained

above

herbaceous vegetation of the Western Siberia lowland corresponding zones of European Russia, the more the Ural thither

is

no

bamer

differs

so that

and directly expressed conditions

climatic

very

from the

little

by the wind over the vast plains adjacent

Tomsk and

further to the Yenissei,

herbaceous vegetation, but very varieties, as for

is

example, the pale yellow heads of its

not struck with any

the

Asiatic

of

and

their kind without let or hindrance.

whnje

European crow's-foot variety

Siberian

difference

the

in

changing to eastern

at times

few western species disappear,

peus L.) are replaced by the fiery orange of

the

bonie hither and

traveller entering Siberia through Ekaterinburg or Zlatoust, crossing the

plain as far as

the

of

mountain range

of the

to either side

sown and reproduce

that

flora

comparatively low range

the

to the dissemination of plants w^hose seeds are freely

lighting upon analogous conditions are

The

most clearly

appear

country

from the

in its vegetable covering. It follows

(trollius euro-

asiaticus

(trollius

L.).

Only

very few oriental forms appear not occurring in European Russia, or only here and there crossing

its frontier,

as for example,

pennsylvanica L),

one beautiful

some anemones (anemone reflexa Steph., species

of

(dentaria tenuifolia Led, chorispora sibirica, D.C., hesperis aprica poir), one (violla uniflora),

species latifolia

of

among

wormwood

Led),

the

among

the caryophyllaceae, lychnis sibirica L,

desertorum

(artemisia

eastern

forms

of

Spr.,

gentians

turczanoviana

(gentiana

and

altaica Fisch.

paeony (paeonia anoraala L),

a few cruciferae species

of

violet

few

the compositae, a

Bess;

auricnlata,

macrantha Led

Pall.,

aquatica

L,

halenia sibirica Borkh), et cetera. But the general character of the herbaceous flora remains, the same, the plants merely becoming

coloured than in European Russia.

It

somewhat more sappy and is

different

with the

trees

fresh,

and the flowers brighter

upon

temperature of the vegetative perind nlnne, almost constant on that side

which not of

the

the

mean

Fral, exerts

29

GEOGKAI'niCAL REVIEW.

ail

but

iuHiioiH'i',

ilio

trees spread over

all

and

(•(nuparative severity of the winters

on

Of the

dryness.

relative

tlieir

European Russia, there disappear, immediately

erossin^-

Ural:

tlie

the haz(d (curylus the oak, two species, (quercus sessiliflora, Im. and quercus pedunculataKlir.),

avellana L.),the two elms (ulmus campestris L. and ulmus pedunculata Fouq.),

and

(acer), the ash (fraxinus excelsior L),

maple

The Si-

(abies sibirica Led.), passing from Siberia into north-eastern Russia, and in Siberia

fir

passing into the northern and north-eastern

also

L.),

orientalis

Siberia

through

and

European Russia,

of

part

(picea

pitch-pine

reaching to Kamchatka, the oriental or Siberian

itself

species of

all

apple tree (pyrus malus L).

composed of the conifers: the

forest regions of Siberia are

woods of the agricultural and berian

finally, the

reaching the Kuril islands; two species of larch, the Siberian (larix sibirica Led.), also passas Baikal,

north-eastern part of European Russia and in Siberia spread as far

ing into the

and the dahur larch

form,

Siberian

(larix dahurica Trautv.) a purely

occurring

Siberia between Beriozov and Obdorsk; the Siberian cedar (pinus cembra

L.), scarcely cross-

Sea and

ing the Ural on the European side, but in Siberia spread as far as Bebring

ing into the northern part of America;

finally,

the comiiiuii

pine

With

Siberian taigas and urmans are formed of these species.

communis

(pinus

Western

in

cross-

The

L.).

the couifers in these taigas are

associated certain foliage trees, in particular the aspen, and to some extent, the birch on the

Chernoziom of

skirts of the taiga. In the cultivated or agricultural zone, with soils similar to

European Russia,

foliage trees prevail,

and even over such areas as are called steppes by the

Baraba

steppe, groves of trees alternate pleasantly with prairie,

Siberians; for example, on the

and in

L.),

tremula L.),

aspen (populus

the

added

these lofty kinds must be

glutinosa

(almus

linden (tilia parvifolia Ehrh), the last also confined

To

and fallow. The foliage

alba L.)

abele (populus

southern part of the plain; both species of alder

zone.

field

common

plain consist of the following species: the

Western Siberian

ests of the

alba

occupied by a permanent colonization with

localities

to

the

W.

southern

occurring

Russian species occur

many

wild state

garden

in

European Russia.

acacia (caragana

the

cultivated

the

of

jiart

common

which more than

bird cherry

fifteen

European

and agricultural zones of Siberia.

There are very few shrubs thriving in the

in

two kinds of rowan, the ordinary mountain ash

sorts of willow (salix) of

in the forest

only

and almus incana W),

(sorbus aucuparia L.) and the Siberian species (sorbus tomentosa L.); the

(pruuus padus L.) and also

for-

birch (betula

Lam.),

arborescens

Western Siberian plain

in the

Among

wlu<--h

an'

wA

such must however be reckoned the the red hawthorn

(Crataegus

found

common

sanguinea

Pall)

the cornel (conius alba L.), so well acclimatized in the gardens of European Russia, and one

kind of

meadow sweet

The ropean

(spiraea fruticosa L).

very

flora of the polar tundra zone presents

Russia tundras

growing, stunted

of

Lapland

little

and Samoyed. Nearly

all

shrubs, for example one species of arbutus,

ditference from that of the

Eu-

this zone's eharacteristic

low-

(aretostaphilus alpina Ad.) the

heathers or andromedas (cassiope tetragona Don., C. hypnoides Don.), phylodoce saxitolia Salisb.,

the

D.

loiseleuria

European C.)

and

procumbeus

flora,

one

and

polar

Don., a species

only

willow

one (salix

species arctica

of

of

li'dum— hitifolium the

L.)

polar

are

not

Ail.,

azalea

met

also

belonging to

(osuioiliamaus

within

European

fragrans Russia.

30

SIBERIA.

.

The mountain

hand

flora of the Altai uplands on the other

Here, beginning already at a height of three thousand

dition.

is

in quite a different con-

feet, the

vegetation

is

extremely

peculiar and gradually passes into the alpine flora, proper to the Asiatic Alps. Of coui-se this

property

Old Woiid, which

to the arctic zone of the

of the plants are the typical and

subalpine zones of the Altai Saian mountainous region,

alpine and

the

of

when only a few

species cross the ranges of Central Asia, such as the Tian-Shan and the

and Zailisk

Semirechinsk

connected

which belong

plants

European Alps, but an enormous proportion

also climb the

peculiar

a few

not

contains

flora

may

pine zone of the Altai

Among

Altai.

shrubs characteristic of the subal-

the

be noticed: a few species of acacia (caragano microphylla Zara.,

bungei Led., pygmaea D, C, spinosa D. C, tragacanthoides Poir), two dog roses (rosa platya-

cantha Schr. of currant

and Gebleriana Schr.), the

bens Pall), two species of tamarisk

azalea

(osmothamnus

some species

uniflora Bge),

(tamariscenae), myi'icaria alopecuroides Sch. and daurica

(lonicera humilis Kar., hispida L. and

Ehr.), three honeysuckles

of

gait en tree (cotoneaster

Sm., saxatile Pall, cuneatum Kar., heterotrichura Moq., procum-

aciculare

(ribes

D.C.)

pallidus

bungeana Led.), one species

and two rhododendra (rhododendron

ohrysanthum

and davuricum L.); among acicular leaved shrubs, ephedra stenosperma Schr., and inter-

Pall,

Schr., juniperus pseudosabina Fiseh. and davurica Pall.,

media

and two kinds of birch, hotula

microphylla Bge, and betula tortuosa Led.

Much more meadows and

The

characteristic

may

following

the

is

herbaceous

and subalpine

of the alpine

vegetation

which enchant the eye with the richness and brilliancy of

slopes,

among

be indicated as

their flowers.

the species most characteristic for the Altai Sayan

mountainous system, a few beautiful anemones (anemone umbrosa Mey., Fischeriana D. C. and

bungeana Mey.), peculiar kinds of crow's-foot (ranunculus altaicus Laxm.. hmgi-

Pulsatilla

natans,

pulchellus,

caulis,

lasiocarpus,

interesting oxygxaphis glacialis

propinquus.

grandifolius

Mey., and the

Bge. and callianhemum rutaefolium Mey),

exceptionally

a ranunculus with

pale lilac flowers (hegemone lilacina Bge.) larkspurs (delphinium laxiflorura and dictyocarpum

D. C), three fumitories (corydalis nobilis Pers., stricta Pers. and inconpticua Bge.),

as

many

as thirty altaic species of crucifers, belonging to the high alpine zone (of the genera matliiola, arabis,

parrya,

braya,

eutrema,

macropodium, psilotrichum,

Bge., imberbis Led. and stellariae,

some

climbs

mountain adpressa Bge.,

which of

from

Bge.,

the

dryadanthe

in particular the

which

positae,

serve

Central follow

salessowi

as

among them

a

(linum violaceum

flata

variegated astragalus

species of

Next

ranges.

comarum

of

beautiful

forty

prominent are numerous family

(viola

violets

chorispora, altaica

dontostemon,

macrocarpa

Pall.,

acuminata Led.), fifteen or so peculiar species of caryophylleae and

varieties

altaie

gebleri Bge),

holargidium,

draba,

charming species of

Hutchinsia)

Asiatic the

bungeana

Bge.).

Led.,

Bge),

the

to

high

alpine

chamaerodon

surrogate

to

species

tea.

of

(saxifraga

There

are

among

eternal

forms altaica

which

some

especially

whose extensive

snows of the of

rosaceae

Bge.,

characteristic crassifolia

(hypericum

worts

John's

and oxytropis),

(astragalus

Further there are a few

Chagyr tea

St.

of leguminosae,

steppes

quaint,

so-called

several

soit

L.),

Asiatic

(sibbaldia

potentilla

altaica

saxifrages,

among

the

twenty species

of

leaves

large

Altai

saussure (pygmea Spr., pycnocephala Led.,

i^nni-

latil'olia

Led., acuminata Tiircz., foliosa Led.) Finally the jMimalaceae largely contribute to the ad'jrn-

GEOGRAPniCAL REVIEW. ment

meadows

alpine

the

of

yellow gentians (gentiana

Altai

(piimula

longiscapa

atrata Bge., aznrea Bge., tenuis Bge,

Haenk., macrophylla

frigida

the

of

31

irises, (iris

Pall.),

lied.),

blue and

cliaiiniiiij;

altaiea Pall,

kaiolini Fries.,

glaucescens Bge., bloiiduwi Led.

Bge.) and some bnlbous plants:

tulipa altaica Pali., liliiim tennifolium Fiseh. ami

bile Link, fritillaria verticillata

W,

;iiid

tiuiidia

L.

sjx'cta-

et cetera.

The extraordinary wealth and

variety of the Altai flora finds

its

explanation unt only

in the circumstance that in the Altai, as in every mountainous country, within a coinparitividy

narrow

compass, various

climates

superimposed

are

one

but

another,

tipon

also

cut oil by deep

valleys and intersected by short ti'ansverse

longitudinal

same time extensive elevated plateaux and low hummocky mountainous

vast

foot hills.

struggle

Asia, a

at

the this

consequence of

this,

southern

its

which chancing as

peculiar

the

damp

aerial

the lower layers of the atmosphere. In

in

it

rises

slopes

climbed by

are

Central

flora of the

the

upon more favourable climatic conditions, hecomes

To such forms

differentiated into a whole series of original high steppe varieties.

example,

steppes of Cen-

polar forms, or an isolated high alpine vegetation, prevail upon the nnith-

ern slopes of the Altai, while

Asian steppes,

dry winds

Western

plain of

constantly going on between the north and north-west

is

and

valleys,

area situated between the limitless and relatively moist

currents and the southern and perfectly

ridges,

Over the whole of

Siberia sloping to the Arctic Ocean, and the almost equally unlimited parched tral

this

in

that the extremely varied contour of the Altai moiratain region presents very dislinet

species of astragalus

and

oxytropis of the Altaic

belong, for

meadows

of

the

alpine zone.

A

dependence upon climatic

like

conditions

is

also

shown by

tlie

higher invertebrates,

namely, the insects, and especially such of them as for example, the majority of the coleoptera, not possessing any considerable

bution and are soil

But

and vegetation.

Siberian plain

diff"ers

mountain region

is

capacity for

dependent

accordingly

have not any extended extent upon

here, as in the case, of the flora,

the

as richly varied and original as the flora.

:

local

regions of

fauna of the Western

insect

The

distri-

conditions of climate,

from that of European Russia and only the fauna

little

incapable of flight, arc peculiarly are exceedingly rare

flight,

to a greater

local

forms

eccentric: for example, species of carabns,

the

eoleoptera

some of which

car. imperialis Fiscli., car. regalis Boeb., car. Gebleri Fiscli., car.

wood

Fisch; car. Loschnikowii Fisch, et cetera, and wingless

Altai

of of

cutters (for example,

Leachi

dorcadion

politum Dalm.) et cetera. The vertebrates have a wider area of distribution. Those which are

hunted maintain themselves best in the vast uninhabited regions of Eastern Siberia, accordingly be dealt with

The question of

Western Siberia

The

when

of the distribution will

now

and

classification of the native

and Russian population

be considered.

total population of

Western Siberia amounts

to 2,700,000 of both sexes, of

only eight per cent are natives, the immigrant Russian element forming ninety-two

Among tribes,

the native population the

known under

the collective

first

place in point of numbers

name

of Tartars.

composed the ancient Kuchum Siberian Kingdom. thousand

of

these

Tartars

and will

that country comes to be described.

in

Western

Siberia.

They

occupied by Finno-turkish

are a remnant of the tribes which

There are

They

is

whom

per cent.

now

calculated to be ninety

are distributed in such a

way

that

as

SIBERIA.

32

Half are

as 20 thousand dwell iu the Altai mining district.

many the

orthodox

and are strongly

laith

leads a vagabond

;

In

the

cultivated

accepted long ago

settled,

more accurately,

or

the other half nomadizes,

shamanism.

and holds to

life

russified

zone

agricultural

or

are

50,000 Tartars: part of them have become russified, but the majority profess mohammedanism,

and

as for example,

extent,

to a certain

in the

Baraba

steppe,

lead

nomad

a

Finally,

life.

in the zone of forest industries and sporadic agi-iculture there are yet another 20,000 Tartars,

wandering,

partly with fixed habitations, partly gion.

The Tartars speak

tars

in

for the

European Russia, but among some dialects are

Fiiiiiisli

and mainly professing the mohammedan

most part a Tiurksk

dialect, resembling that of the

of the Tartar tribes of the Altai mining district

preserved.

still

Anuther native element consists of the purely Finnish

The number

amounts

of both together

30,000, inhabit the forest zone of

southern members

Voguls and Ostiaks.

tribes of the

Tin} majority

40,000 souls.

to

Western Siberia and belong

to the

of these tribes,

namely

hunting peoples. Only the

accepted orthodoxy and become russianized; the majority adheres to

have

As many

shamanism.

reli-

Kazan Tar-

dwell in the polar tundra zone, where they occupy

10,000 Ostiaks

as

with reindeer breeding and fishing, and have become largely assimilated with the

thetnselves

Samuyeds.

The number

third

20,000

element

native

whom

of

souls,

They

polar tribe of the Samoyeds.

the

is

the majority

still

inhabit the forest zone:

are reckoned to

the minority, the

polar tundra zone, where they are engaged in rearing reindeer and in fishing. Finally the fourth native element

ing

is

formed by the Mongol tribe ofKalmycks, inhabit-

number

Altai mining region to the

the

of 20,000.

proceeds in the cultivated zone and in the Altai foot in the polar tundra region

On

national traits.

and

The

hills.

only

russification of the natives

In the forest region, and

still

more

in the intenial valleys of the Altai, the natives preserve their

the whole there

is

no evidence of the extinction of the natives in Western

Sibi'ria.

The most considerable emigrants,

sian

Western

is,

of the Altai

the

to

mining

geographical mile,

unevenly

of the zone of high

of

Western Siberia over

distributed

amounting

district,

of

whom

growing

to

is

composed of Rus-

the different zones or regions of

Western Siberia dwell 1,800,000 persons of both

non-Russian population. Considerable

native

GOO.OOO

souls

the native tribes form not

among an unbroken

lation scattered in small oases

Its

of the population of

part

very

inhabitants to the square geogi'aphical mile, out of

212

belong

are

In the cultivated zone

Siberia.

sexes, that

per cent

who

trees, forest industries

whom

less than three

also is the population

of both sexes, or

more than seven per

stretch of forests and

78 per square

cent.

The popu-

swamps, namely that

and sporadic agriculture,

is

much

extent does not exceed 270,000, or 15 inhabitants to the square geographical mile,

whom

the

native

tribes

form

15 per cent. Finally

in

thinner.

among

the polar tundra zone the population

does not exceed 30,000 of both sexes, the natives here, however, constituting more than 95 per cent,

which clearly demonstrates that the Russian

settled

population cannot live in this zone,

the Russians here appearing not as settlers but only as proprietors and exploiters of It

total

is

tlie

country.

evident that in Western Siberia the relation borne by the town iidiabitants to the

population

is

even lower than

in

European Russia, where

in

its

turn,

the proportion of

(iEOGKAPEICAL REVIEW.

the

town populalion

America.

In

population

33

low enough compared with the same proportion

is

European

Russia

in

proportion of the inhabitants of

the

Western Europe and towns

tlie

to

total

tlie

13 per cent, in Western Siberia, less than eight per cent.

is

Of the towns of any importance

in

Western Siberia possessing

same time a

at the

urban character, there are only seven: Tomsk, with a population of about 40,000;

really

Tobolsk,

with 20,000 inhabitants; Barnaoul and Biisk each with 17,000; Tinmen, with 14,000; Mariinsk

and Kolyvan, each with 13,000 inhabitants. In immediate connection with the density, distribution and maimer of tion

man,

any rate in country

at

for travelling

from place

occupying

Siberia,

working a virgin

as

it

the horse, serving as

is

life,

and

to place

for the

does a vast and

does not only for

it

inhabited

from the abundance of fodder. Therefore, while

Europe

industrial countries of of

per

horses

of

countries

100

France

meadows and

natural

like, for

exceeds

and Germany,

does

pastures, such as

not

is

Great

figure

surpass

and

five;

eight;

Hungary and Denmark,

in it

number

100

of horses per

inhabitants

man

1,700,000, in other words, to each

Under such circumstances, animals

is

reaches

as might

also proportionately very high.

be

the

inferred,

are fifty-two head of horned cattle, the absolute to three

sixty-three,

To every 100

those

in

extends to 240,000 head.

As

The

absolute

in

number being

number

to three horses.

of

the

other

domestic

inhabitants in Western Siberia

number being 2,300,000. The northern reindeer

the region of reindeer breeding.

rich

Western Siberia

absolute

the

number being 1,400,000,

of the polar tribes, inhabiting the polar tundra zone

proportion

very

still

that

head per married couple. Finally there are eighty-five sheep and goats

habitants, the absolute

feed

highly

reaches twelve and seventeen,

working age there are two

of

the

luxu-

to

more agricultural

the

and in European Russia and the United States of America, twenty-two; the

a

and most

Britain,

in

with

in a position

thickly populated

in the

the

covered

wastes

example, Belgium and

hardly

inhabitants

upon which agriculture,

territory,

riant herbaceous vegetation, has a particular need for the horse it

to

work but

field

conveyance of goods. The population of Western

tliinly

without steam motors, leaving extensive

soil

of the popula-

life

which the nearest

the distribution and apportionment of the domestic animals, of

is

which might

is

is,

there

from two

per

100

in-

the domestic animal

in AVestern Siberia be called

number of these animals

in

Western Siberia

the population employed in rearing reindeer in the polar tundra

zone and in the northern part of the forest zone, Samoyeds and a portion of the Ostiaks, does not exceed 40,000,

it

follow^s that there are

long as such a proportion per so long the polar tribes of

man

600 reindeer

to

every

100

of domestic animals in the far north

Western Siberia

will not exhibit

guished.

--^<$-—

inhabitants;

and as

can be maintained,

any tendency

to

become

extin-

34

CHAPTER

III.

Eastern Original Siberia. Its Sayan bDnleflaml; the liydiniiiapliy of Eastern Siberia and its division into three zones or tracts, the cultivated or agricultorai, mingling with the Sayan foothills; the zone of high stemmed trees and forest industries, and the polar tundra; the climatif? conditions of each of these zones: the vegetative covering of Eastern Siberia and its fauna: mammalia of the polai- and forest zones; the population of Eastern Siberia, its etlmographical composition and disposition; the distribution of the domestic animals.

EASTERN

Sibeiia

is

made up

two

of

respects occupies

tlie

narrow

the

in

inhabited

of Siberia

sense,

by

principally

governments,

that

the

is,

eastern

Russian population,

a

those of

and

Yenisseisk

half of the original part

administrative

in

Irkutsk,

greater part of the basin of the t^vin river Yenissei-Angara, and farther

embraces the riverine regions of the polar streams, Piassina, Taimyr, small upper part of the basin of the river

Taz on

Lena and

Anabera on the

the north-west, and

covers an immense

relation

and in geographical

and Khatanga,

the

parts of the fronti(M- basins of the rivers

Even

nortli-east.

thus

Eastern

limited.

Siberia

area of sixty-two thousand square geographical miles, exceeding twice the

extent of Germany, Austria and France taken together.

The southern borderland and

long

Erghik-Targak-Taiga possessions. parallel

south

This

and

chain

by a wide bend

follows

expanded

itself

branches

of

on

Wilbiii

its

the

bursts through the Siberia.

tradition

to

Yeiiissei, flowing

the

Kemchik

name

from this point over

and Beikem. After the

South

of

at

both

its

or

left

of

deeply

into

of

all

to tlie

Sayan

by mountains known in in history is

it

said

Asia. In this valley mingle the two great constituent

from the southern slope of the Sayan, the rivers Ulukem

western

the

and one further

it

in on all sides

side of the valley,

Sayan and

Yenisseisk,

the southern

part

of

conies out on the

and

the

Kem

in

so reinforced receives

and taking the name of Yenissei,

the

western

governnu'ut the Sayan range i)rocoeds without subdivisiou, merely

penetrating

name

extremities with the

served as the cradle of the Tiurk tribe, which

defile of the

limits

northern chain of the

tlie

Erghene-Kon or Irgana-Kon, and celebrated

confluence with three tributaries, the river

narrow

the

formed by

of this chain, between

and connected

a very wide valley shut

the juost ancient times by the

according

is

roughly a direction from west to east, but departs from the

to the north.

bearing the name of Tannu-Ola

having

Siberia

for a considerable part of its extent bears the

as the frontier between Russian territory and the Chinese

servos

by mountain spurs, spreads

for

of Eastern

Sayan range, which

lofty

Yenisseisk

Sayan slope

sending

off

government

of Eastern

the

of

pari

a

on

Irkutsk

few the

spurs north.

35

EASTERN ORIGINAL SIBERIA.

Sonifwliat

coinplcx

iiiuio

with

and

Oka, Belaia

the

parallel

ridges,

or

chains,

on

Irkut,

united by projections of the main

each

ci-est,

ol'

the

of the left tributaries of the Angara,

range shows

this

tendency

a

break

to

up

and separated by longitudinal valleys, here

other

there cut asinider by transverse dales through which

slope of Eastern Siberia and form the left

rivers struggle out the

numerous

the

Here

other. to

in the south-eastern portion

most elevated mass situated between the head waters

its

Beikem and Ulukem, on the one hand, and those

of the

into

Sayan

of the

(•(uistruclioii

tlio

is

Irkutsk governmeut, beginning

tributaries

of the Angara.

In the midst of the main crest of the Sayan, at the south-eastern corner of the Irkutsk

governmeut, the highest mountain mass of the Sayan range

snow

eternal

in its highest point,

reaching an elevation of 11,430 feet above the sea mits in

its

teiTitory

and

A

somewhat greater scale

among which

range lying close to Irkutsk. In another of these ridges, south-west of Irkutsk,

above the sea

level.

the mountain Khamar-Daban,

is

In connection with this

is

is

670

frontier,

less consider-

rise, parallel

Khamar-Daban

elevation

of

the

Tunka

120 versts to

a distance of

at

reaching an

the

is

Sayan to

the feet

8,940

two ridges stretching almost

are

wide and very long valley separat-

situated oneof the largest lakes ou the world's surface, Baikal, whose area of 640

square geographical miles of

more or

the most remarkable

parallel to each other in a north-easterly direction. In the

Duchy

Chinese

in this part of the

lower than those golets

little

crest of the Sayan, the forward ridges,

ing them,

the

This mountain, as also some other sum-

level.

in the Altai, but «golets», feeds

ice fields, occurring on a

than in the Katun Pillars of the Altai.

main

above the limits of

itself far

neighbourhood situated on the projections of the Sayan range crossing into Russian

and called here not belki as

glaciers

able

lifts

Munku-Sardyk peak, lying on

the

Luxemburg;

versts.

is

Lake Baikal

equal to the extent of the

exceeds

breadth

its

fed mainly

is

Upper Angara, Barguzin and Selenga.

Its

by

Kingdom

length

the

rivers flowing over the Transbaikal

outlet

is

the

river system of Eastern Siberia, the Angara, bursting

right

colossal

first

the Grand

of Holland with

Lake Geneva, and

of

through the

its

length

region,

branch of the defile

the vast

of the Baikal

range, confining the lake on the north-west, and afterwards intersecting the extremities of sev-

Sayan

eral of the spurs of the

section that the

Angara forms

extending far over its

All the chief summits of the rocks, granites, sienites,

Sayan range, and even

more seldom

diorites, porphyries

crystalline schists. In the eastern part of the

met with, such

It

as bazalts, dolerites

vulcanic tufas, obsidian and piunice.

at

these points

of

inter-

of its offspurs, consist of crystalline

also in the

low ridges intersecting

thePodkamennaia Tunguzka,real plutonic rocks

and even lavas, from the long since extinct volcanoes, with

The sedimentary rocks upon

ridges consist of sandstones, schists and limestone belonging to

the

the

slopes

paleozoic

of

the

Sayan

formations,

Si-

devonian and carboniferous, but further to the north in the denuded parts of the low

lurian,

ridges, intersecting the triassic

Eastern Siberia plain, secondary formations also are met with, such as

and Jurassic.

The mineral resources the

is

and diabases, and also of gneiss and

Sayan range, and

the Eastern Siberian plain between the Angara and are

its slope.

celebrated rapids.

Sayan

in the Yenisseisk

of Eastern Siberia are considerable.

Upon the

northern acclivity or

government, mines of argentiferous lead and copper are found, and

SIBERIA.

'36

in the region of the foot hills are scattered here

posits of excellent graphite are found lazuli

and there seams of coal and iron

upon one of the

offsets of the

has been discovered along the river Sliudianka, also in

however,

is

richest

of all in

bearing

gold

situated

sands,

that

Sayan range,

Eastern

region.

on the

only

not

ores.

De-

and lapis Siberia^

slope

of

the

Kuznelski Altai and upon the spurs of the Sayan range, but to a yet greater degree upon the extensive area between the

Eastern Siberia sisting like the Obi of

is

Angara and the Podkamennaia Tunguzka.

watered as abundantly as Western. The great river Yenissei, con-

two almost equal branches, the Yenissei proper and the Angara, has

a length of 3,800 versts,

if

Ulukem be reckoned

the

as its beginning; and of 4,800 versts,

head waters be taken as the Upper Angara or the Selenga, The

its

watershed

vast

of

if

this

river covers an area of 54,000 square geographical miles.

As a

w^ater

way,

the Yenissei has the

same inconveniences

as the Obi;

it

intersects,

the great Siberian tract at right angles, flows northwards, almost without swerving, and falls

Kara

into the inhospitable

communication by

to

autumn

late

into the

sea,

mouth

more accessible

of the Yenissei is

than that of the Obi, and that for the most part ships penetrating in

Kara Sea through

the narrow straits dividing

,Zembla, the so-called Matochkin Shar, or through

the

Yenissei bay without encountering any obstacle, but

wharf, constructed near the entrance to the

may

However, the expe-

Sea, ice-bound the greater part of the year.

rience of the last twenty years has shown that the

fritli

Nova

the two islands of

Kara Gates, cannot only reach

having

unloaded

and reloaded

previously to the closing

at

the-

the

of the navigation,

return to Europe.

The Angara and Yenissei mingle but the curve formed by them

is

their waters

precisely

as

do

the

Obi and Irtysch,

not thrust so far to the north, passes through localities less

desert in their character, and with the existing hydrographic communication between the Obi

and Yenissei by means of the Ket and Koss, the Angara might serve as an excellent water

way

to

falls,

Baikal and Transbaikalia, were

it

not intersected by a whole series of cataracts and

which are however now being gradually cleared away. Besides the Angara both the

tributaries of the Yenissei falling into that river below the Angara, the

Lower Tunguzka,

The great expanse differing is

of Eastern

much from each

very

Podkamennaia and

are navigable, flowing however through regions almost absolutely deserted.

Siberia

may

be subdivided

The

first

and most

other.

into

three

zones

tracts or

southern of them

is

that

which

called the cultivated or agricultural, but which properly corresponds to the two regions of

Western Siberia characterized above, namely, the Altai mining and low-lying the

foothills of the

Siberia, and

as

it

Sayan range and is

impossible

the mining zones of Sayan.

The

to

its

agricultural, as

offshoots occupy the whole cultivated zone of Eastern

draw a

cultivated

definite

boundary

agricultural zone

between the agricultural is

composed accordingly

and

of the

four southern districts of the Yenissei government, namely, Minussinsk, Achinsk, Krasnoyarsk

and Kansk, and

all

the

districts of the

government of Irkutsk, but Kerensk.

This

zone of

Eastern Siberia so defined, includes an area of 10,500 square geographical miles, but as the greater half of this area, partly on account of its

its

high absolute altitude, partly on account of

mountainous and rocky condition, stony or swampy

soil, is

entirely unsuited for agricultural

purposes; the whole zone hardly counts above 5,000 square geographical miles for colonization.

37

EASTERN ORIGIXAL SIBERIA climatic conditions of the cultivated or agricultural zone of Eastern

The very

temperature here and there approaches zero, but in the eastern zone •(—

and therefore 0-5" colder than

2-3),

— 18°

— 20«,

or 1° and 2-5° below the

temperatures of Western Siberia. The average summer

month

hottest

19",

which

temperature

and that of the

IQ-o",

is

ar>;

correspondinu-

short of the corresponding temperatures of Western Siberia

also fall

and 0-5°; only the differences between the temperatures of summer and winter, 35", and

1°

by

a negative (luantity

it is

The average winter temperatures

in the western.

Celsius, and that of the coldest month

Siberia

The mean annual

are less advantageous than in the corresponding region of Western Siberia.

between those of the hottest and coldest months,

remain approximately

39",

But on

identical.

the the other hand, the most important factor in the capacity of the country for agriculture,

mean temperature

of the five-month

ration to only 14°,

is

vegetative period, amounting in the zone under conside-

Eastern Siberia

in this part of

advantageous than in the correspond-

less

ing zone of Western Siberia.

And

than

stances

zone of Eastern

same

the

360 millimetres instead

wnter shows a

zone

Siberia

Western

of

rainfall

as, for

advantageous climatic conditions, situated

words

zone

agricultural

or

cultivated

the

and

175,

more

is

placed

are

circum-

precipitation

total

of

the

year,

advantageous

less

150 instead

other

certain preponderancy, 56, or in

elevated foothills of the

in

namely, is

whole

during the

falling

placed

is

Siberia,

summer

of 380; the

snow

rain and

as regards the quantity of

cultivated or agricultural

more

The

snowy.

incomparably

in

is

the

only

less

example, Kultuk, at the southern extremity

mine

as the

of Baikal at an absolute height of 1,600 feet, at the very foot of the Sayan, or

of Preobrazhensk on the Biriussa at an elevation of 3,800 feet in a mountainous valley. Here the

mean annual temperature

summer

but the

colder,

which the average

in consequence of

low, 10*2°, that

it

The second the zone of

more and

there,

and

small

extent

consists

that

— 2°

of—

warmer,

its

of

strips

zone of Western winters

the

month

month

that of the hottest

Western

in

agriculture.

sporadic

the Yenissei

period

vegetative

Siberia,

namely, about

mass

forest

of

part

land

in

in

a

and

slight

it

with

fit for

coiTesponding

that

tract

the

of

Siberia.

as 66°,

or

in

Eastern

is

geographical

here

only

and

of the rivers, islets of

the establishment of a

The average temperature here

is

instead of

difference

between

— 23°.

— 25°

being

—3

instead

of— 21°

instead

lower,

more severe, having a mean temperature

are

climate

Western

called

conditions of this zone are also less favourable than in the

instead of 14°, the

appears

so

far

square

27,000

morass,

degree

as

zone

Only the summer

summer and winter being

somewhat

is

therefore 36"

instead of 33", and that between the hottest and coldest months, 43° instead of 40". this

14", is

the Kerensk

includes

this

neighbourhood

the

'may be

Siberia, It

district

The area occupied by

southern

The climatic

the coldest

15°

in

and narrow

Celsius,

20°,

and

forests.

continuous

a

of

mainly

population.

corresponding of

one

corresponding

Western

in

winter almost the same,

the

8°,

temperature of the five-month

industries

high-stemmed than

—

12-5°,

to agriculture.

like the

forest

extensive

miles,

settled

zone,

tall trees,

of the

limit

still

an obstacle

is

than

less

the government of Yenissei and part of

district of

the

on an average

is

mean temperature being

the

presents

Siberia.

a

As

still

for

more the

continental

From

all

character than in the

mean temperature

of the

five-month

SIBERIA.

3S period

vegetative of

a

agriculture,

the

main occupation

support

to

the

forest

occasional

atmospheric

annual

precipitation

200

moreover, half or

The

third

occupying as

With an

the latter.

investigation

of

nent

points on the

conditions of

the

As a sample

Yenissei,

coldest

month shows almost

hottest

month -f

as that

such circumstances or

—

34'';

Tolsty

called

—

it

which

than in Western

which

covers

in

yields a wide field for

llie

that

it

extreme north of the conti-

in one of the farthest habitable

Xos,

Here

lying iu latitude TO^IO'N.

and the mean winter temperature

13",

mean summer temperature

the

of

upon the continents of the earth situated beyond

life

only

is

excludes

it

all possibility

+

is

5",

— 30°.

The

and that of the

of even the thought of agriculture.

Under

by polar reindeer breeding

tribes

country can be exploited

all this

only

in W^estern Siberia, the flora of the country is extremely sensitive and

In Eastern as nicety

a

to

range has

a

climatic

its

resemblance

great

departures

certain

from

it.

Thus

The

conditions.

that

to

of

in the Alpine

and subalpine flora of the Sayan

alpine

while

Altai,

the

Sayan

flora,

at the

same time exhibiting

appear certain polar forms not

with in the arctic zone of Europe and Western Siberia, but peculiar to the arctic zone

met

of Eastern Siberia

slope

and

common

to the

many

America:

from the steppes

vegetable forms appear

To

times

5

.

worse

by native or immigrant hunters or fishermen.

reflects

or

3

is

summer months.

developed in Eastern

area

the

to

There can be no question of the mean temperature of the vegetative period,

9".

brief that

so

is

an

of the climatic conditions of this

settlement

the

mean annual temperature

the

more

far

is

only

but

regard

exceed 400 millimetres,

World, are the meteorological observations

the Old

of

zone

tundra

does in the former

it

development

share, the forest zone of Eastern

its

here does not

it

Further, in

industries.

extent of 24,000 square geographical miles

all

the arctic circle.

to

to the

iuhabitauis,

of the

millimetres falls in the course of the three

polar

or

falling

Western Siberia;

situated than that in

Siberia,

and proves extremely unfavourable

ll**

be

and

limited

here only

is

it

which here cannot

of

Central

Altaic species vanish, which rise high on the Altai adjacent

Asia,

which do not occur

Sayan and

at

all

to

that

region,

and on the other hand

in the Altai, but are either entirely local

the Stanovoi ranges, and even to the

more remote Tian-Shan.

the latter forms belongs the prickly shrub with gray foliage and yellow flowers character-

istic

of the Alpine zone,

known under

the

name

of the

cameFs

tail

among

the Tiurk

tribes

Tinek-uiriuk, (caragana jubata Poir).

The

flora of the

Siberia also

possesses

Sayan

Gmelin already noticed that fact,

to

met with

the

east

the slope

of

is,

distinctions

of the cultivated or agricultural tract of Eastern

from

thai

of

the Yenissei

of

or agricultural

Siberian

lowlaml.

And

in

this is explained not so

much by any

sharj)

climatic conditions, which really does not exist, as by the circumstance that

the

tlie

Western

not a few characteristic Siberian plants occur, not to be

Sayan ridge where

it

is

intersected by the great Siberian tract, does not

exhibit a flat low lying expanse like Western Siberia, but offshoots

the

crossing the Yenissei the flora considerably alters.

on

Western Siberian lowland. But

in the

change in the

of

slope, that

essential

Sayan, by which zone

of Eastern

rienced naturalist as Gmelin

its

Siberia.

niiglii

is

mountain flora pushes

Examples such

scored by more or less elevated its

way deep

into the cultivated

as struck the eye of such an expe-

be quoted in large number. Thus, of the family of crow's

39

EASTERN ORKilNAL SIHEKIA.

anomoiie

L.,

coiilmtiuji

pea

the

of

These

latter are

Pall.;

violels

the

lor

firsi

ilic

of the

tiiiii':

tlialictniiii

(riiiiiariarcao):

fiiiiiitdrics

iwo

(criKircrcac):

(viohuicae):

(oxytropis

astragalus

viola

species

dissecta Led.;

muricata D.C.,

brevirostn;

ainpuUata Pers.

leucaiitha Pers., caepitosa Pers.,

D.C,

grandistore

Tiircz.,

merely mountainous forms of the Altai-Sayan system, which have descended lowland

Siberian

the

into

wiili

iiR't

iiaiaiis

of

;

smiie

(li'gmniiinscae):

family

D.C, ammophila

^ley.

liiunih'

sisyiiibriuiii

of dontosteinoi),

caltlia

L.,

Chain., corydalis giacilis Led.: of the criieircis

ambigua

oorydalis

sibirica

aic

Ycnissi'i

the

boyniid

{laiiiiiiculacoao)

fi.dis

tlie

(ni

right

Inlly

hank

by means of the Sayan

of the Yenissei

spurs.

Least difference of

Western

ing of course trees.

are absolutely identical.

and gradually losing their proper chaiacter of high-stemmed

crooked

stunted,

Thus the Siberian

fir

(pinus sibirica Led.), attains on the Yenissei a height of 67'5'' nortli

72"5°.

As

daur larch (larix davurica Fisch.) far

is

found on the river Boganida as far north as

as regards the herbaceous plants of the forest zone,

any special differences from the is

L.), 68*5", the pitch pine (picea orientalis L.), 69-5";

cembra

latitude, the Siberian cedar (pinus finally the

Of the coniferous families the pine

but the remaining forms also pass over into the polar zone, becom-

of the forest zone;

dary

noticeable between the flora of the forest zone of Eastern and

is

and the Siberian larch (larix Ledebourii Endl.) do not cross the boun-

sylvestris L.),

(pinus

all

woody races

Siberia. Tln^

on the whole poor; in the thick forest growths

then,"

is

not distinguished by

is

it

of the corresponding zone of

like flora

Western

no herbage, the

soil

Siberia, and

being mainly

carpeted with mosses and lichens. Particularly typical on the other hand

pidar tundra tract. Middendorf found on the the

very lowest,

it

might be

L.); willow, (salix polaris

and

also a ledum,

(ledum

said,

Walil,

the very limited flora of the far north of the

dwarf shrubs of the

lanata

L.,

glauca

L.,

arctica

among which were

plants,

arctic species of Pall.,

birch (bctiila nana

taimyrensis

Trautv.),

and

and an andromeda (cassiope tetragona Don.);

palustre L.)

herbaceous plants, 17 species

is

Taimyr peninsula 124

of crucifereae, 14 compositeae, 7 stellarieae, (alsine,

of

stellaria,

cerastium), 12 stonecrops (saxifraga), 6 species of pedlcularis, 5 astragals (of the genea phaca

and oxytropis), 5 rosaceae (dryas,

sieversia, potentilla)

delphinum). Of the 124 plants mentioned, 30 to the

whole of Siberia and

for the

tlo

and 6 crow's foots (ranunculus, caltha,

common

not belong to the polar types, but are

most part cross

ov<'r

on the

on^' side into

Europe, and on

th<'

Much more

than

half of them (54) are met with over the whole polar zone, alike of the Old ami of the

Xew

other into

The remaining 94

America.

plants are completely arctic types.

World, and in part come forth upon the alps of the Altai Sayan range; but some are peculiar to Siberia alone (12), or only appear outside in

ica (18 species).

To

nunculus affinis R.

the latter, for Br.;

(d'

Europe

(10), or

more frequently

in

Amer-

example, belong of the crow's foots (ranunculaceae):

ra-

the crucifers, (crucifereae): draba pauciflora R. Br., draba glacialis

Ad., draba algida Ad., draba rupcstris R. Br., hesperis Ilookeri Led.,

sisymbrium sophi(ddes

Hook.; of the caryophyllac<'ae (alsineae): alsine macrocarpa Fenzl., alsine arctica Fisch.; of the

pea family

(leguminoseae): oxytropis

R. Br.;

the

(jf

stone

cro]»s

nigrescens Fisch.; of the

(saxifragaceae):

saxifraga

rosaceae:

serpyllifolia

sieversia

Pursb.

the scrophulaiiaccae: pedirularis Langsdorffi Fisch., pedicularis capitala Ad.

glasialis

punctata

L.;

(d"

40

SIBERIA.

The range

it

insect fauna follows

on the whole the same laws as the

somewhat poorer than

is

but

flora,

and on the slope presents

in the Altai,

Sayan

the

in

from

less difference

the fauna of the Altai slope than does the flora. Highly eccentric arctic forms are met with

among

the coleoptera devoid of flight,

as for

lyperophorus cribellus Men., lyperophorus

example the carabidae:

costatus

Men., platysma

carabus Baerii Men.,

Men.

borealis

isot

less

moths (lepidoptera):

peculiar are the following arctic forms of other categories of insects, of the

amphidasis unfasciata Men.; of hymenoptera: ichneumon Middendorfii Er., ichneumon figulus

musca boganidae

Er.; of the diptera:

As

Er.,

anthomya'ursula Er.,

the forest and polar tundra zones in Eastern Siberia reach

their

the questions, having reference to the distribution of the vertebrates clearly answered

neplaotoma

lispe frigida Ev..

hemerobius algidus Er.

aijuilonia Er.; of the neuroptera:

by the study of these zones. At

sight

first

it

development

full

most

are

over Siberia,

might be expected that in such

deserted spots as are the forests and tundras of Siberia, where there is no regular hewing of timber, where there

are

not

more

than seven

the fauna should be extraordinarily rich,

if

men

by climatic conditions, then

countries, here opposed

per

living

with gun in hand should traverse the wholeforest zone of Siberia to to about 60" north

latitude, he

and

respects, its

more southern

Unfortunately even

at least in numbers.

in the forest zone the fauna of Siberia is very poor in both

mile,

geogi-aphical

square

not in the variety of species, as in

sportsman

the

if

very heart, for example,

would be very much disenchanted by the

times

at

that

fact

whole days would pass without his making any bag. In the unbroken and thick forest gi-owths of Siberia, there are hardly any wild animals.

They keep gladly

woods,

the

of

to the skirts

the forest glades, to areas devastated by forestcouflagrations, nay, even to the clearings wrought

by man, near

Such

and not in the

to his habitation, but not in the forest depths,

spots, free

from trees and also convenient fords across rivers

forest thicket.

seasons

certain

at

of the year, serve the wild animals as places of assembly, and the whole skill of the

trapper

is

season

of

them here

confined to watching for their

frequenting

ment of vast

forest

its

animal

life.

knowing these

This method of hunting explains

by animals.

sparse population of the forest regions of

gradually exhausting

at the right time,

Siberia, unable to

exhaust

its

native

and the

spots

why

also

the

woody wealth,

is

This circumstance leads to the thought that the establish-

clearings or glades, hunters lauds and the preservation

animals

the

of

assembling upon them at certain seasons of the year, might not only conduce to

the

preser-

of

Siberia,

vation from destruction, but also to the increase of valuable races of animals.

Generally speaking in

the

forest

and polar tundra

zones

the

of

whole

which are comparatively so poorly endowed by nature, the natural riches are so scattered over the enormous surface in a thin and sparse layer, altogether wanting in as difficult to collect

them as

it

is

to

some

amass the separate grains of gidd

parts, that

in auriferous

it

is

strata,

such work being only feasible when they have been agglomerated by accident or by nature or else

by the ingenuity of man. Passing on

to

the

mammalia

animals peculiar to the tundra is

the white

Ocean;

it

is

of the l'ore^t and polar tundra zones of Siberia,

region

may

be

first

bear, (ursus maritimus L), properly an

carried by the floating ice to

the

of all described. iidiabilant

aivtic

shores

The most

of the islands of

Siberia

and

the

few

arctic

animal

the

Arctic

of is

found,

for

41

EA.STERX ORIGINAL SIBERIA.

instance, at the

mouth

where

of the Yenissei

was

it

tli.i

seen

cieatwre

living

liist

times even reaches the settlement of Tolstyi Nos,

Yenissei from the

ocean,

bnt

it

does

whicli

penetrate

not

the

is

the

tundra region:

animals which almost exclusively inhabit the polar

some-

it

on

spot

inhabited

first

Next come

further.

Nor-

by

denskjdld's expedition on the Siberian sho^'e at the entrance of the gnlf of Yenissei;

the

wild

arctic

tliose

fox, (canis

arctic

la-

gopus L), found in the Taimyrsk peninsula under 75" northern latitude, and the small striped

myodes

or Obi lemings, (myodes torquatus and

mal contemporaneous with mankind uxistiug

musk

ox, (bos moschatus),

which

found

is

obensis).

polar

the

in

was

entirely disappeared; this Siberian ox (bos pallasii) is

only

There

w^as formerly another large ani-

Ihe polar tundra region corresponding

in

regions

distinct

the

to

now

has

from the American variety, but

the skulls and bones found in the Taimyrsk

known by

America, but

of

Finally as character-

tundras.

animals of the tundras the northern hare, (lepus variabilis Pall.) and the reindeer, (cervus

istic

tarandus L),

may

be mentioned, although they spread far

down

into the forest zone.

Siberia; on the Urals

found in the mountainous parts of South 52'^

northern latitude, on the Altai to 49", on the Sayan and Stanovoi

the

Amour The

region

The

down south

goes

it

chain

to

latter is

as far as

and

53",

in

reaches the mouth of the Ussuri under 49° north latitude.

it

mammalia dwelling

rest of the

of the forest zone, although

many

of

in the Siberian plains

them penetrate

the glutton, (gulo borealis Nilss.), the

common

may

be regarded as animals

These are

into the polar tundra region.

bear, (ursus

arctus

very

the

L),

sable,

rare

(mustella zibellina L), the ermine, (mustella erminea L), the Siberian weasel (mustella sibirica Pall.), the

rare,

the

common weasel wolf,

(canis

(mustella vulgaris Ertl.) the otter, (lutra vulgaris, Erkl.) although

lupus

L),

peculiar to the extreme north, the squirrel, (pteromys volans L), the

the

fox,

(canis

vul|)('s

L), the

black variety being alces

lynx, (felis lynx L), the elk (cervus

common

L),

the

striped

squirrel, (sciurus vulgaris L), the

only flying

squirrel,

(tamias striatus L) and some small species of rodents. Finally on the low mountain ridges intersecting the polar and forest regions of Eastern Siberia, for instance, on the Severma chain east of

the Yenissei under 67° north

and on

latitude,

the mountains following the

lower Tunguzka there are animals belonging to

the

current

of

the

namely the mountain

mountain fauna,

sheep, (aegoceros montanus Desm.) and the musk, (moschus moschiferus L.).

On

the Altai-Sayan elevations in Eastern and particularly

naturally species

of

such

mammals

as

are

not

found on

the

Western

Siberia,

Siberian

plains.

there are

These are

the Alpine wolf, (canis alpinus. Pall), two races of large cats, (felis irbis Miill and felis manul), the chtonoergus alpinus, spermophylns stag, (cervus elaphus)

Birds, being

Eversmanni, the alpine hare (lagomys Alpinus

more widely spread than any other vertebrates, are

three zones of Eastern and Western Siberia.

Taimyr peninsula,

Pall), the

and others.

The

are: one of the eagle tribe,

fairly plentiful in

all

birds of prey, which are found as far as the

probably aquila albicilla

Bris.

and a buzzard

(buteo lagopus), two sorts of falcons, (falco gyrfalco L., falco tinuncula St.) and some bats, (stryx

brachyotus Forst, stryx nictea L., stryx funerea Lath). The small birds, passeres, which nest far north in Siberia are some varieties of larks, (alauda alpestris L., plectroph nivalis L,, plectroph lapponica, emberhiza polaris Mid., fringilla linaria L., parus sibiricus Pm., motacilla alba L).

fowls which are found partly in the polar zone and especially in the

forest

The

zone are partic-

SIBERIA.

42 L

the lagopus albus

iilarly

aud lagopus

and tetrao bonasia

tetrix L.,

and

of the rivers

overhanging

manure

numbers on the shores

in countless

which nest

it

On Lake Baikal

lakes.

Lake Baikal

of

water of this inland

The

heath cock, (tetrao urogallus L, tetrao

of the Arctic

Ocean

whom

is

Eastern Siberia, omitting the Yakutsk region,

The Mongolian

The

in Mongolia.

first

Russian

which ended in their being completely subdued Buriats

160,000

About 20 per cent

both

of

the

that

of

most numerous

the world-renowned

when

settlers,

first

of

waged desperate war with

the

end of that century. At present

at the

iidiabiting

agricultural

the

of the

cattle breeding; they are

is

Kingdom

taking possession of

Budd-

them have been converted

to Christianity

adhere to

still

and have become

shamanism.

to

a great

a remarkable

It is

Buriats do not exhibit any tendency to die out, but on the contrary increase

The Turco-Finnish of Tartars.

Sayan mountains

another indigenous eleuieut,

form

tribes

They number about 22 thousand and dwell in the Yenisseisk

undoubtedly

was

over

all

Sea.

the continent

from the

Russia in

Europe as

of

plains

In

the

to

allied

the

c(unitry

at

known by

the

and Radlov, studied their language aud proved that

Finnish.

The

Finnish

tribes

Sayan chain through Western far as the Gulfs of

were

Siberia,

at one time spread

Urals aud the

the

Finland and of Bothnia and the

Eastern Siberia have, however,

them have been converted

large.

The

is

still

already adopted a settled moile of

Christianity

to

and

life;

The Tartars

the

majority of

become russianized: the gradual progress

of

further facilitated by their decreasing luimbers, which were never very

third indigenous element

and polar zones of Eastern 4,000 Osliak-Samoyedes,

Baltic

the foot of the Sayan mountains the subjection of this race to the

Tiurksk tribe in Erghene-Kona has transformed them into the so-called Tartars.

their assimilation

cfdlective

exclusively at the foot of the

government. The celebrated Russian savants and authorities

on Finnish and Tiurks dialects, Kastren

of

Wv

almost the same rate as the Russian population.

name

it

in

about 900 thousand

is

tribe ofBiiriats is the

when

exclusively

sexes,

The most northern Buriats

extent russianized.

at

as

and they are in reality but half-nomadic, whilst part of them already lead a settled

limited,

fact

rocks

and are only partly engaged in agriculture. The space covered by the Buriat camps

faith

life.

banks

serve

the existence of a species of seal (phoca baicalensis),

is

zone of Eastern Siberia. Tlieir principal occupation hist

a long time will

[\,r

the part they were about to colonize, during the seventeenth century,

about

the

not 8 per cent, as in Western Siberia, but 23 per cent are natives, the remain-

Chengis-Khan originated

are

on

Thf n'lnarkable 300th geographical

farmers.

of Siberian

ing 77 per cent being arrivals from Russia.

there

water fowls

in

also

the gulls are so numerous that the crags and

indigenousrace, settled here since the thirteenth century,

Biiriats,

rich

and

sea.

total population of

of both sexes, of

in Siberia, but principally

however particularly

is

are covered with a thick layer of guano whirli

for the future generations

phenomenon

Siberia

in Europe.

same kinds as those

of the

alpiniis Xilss., the

There are numerous long-legged birds

L.).

Siberia

is

composed

(if

a mixed collection inhabiting the forest

consisting of 3,000

a native population

forming

of

Tungnes, 8,000

Jakuts and about

1,000

leatling

a

nomadic

life

in

the forest and polar tundra zones.

The greater inhabit

the

part of the population of Eastern Siberia, over 770 thousand of both sexes

cultivated

zone

at

the

fdoi

of the mouutains

whcro the density

of

population

43

EASTERN ORHilNAl, SIBERIA.

per sqiiare mile,

amounts

to 73,

which

has the ijreatest similarity.

it

amounts

21 per cent,

to

as

almost e»iual

beiii^^

The

region

this

zone of Eastern Siberia, excepting the Touroukhansk

may

be annexed

due

which

is

to the forest zone,

comparatively

wood indus-

the southern part of which

district,

of the forest zone of

Western Siberia and

is

Touroukhansk region does not contain more

of the

show

sufficient to

is

entirely unsuitable for a settled population.

is

In Eastern Siberia the relative population the west, and amounts to 10.5 per cent; this less developed.

ami

the Mongolian tribe of Buriat.s as

than 9,000 inhabitants, and of these over 90 per cent are natives, which that the polar tundra zone

larger

120 thousand of both sexes, or about 7 per square

to

than that

The whole

unfavourable conditions.

to

amounts less

still

with

milling' district

however mucli

is

of those districts comprising the

try

mile,

of the Altai

that

was inhabited hy

The population

early as the thirteenth century.

to

iiidigenous population

of the regular towns

The population

towns

the

of

clearly is

somewhat higher than

is

shows that

in

agricultural colonization is

as follows: Irkutsk 44 thousand, Krasno-

yarsk 15 thousand, Minussinsk 10 thousand souls.

The bution

ilistribution of

domestic animals depends upon the density, mode of

the inhabitants, and in this respect the conditions of Eastern and

of

and

life

distri-

Western Siberia

horses are very similar. In the former there are 72 horses for every 100 inhabitants, or 3 to 4

grown man,

for every

a

still

greater

head of

or 630,000

couple,

whilst

small cattle

is

1,200,000 head,

explained Buriats

in

of

large-horned

cattle in

more favourable

fact

that

cattle

who number 18 per cent number

Siberia, as there are very

reindeer

is

which amount

all,

in

and in Western Siberia

reindeer, the total

more than

cattle,

Western

in

no

to

less

is is

is

than 3 cows per every married

The proportion or

100 inhabitants,

per

135

in

a

lugh

of

state

this species does

few breeders, not more than

not

is

development

among the

As

regards the

exceed 34 thousand

about

of

over

only 85 per 100 inhabitants. This difference

of the total population of Eastern Siberia.

head of

of

it

raising

being

east

tlie

There

Siberia.

namely, 70 head for every 100 inhabitants,

Western Siberia there are only 52 per 100 inhabitants.

still

by the

or

640,000 horses,

in all

proportion

6 thousand.

in

Eastern

The number

of

about the same as in Western Siberia or 600 for every 100 inhabitants. The draught

dogs are of great use to the inhabitants of the polar tnndra zone. These animals are sharpnosed, with elevated ears and ted,

downy

hair;

they are of different colours,

white,

black,

spot-

gray and brown; they never bark, are very hardy and strong, with a fine scent, and are

satisfied with a very small

from 3 to 11, without

amount

of

any reins or

most unappetizing bridles,

with

one

food.

They

dog as

are harnessed in

an outnmner to

numbers

show the

way, the driver being only provided with an iron-pointed rod which serves as a break. Each dog

will

per hour.

draw a load

of 3

ponds;

The outrunning dogs

they

run

in

harness

at

a

speed

of

10

to

15

versts

are the most highly prized and they cost from 60 to 70 roubles

apiece.

—^<^—

4:4

CHAPTER

IV.

The Yakutsk Frontier Country. Orographic aud hydrographic review; division into two regions or zones, the region of high-stemmed trees and forest industries with a mixture of cattle raising aud the polar tundra zone; the climatic conditions of each of these regions; vegetation and fauna; composition and distribution of the population: the natives of the Yakutsk border hind: the Arctic Ocean, its islands, flora and fauna.

TO

the

civilization,

and which

may

The most extensive the

and south-west of Siberia proper, which has just been

east, south-east

stretch enormous tracts of land which have as yet been but little touched

Yakutsk region which

be termed the border lands of Siberia.

is

frontier country. It consists exclusively of

under the administration of the Governor-Generalship of Irkutsk,

With regard

to its geographical position the

Yakutsk bor-

watered

by the gigantic river Lena and

of the smaller tributaries of the

Northern Ocean, such as the Ole-

a large

some

Yakutsk

of these is the

formerly that of Eastern Siberia. der land occupies

described,

by Russian

part

of

the

country

also

the basins of

nek,

the Yana, the Indighirka, the Alazea and the Kolyma. Its surface covers the enormous

area of 70 thousand square geographical miles; this considerably exceeds that of the govern-

ments of Yenisseisk and Irkutsk taken together, or that part of Siberia proper called Eastern Siberia. It is

bounded on the south-east and east for more than 3,000 miles by the Stanovoi

or Yablonoi mountains, which throughout the whole of their length serve as a barrier between the waters flowing from

the

north-western

side into the Northern Ocean,

from the south-east and east into the Okhotsk ovoi or Yablonoi chain

leading to the prison of of the sea, whilst

not very

is

and Behring Sea of the

elevated, the summits of Kogahin,

Udsk have an

altitude

of

2,500

to

some of the highest peaks have an elevation

the Stanovoi chain and the mountains adjoining not only do the numerous

Olekma and Aldan, take

branches of the large

their rise, but

ghirka aud the Kolyma. The Lena

it,

4,000

feet

above

the road the

ocean rivers,

the the

Lena,

level

feet.

the Verkhuoyarsk

straight tributaries of

itself rises in the

The Stan-

Gonam and

of r5,000 to 7,000

as for instance

also those of the

and those flowing

Pacific.

On

chain,

like

the

Yana, the Indi-

borders of Eastern Siberia in the Baikal

mountain range, the summits of which, as for instance the Yetkin peak, are not more than 4,200 feet above the level of the sea.

The

outlying mountains of the Stanovoi chain, stretch-

45

TBE YAKUTSK FKONTIEK COrNTKY. between the Vitim and the Olekma, have some

ing into the Zabaikalsk region

high as

this.

Generally speaking, the whole of the Yakutsk region

plain as a large portion of

Siberia, and

Western

The whole

tundra belts of Eastern Siberia.

is

even far

many

are also

there

of this latitude

is

continuous

than the forest

Yakutsk

and

region, south

indeed fairly mountainous, and north

chains of mountains.

such as the Verkhnoyansk chain, which

level

of the southern part of the

where the Lena blends with the Aldan,

of the latitude

less

summits as a

not such

is

Those

to the

east

of

the

Lena,

Aldan from the sources of the Yana

seperates the

and Indighirka, the mountains of Kolymsk, Alazeysk, Tak-Tayakhtakh are

all

more or

less con-

chain, whilst those chains stretching to the west of the Lena, like

nected with the Yablonoi

the Viluisk range and the summit dead levels of the Vilui and the Olenek, are distinct inde-

pendent upheavals.

The geognostic composition

made up

of

mountains

the

of

formations,

crystalline

granites,

and sometimes porphyries and even trichytes, whilst

schists

Yakutsk region

of the

in the

of

the Stanovoi chain and other ranges in the

to the secondary formations, particularly the Jurassic

the

silver-lead ores, iron

The Yakutsk region

summer its

and coal, found

and partly

iu the

Yakutsk region but the auriferous sand

the rich deposits near the river

.

The

slopes

like the

to the tertiary.

The Yakutsk

well endowed Avith mineral wealth.

is

The over

dolerites.

Yakutsk region

formations, upper Silurian, devonian and carboniferous, but more especially

paleozoic

the

region

and

mountains are principally composed of upheaved sedementary strata, partly belonging

Viluisk to

parts

principally

Aldansk range, besides these

crystalline formations, there are also volcanic rocks such as basalts

and outlying

is

syenites, diorites, diabases, gneiss, crystalline

the only

means

is

Olekma and some

other tributaries of the Lena.

The gigantic Lena

Aldan and

Olekma,

Stanovoi mountains, are well diffused

the only substance worked, particularly

watered by magnificent

abundantly

of communication.

tributaries, the Vitim,

is

is

full rivers

which are

in

long and with

4,300 versts

Vilui, forms one of the richest river systems

of the Old World, watering an area of over 43 thousand square geographical miles. Unfortun-

even

to

a greater extent the same disadvantages as the

systems of the Yenessei and Obi, as they

all

flow to the north and fall into the Arctic Ocean,

ately

the

Lena system

possesses

which cannot be navigated ponent

branches,

the

Lena

with any regularity. It

and

branches of the Obi, in a country

mouth

of the

Lena does not form

the quite

Aldan,

is

which

also

made up

meet

still

unsuitable to settled cultured

a wide, open estuary like the

enormous com-

of two

north

farther

mouth

life.

than

the

Besides this the

of the Yenessei, or a

large gulf like the Obi, but an enormous delta, projecting into the Arctic Ocean, which with its

labyrinth of islands, intersected by numerous channels,

less accessible

Arctic Ocean, the

The climate

Yana and of the

the

region

of the

of

may

high-stemmed

first

far

is

the

most continental of the Arctic and sub- Arctic

be divided into two regions or belts, the one corresponding trees, forest industries

and Western Siberia, and the other conveyance. The

Lena

falling into the

Indighirka, also have a tendency to form deltas.

Yakutsk region

zones of the Old Worid. It to

makes the mouth

from the sea than that of the Yenessei. The other large rivers

to

and sporadic agriculture of Eastern

the polar tundra belt of reindeer breeding

and

dog-

region comprises the districts of Yakutsk, Olekminsk and a large southera

46

SIBERIA.

consists of the ilistricts of Verkhoyansk,

Kolymsk

and the basins of the Oleuek and Lena below Zhigansk in the Yilnisk and Yakutsk

districts.

Yiluisk, and the second

portion of that of

The

Yakutsk

part of the

first

mean winter temperature

is

summer

is

to

climate

say, the

is

far

yearly temperature

month +17";

—36°,

month

that of the coldest

miles,

about

is

the

—8"

between the temperatures of

the difference

more continental than that of the neighbouring

Eastern Siberia. Under these climatic conditions, the

temperature of the five-months period of vegetation

is is

53°; that

is

forest zone of

which the sun's rays do not penetrate

soil

an arshine,

to a greater depth than three-fourths of

Cel., the

mean summer tempe-

the

between the coldest and hottest months

48°, the difference

is

mean

region, the

— 33",

rature +15°, that of the hottest

winter and

geographical

32 thousand. Taken from four points of observation situated

iiecond, north-eastern zone, covers

in the

an area of 38 thousand square

zone, has

south-western

first,

always frozen. Nevertheless the mean

+ 11°,

and even

+12°

Olekminsk

in

and Yakutsk, whilst the high summer temperature of +15° during the powerful insolation of

summer

the short the

Yakutsk

One

permits

period

sporadic

of

agriculture

some parts

in

of this portion of

region.

of the cold poles of the northern liemispliere

situated in the nurth-eastern polar-

is

tundra part of the Yakutsk frontier country. Thus, in Verkhoyansk under 67° 34' north

mean

tude the

that of the

month —49°

coldest

+13° and

that of the hottest

summer

60°,

is

and between the

exceeds the

53'

north latitude, the climate

—16°

is

On

which

the other

between winter and

this is a type of the

most

is— 37°

The mean yearly temperature

milder.

Cel.; that of the coldest

month

is

—41°:

summer

only 47°, and that between the hottest and coldest

is

hand the mean temperature of the five-months period of vegetation,

Verkhoyansk hardly exceeds

in

in other words, the

months 64°;

+9°, ami that of the hottest month +13; the difference between

the temperatures of winter and 54".

lati-

—47°,

and a half degrees farther north at Ustiansk, already

is

temperature

Cel.; the winter

summer temperature

months

Three

is

mean summer temperature hardly exceeds

difference of temperature

hottest and coldest

World.

mean winter temperature

Cel.: the

Cel., whilst the

month +15°; the

continental climate in the Old

under 70°

—17°

yearly temperature falls to

mean temperature

8°,

does

not

amount

to

more than

of 9° lasts about five months at

3° at Ustiansk, or

Verkhoyansk and only

three months at Ustiansk.

At

mouth

the

meteorological tions are

those

and of

the hottest

Lena,

at Sagastyr,

Russian

the

of

Imperial

that

of

Ustiansk,

month

the

but

coldest

mean

the

of less than

month (—42°)

has a temperature below

+5°, place

—20°

all

is

organic

Under these is

The climate

also less favourable than that of

less

winter temperature

approximate

closely

than

+3°,

soil

never thaws and in winter cultured

At

life

Yakutsk

Siberia,

with

in the polar in

the forest

year, whilst at Ustiansk the

of the south-western forest part of the

East

to

and that of

under the most unfavourable condithe

circumstances,

the

17°), the

are

quite impossible.

clear of ice during 160 days in

only clear during 100 days.

life

of

nearly two years a the cUmatic condi-

—

Sagastyi'

of 0.8 metre

zone of the Yakutsk frontier country

zone the Lena

is

Cel.

at

for

Society,

was

there

summer temperature

tions of existence, especially as at a depth

tundra

where

Geographical

more unfavourable. The mean temperature (below

still

(—36°)

of the

station

Yana

is

Yakutsk region

reference to the amount of rainfall

47

THE YAKUTSK FRONTIER COUNTRY.

during

th(3

amounts

year, wliich only

Eastern

ited in the forest zone of

summer

against 56); the

made

observations

rainfall

Siberia.

tundra

nature of the climate of the

The vegetation

The

mouth

of the Lena,

summer mouths, which

Yakutsk

frontier country,

from that of Eastern

only outside the borders

Siberia.

is

very

moisture de-

45 millimeters

shows the extremely continental nortli-eastern portion.

its

Yakutsk region same as those

trees are the

little

in the year,

Yakutsk region on the south-western

the

of

there

clearly

360 millimetres depos-

snowy (38 millimetres

both places. According to

in

and especially of

of the

of the south-western part

The

to

winters are also less

more than 86 millimeters

zone, not

of which fall during the three

compared

niilliiuotres

however almost the same

is

at Sagastyr near the

posited iu the polar

little

310

to

general but

differs in

of Siberia proper

and

slopes of the Stanovoi

mountains range there exist certain varieties which disappear in Siberia as soon as the Ural Generally speaking, the zone of forests of

are reached. in the

Yakutsk

etrable

forests

frontier country

is

grown

full

and forest industries

trees

completely covered with continuous, dense and often impen-

and extensive morasses above which

some

in

rise,

places,

islands from

little

or standing isolate the surface of the sea, barren mountain heights either connected in chains

and bare.

The where

forest zone is naturally poor in the thick of the

flora of the grasses in the

hardly grows

gi-ass

at

all,

but

in

the

forest

glades

marshes, river banks, mountain slopes and rocks, the flora plants which

make

Sayan chain and spreading over

all

is

the mountain ranges

by

rich and characterized

Yenessei along the

their appearance beyond the

woods

and clearings and on the open

intersecting

local

mountain slopes of the the

Yakutsk

frontier

three varieties country. These plants include, for instance, some of the spear-wort family, namely, of

(anemone thalichtrum, (petaloideum L., rufinerve, L. et sparsiflorum Turcz), two anemones

isopyrum fumarioides, Sibirica L., and Pulsatilla davurica Spr.), chickweed (caltha natans Pall), of larkspur, (delphvariety one Led.), parviflora and L. two aquilegiae (aquilegia sibirica

Lm

inium grandiflorum

L.), three kinds of aconites

(aconitum volubile

Pall.,

villosum Rch., Kus-

of the Yakutsk netzovi Turcz.); some of the plants found here only grow within the borders crassicaule Led and others, and are American types like ran-

frontier

<;'ouiitry,

delphinium

like

nuuculus Purshii Hook and

tundra zone the soil

is

is

affiuis

always frozen

to a

summer

existing in the Arctic Ocean,

In

The

the tundi-as are free from

arshine below the surface

depth of half an

alternate layers of earth and ice. .still

R. Br. and other numerous families of plants.

of a very different character; in

polar

snow but

and consists

of

these strata besides the semi-fossil sea shells, of types

bones and skeletons and even bodies of extinct animals

Northern Siberia are found, such as the

mammoth

and rhinoceros, often

in

ot

an excellent state

of preservation.

The

surface

vegetation

trichum, bryum and hypnum

of

the

varieties.

tundras

consists

From underneath

up in places, here and there forming grass

plots, but

principally

the dark

more

oftet

of

brown

moss,

of

the

poly-

surface, grass crops

growing in seperate patches

correskind of grass flora not only closely resembles that of the on the bare clay Europe. Thus, ponding parts of Siberia proper but is also much like the flora of Western expedition, at their winter out of 92 distinctly flowering plants collected by Nordenskjold's still on the shore quarters beyond the eastern extremity of the Yakutsk frontier country, but soil.

This

48

SIBERIA.

more than two-thirds, namely

of the Arctic Ocean,

63,

were varieties common

common to

the arctic zone of Siberia, but not

Very few

sively Siberian arctic forms.

The

corner of Siberia.

first

and only a week after

became green,

which

found

and

vaginata

I.

of low polar

The

did

1,

flora

local

amongst Lge,

arctophylla effusa

I.

new

of June,

awake, the tundras

nature thoroughly

first of all flies

and then

two rather large kinds of cockchafers (carabus, C. is

original

the

these

winter quarters

This happened on the 23rd

characterized by the large amount of gramineous

some place form a continuous sward. There were

in

also

European Russia, whilst 12 were exclu-

and insects made their appearance,

which there were

Esch).

truncatipennis plants,

about July

this,

varieties

of these latter are peculiar only to the north-eastern

fenestrata" R. Br.).

flowers blossomed

coleoptera, amongst

in

vernal plant which flowered near Xordenskjold's

was the spoonwort (cochlearia style,

known

Arctic

to the

American

17 were

zone of Europe but not descending into Russia in Europe;

varieties

were

in

glyceria

13 different kinds

all

vilfoidea

There are plenty of bushes of

Lge.

Tli.

Fr.,

different

Gl.

kinds

mllows, the rarer varieties being salix chamissonis And., salix cuneata Trautv.,

and salix boganidensis Trautv.

The fauna

of both zones of

the

Yakutsk

region

closely

also

resemble that

of the

corresponding zones of Eastern Siberia, but the fur animals are more abundant and of a bet-

Yakutsk

ter quality, probably because the outline of the

frontier country

more varied and

is

the mountains and rocks which rise above the forests afford more free spaces for the species of this region. In describing the animals of the

Yakutsk

frontier country

in these zones of Siberia. ical epoch,

red hair.

was

A

is

which

at present inhabit the forest

impossible

The genus elephant

when man already

hemisphere and,

it

to

(elephas primigenius Bl)

existed, inhabited the

splendidly preserved specimen of a whole

lately found in the polar tundra zone of the

was

special expedition

Academy

sent by the

now

extinct

a recent geolog-

at

whole of the palearctic zone of the northern

southern Indian elephants,

in contrast to the

and tundra zones

ignore those varieties which are

it

mammoth

Yakutsk

of Sciences

was covered with with perfect

frontier country,

examine

to

it.

thick, long,

and hair

skin

and

in

The two

of the rhinoceros (rhinoceros antiquitatis Blumb. and rhinoceros Maerckii Jag.),

1892

a

varieties

which flourished

here at the same period, are no less interesting. They are discovered under the same conditions as the

mammoths; a

Yakutsk

region,

is

fine

head of one of these animals, found

preserved in the

Academy

in

the

of Sciences having been

southern presented

part

of

by the

the Si-

berian Section of the Russian Geographical Society.

As

regards the population of the Yakutsk region, which has been in the possession of

the Russians since the seventeenth century, the number and clearly

show how

little

thiscoimtry

is

composition

suitable for settled colonization.

The

of

the

inhabitants

total population does

not exceed 250 thousand of both sexes, of which the Russian element only numbers 15 thous-

and or about 6 5 per cent, the remaining 93 .

.

5 per cent being

greater part of these are the Yakuts, numbering about 220 origin,

their

preserved

language

all their

when

dress.

This Tiurksk tribe was driven

their rule in Central

of other tribes.

they

a Tiurksk dalect with a mixture of Mongolian

ethnographical features to a remarkable extent,

and customs and even lians at the time

is

made up

thousand;

type,

are

words.

of

They have

language,

to the far north

The

Tiurksk

manners

by the Mongo-

Asia was supreme. Whilst preserving a nomadic

THE YAKUTSK FRONTIER COUNTRY. Ibrm of

life

Yakuts however adapted themselves

the

49

hard

to the

of

conditions

tundras, they

became a race

come hunting and

little

The Russians, being weak

developed.

which

their is

but

numbers, have not had an influence upon

the

fishing

in

and

the

and

forests

however

of hunters and cattle breeders. Cattle rearing is

chief occupation, after which

of

life

northern forest zone and, exchanging the grassy steppes of Central Asia for the

agriculture,

lastly

Yakuts, except in converting the greater part of them to Christianity, but even this conversion is

more apparent than

Yakuts are

real as the

to

still

a very great extent addicted

The Tungues lead almost

ism, and their former faith.

same form

the

shaman-

to

the

of life as

Yakuts

and number over 10 thousand of both sexes. The other races inhabiting the Yakutsk frontier country, counting about 3,000 men, consist of polar tribes like the Lamuts, Ukagirs, Tchuktchis,

Tchuvantsis and Koryaks. These tribes principally occupy the north-eastern polar tundra portion of the country.

The population

is

very unevenly distributed between

two zones

the

about

ture has 230 thousand inhabitants of both sexes, or

men

6

for every

10 square geographical miles, and

sian population principally dwells

towns

not however

do

the total population of

which has 6,000

in

the

entirely

Is

forest

exceed 8,000 of both tliis

composed of other and the

zone sexes,

towns.

are

nothing

more

than

men

about 6

or

tribes, as the

The people

Rusthe

of

more than 3 per cent

rather

or

region, and indeed all the towns with the

inhabitants,

square geographical

per

20 thousand,

mile; the population of the polar tundra region does not exceed

Yakutsk

the

of

and sporadic agricul-

frontier country; whilst the region of high forest trees, forest industries

Russian settlements serving

small

as points of support for the Russian rule in the country. In these settlements in the zone

high

forest

the

trees

partly with cattle

Russians

breeding,

from those of the natives.

occupy themselves

to

tundra

polar

do

zone

not

differ

a remarkable fact that, whilst the Russian population of

beria proper, living under conditions of

life

of

some extent with agriculture and

but their occupations in the

It is

of

exception of Yakutsk,

approaching those of

its

Si-

native land, has not only

gradually increased in numbers, far exceeding the native tribes, but has succeeded to a great extent in assimilating them and even in the Amour-littoral and Kirghiz

preserved intact

all

the national qualities and appearance, here in the

under the heavy yoke of nature the Russian settlers seem to have tionality.

Placed under the most unfavourable conditions for

places assimilated themselves with the native tribes and, adopting

descended to their

level.

This

is

deviated

civilization,

their

regions

steppe

Yakutsk

has

frontier country

from their nain

some

life,

have

they have

mode

of

particularly the case with the population of Verkhoyansk, Us-

tiansk, Zashiversk, upper, middle

and lower Kolymsk, and naturally, mixed marriages with the

natives have greatly contributed to this state of things.

The

distribution of domestic

animals

is

over the surface of the country, and with their

closely connected with that of the inhabitants

mode

of life

and their relation

upon which they dwell. In the Yakutsk frontier country there are more every 100 inhabitants, or 130 thousand horses in

all,

or about the

same quantity

in

Western

ground

as in

West-

all,

exceeds 100

Siberia,

and one and

ern Siberia, but the quantity of large-horned cattle, 260 thousand beasts in

head per 100 inhabitants or more than double the quantity

to the

than 50 horses per

a half times more than in Eastern Siberia; this amounts to 5 head of horned cattle per every 4

SIBERIA.

50

married couple, and clearly shows that the Yakuts are a cattle rearing people of the steppes

The

of Central Asia, accidentally driven to the forest zone of the cruel north.

transition

of

the most northern Yakuts to reindeer breeding in a region unsuited to horned cattle and horses,

confirms this theory. The reindeer in the polar tundra zone number about 50 thousand head, or about

200 head for every 100 inhabitants of reindeer breeding population. Small animals

are not raised in the Yakutsk region except the dogs used for travelling in the polar tundra

kept by the

zone, which are

indigenous

tribes

even

in

gi'eater

numbers than

in

Eastern

no

regular

Siberia.

All that has been said about the Yakutsk frontier country, where there

but

agricultural zone, clearly shows that this region has

Russian colonization and that Itself to

very

most extensive portion

this

of

is

importance

little

Siberia

is

for

settled

destined by

nature

be inhabited by wandering or nomadic tribes or by those who from time immemorial

have been aborigenes of polar countries, hyperboreans or nomads, who have found their

somehow

hither from the plains of Central Asia and succeeded

on

the forest zone of the north. This region can be of only one use to Russia, the impossibility of peopling

ed under

it

by means of

settled agricultural colonization,

account

which was

the country round about the Altai mountains; the Yakutsk region might, like British

excepting Canada, be organized for working the natural riches

ica,

without doubt,

exist

they

but

there

are distributed,

has

as

been

of

country

the

already

in

of

effect-

proper and

circumstances in the agricultural zone of Siberia

such favourable

way

in acclimating themselves

in

Amerwhich,

mentioned,

in

scanty and scattered layers over the enormous surface of the coldest land of the Old World.

There

is

decreasing

are

no positive evidence to show that the stranger tribes of the Yakutsk region or in other words dying out; but of late years this opinion has

in numbers,

If this only referred to the small

been expressed by people well acquainted with Siberia.

polar tribes of the Yakutsk frontier country, such as the Lamuts, Ukagirs, Koryaks, Tchou-

would be highly probable.

vans

and Tchuktchis

tribes

were spread much more

it

to the south

Before the arrival of the Yakuts these

and occupied

a

and on being driven from their former place of habitation

far

greater expanse of country,

by the Yakuts they congregated

about the north-east polar tundra part of the Yakutsk frontier country and the Chukotsk peninsula. it,

Every country

has, however, a limit of capacity in relation to the population inhabiting

depending upon the conditions of climate and

tants,

and

the frozen tundras,

dations for population in

all

soil

and the state of culture

of the inhabi-

inhabited only by hunters presents the most limited accomo-

the continent of the Old World.

When

once this limit was reached,

which happened as soon as the numerous Yakuts who occupied the land drove the aborigenes to the north-east

into the polar

tundra zone,

these aborigenes ought to evince

symptoms of

dying out, as the country in which they were congregated was not, with their means of procuring food, capable of nourishing them.

Yakuts.

The

this capacity

forest

zone

affords

far

There

is

yet

another

argument

was considerably further increased when the Yakuts

difference of their state of culture

in

favour of the

greater capacity for population than the tundras, and arrived, in virtue of the

from that of the former aborigenes of the country, as every

country has greater capacity for a race of cattle breeders than of hunters. The Yakuts, therefore,

having

driven

out

the

natives

into

the

polar tundra zone, had ample space

in

the

THE YAKUTSK FRONTIER COrNTRY. Yakutsk

forest zone of the

unable

being

But

themselves.

Russian

themselves not

the

together

congregated

of

•

could

but as children of nature

in

any

But the

lives

not

years shown a natural increase.

(naturvolker)

of wild animals or fish can all tend

and when these

periods,

certain

evils are

removed

are some-

natives of the

the

that

a

inhabiting

whether a cattle breeding race

Yakutsk

forest

decrease the pop-

to

shows signs

again

it

the question as to whether a temporary decrease

However

brought about the idea

or

not entirely corresponding to

can only be decided by the future.

north of the shore of Siberia proper and the borderland of Yakutsk

the

of

the population has

in

frontier country are dying ont,

country,

their pursuits, has attained the limit of capacity of the country,

To

and

region

this

The

of the indigenous pop-

cent

per

5

occupa-

the

position.

which destroys the principal means of existence of cattle breed-

or temporary scarcity

increasing.

spots

and

scourges of nature which they are not in a condition to withstand. Epidem-

ics like small pox, epizootic

during

few

6

from their

and acclimate

any way deteriorate their

In

exceed

to late

people,

of nations, living, not as cultured

times visited by

ulation

a

in

who have up

oppress the Yakuts

ing races,

not

became indigenous,

they

did not

does

arise

the conditions of the country

with

case, as

by the Russians

whose number

settlers,

ulation,

way

was

this

country

of the

tion

and their dying out could only

frontier country

accomodate

to

51

stretches

the boundless surface of the Arctic Ocean. This cannot be regarded as being perfectly smooth,

not only because in of

it,

many

places more or less elevated

covered with

surface of the ocean

is

able barrier against

navigation,

ocean were not transformed banished but even ice

and

if

it

were not for

whole

the

from the Yugorsky Sound

to

and

the

of

Arctic

Cape Dezhnev

descending into

glaciers

coast of Siberia and

which

is

then

geographical

the

the

sea,

so

Ocean along the coast

It is

at the

that

entrance to the

there

feet thick

feet.

When

surface

of the sea

and the pressure of

the wind

is

storms. During such snowstorms

snow running

ice

is

covered with

ice,

and there the

is

the

snow causes

tongue-shaped crests are

ice

On it

ice in

an

often

is

fearful

snowdrifts and snow-

formed upon the

surface

of

from west-north-west

the to

numerous

through which water penetrates in spring and promotes

thawing and breaking up of the

sea

the

hardly

ice

east-south-east and thus serve as a compass to guide travellers. During hard frosts in

on

forms heaps of blocks piled up to a height of

fresh the falling

parallel with the direction of the predominating winds

chasms are formed

there are

very few icebergs

but

are

of the Asiatic

Behring Sea

along the whole of the Siberian coast. In winter

60 or 70

position of Siberia

of Siberia is blocked

the

more than 9

vegetation

which are formed are very small, rarely more than 100 or 150

those

found

forest

true that along the whole

open space

be

an insurmount-

the mouths of the Siberian rivers were not

if

feet high; but in winter to

is

ocean communication and universal trade.

brilliant for

Unfortunately

this ice,

from which not only

tundras,

life,

with ice during the greater part of the year.

at

out

the plains of Siberia as they gradually approach the

ban-en

into

forms of organic

all

If

ice.

bound during the greater part of the year,

would be most

no

islands or groups of islands rise

but also because during nearly the whole year, except short and iiTegular periods, the

the

an astonishing degree.

the coast of Siberia the ice begins to break up at the end of June, but further out often

lasts

until

the

end of July.

During the

rest

of

the

summer, however, 4*

52

SIBERIA.

of

partly

carried

ice

any regular egress

to

the

one

in

southern

clearing

completely

of Kara, and,

the

before

it

a

be clear of

if it

autumn.

the

This

enables

and Waigach

same autumn. This however

Sound and thus

penetrate

Nova Zembla,

through

Ma-

the

Sea

into

make a

return voyage

The

reaching

covering the enormous expanse

ice,

between the mouth of the Yenessei and Cape Dezhnev, has no other outlet than through

of ocean

coast to the

At

south.

American

of the lost

polar lands to the shores of Greenland, and then along this

unknown

of the sounds of the

was

events this

all

Jeanette

ship

which were eventually found

off

the course taken by the ice upon which the crew

accidentally

the coast

where

latitudes

would be quite melted. For

it

from European seas sure,

mouth

to the

and although

of the

off

especially to the Behring Straits

expedition

on the Vega, for the

still

only able to

does

Ocean

is

time

first

Ocean from the seas

of

Ocean, this can at present be only regarded as a stroke of luck, the

by no the

in

Europe

difficulty

being shown by the fact that through a few days delay on the road the

of the undertaking

Vega was

away and

cast

the Siberian shores, into more southern

history of navigation, penetrated through the ice of the Arctic to the Pacific

they had

things

this reason the route through the Arctic

Lena and

Nordenskjold's

the

left

of Greenland. Naturally this circuitous route

not completely ensure the egress of the ice, formed

means

to

Sea of

the

in

not always possible and ships cannot rely upon

is

and leaving the gulf of Yenessei the same autumn.

some

ships

the

another

water car-

of

current

reach the gulf of Yenesseisk and

to

ice,

pressure

contrary

sound, separating the two islands of

a narrow

Shar,

The

waters.

and

winds

the

sometimes in

and

place

Kara, carrying the ice of this sea through the Kara Straits

tochkin

by

carried

are

rivers,

by the Giilfstream doubling Nova Zembla forms

ried

winter covering of the sea, and

remains of the

Siberian

large

and collect sometimes

ocean

the

having

without

the

the

partly

sizes,

dovn by

over

currents

various

of

blocks

to pass the winter

obliged

leave

on the coast of the

Chukotsk Peninsula, and was

quarters and, doubling Cape Dezhnev,

winter

get out

adjacent

into the

Behring Straits by the 20th of July of the following year. In the same way Dezhnev who dividing Siberia from America, called after

covered the sound

him

i-n

1647,

dis-

was unable

to

double the Cape in that year and only succeeded in doing so in 1648.

There are not many islands along the Siberian coast island of

Nova Zembla.

It is

and Taimur, and likewise those formed by the all

of

which are adjacent

to

known by that

its

the

land

is

an

New

island

Indighirka,

New

it

from the

only

a

little

north and shown

Siberian Islands, and from which

it

does

physical conditions.

The New-Siberian group Kotelnoi,

Yana and

uninvestigated by the Russians and

dimensions do not exceed those of the its

Lena,

Sibiriakov

Siberia Islands, are quite worthy of mention.

quite

American whalers. The Americans have doubled

not apparently differ in

islands,

deltas of the

double

east of the large

the continent, but those which are further from the coast, like

Wrangel's land and the group of Wrangel's

to the

unnecessary to describe such islands as the White,

Fadievskoi

is

and

well

known

New

Siberia

to the

Russians

and consists of three large

lying in the open sea

to the

north-east of

the delta of the Lena, and a few smaller ones situated like Liakhov Island and others nearer to

Cape

Sviatoi.

Further to the north

can expedition of the

lost

beyond the islands

of

Nova Zembla,

Jeanette discovered some other small islands, but

the

the

Ameri-

three large

53

THE YAKUTSK FRONTIER COUNTRY.

New ice,

ones

only

the

are

Siberians

by Russian traders and inhabitants of the

visited

polar

These islands are generally reached in spring before the thawing of the ocean

tundra zone.

and the traders drive over the frozen surface of the sea on light sledges drawn by reindeer

or dogs and, passing the short

summer on

home

the islands, return

antumn when the

in

ice has

again set on the surface of the sea. The Siberian traders are generally drawn to these islands

by the quantity of mammoth bones found

New

The

there.

Siberian Islands are of great impor-

tance from a scientific point of view as they form a vast and interesting cemetry of the whole organic world, as

at one time existed

it

under 75° and 76°

not only consisted of the large extinct animals like the buffalo,

ros,

muskox,

numerous trunks

of

varieties

three

of

north latitude. This organic world

mammoth, two

varieties of the rhinoce-

and even a breed of horses, but also of the

deer

of extinct trees belonging to the middle

miocene formations,

tertiary,

allied

genus of deciduous trees peculiar to the temperate zone and not growing at present in

to the

like the

any part of Siberia,

elm and hazel.

The unusual abundance

of skeletons and remains of extinct animals and plants in the of

with

intermittent layers of pure ice, spread over such an enormous area that

is

due to the

the temperature of the air upon the island of zero, except

the

consisting

conditions of the soil

New

strata

post-tertiary

New

Siberian Islands

if,

for example,

above

Siberia rose for a prolonged period

four mountains forming its framework, consisting of masses of granite that

have abruptly raised the rocky strata of the Jurassic formation, the whole island would become would converted into a liquid paste, which together with the fossil remains included in it,

become the prey Siberian

islands

of the waves.

are

At

New

In

whole

the

Academy

1885 and 1886 by the members of the

upon the

the

New

the

years

present time the flora and fauna alike of

the

extremely meagre.

Expedition,

Siberian islands, there were but few days

One

collections of flowering plants or live insects.

summer passed during

Doctor Bunge and Baron Toll,

when

was

it

possible to

or two clear and comparatively

make any

warm

days

disappeared alternated with cold and cloudy weather, and the living vegetable covering again and beneath a layer of snow. Upon the rocks of the lesser New Siberian islands, Stolbovoi weather Liakhov, past which Nordenskjold's expedition went in the second half of August, the

being

and the sea perfectly free from

fine

ice,

comparatively few birds were nesting and the

neighbouring sea shewed no traces of large marine animals.

But however unfavourable the climatic conditions of the Siberian Ocean,

it

cannot be said that

its

depths are absolutely devoid of

consists of seaweeds (algae), of which

in the

life.

littoral of the

Arctic

The deep ocean

flora

whole of the shore waters of the Arctic Ocean,

found, among thanks to the careful investigations of Nordenskjold's expedition, 35 species were

them 16 belonging

to the family of the fucoideae

same time the seaweeds

ment and the vast dimensions which are the other

hand seaweeds are almost

berian sea. The marine flora attains

its

Taimyr

to

that

of

the

florideae.

At

the

from attaining the luxuriant develop-

as a rule proper to the algae of the polar seas.

On

from the immediate coast zone of the

Si-

entirely absent

highest development at some distance from the shore

in the sub-littoral zone, and only there in of

and 12

of the Siberian shore are far

some few

spots, as for

example around the island

are to be found localities rich in seaweeds.

The Siberian

coast of the Arctic Ocean has no lack of marine animals.

animals, Nordenskjold's expedition found near the mouth of the

Of the lower

Kolyma cup-shaped

sponges,

SIBERIA.

54

around the shores of the Taimyr peninsula and cape of marine

star-fish,

antedon Eschrichtii

J.

the \nnter quarters of the expedition, the star-fish (ophioglypha

Ocean

is

heautiful

even where organic to the east

general

is

example near the delta of the Lena. Further

poor, as for

met

regards vertebrates, the Arctic Ocean

ing the full-streamed rivers of the ocean large number

(con-egonus

peled),

chir

rich in dlfierent kinds of fish, ascend-

The Siberian

among which

(corregonus

pechora gwiniad

muksun (corregonus muksun),

with.

is fairly

basin.

of kinds of gwlniad (corregonus),

pellad

latter,

Behring Straits small crayfish (sabinea septemcarinata Seb.) and

to

species of crabs (chlonoecoetos opilis Kr.) are

As

near

nodosa Liitaen). The Arctic

entomon L. and idothea Sabinei Kr., are met with in large quantities

life in

and nearer

forms

and

incomparably richer in species of molluscs and crustaceans. The species of the

as for example, idothea

cichtis),

extremely

Cheliuskin,

Mull., and ophiacantha hidentata Retz,

rivers possess

are the

nasutus),

omul

(corregonus polkur),

a

particularly

nelma (corregonus

et

(coiTegonus cetera.

leu-

omul),

The

dorse

(gadus navaga Koeri.) and smelt (asmerus eperianus) breed in considerable quantities in the Arctic

Ocean.

But

special

interest is attached to the black fish

(dallia

newly discovered by Nordenskjold's expedition and possessing an exquisite

dellcatissima Sm.) taste,

with which

have been acquainted from the earliest times. As for the marine mammals, they are of course the same as in all the polar seas, namely various kinds of seals (phoca

the Chukches

barbata, hispida, cristata, leporina,

groenlandica, foetida), the dolphin (delphinus leucas), the

morse (trichecus rosmarus), the ork (phocaena orca), and

finally whales,

which while rarely

approaching the Siberian shore waters are very frequent to the north of the oceanic islands,

Wrangel Land and

Xew

Siberia.

American whalers, and indeed worked from the Siberian

it

They however

may be

fall

as booty not to the Siberians but to the

said that the resources of the Arctic

side.

—^^^-

Ocean are

little

55

AMOUR-UTTORAL BORDER LAND.

THE

CHAPTER

V.

The Amour-Littoral Border Land. climatic conditions, flora, fauna Division into four regions: Transbaikal region; its contour, covering, fauna and popand population the Amour region, its orography, climate, vegetative climate, fauna and flora; ulation: the Ussuri-Llttoral region, its orography, hydrography, Okhots-Kamchatka region, and the island of Sakhalin: the population of the country; the their orogi-aphy, parts: the Okhotsk shore, Kamchatka and the Chukot country; :

its

component and fauna; 'scantiness

flora

the

of

population,

Behring

AFAR greater importance than

is

and

and

Okhotsk

the

disposition;

its

seas.

possessed by the above described regions belongs to the Amour-

of view of three Littoral border land of Siberia, consisting from an administrative point

the Transbaikal,

territories,

Amour and

Geographically, the

eralship.

Littoral, forming together the Littoral Governor-Gen-

Amour-Littoral region occupies the whole

Russian part of the zone

coast basin, the Transbaikal part of the Yenissei watershed, the whole Russian

Amour

Japan Sea, the island of Sakhalin, the whole shore of the Okhotsk Sea up to the whole northStanovoi or Yablonovoi range, the whole peninsula of Kamchatka and the

of the

eastern extremity of the Asiatic continent,

gion of the

Anadyr and the Chukotsk

beyond the Yablonovoi range, with the river

peninsula.

re-

The Amour-Littoral country thus extends over

divided on an area exceeding fifty-two thousand square geographical miles. This expanse is Amour, account of its natural conditions into four sharply contrasted regions, the Transbaikal, Ussuri-Littoral and Okhotsk-Kamchatka.

The

first of these,

the

Transbaikal

country, coincides with

and covers eleven thousand square geographical miles. very centre by the Stanovoi range, its

which

north-western side into Baikal Lake,

and

into the Vitim,

is

namely the Selenga,

offset of this

the highest is

mountain of the whole region,

with

the

exception

of

and Upper Angara,

of the system of the

limit of eternal

feet

the snow

In an

Amour.

snow but serves

component branches

Chokondo 8,200

in the Alpine zone but nevertheless does not reach

country

Barguzin

and for the streams flowing from the

one of the two upper rivers

range which nowhere attains the

longitudinal valleys of the Ingoda and Onon,

through the

the watershed between the waters flowing from

the right tributary of the Lena,

south-east into the Shilka,

the Transbaikal territory,

It is intersected diagonally

to divide the

of the river Shilka,

above sea line.

level.

Its

rises

summit

The whole Transbaikal

the steppe tract passing along the Chinese frontier between

SIBERIA,

56 the

Onon and

The

by the ridge which

the longitudinal valley occupied by

the territory and bounds

Lake Baikal on

the

Argun

confluence,

as far as their

None

bank.

but

the south-east,

Onon and

of the

and finally by the ridge accompanying the Shilka on

mountains

these

of

itself,

between the Shilka and

Ingoda, and by the Nerchinsk range which serves as the watershed

its left

from the south-

in the south-western corner of

by the ridge above mentioned separating the longitudinal valleys

as also

mouutainous.

less is

not only followed by the Yablonovoi range

is

detached from the Khamar-Dabau

is

more or

is

mountain ridges of the Transbaikal country

the

of

west to the north-east. This direction also

Amour,

the Arguu, the southern coustitueut of the

prevailing trend

any great absolute

attain

altitude;

the height of

the passes of the Yablonovoi range between Yerkhueudinsk and Chita does not exceed 3,400

and the

feet,

4,000

loftiest points,

reach 6,000 and even 6,700

feet.

The Khamar-Daban

feet.

There

is

offset

contains mountains which

no lack of outcrops of rocky strata in this region;

the majority of the mountain ridges exhibit crystalline rocks, granite, gneiss and mica schists.

Here and there

The

met with,

diorite is

stratified rocks,

as also true volcanic rocks

upheaved crystalline

in their

layers,

such as trachyte and basalt. presence of paleozoic

disclose the

formations, especially the Silurian and carboniferous, and also secondary such as Jurassic, and tertiary.

Such a variety

wealth of the

in the geological constitution of the Transbaikal country ensures mineral

Here there are

first order.

to be

found not only gold bearing sands, argentiferous

lead and copper ores, but also deposits of tin and mercury. There

The Transbaikal

is

of its continental situation.

the head streams of the

and

The Selenga and

its tributaries,

and

settled

the Tsypa,

district in the

of

the

Barguzin

also plains although of not

ores.

well watered in spite

is

the Chikoi, Khilok, and Uda, as also

life.

on account of the greater severity of the climate,

most northern

no want of iron

Shilka, and Argun, water beautiful valleys

Amour, the Ingoda, Onon,

plains, excellently adapted to cultivation

fertile

is

extremely rich in mineral springs. The country

Transbaikal territory,

Not

namely those

and the Upper Angara.

less well irrigated,

but less

are the valleys of Barguzinsk the of the Yitim,

its

tributary

In the Transbaikal country there are

any great extent, as for example the tableland along the

Uda known

under the name of the Khorinsk and Bratsk steppes, and in the southern part of the tenitory near to the Chinese frontier, the Tareisk, Kydara and Arguu steppes. At a rough estimate, more

than a third of the area of the Transbaikal, or 4,000 square geographical miles

may

be re-

ferred to lands suitable for cultivation and permanent settlement.

The

climatic

conditions of the

other constituent parts purely

continental.

of

the

region

its

winter

under

temperature

differ

widely from those

The climate

of

the

of Transbaikalia

is

Celsius), approaches the average

or agricultural, but of the forest zone of Eastern Siberia,

(—25°) and that of the coldest month (—28°) the climate has

a severer character than even in the said forest (17°)

country

consideration.

The mean annual temperature {—2^li°

temperature not of the cultivated

From

Transbaikal

zone, but from the temperature in

summer

and during the hottest month (19°) Transbaikalia shews better conditions than the agri-

cultural zone of Eastern Siberia. Thus, the

peratures

(42°)

difference

between the winter and summer tem-

and between the hottest and coldest months (47°) indicates the highly conti-

nental character of the climate compared with that of Eastern Siberia.

perature of the vegetative period, although

it

is

As

for the

mean tem-

V^" below that of the cultivated zone of East-

AMOUR-LITTOKAL BOEDER LAND.

THE

ern

amoimtiug

Siberia,

soil in

some places

more powerful action

the cereals, notwithstanding the constantly frozen

to only 13". 5, yet

of this country

Vh

depth of

a

at

57

ripen

arshine,

thanks

well,

the

to

sun's rays, depending not only on the southerly situation of the

of the

Transbaikal but also on the cloudless and transparent atmosphere, as compared with the

culti-

vated regions of Eastern and Western Siberia. reference to the amount of rainfall, the climate of Transbaikalia

In

more continental

ably

The quantity

is

also incompar-

that of the agricultural zone of Eastern and Western

than

Siberia.

here In the course of the whole year does not exceed

of moisture precipitated

290 millimetres, instead of the 360 and 380 of the agricultural zones of Eastern and Western Siberia, while the winters are almost entirely snowless, with 13 millimetres during the whole

season. Fortunately, the

summer

much

rainfall, as

200 millimetres,

as

considerably higher

is

not only than that in Eastern but than that in Western Siberia, and the conjunction of these explains

conditions

the

fact

the Transbaikal country

that

may even

considered

be

to-day

the chief granary of the whole Amour-Littoral region.

The vegetable covering

which

country

is

this

mountain

the

includes

flora

of

flora

the

extremity

of

chrysanthum

rhododendra (rododeudron

cli-

its

bears completely the char-

still

Altai-Sayan

the

of

between the north-west

situated

slope of the Yablonovoi range and the Baikal Lake, the flora

acter of

minutest features

of Transbaikalia reflects all the

matic peculiarities: in that half of the

Pall,

system.

Among

dahuricum

et

shrubs the

Pall.),

Siberian berberry (berberis sibirica Pall.), species of meadow-sweet (spiraea trilobata L., alpiua Pall., digitata

W.), clothing the mountain steeps with their snow-wliite flowers, a species

tamarisk (myricaria davurica Ehr.), species of currant Pall.).

(ribes

fragrans

Pall,

of

procumbens

et

Alpine herbs, exclusively peculiar to the Altai-Sayan system grow in profusion in the

Transbaikal; but on crossing to the other side of the Yablonovoi range the flora becomes greatly

changed, and plants

appear belonging

woody

continent. Thus, of the ly thriving in Siberia

L.

campestris

var.

to

the far east of the temperate zone

races, trees are here to be

met with belonging

Asiatic

the

of

to those general-

from the very Ural, the oak (quercus mongolica Fisch.), the elm (ulmus L.), the hazel (corylus heterophylla

pumila

and the wild

Fisch.)

apple

(pp'us baccata L.). It is

for

remarkable

example the

that

but few of the shrubs

blackthorn (rhamnus

daur

first

davurica

Lake Baikal,

appearing beyond of

Pall.),

juncea Pers., one species of meadow-sweet (spiraea angustifolia Turcz.), one rant (ribes diacantha Pall.), the daur

snow-ball

tree

so-called

daur

There

are two

Led.),

one

and

flora

kinds

blackthorn

trichocarpa Pers. et

of

common traveller's

(rhamnus

to

the

joy

hedysarum fruticosum

Amour

(clematis

L.),

and

davurica

Pall.),

among

The

flora.

Transbaikal

erythro-xylon

species

cur-

of

(viburnum davuricum Pall), a small

shrub belonging to the spurge family (geblera sufl'ruticosa Fisch.), and one ing birches (betula fruticosa Pall.) belong to the

as

lespedeza

leguminosae

the

et

the

the rosaceae,

low grow-

peculiar

neighbouring

the

Pall,

among

of the

are

rest

to

the

Mongolia.

atragene macropetala

leguminosae the

local

(lespedeza

wild

almond

(amygdalus pedunculata Pall), the wild apricot, widely sprearl on the mountain sides (prunus sibirica

L.),

a species

of

dog-rose

(rosa

alpina

Lindh), the shrubby potentilla glabra L., a species

L.),

of

a

gattentree

tamarisk

(cotoneaster

(myricaria

acutifolia

longifolia

Ehr.),

SIBERIA.

58 two species of currant

(ribes

Pers.

and the willows (salix berberifolia

and pulchellum Turcz.), honey-suckle (lonicera

Pall,

triste

chrysantha Turcz.), two species of shrubby

(betula

birch

et divaricata

divaricata Led. and Gmelini Bge.)

remaining willows found

the

Pall.),

here belonging to the European kinds. the kinds disseminated over the whole of Siberia belong not only

To

trees of Transbaikalia, namely, the pine (pinus

pitch pine (picea orientalis

tremula

L.),

The

cetera.

et

fir

birches

(betula

alba

poplar

fine-scented

but

L.),

and

L.

the coniferous

Siberian

sibirica Led.), the

(abies

and the cedar (pinus cembra

L.)

deciduous trees, the white and daur pulus

Siberian

and davurica Fisch.), the

(larix sibirica Led,

all

Siberian and daur larches

the

sylvestris L.),

(poplus

many

also

of

the

davurica), the aspen (po-

suaveolens

Fisch.)

is

met

with on both sides of Lake Baikal.

As

for the herbaceous flora, of 112 species

only 46 pass over to the

Amour, the

them,

of

first

met with beyond Baikal,

rest belonging to the local so-called

daur

serves as the connecting link between Siberia and Mongolia, whither indeed over.

Among

which

flora,

many

plants cross

the latter are, for example, of the crow's foot family (ranunculaceae) two

cies of hellebore (eranthis sibirica Dc.

5 cruciferae draba, mongolica Turcz., tetrapoma barbareaefolium Turcz., dontostamon

dulosus Led. and oblongifolius

Led.;

spe-

and uncinnata Turcz.) and actinospora davurica Turcz.;

of

the

leguminosae 10 species

characteristic of the mountain steppes of Central Asia, entirely

of

oxytropis

unknown on

eglan-

genus

(a

the Amour), two

astragals; of the rose family (chamaerhodos grandiflora Led. and trifidaLed.); of the stonecrops,

(saxifraga multiflora Led.); 6 umbelliferae, 6 compositae; of the

corolliflorae, pinguicula spa-

thulata Led.; three species of bindweeds (ipomea sibirica Pers., calystegia pellita Led. and calystegia subvolubilis Led.); 4 borragineae, 3 scrophnlarieae, 3 labiateae and 3 species of statice characteristic of the salt steppe

(rheum undulatum L. Stelleri Wickstr.

et

;

of the

campestre

L.),

family of monochlamydae,

one

sorrel

of

two

species

and a spurge (euphorbia Pallasii Turcz.); of the monocotyledons, sparganium

longifolium Turcz.; two orchids (orchis salina Turcz. gymnadenia pauciflora Lindh), ricosa

Pall.,

rhubarb

of

(rumex Gmelini Turcz.), passerina

pardanthus

vent-

iris

and two

dichotomus Led., polygonatum sibiricum Led., two sedges

grasses.

CoiTesponding country

is

to the

striking

change

vegetable

the

in

Very many

that of the fauna of the invertebrates.

covering of the

from Siberia, as for example among the articulate animals the river upper streams of the (astacus

Amour

system, of course

The approach

amourensis).

to the sea

mth

crayfish, appear

specific distinctions

makes

Transbaikal absent

of their forms, entirely

itself felt

upon the

from the European

in the appearance

of

such

littoral.

Thus,

for example, in the genus carabus of the family of the coleoptera, not possessing true

mngs

forms of insects also as serve as transitional forms from the continental to the

under their brilliant

elytra, the local elongated,

comparatively narrow forms of the subgenus

coptolabrus (species coptolabrus smaragdinus P'isch), serve as the transition to the

still

more

elongated forms of the Japanese subgenus of carabs damaster.

As

regards

the

vertebrate

fauna, with the

these animals, the Transbaikal fauna

more extensive regions of

distribution of

naturally shews incomparably more resemblance to the

remaining fauna of Siberia. Nevertheless,

to the

animals occurring over the whole forest zone

AMOUR-LITTORAL BORDER LAND.

THE of Eastern

Siberia

(v.

mountain forms of the Altai-Sayan system,

are added a few

supra),

Amour

steppe forms of Mongolia, and finally, animals breeding in the

To

churia. lus L.),

the

first

musk deer (moschus moschiferus

belong, the

badger (meles taxus

Schr.),

(mustela

polecat

59

L.),

putorius

Territory and in

roebuck (cervus

Eversmann's marmot

L.),

To

(spermophilus Eversmanni Br.) and the rat hare (lagomys alpinus Pall.). the korsak (canis corsac L.),

lagomys ogotona

steppe cat

the jerboa (dipus jaculus

Pall.,

of saiga (antilope gutturosa Pall., antilope

(equus hemionus

manul

(felis

To

Pall.).

Pall.),

Temm.) and

Amour

the third belongs the

the second belong,

baibak (arctomys bobac Schr.),

Pall.), tolai (lepus tolai

crispa

Man-

capreo-

two species

Pall.),

the kulan or dzhigetai

finally,

raccoon (canis procyonoides Gr.), a

species of dur (cervus elaphus L.) and wild boar (sus scropha L.).

The fauna

which from the very nature of their mode of locomotion are

of the birds

capable of having the most extensive region of distribution, also here includes both northern

and southern forms. To the

first,

blackcock (tetras tetrix

hazel-hen (tetrao bonasia L.), white and alpine ptarmigan (lago-

L.),

pus albus Gm. and alpinus Pall.),

black crane

leucogrammus

In regard to snakes

Cant.)

rufodorsatus

L.), the blue

and other

country

Siberia, the Transbaikal

venomous

steppe blackcock (syrrhaptes paradoxus

Nilss.); to the second, the

and grus virgo

is

reptiles,

magpie (pica cyanea

on the whole occurring so rarely in northern

Thanks

to

character

(v.

comparatively

with the

Strauch and trigonocephalus

Finally the piscine fauna on crossing the Yablonovoi range into its

(giiis

comparatively rich. Besides the harmless snake (coluber

varieties, trigonocephalus intermedius

completely alters

crane

of

Pall.), et cetera.

dione Pall., there are here to be met

and elaphis

urogallus L.),

belong the capercailzie (tetrao

monachus Tem.), and two more southern species

(grus

Pall,

for example,

extremely

Blomhofiii Boje.

Amour

system of the

the

infra).

favourable

and the early colonization,

conditions

climatic

which began here already from the end of the

XVII

century

(in

1692

there

were

already

7,000 Russians, in 1720, 10,000, in 1740, 20,000 and in 1760, 40,000) the Transbaikal terrias

many

raphical mile, of

whom

tory has

or about faith,

now

as 570,000 inhabitants,

30 per cent of the

nomads within narrow

communication with

first

total

They

among

place

five souls

The preponderance

the Russian population. it

does

not

cattle

The proportion exceed

ffve

As

in this respect in the

than in the

degree

rearing,

while

of the

per

in Chita

town industries

to the

agriculture

town population

cent;

indeed

there

whose inhabitants

is

sufficiently indicated

for the relative

most favourable

by the rela-

domestic animals reared. There are here 70 horses

per 100 inhabitants, with an absolute number of 400,000 head, that

is

square geog-

souls.

of the rural over

numbers of the population

as in Eastern Siberia.

to the

characters in a greater

are here occupied chiefly in

considerable of town population except

all

have now attained 13,000

tion of the

above

have here preserved, in the immediate neighbourhood and

in the Transbaikal country is insignificant;

are no collections at

is,

These Buriats of Mongol race and Buddhist

population.

limits,

Mongolia, their national

government of Irkutsk. occupies the

that

the natives, mainly Buriats and to a small extent Tungus, count 170,000

number

of

homed and

conditions compared

is,

as

many

in proportion

other cattle, the Transbaikal

with

early

colonized Siberia.

There are here over 100 head of homed cattle per 100 inhabitants, the absolute number being

SIBERIA.

60 570,000, that

5 head per married couple, while of

is,

other cattle

are

there

350 head per

100 inhabitants, the absolute number being as many as 2,000,000, which directly demonstrates

among

the high proportion

population

the

of

cattle breeding

the

and the

class,

wealth of

pastures possessed by the country.

The Amour Country. This country, the second part of the Amour-Littoral region, presents in a type

absolutely

understood

all the

vast area occupied by the basin of the

of the Shilka with the

the confluence

Amour

dividing the

Argun

physical

its

along

its

left

is

bank from

range and the Dzhugdyr ridge,

Thus

into the country of the

Amour

and the expanse between the eastern frontier running along

territory

Amour

the meridian and the course of the pies, just as Transbaikalia,

Amour

to the Stanovoi

basin from that of the river Uda.

Amour

enters the whole

all

from that of Transbaikalia. By the Amour country

diiferent

conditions

mouth. In this way the

to its

Amour

country occu-

not less than 11,000 square geographical miles.

Mention has been already made above of the Stanovoi or Yablonovoi range, serving

for

a long distance as the northern boundary of the country, as this range separates the Yakutsk

and Amour-Littoral regions of Siberia. But independent of into the

Amour

territory

mountainous and Little

their

this range, descending less abruptly

a considerable part of the country

of Yakutsk,

that

an almost meridional direction and

forcing

prolongations,

wide

a

take

to

it

curve

necting link between the Little Khingan and the Stanovoi range ing

the

Okhotsk

watershed between

Bureya.

much

The

The

crest of the

and consist mainly

con-

ridge, form-

Little Khingan, with

an average altitude of 2,500 feet

Khingan and

of granites

Dzhugdyr

the

The

the Uda, falling into the sea of

as 4,000 and even 6,000

feet

at

which are

summits near the head waters of the

its

especially

The rocks

on their slopes with stone heaps.

the

back

Amour and

the

of

the basins

in the Littoral Territory.

reaches as

is

fling

the south.

to

is

offsets as, like the

with the spurs of the Stanovoi range and by such

or Burein range, have

Khingan

Amour by

filled

than into

its

peaks are formed of

«golets^> sprinkled

prevailing in the mountain ridge are crystalline

also discovered

on the Amour, where the mountains

approaching the bed of the river nowhere rise higher than 1,000 feet above the level of the river.

Upon

the

mountain slopes of the Stanovoi range and the Little Khingan and their

developed stratified

are

rocks

of

paleozoic

formations,

namely, Jurassic, upon the

southern incline of the Stanovoi range; secondary, of the Oldoi and

Zeya and upon the upper waters

and

the

lower reaches

finally tertiary along

Amour, Zeya and Bureya.

the

The country lossal

rivers

Kerulen as arc,

of

its

is

abundantly watered. Its chief stream the

Asia falling into

the

lat.,

Pacific.

head waters, amounts to not

whose southern part crossed 48" N.

the whole Russian region of the

X.

of the Bureya,

offshoots

devonian, upon

especially the

Amour,

less

lat., it

Its

length,

than 4,600

Amour

is

one of the three co-

counting the rivers Argun and

versts.^

Having described

and having embraced with

this arc

turns to the north-east and after

approaches so closely to the part of the Tartar

strait,

its

great

on the south

reaching

51-5"

forming the northern extremity

of the Sea of Japan, that right side

is

THE

AMOUK-LITTORAL BORDER LAND.

Lake

Kizi, a

Amour

enlargement of the bed of the

lateral

only separated by a twelve-verst isthmus from the Tartar strait, a

north of the beautiful bay exit towards the sea, the

De

of

Here meeting with an

Kastri.

Amour swerves

Sea of Okhotsk. The

left tributaries of

the lower reaches of these streams that more or less

lat. finally

Zeya and Selimdzheya,

the

The climate

of the

Amour

country, although

ture

is

month

— 1.3° Celsius, but the — that of summer 19° 27°,

mean

same

is

still

admits of the free development In

43°,

agriculture,

summer

15° and the

climate

and 40°, the free development of agriculture

characterized by

of the coldest

that

This yields a difference

in the Transbaikal country,

is

and perfectly

while upon the lower reaches of the Amour,

Nikolaevsk, where the average temperature of the year

winter —22°, that of

yet

and between the hottest and coldest months

more favourable than of

either

mean annual tempara-

24°,

21°.

Bureya only in

But the mean temperature of the five-months

as in Transbaikalia.

vegetative period, 15°*6,

is

—

is

and that of the hottest month

between summer and winter temperatures of of 48°, almost the

continental,

still

temperature

winter

turns

mountainous.

is

Blagoveschensk the

In

the

It is

spread out on

extensive plains

nearest the Stanovoi range and the Little Khingan the region

a greater humidity than in original Siberia.

to the

barrier to its

and the Argun are after the Amour the chief arteries of the Amour country.

side;

uu the

little

which forms a part of the cold and inhos-

Amour,

the

impossible

and only about 53" N.

to the north,

to the sea and falls into that part of the Tartar strait

pitable

61

is

very

is

—

2-6°,

less continental,

difficult,

as the

the temperature of the

with differences of 37°

mean temperature

of the

five-months vegetative period only amounts to 11 '6°.

In the quantity of the annual rain, over 500 millimetres, of which 290 three

summer months,

the

Amour

Western

kalia with 290, and the agricultural zones of Eastern and

Amour

of moisture in the

further

still

intensified

declivities with trees

consequence

above which

forests,

talus

upon their

height, but this is

of

360 and 380 respec-

suitable

for

is

that the soil does not dry up.

covered with unbroken swamps and

sown upon clearings run

to

partly

spots situated

partly

along the

near the lower course of the Zeya.

agriculture,

and

of

2,000 can as yet be recognized as

Amour

stony

straw reaching an incredible

frequently yield a poor grain sometimes not ripening completely.

shewn by a few

Inundations,

moisture

denuded «golets» of the rocky crests covered with

the

Cereals

overgrown with weeds, and the upper

offsets are

the greater part of the area

rise only

slopes.

The excess

by the character of the vegetable covering of the region. All the

which so powerfully arrest the this

during the

country exercises an unfavourable influence upon agriculture, which

lower slopes of the mountain ridges and their

In

Siberia,

but even more than their forest zones which have 400 and 470 millimetres.

tively,

is

fall

country has not only a more humid climate than Transbai-

An

in places not

There are

at

exception to

drowned by

its

present few such spots

area of 11,000 square geographical miles not more than

its fit

for agricultural settlement.

Fortunately, experience has shewn that the struggle with the excess of moisture which is

an impediment

tion of

Germany

to the cultivation

and colonization of the Amour, which

in the days of Tacitus, is possible.

over large areas the gro\A,^hs of reeds, the into fertile arable land. In the course of

damp

The

settlers in the

soil gi'adually dries

is

to-day in the posi-

Amour

territory blaze

and becomes converted

38 years, which had expired between the geogi'aph-

62 ical

SIBERIA.

and botanical explorations of the

Maximov

academicians

(1854) and Korzhinsky (1892),

the climatic conditions of the country have already manifestly changed for the better and the

gradual

progress

the

of

exceeding Germany in extent, in the sense of

country,

passage from the condition of the Germany of Tacitus to

But of course much time

will still pass, before

much

still

gold to be found,

The vegetative covering from the

a great difference

stem nature even

Amour

With

kalia.

country, in the mountainous region of which there

Amour

of the

to sporadic

country

and partly rapacious cultivation.

luxuriant and peculiar, and displays

is

Even

floras of the other parts of Siberia,

yew

conifers,

the

nowhere

else is to

woody vegetation

the

similar vegetation of not only Siberia but also Transbai-

the ordinary Siberian races of conifers are here associated the

mandshurica Rupr.),

Manchurian cedar

ayan pitch-pine (picea ajanensis Fisch.) and an

the

ally of the

The yew

baccata L.) peculiar to the mountains of the Caucasus.

(taxus

be met with in Siberia, and shews by

The

the nearness of the sea.

its

of the foliage trees and shrubs

flora

is

here represented by two peculiarly eastern forms,

rica Rupr. et tives, of

Max. The maple, a stranger

which the acer mono Max.

is

a species closely

allied

to

easteni

both richer and more

L.); finally,

the acer

variety.

The

variety

(pyrus

Max.),

and the bird cherry by two local

Rupr.).

Two

baccata),

here

is

local species of

represented

The lime

associated

is

whole of Siberia, has here four representa-

the local ulmus

Max.

Finally,

Ermanni Cham.) and one

spicatum

to be

in the

It

to the

American

an American

undoubtedly

is

(prunus Maackii

Rupr.

Maximowiczii

et

as also the local

species

of the ash

unknown

to the

whole

montana Winckl.

Further alongside the species of hazel

corylus heterophylla Fisch.,

among the

is

birches reappear a

is

a shrub.

The charming is

little

far

found a new species,

Kamchatka The

co-

variety (betula

third local variety of

tree of the

Amour

country

removed from the character of

belongs to the family of araliacese which loves a moist climate and

met with

dendron amurense

Lam.

by a beautiful new species (pyrus ussuriensis

varieties,

with a palmy crown, (dimorphantus mandshuricus Rupr.)

nowhere

ginnala Max.,

acer

Maxim, bears a resemblance

local timber tree (betula costata Trautv.).

birch, (betula Middendorfii Trautv.)

the Siberian trees.

the

mandshurica Rupr. With the European and Transbaikal varieties of the

already appearing in Transbaikalia, rylus mandshurica

mandshu-

walnut embellish the forests of the Amour, juglans mandshurica

Max. and juglans stenocarpa Max.,

elm

tilia

already appearing in Transbaikalia in the shape of a very small fruited

apple,

of Siberia, fraxinus

cordata Mill, and

European acer tataricum L. and the Semirechensk

acer tegmentosum

Semenowii Reg.; the

acer

kind (acer pensylvanicum

the

to the

tilia

the characteristic local kind,

is

Amour

appearance on the lower

varied, here going to meet the beneficent marine influences of the Eastern Ocean.

genus

half of

without the spots which are accessible

far,

condemned only

is

exhibits striking differences from the

(pinus

and so

civilization,

and colonization, the

to cultivation is

and

cultivation

gradual

Russian colonization, now capable of occupying

not more than one-fifth of the country, wrests step by step from a

the area for

its

present state, has already begun.

its

in Siberia.

Rupr.),

Not

less

remarkable

is

is

the cork tree of this country (phello-

belonging to the family of zanthoxyleae

nowhere

to

be met with

whole of Russia.

The shrubs

of the

Amour

24 varieties of shrubs here

country are

met with are

still

more peculiar than the

entirely

new

for

any one

trees.

Not

arriving from

less

than

Siberia

AMOUR-LITTORAL BORDER LAND.

THE

03

and Transbaikalia. Of these, three climbers are the lianas of the woods here. They are a beautiful plant belonging to the rare family of

all,

floAvers

and red

berries,

schizandraceae with

to the

vine (vitis

amurensis Rupr.); and finally the wild vine (cissus

country

aefolia Turcz,, belong to the is

of

a species of vine, very slightly distinguished from the true

;

species of clematis appearing here for the

one

first

rose-scented

(maximoviczia chinensis Rupr.), spread from northern China through

Amour

Manchuria

of local berberry

pale

first

The

Max.).

non-climbing shrubby varieties of this genus. Of the two species

China (berberis sinensis Desf.);

also peculiar to northern

local (berberis amurensis).

brevipedunculata

time, clematis mandshurica Rupr. and aethus-

The very

Amour

curious shrub of the

another,

country, actinidia kolomikta

Rupr., covered with large white scented flowers, has not yet found a strictly definite position in systematic botany,

now

being

it

referred to one

four local varieties of spindle-tree there

is

one

now

Of the

to another of the exotic families.

(evonymus

Japanese

and three

Th.)

alatus

(evonymus pauciflorus Max., evonymus Maackii Rupr. and evonymus macropterusRupr.).

local

Of the leguminosae the small shrub found here lespedeza stipulacea Max.,

also

grows

the

in

environs of Pekin. Of the rose family, the local species of cherry (prunus glandulifolia Rupr.

and meadowsweet (spiraea

same genus forests,

local species,

belonging to the

adornment of the

philadelphus

the family of araliaceae not to be

flora

and

of northern

that

The

tenuifolius Rupr. and philadelphus Schrenkii Rupr.

shrub of the same family Deutzia parviflora Bge.

To

Two

amurensis Max.) are shrubs.

as our so-called garden jasmine (philadelphus) are a conspicuous

met with

€hina (panax

a Chinese

is

in Siberia

Max). Of the honeysuckles there are here one

belong two shrubs

Rupr.

sessiliflorum

Chinese

China

a species of

is

lilac

species

is

that called after

Among

common

to this

Common

Turcz.)

to northern

somewhat minute

vaiety of laurel, met with on the

lower

Amour

the herbs of the

country, not less than 110 species are

common

to the

Amour

with China, Japan,

exclusively pe-

Kamchatka and

Amour

even America, but especially with Transbaikalia and Siberia, The whole flora of the

baikalia

it

common with

that of European Russia, that

particularly the insects which less

unknown

is,

38 per cent, while with Trans-

has 527, or more than 58 per cent.

Equally peculiar with the

Not

Amour

Kamchatka (daphne kamtchatica Max.).

culiar to this region, the rest are

has 340 plants

local

cultivation.

chrysantha

(lonicera

occurring here on the skirts of the woods with

A

by

and eleutherococcus senticosus

and two local (lonicera Maackii Rupr. and lonicera Maximowiczii Rupr.).

whitish flowers (syi'inga amurensis Rupr.).

beautiful

spread

plant,

than 60 per cent of to

Europe,

flora of

are all

although

Amour

the

the species of the

country

is

its

invertebrate fauna and

dependent on the same climatic conditions as the plants. insects

character

general

occurring in the of

the fauna

is

Amour

country are that

palearctic,

is,

proper to the whole sub-polar and temperate zones of the Old World.

As est

for the vertebrata,

in

Amouria associated with

zone of Siberia are not only those animals

fauna of Transbaikalia,

whose bonis are

but also some others.

so highly

mountain wolf (canis alpinus

The

Amour

country are

the

mammals

were mentioned

occurring in the forin the

survey

of the

There belong the maral (cervus elaphus

prized by the Chinese,

irbis Pall.), the fish of the

which

Pall.)

the tiger (felis tigris L.),

the

irbis

L.),

(felis

and the thibetan bear (ursus tibetanus).

in the highest degree interesting,

the river and

its

trib-

64

SIBERIA.

Of the sturgeon family, the local species of

being extraordinarily rich in them.

iitaries

bie-

luga attains enormous dimensions (huso orientalis Pall, and amurensis Pall), weighing some-

times from 30 to 50 pouds.

The sturgeon

from the Russian type, but the

Two

ket (trutta lagocephalus Pall.). Of the other fish fluviatilis Pall.),

carp (cyprinus

common

(lota

vulgaris

which are extremely characteristic of the Amour

Amour

the

day

L.).

in countless

and

(trutta proteus Pall.)

to Siberia are the delicious

taimen

the char (salmo coregonoides Pall.), the smelt (salmo eperlanus), the

and eelpout

carpis)

to the present

country, the gorbusha

numbers, have a great significance for the

(salmo

Caspian species (acipencer ruthenus

salmon which ascend the Amour and Ussuri,

of

species

of this region (sturio Schrenkii Br.) likewise differs

sterlet belongs to the

Semenovii

fish (pristidion

Dyb.),

Cus.).

But

basin.

Among

daur

the

there

silarus

are

few

a

also

fish

these are to be reckoned

(silurus

asotus

the

Pall.),

barbodou locustris L., plagiograthus Yelskii Dyb., the white fish (culter abramoides Dyb.), the verkhogliadka (cutter pike

variety of

The population

among whom

Dyb.), the verkhobriushka (culter lucidus Dyb.) and the local

Sieboldi

(esox Reicherti Dyb.), the

Amour

of the

The majority

are 3,000 wandering natives.

Tunguz

ountsi, Birars) belong to the

an enormous

latter attaining

size.

country consists of only 90,000 inhabitants of both sexes, of these natives

and only the minority

tribes,

to the

(Orochons, Ghiliaks,

Mang-

who have

nothing do with them ethnographically, and speak a language of their own. The latter are more

numerous only on the Amour the island of Sakhalin. of

Kamchatka belong

frith

and on the

seacoast

of the Littoral territory, as

also

on

The Ghiliaks together with the Ainos, Kurils and ancient aborigenes

to a special coast tribe

which once

occupied the

whole

shore of the

Eastern Ocean inclusive of the Japanese islands, at least the northern islands, the Kuril

line

and the peninsula of Kamchatka. They were driven out from their places of abode on the Japanese series of islands by the Japanese, and on the coast by the Manchurian tribes.

The Ghiliaks Manchurian

are pilncipally fishermen and are engaged in sea industries, while as ancient cattle breeders, the polar form

tribes,

of reindeer, is in a state of

more or

numerous than these weak and country

is

the settled agricultural

it

less equilibrium

may

among

Much more

with trapping and fishing.

be said dying-out tribes of Tunguz in the

Tunguz

tribe

the

of this occupation, the rearing

Amour

These Manchurians, now

of Manchurians.

numbering 14,000, occupied in the times preceding the Russian dominion an excellent area for colonization,

upon the

bank of the Amour, opposite the Chinese town of Aigun

left

and by the terms of the Aigun and Pekin tory,

but upon their

To

culture.

own

settled

this

treaties

remain established upon Russian

as Chinese subjects,

lands,

native

and are

occupied

mainly

with

population must be added further about 1,000 Coreas

terri-

agri-

now

established in the country.

Russian immigrants settled in

more or

less

form 80 per cent of the population of the country. They have

still

considerable

villages along the

exception of those portions adjacent to tled

and agricultural mode of

life

its

whole course of the Amour with the

banks where constant

of the Russian colonies,

as

inundations impede the set-

also

upon the

excellent area for purposes of colonization stretching along both sides of the

ually

Zeya and into

its

lower tributaries. Another area adapted

the heart of the country,

along

the

river

of

the

to colonization is

Bureya

and

the

extensive

lower

and

reaches

moving

gi-ad-

neighbouring minor

65

THE USSURI-LITTORAL TRACT. tributaries of the

Amour

the

Amour, and may

in time

and the Yanda tableland,

occupy

which

Amour, between the mouth

arc formed by the

few and scantily populated towns inhabitants, lives a

little

whole

the

chord

of

the

Khabarovka.

In

the

the

of

and the

Bureya

of the

between the curve of

space

direction

extends in the

Amouria, among which Blagoveshchensk alone has 9,000

of

of its population,

more than 11 per cent

which

shews

clearly

the

predominance in the country of the rural population and of rural industries. The development of the latter

is

number

this

is

also demonstrated

in the country, although

by the number of domestic animals

55

country there are

100 inhabitants (instead of

per

horses

that

70),

Western

and goats

and almost as many as

Siberia,

as yet insignificant,

is

Transbaikal country. This

by the absence of a

is

in

a

is,

than in Western Siberia. Horned cattle give 70 head (instead of 100), but in

Amour

comparatively lower than in the neighbouring Transbaikalia. Thus, in the

more than

still

Only the number

Eastern Siberia.

more

little

of sheep

30 head per 100 inhabitants, instead of 380 as in the

explained not merely by the recent settlement of the region but

cattle breeding population.

The Ussuri-Littoral

Tract.

third type in the Amour-Littoral region is the Ussuri-Littoral tract, occupying the

The

whole southern portion of the Littoral Territory, lying on the right side of the Amour, between its

right tributary, the Ussuri, and the

of Sakhalin lying opposite

miles

is

Sea of Japan. Including

Sea of Japan,

of this space is occupied

The long but low and very wooded range to

the coast line of the Japanese

the basin of the Ussuri, which has not sufficient rivers,

excepting the southern part of

it

in the Ussuri country the island

expanse of 7,000 square geographical

an

of

sides of the basins

by the right

Amour from

and of the lower part of the course of the

parallel

less

The greater part

obtained.

of the Ussuri

the Ussuri.

in the

it

more or

Sikhete-Alin, stretching

a

narrow shore

Sea,

separates

room

for the formation of

with

confluence

its

from

land

any considerable

turned directly to the south, which has both

deeply

indented bays with fine harbours and a few tributaries of more importance than in the coast zone, as for example the river Suifun.

south of the coast line of

name

of the

Bay

tliis

The whole

part of the littoral

of Peter the Great.

Upon

of of

the

extensive

Ussuri

the

turned

to

the

has received

the

hollow

country

Amour and

the peninsula, separating the

bays penetrating deep into the Continent, somewhat to the south of 43° north latitude the

town and port

of Vladivostok,

from which a railway

is

now being

carried

Ussuri country to Khabarovka, situated at the junction of the Ussuri and the right

bank of the

latter, the residence of the

Governor-General

of

the

the

is

Ussuri situated

through

the

Amour upon

three

territories

constituting the whole of the Amour-Littoral region of Siberia.

The height to

from 1,270

of the Sikhete-Alin

Mount Camel (Khuntami),

is

inconsiderable; in the

it

reaches 3,600

rocks such as gi-anite are laid bare, and in of the

case of the passes

it

amounts

and in that of the highest of the mountain peaks yet measured,

to 2,370 feet,

Amour back from De

Castri

Bay

feet. its

In the crest of the Sikhete-Alin crystalline

northern

part which throws the lower course

to the north, volcanic rocks

such as trachyte and

SIBERIA.

66 met with. At the contact

basalt are to be

lead

argentiferous

Sikhetc-Alin,

The

deposits of iron ores.

eastern slope of the Sikhete-Alin, in

ning along short parallel valleys to

fall into

Bay, rich

sometimes descends

the sea. In the neighbourhood

of

mouths

their

and bights, as for example, the bays of

bays

convenient

very

there are at times

offspurs,

its

at others, leaves a certain space for the streams run-

the sea, and

into

in sheer precipices

of the crystalline with the stratified rocks in the

deposits occur, and twenty versts from St. Olga

Olga

St.

and St. Vladimir in the southern part of the country and of De Kastri in the northern part.

Upon

the wide space dividing the Sikhete-Alin from the course of the Ussuri, run the imporof this river; in the south-western

right tributaries

tant

of this country the Russian

corner

and embrace the extensive lake Khanka.

possessions

cross over to the left side of the Ussuri

The whole

of this expanse includes the areas of colonization belonging to the country,

are only embarrassed by the abundance ity of the

of

acclivity

wide Ussuri

the

zone, incomparably

more favourable climatic conditions are

climate, whose

strip of the

depths

the

the

of

no

at

Bay

great

of Peter

distances

situated

situated

200 versts behind the cape which forms the turning

in

country from the south-eastern,

littoral of the

The mean temperature same, namely

St.

Olga the mean winter temperature

summer and winter

mean winter temperature

coldest

months

coldest

month —16°, the summer temperature

while the

summer and winter

the difference between

so that the climate of Vladivostok

annual temperature

is

is

is

30°,

of St.

Olga but

15°, in

the

the

month

20°;

is

—12°, that of the

month

21°; accordingly,

37°,

more continental than marine. In Khabarovka the mean

19°, the hottest

month

—22°

of

20°; the difference

vegetative period

discrepancy

Bay

climate are favourable,

45°.

of St. Olga,

it is

notwithstanding the

and coldest month of

between summer and winter

As might be

expected, the

mean

throughout the Ussuri country, in the Bay

Vladivostok 16°, and in Khabarovka 17°,

climatic

is

Celsius,

between the hottest and

in Vladivostok

With an average winter temperature

five-months

—10"

between the hottest and coldest months

and that between the hottest and coldest months

temperature of the

28°, that

of course lower than in Vladivostok and in the

severity of the winters.

is

18", that of the hottest

is

18°, that of the hottest

equal to 0°, but the remaining elements of the

—25°, the summer shews

of St. Olga,

upon the foggy and damp south-eastern shore.

month —13°, the summer temperature

accordingly, the difference between 33°;

Bay

point, separating the southern

the year in both points, differing in latitude by only ^2°,

for

but in the Bay of

4-5",

that of the coldest

culture,

in

seacoast

from each other, Vlad-

the Great, and the

ivostok,

41°,

more continental

extended to the

also

southward trending Bay of Peter the Great. This difference comes out most clearly

on comparing the climates of points placed

is

how-

serves

for the greater part of the year in impene-

wrapped

Sikhete-Alin,

the

trable fogs, differs extremely from Its

in spite of its slight elevation,

of the Sikhete-Alin,

extremely important climatic line of division. The coast zone, situated upon the

an

as

eastern

which

and the extraordinary humid-

forests

climate.

The seashore range ever

swamps and

of

is

distinctly favourable to agri-

between the two points shews

itself

most strongly in

the quantity of moisture precipitated in the course of the year. In Vladivostok the annual rain fall is

St.

336 millimetres, of which 158 belong to the three summer months, while in the Bay of

Olga

it

is

1,024 millimetres, of which 452 millimetres

fall

to the

summer months. Thus,

67

THE USSURI-LITTORAL TRACT. compared with the Bay

of St. Olga,

which represents the type of the most humid marine he far more continental, indeed even more so

climate, the climate of Vladivostok appears to

than that of Khaharovka, where 560 millimetres of moisture

precipitated in the

is

summer months. Under such comparatively

the year, of which 312 falls during the

course of excellent

climatic conditions, the port of Vladivostok remains open and accessihle at almost all seasons of the year, with the exception only

an extremely short winter period, lasting here as

of

in

Odessa not more than IV2 to 2 months.

upon the western slope of the Sikhete-Aliu,

Further,

the climate

is

far moister than in Vladivostok and in particular

dampness of the

humidity of the climate and the vegetation,

may

soil,

is

more rainy

a

to

summer. The

in

which never dries up owing

rotting of the crop at the

of air to prevent the

become evident that certain

be, it has

hroad zone, covered

method of sowing grain in rows or beds,

have determined the

free passage of streams this

in the

between the coast range and the river Ussuri,

considerable extent with woods and morasses,

to the dense

to

allow

the

But however

root.

damp

localities of the country are so

that in

them such a development of sporiferous plants or microfungi takes places on the ears that bread baked from the flour of grain stricken with these blights becomes intoxicating, producing in

fact

such symptoms

conditions sometimes

in

who

those

eat

This inconvenience called forth

it.

by climatic

even causes immigi'ants to abandon the «spots which produce intoxica-

ting bread».

Absolutely different and far less favourable are the conditions (as far as agriculture concerned, as a consequence of

is

which

geographical situation), of the island of Sakhalin,

its

has acquired latterly a world-wide notoriety as a Russian convict settlement. This island, severed

from the Ussuri

country by the most northern part of the Sea of Japan,

velsky's straits, stretches exactly along the 8

Cape

projects with its northern extremity.

southern

extremity, bending

De

they

than

quence rather separate is

is

it

and

Sea of Okhotsk, and with

dividing Sakhalin from the Ussuri country

inaccessible

are

the

unite

formed of a

Somewhat

separated by the straits of Laperouse.

Castri, the straits

narrow and shallow that

skeleton of Sakhalin

St. Elisabeth, into the

Xe-

46°,

its

round the extensive bay of Aniva in the shape of a horseshoe,

approaches Japan, from which north of the bay of

the Tartar or

dergees of latitude, between 54° and

mouth

fairly

volcanic rocks, such as basalt, which

have

to

elevated lifted

rare, in Siberia, cretaceous formation. It is here

ocean-going

large

of the

Amour

range with steep

beds

of

stratified

and in conse-

ships,

with the Sea

of

summits, rocks

to the

are so

The

Japan.

consisting of

belonging to the

rich in shells, ammonites of great size, inoce-

ramus, patella, rhynchonella et cetera. There also occur layers of middle tertiary or miocene formation, in which

many remains

of vegetation are to be

of the beech (fagus), walnut (juglaus),

the north of parallel 52" the Sakhalin

met with, consisting of the leaves

and salisburia, now no longer thriving in Sakhalin. To range, attaining in

its

loftiest points

on the northern extremity of the island and Engys-Pal, somewhat north of feet

upon sea

along

To

which from

straits,

forms a low and marshy coast land between

the south of 52° the range their

N.

lat.)

2,000

on the eastern side to the Sea of Okhotsk, and on the west,

level, falls abruptly

on the side of the Tartar the shore line.

(Three Brothers, 52''

junction

run in the

is cleft into

line of the

its foothills

two crests by a longitudinal meridian in opposite

and

valley,

directions the 5*

SIBERIA.

68

Mount Tiara a height

Japan,

extremity of the island

crest as far as the very

rising

above

and the Poronai, The extremity of the eastern

of 3,000 feet, declining a

meridian

from the

little

heyond the mouth of the Poronai, forms the broad Bay of Patience.

line to the south-east,

The western

Tym

island, the

two principal streams of the ridge, attaining in

it

abruptly

falls

Sea

the

into

Due

convenient harbours, but exhibits near

splendid deposits of coal. These coal

as also

fields,

of Aniva, the bottom of which

name

luxuriantly covered with weeds going by the

is

the

of

the petroleum springs discovered recently in Sakhalin, together with the fine fisheries

Bay

of

3,000 and even 4,000 feet, and does not present on this side any

to

of

sea-cabbage, promise an economical future to this otherwise inhospitable island. In what unfavourable

is

from the following data. The mean temperature

summer

huge masses of

it

+ 14",

is 0.5**,

month

month

mean temperature

of the five-months vegetative period, less than 12",

of the hottest

development here of permanent agriculture. Little better lying 4" further south in the extreme south-eastern

mean annual temperature

the

is—

11",

month—

coldest

temperature being

— 13",

12";

but on the other hand the

that of the hottest

month

the five-months vegetative period, less than 12°,

This

is

for the rainfall,

is

it

of St. Olga,

which only ]84

much

is

in

and amounts during the

fall to

the

summer

true,

is

it

is

colder, the

mean summer

average temperature of

on the western

year

to

is

there can hardly be found

a

damp

spots,

more

little

the

unfit for agricultural

Equally the

part of

made

is

the

Ussuri

is

of

country the

little

rainy as

unfit

that

coloni-

for

swampy and

in the Ussuri zone. is

plants

characteristic

the

is

so

littoral,

of the too

difference

of

millimetres,

500

than

colonization.

country, after deduction

The greater part

Amour.

over into Ussuria. It

of

As

than on the

the autumns are almost as

which so severely hamper the development of colonization

In the vegetable growth of

Sakhalin

littoral of

more than 3,000 square geographical miles as an area

zation in the whole Ussuri-Littoral

polar

considerably colder than the western.

whole northern half of the Sikhete-Alin and the corresponding

that

Here,

island.

more moderate; the mean temperature

16", so that the

summer months, while

the three

the

for

insufficient

is

equally unfavourable to the raising of grain.

summer

less considerable

the summer. In a word, Sakhalin

too

Moreover the

explained by the circumstance that the eastern coast of Sakhalin, along which

glacial currents descend to the south

Bay

is

-|-

16.5".

the climate in the Muraviov post

is

corner of

higher, 2.3", the winter

is

— 15°,

the winter temperature

that of the coldest

16", of

evident

ice, is

in the principal settlement of the island, Due,

about 51" north latitude upon the western and warmer coast,

—

down from

placed, thanks to the current flowing

the bleak Okhotsk Sea along the eastern littoral, bringing with

very

not

a comparatively

conditions, notwithstanding

climatic

northerly situation, the island of Sakhalin

observable

from

Amouria

cross

of

however noteworthy that the proportion of European Russian forms

is

higher in the Ussuri country than in the Amour, namely 47 instead of 38 per cent, which

is

a direct indication of the less continental nature of the climate.

identical with those in the

Amour

country. Only one

new

tree

The

pinus cordata Bl.) and two shrubs, the wild vine crossing from North folia Bge.)

and the common European berberry (berberis vulgaris

L.),

species of herbaceous plants are found in the Ussuri Country, and not

among them being

species

common

to

a

hard-beam

China (cissus Only a

little

met with

North China, Japan and America. Only 17

are

trees

species of

appears,

in

(car-

humuliover

80

Amouria,

local plants

THE USSURl-LITTOKAL TRACT.

known which have been found nowhere except

are

ginseng (panax ginseng Reg.), whose root

many

ably of

is

southern

To

character.

Amour Country

The

family

of the family

many forms common

Ussuri country has

flora of the

flora is

met with

in

ponte-

of

erio-

New

World, and only 32 species,

Almost the same may be said the insects, as to the

foreign

maalike

European Russia,

to

met with

of the species here are

country, while the proportion of peculiar forms

zone

direct.

in reference to the invertebrate fauna,

The majority

flora.

North America;

whole northern

the

entirely

Yakutsk region and 18

cross from America, 14 through the

to

North America, but of course the

jority of these species belong to those equally existent over

and the

but some

ussuriense; finally, of the ferns, with a subtropical appearance, pleopeltis

25 per cent of the whole Ussuri

of the Old

also,

exotic

of the

showy marsh plant (monochoria Korsakavii Reg.);

caulaceae, eriocanlon ussuriensis Reg.

the celebrated

the latter are to be referred, from

the pea family, the beautiful climbing glycine ussuriensis Reg.,

deriaceae, the very

is

by the Chinese. Prob-

a remedy

as

fRund in the

of these plants will be subsequently

them bear undoubtedly a more

xlmong them

in Ussuria.

prized

so

69

and especially of

also in the

Amour

very high, but approaching the Sea of Japan

is

Amour Country and

on the one hand a few forms appear not found in the

bearing a subtrop-

and on the other, the proportion increases of purely European species or their

ical character,

analogues, a fact particularly noticeable in those orders of insects possessing a highly developeil

power of

as

flight,

for

example the

the flora and the fauna

character,

bears a completely palearctic

the whole, both

whole Amour-Littoral region

as also of the

country that

On

and moths (lepidoptera).

butterflies

Ussuri

the

of

the character of the northern zone of the

is,

Old World, here reaching right as far as the Eastern Ocean, while in the more southern zone the palearctic fauna crossing the whole its

more western meridian

a

in

limit

tableland

of Central Asia and Tibet together

finds

upon the frontier of the warm subtropical plains of

China, falling far short of the Eastern Ocean.

The Amouria

;

animals

vertebrate

the

of

Ussuri-Littoral

country

are

the

same

as

those

in

only one species of deer (cervus axis), a few small rodents, and fish in the Sea of

Japan appearing

in its bays like the herrings

and pilchards

in countless

numbers

at certain

seasons of the year, constitute the difference between the fauna of the Ussuri-Littoral region

and that of the Amour.

The population

the Ussuri-Littoral region together with

of

of the country belonging to the iaks.

Tunguz

tribes of

gion,

the

Russian.

to

more than 60,000, or 67 per

Ussuri-Littoral,

In

the

towns

Amour and of

the

island of Sakhalin at

Manguns, Golds, Oroks, and

There are 13,000 Coreans with fixed abodes,

grants amount

the

number are only 6,500 wandering aborigenes

present already amounts to 90,000 souls. In this

and 8,000

cent, so that

Transbaikal

Ussuri-Littoral

Chinese.

districts

country

contrary of the Yakutsk re-

may

live

also to the Ghil-

The Russian immi-

be considered completely

about

18 per

cent

of

its

population, and only one of these towns, Vladivostok, with 13,000 in habitants, has the char-

acter of a true town population. It rural predominate over the

reared

by the population,

town

is

not then astonishing that in the Ussuri-Littoral country the

industries, a fact appearing in the

although

this

figure

is

on account of the recent settlement of the country.

number

of domestic animals

lower than in Transbaicalia and Amouria

Thus, there are about 45 horses

in the

SIBERIA.

70

Ussuri-Lilloral country to 100 inhabitants, 55 head of horned cattle, and

a

little

more than

30 sheep and goats. But of course these figures are rapidly growing with the extremely noticeable increase of prosperity of the immigrants in the Ussuri

even hegun to pay

off all

Completely different

the

The

miles.

narrow

somewhat

Okhotsk and Behring

into the

geographical

square the

with the basin of the river Uda, the watersheds of

beginning

embracing,

rivers falling

seas, occupies

Okhotsk-Kamchatka country

north-western

of the

littoral

Ghizhiginsk, the peninsula

Okhotsk and

Amour-Littoral region

This north-eastern part of the region under

which may he called the Okhotsk-Kamchatka. consideration,

Kamchatka

of

is

geographically composed of

first

feet, divides the Littoral

of Yakutsk, sending forth considerable offshoots,

more or

on

the

and

mountainous

whole

Uda and

less filling

Territory from that

up the shore zone, which

some places descends abruptly

in

Okhota. The basin of

to the sea, especially

Uda and

the

whole

the

extensive bay of that name, penetrating between Cape St. Alexander and the port of

deep into the mainland by

which

lie

its inlets of

Udsk, Tugursk, Ulbansk and

the uninhabited but elevated and fairly extensive

Udsk,

Chukot

part the Stanovoi range,

with not more than an average height of 3,000

between the basins of the

districts of

or district of Petropavlovsk,

In the

all

an area of more than 27,000

Sea of Okhotsk, the

land and the islands of the Okhotsk and Behring seas.

is

have

latterly

their immigration.

district of the

the character of the fourth

is

who

country,

money given them on

at once the loans of

St.

of

the

Ayansk

Nicholas, in front of

Shantar islands, are nevertheless

the best part of the Okhotsk-Kamchatka country, while the wide and roomy northern littoral of the Okhotsk Sea, with its Ghizhiginsk and Penzhinsk inlets entering deeply into the main-

land to the north-east, represents

the most unsuitable spots in the country for

of settlement on account of its climatic conditions.

coastland

western diorite,

porphyry,

and basalt, as

Sea

the Okhotsk

of

is

very various. Along

and even labrador, are met with, as

for

Segneka and on the

example

in the

littoral of the

inlet in the

it

purposes

crystalline rocks, gi-anite,

such as trachyte

also volcanic rocks,

Marekan mountains

Uyanon

the

geological composition of the north-

The

at Okhotsk,

Udsk

district.

upon the peninsula of

Among

stratified rocks,

paleozoic formations were found in Cape Karaul in the same locality.

A sula of

great scientific interest, but of very

Kamchatka

Kamchatka

is

little

economical future,

is

afforded by the penin-

stretching to the south almost as far as 50° north latitude.

formed by the middle Kamchatka range, the

of crystalline schists, of tertiary sandstones

The skeleton

of

southern half of which consists

and also of granite, syenite and porphyry, while the northern

is

and volcanic rocks. Upon the boundary between these halves

extinct volcano Icha to a height of 36,900. Parallel with the main Middle

composed rises the

Kamchatka

range,

along the eastern shore of the peninsula, stretches a whole row of active and extinct volca-

forming

noes,

as

it

were the

nently active volcanoes

is

fieii

wreaths of Kamchatka. The most southern of the perma-

the small Avacha, whose cone in the year 1848

fell

quite in, but in

which the extensive crater which was formed after the catastrophe kept constantly smoking from 1852 to 1855. The crown of the system in the neighbourhood of the Avacha bay, upon which

is

situated the chief

town of Kamchatka,

is

formed by the cones Povorot (7,900

Viliucha (6,750), Strelka or Koriak (a marvellously beautiful cone, scored ribs,

10,630

feet;,

Avacha

(8,700 feet) and

Zhupan (8,800

feet);

with

feet),

longitudinal

the last two are always active.

THE USSUEl-LITTORAL TRACT. Avacha produced

frightful eruptions in the years

71

1825 and 1855. Traces of the

first of these

eruptions were left in the gullies deeply cut in the sides of the mountain, washed torrents of hot water proceeding from the

are grouped round further

Still

Lake Kronotskoe. The highest

the Kronotsk,

of them,

north, in view of the Gulf of

the

to

Kamchatka and

9,940 feet high.

is

the mouths of the river

Kamchatka, the principal stream on the peninsula, are collected other volcanoes of

which the Kliuchevsk

is

the highest of

erably exceeds in height not only

Mont Blanc but even Kazbek,

The stream

active,

still

Kamchatka, and consid-

the active volcanoes of

all

away by the

to the north, volcanoes

mass of melted snows. Further

from

rising

and

16,000

which descended from the Kliuchevsk

lava

17,000 feet above

sea

at the eruption of

1843 almost reached the river Kamchatka. The other active volcanoes of

level.

of

group also attain colossal altitudes, namely the Krestovsk 11,000

this

Kamchatka reckons

feet.

The greater part

Chukot land

of the

and Siveliuch 10,500

feet,

and over 26 extinct volcanoes.

in all 12 active

occupied by the basin of the Anadyi", but

is

the

Chukot or Behring peninsula proper, forming the extreme north-eastern extremity of Asia, separated from America by

In the neighbourhood of

Commander

Behring

Kamchatka

mountainous and deeply indented with

Straits, is

in the

fiords.

Behring Sea are the somewhat elevated and inhabited

Islands partly composed of volcanic

rocks, enjoying a world-wide

on

reputation

account of their seal fisheries and other marine industries.

its

The Okhotsk

Sea, notwithstanding

most northern entrances being on one

acter

Okhotsk-Kamchatka country are extremely unfa-

conditions of the whole

The climatic vourable.

of latitude

Udsk and Ayan,

notwithstanding

the

with

mean annual temperature

being

— 20",

and in Udsk with

Ayan

11°, in

Udsk, 13.5°. If agriculture in Udsk with an

five-months vegetative

perature of the five-months

the

summer

vegetative

8°,

Somewhat

chatka on Behring Sea, which

subject to a purely

temperature, 8°,

the

2°, is

the same as at the

ature of the five-months

Udsk. chatka of

the

in

fogs,

As

to

country

the

presents

even

The same

drenched with

in

this

respect

rain

or

smothered

the

sharp

the

in

cool;

during 8°

the it is

winters

are

mean tem-

Petropavlovsk,

is

contrasts.

Kam-

in

The average annual

much more moderate,

favourable

annual

with snow, so

millimetres,

precipitation 526 millimetres,

summer has

is

the

settlement, 13°, but the

less

is

and

two

also

marine climate.

Udsk penal

climate

5°;

Ayan

in

is

Ayan with

—

lower,

of

agriculture

to

the

rainfall,

The

larger

—

mean temperthan

in

Okhotsk-Kamsouthern

part

and the southern extremity of Kamchatka are constantly wrapped

the annual rainfall amounts to 1,113

tropavlovsk

temperature

situated

diS^erently

vegetative period, 10.6°,

dampness of the

Sea of Okhotsk

Ayan summer

average

here higher than in the Okhotsk Sea, the winter

summer almost

char-

completely excluding the possibility of the

development here of agriculture. is

is

the same, 11°.

period,

Baltic,

the

the winters,

4",

The summer

extremely precarious, in

is

mean annual temperature

— 19.5°,

about

is

— 28°.

more continental climate,

period of about 12°

impossible. In Okhotsk the

colder than in Ayan,

its

the

as

Channel, has

mean winter temperature

severe, the

the nearness of the Sea, are

north

far

the

by whales. In the most southern ports

of a thoroughly polar sea, frequently visited

the Okhotsk Sea,

reach as

does not

it

line

in

that

in

Petropavlovsk

Ayan to

the quantity

and autumn 452 predominating, while

the smallest precipitation, which

is

of

1,240 millimetres, in

however very

gi'eat

in

in

Pe-

autumn.

SIBERIA.

72 winter and spring.

from Okhotsk

On

of the

contrary, ou the whole northern littoral

the

Kamchatka and

to Tigihllsk, in the northern part of

in

Sea of Okhotsk,

Chukot land, there

a

is

very small rainfall, reaching in Okthotsk in the course of the year only 190 millimetres, and the winters are almost ahsolutely snowless, with but 9 millimetres. is

fuither characterized hy monsoons, that

is,

monsoons pours

In winter the aerial current of the

from the laud.

Stanovoi range with such force that

The climate

men and pack

into the

summer, on the contrary, strong winds blow from the sea with them cold, impeuetrable fog and «bus;>,

a

fine

across the

animals cannot go against

ships avail themselves of these winds on the voyage from

autumn

misty

cold

Okhotsk

to

of the

crest it.

In the late

Kamchatka. In

Okhotsk shore; they bring rain.

explained by the strong heating of the land compared with the sea in in

Sea of Okhotsk

of the

winds blowing in summer from the sea and in winter

These monsoons are

summer and

its

cooliug

winter.

The

whole of the Okhotsk-Kamchatka

flora of the

species and exhibits but small variety,

country

is

part upon the western littoral of the Sea of Okhotsk and in southern

The

forests

Kamchatka

of southern

fir (abies sibirica

consist only of the

Kamchatka

two coniferous species,

is

the

damp

its

luxuriant.

Siberian

Led.) and of the Siberian cedar (pinus cembra L.), and of a few deciduous

pubesceus Ehr.),

trees, a birch (betula

olens Fisch.), a

poor in the number of

but the vegetable grownh over the whole of

rowan

an alder (alnus iucana W.), a poplar (populus suave-

sambucifolia Ch.), a willow (salix pentandra L.), to which must

(pyi-us

be added further a few shrubs belonging to the genera of clematis (atragene ochoteusis

Pall.),

dog-rose (two Siberian species) honeysuckle (lonicera uigi-a L.), birch (betula ErmanniCh.) and willow, several species, not counting the smallest bushes of the family of heathers (ericacese).

The herbaceous

plants, while

far exceeding a man's height.

leaves

(urtica

literally,

over

Kamchatka

cannabina

L.),

which has

areas, completely

large

until its fibre finds

The western coast

Some

with Kamchatka.

very

Littoral region, as for

poor in the number

Unfortunately among such latterly

crowds

some practical

is

of species,

grow

increased here to such an extent that

it

out all other vegetation and will be fatal to application.

Sea of Okhotsk presents a great resemblance

of the

luxuriantly,

a species of nettle with divided

in its vegetation

plants however cross over into its southern portion from the Ussuri-

example

is

the case with the tree, picea ajanensis.

As

for the northern

coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, and the perfectly treeless tableland, occupying northern Kamchatka,

and Chukot land,

their flora bears a greater resemblance to that existing under

similar

cli-

matic conditions in the polar tundra zone of the Yakutsk region.

The land fauna Its

of

the

Ochotsk-Kamchatka country

marine fauna has an incomparably greater importance

reason that nowhere does the marine fauna of the polar ring

Sea and the Sea of Okhotsk

mammals and The

fish of the Arctic

Sea

of

seas

differs little

from the Siberian.

for the district, for the simple

come

so far south as in

whither, together with marine currents and icebergs,

Ocean penetrate

in large

Behthe

numbers.

Okhotsk, occupying an extensive area between the coast of the Asiatic

continent and the peninsula of Kamchatka, and shut in on the south-east by the Kuril ridge,

which leaves

as

many

as 20 convenient entrances into

of Japan, is placed in quite exceptional

it

from the Pacific Ocean and the Sea

climatic conditions. Notwithstanding

its

geographical

73

THE USSURI-LITTORAL TRACT. between 44" ami 62^ north

Situation in the temperate zone,

The

polar sea like Hudson's Bay.

hititude,

not more than 1,400 to 1,500 feet. While towards the end of the

temperature

the

bottom

water being of the

what might

is

centre

summer

below 0° C, and deeper thanTOOfeetit temperature again

Salter, the

But however

sea.

be

possesses the typo of a

its

apparently

is

and August

in July

the water upon the surface of the sea rises to 7" and even 10°, that at

of

a depth of over 100 feet feet, the

it

greatest depth of the Sea of Okhotsk in

this

may

be, the

rises,

is— I'S". Lower than

Sea of Okhotsk has

all

the appearance of

a «tundra» sea, from the valleys of the northern shore of which are

called

summer on

carried to the south the so-called <;scum» or ice masses floating almost the whole

summer

the Sea of Okhotsk. In

the floating ice collects especially in the southern part of the

gust.

frith.

In Udsk

The marine

Bay

islands

Bay

the ice clears out only in July, in Tugursk

currents of the Okhotsk sea on

the whole in a northerly direction, and from

on

Shautar

and around the

sea, off the coast to the east of Sakhalin

Amour

1,350

reaching 2*4° and remains so to the

its its

eastern

Kamchatka

and even it

holds

in the

Au-

till

shore flow apparently

uorth-eastem Ghizhiginsk and Penzhinsk

coastextremities swerve to the west, and afterwards following the change of direction of the line fill

turn

to

the

south,

passing by the eastern shore of SakhaUn. These cuiTents

ing an obstacle to ships entering

Both the subaqueous

it

it

that

is

some places form-

from the Pacific Ocean.

here, moreover, bear a

Northern Ocean coast, but

of the

of seeweeds

Behriug Sea. As many as 53 species

The algae

floating ice, in

and the invertebrate fauna of the Okhotsk Sea are extremely

flora

rich in comparison with not only those of

summer with

the whole south-western part of the sea in

much

greater

(algae)

flora of the

resemblance to the

with those

even

have been found

in

this sea.

Artie Ocean

Ocean are than to that of the Pacific. The majority of the seaweeds of the European Arctic presents very few species also to be found in the Sea of Okhotsk, while the flora of this sea

common

to the Pacific, possessing

extraordinarily rich in mollusks. of

which 31 species belong

of

Behring Sea, 14

10, peculiar

to the

however not a few peculiar

As many

as

70 species

species.

The Sea

of

Okhotsk

is

have been found there,

of shellfish

the polar to the general polar or circumpolar forms, 15 to

forms

and

finally

to the Pacific fauna, also

Sea of Okhotsk

itself.

met with upon the American

coasts,

Twenty-one species of crustaceans have been found, is scant information on

5 of these circumpolar, 5 Pacific, and 11 peculiar to Okhotsk. There the fish of the Sea of Okhotsk, but the pisciae wealth of this sea ular the «keta» (salmo lagocephalus)

and «malma»

is

very considerable. In partic-

(salma callaris) are met here in count-

less shoals. It is a natural

consequence of the wealth of the marine

Sea of Okhotsk and of

polar character, that this sea has ever

its

flora

and

fauna

of

the

been the chosen hunting

ground of large marine mammals, swimming hither from the Arctic Ocean.

Among

these must

nautica, numube counted not only several species of seal (phoca barbata, groenlandica, leonina, three species of whale laria and ochotensis), dolphins (phocaena orca, delphinapteros leucas); but longimana). The whalof which only one has been identified with certainty (balaenoptera since be developed here in the foities of the present century, and

ing industry began to

aud have 1847 the American whalers have not given these creatures one single year's rest, in the 14 years bclvreeu owners, ship American of the testimony the to according canied away, 1847 and 1861, blubber aud whale bone

to

the

amount

of

130,000,000

dollars,

employing

SIBERIA.

74

somewhat

annually for the purpose 200 vessels. Under

conditions

different

Behring Sea,

is

since the surrender to the United States of the Russian possessions in America, enjoyed in com-

the States and Russia. It

mon hy

by the ridge of the Aleutian

hounded on the south, that

is

Straits. Situated in

hy means of Behring

more northeni

and separated from the Pacific Ocean

lat.,

channels, Behring Sea

only

whose climate

year than that of the Sea of Okhotsk.

mean annual temperature

Xo

trees.

enough

It is

more marine

to state that in the southern part

of the

agriculture

understand

7°, to

why

working of their marine resources. The water

than that of Okhotsk, but

it

month

is

the islands of Behring

all

upon them, and both these islands and the

possible

is

but

of the

at all

doomed

shores of Behring Sea are incapable of settled colonization, and are for ever restricted to the

Okhotsk, seasons

is still

of 3°, the average temperature of the coldest

a Uttle below zero, and that of the hottest

Sea are devoid of

between 52° and 64° N.

latitudes,

hy a ridge of islands interrupted by sea

a type not of a close mediterranean sea like that of

is

of an ocean sea open at both ends,

sea with a

on the side of the Pacific

is

and on the north communicates with the Frozen Ocean

islands,

flora of

cannot be called alsolutely poor, and

it

Behring Sea at

is

any rate

be

to

poorer

is

incom-

parably richer than the flora of the Siberian coast of the Arctic Ocean.

Thanks

V :,ich ':

once used to

these shores in countless numbers, in particular the islands of Behring Sea,

of.

these visitors was,

till

commencement

the

known by

mal. 35 feet in length and weighing 50,000 pounds, Stelleri), first

Steller;

alist

mammoth

the

The

of this century, the huge ani-

name

the

of the

seacow (rytina

described by the highly talented fellow traveller of Behring, the Russian naturthis

enormous beast has now entirely vanished from the face of the earth,

of the prehistoric age

seacows were

last

fish,

Okhotsk has always been a splendid feeding gi'ouud for marine animals,

visit

most interesting

Lie

and

circumstance and to the abundance of mollusks, crustaceans

to this

this sea like that of

killed

and the

gi-eat birds

moa

dodo and

in

more recent

like

times.

on Behring island, one of the most remarkable islands in

the

world, alike from a geographical and from a natural history point of view, in 1780, According

however cows

or

lion

in

to information gathered

last

as late as 1S55.

visitor of the islands of

«sivuch» (eumetopias Stelleri Less.) has

individual specimens.

still

by Xordenskjold the half-castes

Another

On

now become

the other hand Behring Sea

Behring island saw sea-

rare

so

that

only

is

it

lutris L.),

is

the so-called

which in zoological respects has nothing

in

Kamchatka

common with

otter (Intra), but belongs to a genus of animals analogous to the

Of the remaining marine mammals the same occur namely species of

Some kinds

islands

seals, dolphins

of fish as for

in

One other

is

or sea beaver (enhydris

the genus beaver (biber) or

morse (trichecus rosmarus).

Behring Sea as

and whales. Behring Sea

in

that

of

also extraordinarily

Okhotsk,

abundant in

example herrings, cod and gwyniad, appear periodically

and shores of Behring Sea from April

to

seen

and especially Behring islands are

rich in seals (otaria ursina), of which annually from 10,000 to 50,000 are taken.

very valuable visitor of the Behring islands

fish.

of

Behring Sea, the so-called sea

off

the

July in countless numbers. Finally, upon the

shores and islands of this sea breed several kinds of land fur animals,

as for

example river

beavers, otters, arctic foxes, foxes, sables and muskrats.

Possessing such extremely unfavourable conditions, not so graphical situation as of

its

climate,

the

Okhotsk-Kamchatka

much on account

region,

being

of its geo-

included

among

THE USSUm-LITTOEAL TRACT.

75

the hyperborean countries, has a quite insignificant population. Its 35,000

a

little

more than one

to the square

20 per cent

inhabitants

makes

geographical mile, the number of the Russian contingent

Half of

the

Russian people

are distributed through small towns, containing 11 per cent of the inhabitants

of the country.

not exceeding 7,000, or

The

of

the

total

population.

native tribes consist of wandering Chukches, Koriaks, Kamchadals, Lamuts, and reindeer

Tunguz. Evidently, the whole Okhotsk-Kamchatka country, like the neighbouring Yakutsk region of Eastern Siberia, is absolutely

unadapted

to

premanent agricultural colonization and possesses

the very smallest capacity for settlement, which can only be protection and regulation of the sea industries.

._^<^.

enlarged

by the

development,

76

SIBERIA.

CHAPTER

VI.

The Kirghiz Steppe Region. mountaiu and steppe

territories; orography and hydrogi-aphy of each; climatic fauna; composition and distribution of the population in the mountain and steppe zones; importance of cattle breeding to the native population.

Its division into the

conditions; vegetable covering;

THE

Kirghiz steppe region in an administrative sense forms the steppe Governor-Generalship

and

is

composed

a geographical sense

of three territories, Akmolinsk,

Semipalatinsk

and

occupies the southern part of the river region

it

Semirechensk. Irtysh

of the

In

and the

basins of several central Asiatic rivers, not possessing sea communication, but either falling into

Lake Balkhash,

Hi and other rivers of Semirechia, Lake Issyk-Kul and Ala-Kul or

as the

losing themselves in the sands or steppe marshes.

The whole Kirghiz region occupies a space

may

be divided into

tw^o

mountain

parts,

Semirechensk tenitory, except the Sergiopol

25,000 square

of

The former

and steppe.

geographical miles and consists

and of the Zaissan

district,

whole

the

of

district of

Semipala-

and occupies 7,000 square geogi-aphical miles, the latter comprises the whole remaining

tinsk,

space of 18,000 square geographical miles.

To

the mountain zone belongs the gigantic Russian western Thian-Shan with the exception

of its western prolongations,

which cross over

into the

the Sayan-Altai mountain system, the Thian-Shan at arate mountain ridges partly parallel to each other, of

a

tier

slightly

a

little

opened north

In

fan.

of

42° N.

main

the lat.

is

range

the highest

Turkestan Governor-Generalship. Like

its

western extremity branches into sep-

partly

the

of

peak,

spreading

out

the feathers

like

Thian-Shan on the Chinese fron-

mount Khan-Tengri,

lifting

above a whole group of gigantic snow-clad summits and reaching an altitude of 24,000

The

glaciers descending from the

of the Tekes, that

Lake Balkhash, on

is,

the head stream of the chief river of Semirechia, the

and yet again, the head waters

little

the

river Parim,

the lakes

of

the Sary-Dzhaz,

which has

its

Hi,

falling into

source on the northern

but breaks through a defile in that range on

further to the west,

springs from

feet.

feed, on the one hand, the upper waters

the other hand, tributaries themselves feeding the hollow of lake Issyk-Kul.

slope of the Thian-Shan, falls into

Khan-Tengri group

itself

belonging

to the

the river Xaryn,

lying

on

the

system of lake Lob-Kor.

the

extensive

head alpine

its

At

southern side and the

same

time, a

waters of the Yaxartes or Syr-Darya tablelands

or «sazas;> of the Thian-

THE KIRGHIZ-STEPPE EEGION. Slum,

at

shews

a

southern

hy

height

a

to

feet.

into

forms

these

of

13,000

branch

of

tendency

Chinese

the

valleys,

longitudinal

From Khan-Tengii,

which

in

of these separate ridges consist

flow

the

parallel

from

separated

is

already

range

each

more

the

The

other.

and Naryn.

Sarydzhaz

rivers

to

northern

The

crests

uninterrupted series of snow-clad summits, the passes

an

of

and

frontier

Thian-Shan

the

almost

lying

ridges,

77

between which attain an absolute height from 10,000

and are very rugged.

13,000 feet,

to

Finally, the northernmost ridge of the Thian-Shan descends into the long deep valley stretching

from west

to east

5,300 feet.

But

the

of

snow a double range, that of the Zailisk

and

large

lake

beautiful

Issyk-Kul,

of

connected

is

At

with

very

its

Thian-Shan by mountain spurs

the

centre

it

reaches

a

over a considerable part of the Zailisk Altai the passes over both

The

of 9,000 feet and are very difficult to climb. to the

in

is

splendid

line,

and

its

at its eastern extremity,

which

falls into

it,

within

further to the

of

extreme limit of 10,000

from the

Narym range

the Thian-Shan and of

the

feet.

and of the Black Irtysh

lying at a height of 1,356 feet,

divides Tarbagatai

The mountains

Altai system.

still

stretches the Tarbagatal range also clad in eternal snows, and

lat.,

Lake Zaissan

of

of the Thian-

acclivity

northern side the Semirechensk

parallel to the general direction of the Thian-Shan, reaching an

The deep hollow

ridges attain an altitude

its

immediate connexion with the Thian-Shan. Finally,

north, in parallel 47° N.

at its

height of 15,000 feet, and

northern

broad steppe valley of the Hi, but upon

range or Dzhungar Altai rises again to the snow' Chinese territory,

a height of

at

two parallel ridges by a longitudinal valley, the chain

split into

is

which

Altai,

northern depressed extremity.

Shan descends

situated

further north than lake Issyk-Kul rises also above the limits of eternal

still

of the southern ridge of the

two Altai consist mainly of

the crystalline rocks, granite, syenite, gneiss, diorite, porphyi-y, and of the metamorphic rocks, crystalline schist; but volcanic rocks

have so far not been seen

the

in

Thian-Shan.

the mountain slopes are also found rocks in beds lifted up by the crystalline formations.

were met with

fossils

namely

are

Jurassic,

they

in the stratified rocks

the paleozoic formations

the

of

found

the Turkestan territory.

in

At

devonian

betray

the fact that the latter belong

and carboniferous systems.

the continuations

and

Upon

Wherever

offsets

of

to

Secondary formations,

Thian-Shan range

the

in

the foot of all the mountains described extend zones excellently

watered wherever there are snow peaks, and covered with a

fertile soil

by the torrents, de-

scending from them and extremely convenient for agriculture and settled colonization, but not otherwise than with the aid of artificial irrigation.

they level,

occupy

a

submountainons

of

tract

Unfortunately,

an elevation of 1,800

in the Issyk-Kul valley even attaining 7,000 feet, above

reaches

its

limit,

ceasing

also

wherever the

mountains

below 2,000

feet,

descend

east,

either

it

should

the

Therefore

extensive

into the hot

lost in

shallow washes

among

narrow;

above

sea

line

and

into «aryks» or irri-

and arid zone lying

fall it

might almost be

of the rivers of Semirechia only the full flowing

Lake Balkhash, bounding

the other quite insignificant streams,

become

over

are

feet

below the snow

away

being absorbed by the sands or rapidly evaporating,

said into the atmospheric ocean.

Hi reaches as

passing

5,000

which the cultivation of grain

accordingly do not feed any torrents. Moreover these streams lead gation canals, become quickly exhausted, and

these zones to

this

region on the north-

Koksu, Karatal, Bien, Aksu, Baskan and Lepsa, the sands, or like the last named, in the impene-

SIBERIA.

78 trable reeds of the shore of

its

at least 1,000 square geographical miles

and unfruitful space

the foothill zone which, from

south-eastern shore line a desert extent.

in

absolute height, irrigation and

its

up and retreating from

lake, gradually drying

Lake Balkhash. This

the suhmountainous region, has left between the latter and

soil,

may

Thus,

that part of

be regarded

an

as

area suitable to colonization, scarcely amounts to more than 1,000 square geographical miles,

even reckoning in the valleys adapted to cultivation.

The suhmountainous zone Shan and

Altai,

that

fact

is

the

Kirghiz steppe region, extending between the Thianis

remarkable also on account of the

a great part in the history of the great migration of peoples, beginning

played

it

of

almost the best part of Siberia, and

Huns

with the movement of the

to the

west already in the second century before Christ and

with the great Mongolian irruption of the thirteenth century. All the national migra-

ending

tions starting

from the interior of Asia were caused by the fact that the nomad population the limits of the capacity of the country, and

of Central Asia gradually increasing reached

then was compelled to seek an exit either to the far east into the rich and fertile plains of the Chinese Empire, or to the far west, at

ing

the

the

Si-Khai,

^distant west», that'

Europe. But as the elevated region

first is,

is

later, turn-

south,

entirely impossible for

depression

is

shut in by

nomads moving with

in the history of national migrations of those three

all

such

lofty

ing

are, the

wide valley of the

wide and convenient intervals, which are

between

Tarbagatai

Hi between the two Altai, the depression Altai

evident.

is

surround-

and Tarbagatai, and the Circumzaissan

the

Semirechian

and

the Altai. These three intervals in the mountains served as

Lake Alacul, between

plain

mountains,

the importance

their herds,

situated between the Thian-Shan and the Altai in the region under consideration,

These gaps

into

Hima-

of Central Asia between the Thian-Shan and the

laya range on the side of the Aral-Caspian

whose passage

and

into the Aral-Caspian plain,

the Caspian Sea, on the north or

wide gates for the exodus of the nomads with the low-lying plain, now called the Kirghiz steppe.

The

steppe district of the Kirghiz steppe region differs entirely from not only the zone

just considered, but also

from the neighbouring Western Siberian

unlike the latter in that

it

does

not

an absolute

present

level.

The Kirghiz steppe

plain.

On

the contrary

it

considerable extent intersected by low, but very prominent mountain ridges and masses,

most part of granite,

sisting for the

diorite,

diabase,

porphyry and

other

is

for a

is

conrocks.

crystalline

Granitic mountains rear themselves above the steppe in the form of crests, while the porphyritic are

arranged for the most part in groups of cupola-shaped summits, the resulting

being a very

varied contour.

extreme scantiness of

which only occurs

its

The steppe character

watering and in the

the

Kirghiz

almost complete

in the north-western corner of the

the Akmolinsk Territory.

of

steppe

Kokchetavsk

steppe

L-tysh, while through the north-western flows a large tributary of the

is

same

All the other rivers of the steppe as for example the Nura, Sary-Su, and

The low mountain

district

of

watered

by the

river, the

Ishim.

Chu bear the character

of sluggish prairie streams, disappearing in overflows, which rapidly evaporate

waste.

effect

appears in the

absence of forest vegetation,

in the

Only the north-eastern portion of the

country

in

the sandy

ridges, intersecting the steppe, contain various minerals, such as cop-

per and argentiferous lead ores. In the Kokbekta district of the Semipalatinsk territory occur deposits of gold.

But the absence of

fuel places

mining industry here under unfavourable conditions.

THE KIRGHIZ STEPPE EEGION. The greater

part of the steppe

few oases adapted

Kirghiz steppe region

ouly suited to the existence of nomads, as

is

to cultivation

and colonization. The climate of the

tural zone of "Western Siberia, but

2° higher

is,

than in

— 18.5°,

in the neighbouring

in 51°

and

N.

SO^/a*'

The temperature

Siberia.

contains very

it

portion

steppe

the

of

cultivated or agricul-

more continental. The mean annual temperature

still

Akmolinsk and Semipalatinsk lying

month

warmer than

considerably

is

79

winter

in

from 2°

lat., is

is

—

that

16",

in

2.5 Celsius, that

to

the

of

coldest

almost identical with the Western Siberia agricultural zone. But the average

summer temperature,

rising as high as 20°

and of the hottest month 22°,

than in Western Siberia. The difference of temperature in summer

that between the hottest and coldest months, 40°, are greater than in

mean temperature AVestern Siberia.

period

vegetative

five-months

of the

On

more considerable

is

and winter,

Western

also

The

exceeds

considerably

(18°)

hand the amount of atmospheric precipitation

the other

36°, as

Siberia.

that

of

in the course of

fall to

the three

summer

months, and in Semipalatinsk 186 millimetres, of which 80 are in summer.

Still less

moisture

the year in

122

which only 16 millimetres belong

millimetres, of

which 166

may

There the

the Turgai bordering on this country.

in

of

southern part of the steppe, of which an idea

falls in the

taken

Akmolinsk only reaches 229 millimetres,

be formed from the observations

to the

summer. In the

or Bed-Pak-Dala, lying on the southern frontier of the steppe on the

rain

at

all

in

Chu, there

river

is

Hungry-Steppe

Evidently there being no possibility of irrigation, as the

summer.

very shallow, this zone

is

course of the year

fall in the

is

river

no

Chu

nothing but a dead wilderness.

is

Incomparably more favourable are the climatic conditions of the submountainous region.

According

to the

derived from the observations

averages

in the foot bills of the Transilian Altai

is,

temperature

summer

22°,

is

9°

winter

in

Celsius, that

only

in Yierny and

—

that

6°,

of

the

mean annual temperature of the hottest

is

36°.

month

21°.

is

The

and coldest months

winter

7-5°, of

difference

Almost as mild

why

in this

27°.

—

5°, of

growing.

namely 226 millimetres, and

which

is

most capable

are

placed

all

foothills at

The

vegetation ceases; above

Russian

spreads

greatest

summer

20*^,

and between the

afford a sufficient explan-

in

is

anywhere in

in

reference

colonies

the

summer 115

millimetres.

luxuriant and extremely varied,

above another and exhibit

resemblance

an elevation of 2,000

of development

the

Here the

best in Russia.

of the submountainous region

perfectly different types of vegetation.

which

6°, of

25°,

of

28^

of the five-months vegetative period

The mild winters

so that the climatic zones are there disposed in layers one

presented by that of the

—

is

Vierny has a precipitation of more than 560 millimetres

Such a climate may be counted among the

The vegetable covering

is

10",

Kopal,

of

Altai.

gardening possible, which does not exist

is

a year, of which most falls in spring,

more

month

the coldest

The average temperature

country not only

Siberia, but even grape

the

—

the climate

is

between winter and summer

21° in Vierny and Kuldzha, and 18° in Kopal.

ation

the annual

month

coldest

situated 2° further north in the submountainous region of the Semirechensk

hottest

Ivuldzha, that lat.,

and of the hottest month 2&\ The difference between summer and winter

between the coldest and hottest months

that

made

and the Thian-Shan about 44° X.

zone of

of

the

alpine

to

to

the flora

of

that

is,

7,500 feet,

civilized

country.

to

and settled

At

7,500

meadows, while

feet

Russia

is

that part

and

life,

the

below 2,500

in

forest

feet the

SIBERIA.

80 watered

scantily

character

the

takes

country

under

of the region

portion

steppe

the

of

consideration.

The

forest

growth of the suhmountainous and mountainous zones, from 2,000

Among

the conifers upon

kind of

fir,

feet in altitude is not very varied.

and

Thian-Shan occurs a

the

Fisch., hut

Schrenkiana

fine

which has proved

which Russian

the

(juniperus pseudosahina

more often adhering

Fisch.)

is

to

hoth the

of

Himalayan

of the

7,500 Altai

named picea

have

hotanists

same as one

to he the

character of a tree

(ahies Smithiana Bed.). Further

form of thick and lofty hut very crooked

the slopes

species

possessed hy the kind of juniper

to the rocks, hut at times rising in the

trees, as for

example

in the

Buam

Of the deciduous species here occur the common hirch (hetula alha

defile.

L.), the scented

poplar

(populus suaveolens Fisch.), a low kind of maple (acer Semenovii Reg.) almost identical with That of the not

Amour

met with

in the wild state

are

(acer ginnala), the

common rowan

very good

common European

The shrubs

fruit.

species, as for

(pyrus

aucuparia

the

L.)

wild

apple

and the apricot (prunus armeniaca L.) producing even

in Siheria (pyrus mains)

are

somewhat more

Among them

varied.

example, sallow-thorn (rhamnus catharticus

L.), a

there

bramble

(rubus caesius L.), two wild roses (rosa pimpinellifolia D.C. and rosa cinamomea L.), the snowball tree

(viburnum opulus

L.),

honeysuckle (lonicera xylosteum and coerulea

L.),

species

of

willow (salix nigricans Sm. and salix purpurea L.), and of the conifers, ephedra vulgaris Rich,

and juniperus sabina

I).

There are

prostrata Lab.),

Caucasian species, a cherry (prunus

also

gatten tree (cotoneaster numularia Fisch.), currant (ribes petraeum

and one species

Wulf.),

rhamnoides L.

occurring in Finland and the extreme north of Russia and Siberia, hipophoea

The

Siberian

crophylla,

altaic species include, rosa alpina L., crateaegus

W., lonicera hispida

L., salix sibirica Pall.

Pall., lonicera mi-

sanguinea

But most interesting of

are a few local

all

forms, a traveller's joy (clematis soongorlca Bge), berberry (berberis heteropoda Schr.), spindletree

(evonymus Semenovii Reg.), a rose (rosa platyacantha cultivated

of the

mountainous

zone

Russia. Of Asiatic species half occur in the Altai-Sayan

and rheum spiciforme Royl.) belong to the Himalayan iar to the local flora. Especially

upland

two

three species, dracocephalum heterophyllum Benth. and

Schr.).

Of the herbaceous plants

to species

70 per cent belong

flora

also

or

in

rhubarbs

found in European the

Siberian plain;

(rheum Emodi

Wall,

and more then 50 species are pecul-

these are a few crow's foots (ranunculus soongoricus

among

Schr. and aquilegia lactiflora Kar.), astragals (astragalus leucocladus Bge. and oxytropis mer-

kensis Bge,), compositae (cousinia Semenovii Reg. and cousinia uncinuata Reg,), of the calyci(pedicularis Semenovii Reg., eremonstachys Sewertsovii, Herd.) and finally

floreae

bulbous plants, as heningia robusta Reg, cultivated

hemp

plants are

met with growing

It is

wild,

remarkable that as

for

in this

some beautiful

zone a few European

example rye (secale cereale L.) and

(cannabis sativa L.).

Quite different

is

the character of the

vegetation

on

the

luxuriant

meadows

no forest growth, only a few shrubs forcing their way

Alpine zone. Here there

is

here their highest limit.

Among them

especially remarkable are

in,

of

the

reaching

two strange forms of acacia

(caragana jubata Pall,) and a second species undescribed, which with their thickly

clustered

foliage and hard woody stalks sticking upright and furnished with long needles, resemble 'the tails of

some large animals, such as the camel. Their dense pale grey leaves

bi-autifully divided as

THE KIRGHIZ STEPPE REGION.

and papilionaceous flowers tender yellow in the case of one species and pale

in all acacias

rose in the other are a strange of the Thian-Shan.

to these

bushes so characteristic of the

(spiraea), potentilla fruticosa L., one

species

and one of tamariks (myricaria Davurica Ehr.), currant

neaster),

The

Pall.).

charm

Alpine

zone

Of the other bushes the following Siberian Altaic species attain the alpine

meadow sweets

zone: two

81

local forms are

(ribes),

of gatten-tree

(coto-

willow (salix Sibirica

two species of honeysuckle (lonicera humilis Kar. and L. Karelini

Bge.) and one currant (ribes heterotrichum Mey.). The Alpine herbaceous flora attains here a peculiar luxuriance and variety, with only 15 per cent of general European and 15 per cent of

Caucasian plants. Of the remaining 70 per cent

of Asiatic species

more than half are met

with on the Altai-Sayan «bieloks» and «golets», 7 species on the Himalayan range, while not less

than 70 species form a speciality of the local

in the Alps of Central Asia.

corydalis Gortchakovii

The

7 species are:

Schr., oxytropis

indicum Lindl., gentiana Kurroo Royl.

flora

and probably

anemone Falconeri

Th.,

will be found again

only

anemone micrantha KL,

Kashemiriana Camb., sedum coccineum Royl., carum

Among

the 70 species referred to the most remarkable

are: one species of aconite (aconitum grandiflorum Kar.), a beautiful species of fumitory,

re-

22 new species of astragals, mostly

cently adopted for cultivation, (corydalis Semenovi Reg.),

of the genus oxytropis so characteristic of the Asiatic Alps, several thick-leaved plants (umbilicus alpestris Kar.,

peucedanum

Semenovi Reg., sedum gelidum

umbilicus

transiliense Reg.

ite cotton-thistles (as,

and Semenovia

Schr.),

umbelliferae (for example,

transiliensis Reg.), ten

cirsium nidulans Reg. and cirsium

new

species of compos-

Semenovi Reg., sanssurea

glacialis

Herd, and sorocephala Schr., alfredia nivea Kar., jurinea suffruticosa Reg.), a beautiful species of

primulaceae (cortusa Semenovii Led.), species of gentians (gentiana Olivieri

Oris., swertia

margi-

nata Schr.) and some beautiful bulbous plants, as crocus alatavicus Sem., orithya heterophylla Reg., fritillaria pallidiflora of

Schr.,

fritiliaria Severtzovii

Reg. and 5 species of onion (allium),

which one (allium Semenovii Reg.) covers the «sazas» or elevated Alpine meadows of the

Thian-Shan with

its

large golden yellow flowers. It is from

the Thian-Shan received

The vegetation

its

name

Chinese

of

characteristic

this

species

that

Tsun-Lin or Onion Mountains.

of the lower steppe zone of the submountainous region, below 2,000 feet,

approaches the type of the flora of the whole steppe territory of the Kirghiz region, in other words, to that of the Aralo-Caspian depression. This vegetation in the Kirghiz steppe region in the highest degree peculiar

and

distinct,

and Siberia, but with that of their steppes. In the intensity of the

As

summer

heats,

the

is

compared not only with that of European Russia it

are clearly reflected the climatic conditions;

severity of the winters and the absence of moisture.

already stated there are no forests, particularly no conifers in the Kirghiz steppe, with the

exception of the Kokchetav

district,

but trees grow along the courses of the rivers. Here be-

long: a particular kind of ash (fraxinus potamophylla Herd.) and four kinds of poplar, populus laurifolia Led., populus nigra L., populus euphratica (01.

European

sorts

tall species of

of

(salix

fragilis

L.,

and

p.

purpurea L.,

characteristic for the steppe flora

often covered with a gray or silvery

crookedness.

s.

pruinosa Schr.), as also three s.

viminalis L.)

and

a

very

barbeiTy with roundish rose-coloured berries (berberis integerrima Bge).

Much more prickly,

willow

They belong

foliage

are

its

low growing shrubs,

frequently

and not seldom characterised by their

to the families of rues (rutaceae),

haplophyllum Sieversii Fisch. and 6

SIBERIA,

•

§2

tamarix

discantha

rlbes

Lam., sphaerophysa

W.

hispida

alopecuroides

and myricaria

Among them

than 40 per cent of European species, and they for the most part belong,

and capillata

pennata L.

feather grass (stipa

of

the exotic family of ba-

to

the Mediterra-

of

Russian

besides plants occuiring all over the Aralo-Caspian depression,

Shrenk, Semionov, Sie-

explorers of the steppe flora of the Kirghiz region, such as Karelin, vertsev,

and Baron Osten-Saken, have discovered here as many

teristic

of this flora,

among them 30

The following forms

lacege).

two spe-

forms of European

to the steppe

L.),

Russia, or like the curious plant of the sandy deserts belonging

Further,

megacarpffia laciniata D.,

are

(poly-

are not more

like the

lanophorese (cynomorium coccineum L.) are met with on the sandy shores

nean Sea.

(ribesiaceae),

buckwheat

and two atraphaxis.

species, a calligonum

characteristic are the steppe herbaceous plants.

Yet more

currants

Sclir.;

solanum (solaneae), lycium turcomauicum Fisch.;

Pall.;

new

goneae), three

cies

Pall.,

salsula

Sieversil Fisch.; roses (rosaceae), Hultheimia berberifolia Pall.; tamariks (tania-

ammodendron riscineae),

argenteum

halimodendion

leguminosae,

latifolium Kar.;

of

species

particularly worthy of mention,

physolepidium

repens

new

as 150

charac-

species,

astragals alone, and 10 salicornias (salsovesicaria

leontice

Bge.,

acanthophyllum spinosum Mey,

Schr.,

and

paniculatum Reg., orobus Semenovi, Reg., alhagi camelorum Fisch., eryngium macrocalyx M.,

Semenovi Kar., and coronata

sieversi Fisch., streptorhempus hispidulus Reg.,

Schr., echenais

Semenovi Reg.

non-climbing bind-weeds (convolvulus

and subsericeus

bulbous

Schr.),

Schr. etc.);

otolepis

plants,

5

new

elymus

Fisch.

(Seme-

statice

soongorica

species of spurge (euphorbia), irises (iris

Karelini

rhinopetalum

characteristic gi-asses (gramineae), as

physochlaena

Schr.),

Semenovi Reg., eremostachys sanguinea Jaub. and rotata Schr.); 4 species of

uon Herd,

saussurea

amplicaulis Kar.,

caspica Led., acanthocephalus

dipsacus azureus Schr., karelinia

and 4 species of onions; finally some

lanuginosus Fr.,

soongorica Gris.,

nephelochloa

aelorupus intermedins Reg. et cetera. of the invertebrates in the Kirghiz steppe region

The fauna as the flora. is

The

On

striking.

that of the

to that of

desert

of

brionidae,

and

zone

Turkestan the

steppe

without

are

steppes

presents

is

zone,

quite

but

beyond doubt that the

of

and the Pamir.

wings

met with

among which

it

as peculiar and original

is

and that of Western Siberia

it

a

Aralo-Caspian

different

Among

throughout

this

fauna

and

bearing

a

whole of

it,

occur

numbers, while here

are very rare mountain forms

close

the

sluggishly

On

from

little

fauna

of

the

resemblance

the coleopterous insects not only of the the

under their hard coherent elytra, predominate.

in smaller

very

The

depression.

character,

European Russia

differs

zone of the Thian-Shan and Alatau the tenebrionidae,

the mountainous steppe,

other hand

the

deserts

submountainous

between

difference

sandy

moving tene-

the contrary, in

who

like

the

dry

numerous kinds of carabidae,

characteristic of the Central

mountain-

Asiatic

ous zones.

Of the vertebrates a

gi-eat

number

of

birds

come during winter from the

and nestle in the steppe and submountainous regions. The ornithological fauna of is

especially rich.

beautiful

sorts

of

birds, native of the

In the Asiatic

warm

valleys

pheasants;

exist

on the

different

rivers

Mediterranean basin, among which

species of fowls,

and lakes are

covies

is

as

found a

far north

this region

also

the most

gi-eat variety of

of pelicans;

and on the

THE KIRGHIZ STEPPE REGION. Alpian

zone,

uumbers of mountainous

83

the gTeater part of which are natives of the

birds,

Asiatic mountains.

Even the fauna

of the

mammals

much

is

tiger and the irbis (felis irbis) reach the

richer and more varied than in Siberia.

northern

of

limit

their distribution

in

of Balkhash, but occasionally stray northvs^ard into the neighbourhood of the Alatau.

occur in

zone,

of bear belonging to the

two species and

the submountainous

all

in the

Thian-Shan

zones of the

alpine

cribed by the Polii,

Wild boars

and Transilian Alatau. There are

Pamir and the range

isabellinus). Besides the «arkhar» (ovis argali),

of the

extremely

Himalai (ursus thibetanus

common

in the alpine

Thian-Shan and both Alatau, the kochgar, a mountain sheep

celebrated traveller,

Marco

Polo, and

The reeds

the

subsequently

called

and subfirst

des-

in his honour, ovis

from the horns and skeletons found in abundance on the Pamir, breeds in the wildest

parts of the Thian-Shan. This species

most recent Russian

was long considered

by the

discovered

extinct, until

Semionov, Sievertsov and Przhevalsky.

travellers,

In

mountainous

the

zone of the submountainous region also breed the cervus pygargus, capra sibirica, several species of csaiga» (for example

antilope subguttnrosa) and the

porcupine

while

(hystrix),

steppe

the

zone contains «kulans» (eguus hemionus).

Passing next to man, steppe

it

must be observed that the

region amounts to 1,860,000 souls, of

whom

whole

population of the

per cent (260,0<^0), and the remainder, 86 per cent, belong to the Asia. Of the latter, the

Tartars

and

Sarts

live

(35,000)

native

principally

manent settlements, the Dungans and Taranch (86,000) employed

in

towns

in agriculture,

are nomads, living almost exclusively by cattle breeding.

predominating tribe of the region, speak a Tiurk idiom, but in motley amalgamation of various

tribes,

the last mass migration of Mongols and

migration, on

mountainous

the

first

who were

region of Asia.

As among

Kirghiz alliance, the Tiurk tribes

nomad

life

number the form

a

Xlllth century by

here, on the road taken

by the great

met with by the wanderers from the

who entered

the people

also be

and Kalmyks

Kirghiz, in

in the

14

Central

and per-

may

effect in their origin

attracted hither

who squatted

spots suitable for a

The

only

of

tribes

reckoned to the settled population of the country, while the Kirghiz (146,000) (25,000)

Kirghiz

immigrant Russians form

the

into the composition

had a numerical preponderance,

all

of the

the Kirghiz adopted

their language, but the various clans and tribes have preserved to this day their clannish and tribal

names, thus betraying their true nationality. The total number of the Kirghiz exceeds

3,000,000 souls, of

Turgai and Ural

Bukeev horde

in

whom

1,470,000 dwell in the steppe Governor-Generalship, 760,^00 in the

territories,

740,000 in Turkestan, and

over

140,000

In the two component parts of the Kirghiz steppe region

the

divided. In the steppe part of the region live 1,000,000 inhabitants,

geographical mile. Russians form here 20 per

because the former Siberian Irtysh

and Petropavlovsk, <;stanitsas»

in

the

home Kirghiz

European Russia.

is

cent,

colony, except

or

three

210,000, large

of

population

making 55 the

towns,

is

unequally

to the

square

population, merely

Semipalatinsk,

Omsk

wholly settled by them, as well as a whole string of Kossack camps or

and hamlets which

served

formerly as

the

fortiflications

of

the

frontier line.

Within the steppe zone there are very few permanent Russian settlements, as suitable spots for agricultural colonies occur here only as rare

and limited oases, and

if

the Siberian Irtysh

SIBERIA.

34

left out of the account, the proportion of the

ine be

Kirghiz steppe will not exceed 2 or 3 per cent.

On

permanent Russian population in the the whole the towns of the steppe zone

contain 100,000 souls or 10 per cent of the total population. Of the towns, actual importance

and

as centres of trade

possess

industry,

only

Omsk

Semipalatinsk

inhahitants),

(34,000

(18,000 inhabitants) and Petropavlovsk (16,000 inhabitants).

The suhmountainous zone Here 860,000 inhabitants

find

of the Kirghiz region is situated under different circumstances.

a place, there being over 120 to the square geographical mile.

Russians form 7 per cent of the total population or 60,009. Adding to them the Tartars and Sarts which have their permanent abodes in the Russian settlements, as well as the agricultural

Dungans and Taranch, the number towns alone dwell Vierny, with

its

inhabitants, alone

25,000

which enjoyed a flourishing existence until

The

distribution of the

the

possesses its

importance

Among

of a true

in the of

all

them

town, and

destruction by an earthquake.

population in the suhmountainous

relation of the fixed population to the

suhmountainous zone according

while

of the fixed population forms 18 per cent,

than 6 per cent of the total population (50,000).

less

and in particular the

zone

nomad, can be made quite clear by dividing the whole zones or levels. The lowest or

to absolute altitude into vertical

steppe zone, the hottest and driest, and in winter the freest from snow, occupies the portions of the foothills lying below 2,500 feet, and is taken up with the winter quarters of the nomads,

who here

find abundant fodder for their herds under the snow. This fodder

such as schismus minutus, crypsis schoenoides, small species of triticum rapidly dry up on the approach of the

summer

heats.

The

is

formed of grasses,

and the like which

true suhmountainous zone, following

with an elevation of 2,500 to something overo,000 feet, includes

all

the fixed settlements and arable

land of the country and represents a level occupied almost exclusively by a permanent population,

which the nomads pass without stopping by

through

summer from

definite roads or tracts,

proceeding in

the winter quarters to their beautiful cool mountain pastures. Before the arrival

of the Russians, the Kirghiz were employed, although to a limited extent, with agriculture in this cultivated level,

their

way

to their

surrended

to

and had here their

summer

them the whole

abandonment by them

as the

by the sale

to

of the of

fields

which they sowed with the aid of irrigation on

With the coming

grounds.

of the

Russian

second level of the country, but

inconsiderable tracts of arable land

Kirghiz

settlers, the

lost

was

nothing

fully

by

this,

compensated

Russian agriculturalists of the produce of Kirghiz cattle breeding; the former

supplying them in turn with grain.

The

third level,

from 5,000

to 8,000 feet in altitude, is

the forest zone, providing a subsidiary industry to the Russian permanent settlements of the

suhmountainous

summer This

is

zone. Finally, the fourth level,

from 8,000 to

pastures, extends

a zone

of alpine

meadows,

upon which the Kirghiz have their excellent

11,000

feet, that is to the limits of eternal

snow.

occupied only in summer almost exclusively by Kirghiz

nomad camps.

The number

pastoral

of domestic

life

of

80 per cent of the population of the

animals bred in the Kirghiz steppe zone,

every 100 inhabitants here

each 100 inhabitants

fall

cattle of a total 1,050,000,

attains

the

maximum

country the

is

reflected

proportion

of

in the

which

to

dimensions for the whole of Siberia. To

100 horses, the absolute number being 1,800,000, 60 large horned and 580 goats,

the

absolute

number being

10,400,000.

Finally,

THE KIRGHIZ STEPPE REGION. even the quota of camels

is

15 head

fact that the Kirghiz steppe region foothills are

capable of affording

area for colonization in its

all

all

Siberia.

to eacli

is

100 inhabitants.

85 This

is

a direct

proof of the

preeminently a cattle-rearing country and that only

its

the conveniences albeit of, a narrow, yet almost the best

And

service to Russia, as only thanks to

this its

same area

of colonization having already

done

development did the Russians become masters of

Turkestan, has even to-day an immense importance for Russia, as the most solid and indestructible

connecting link

between the genuine Russian possessions in Siberia and Russia's

Turkestan region.

--^<^—

86

SIBEEIA.

CHAPTER

VII.

Tenure and use

of land.

The foundations

of land tenure and the forms of land usufruct; the dividing of Siberia and their general character: the northern borderland, the transition zone, the

Into districts

Amour tract; agriculture; sketch of the conditions systems of field culture and rotation of crops; tillage and cost of production of breadstuffs; proportion of seed for different crops; sale of grain and grain prices; agriculture in the steppes and the Amour tract; raising of cattle among the peasants, its extent and importance; kinds of animals, diseases; live stock industry among the Kirghiz. agricultural region, the steppe districts, the of the soil,

THE

whole

belonging to

of

Siberia,

various tribes and classes,

rule are, first of

all,

Altai mining

of the

which

that

alike

is

by peasants of Russian origin or

settled

is

property

the

is

by the aborigines of the country, natives

reckoned as crown land. Exceptions to the general

the southern part of the district

completely uninhabited and that which

Tomsk government which forms under of

and next a

His Majesty's Cabinet,

the

name

series of

small parcels granted and sold in the fifties to various private persons, the lands of the monasteries, of the

town communes,

the vast mass of

Crown

et cetera.

their economical importance.

their property;

But

all

forms of private land holdings are completely

lands, both on account

owners have nowhere started regular management

Private

some exploit their

estates

by means of leasing their land

others have utterly neglected them, drawing from

to the peasants,

given

to

abolition of the west Siberian Governor-Generalship,

discontinue

the

sale

more than 300,000

possess

A

of

Crown

lands.

recent years

an Imperial order ^Yas

Private owners in Western Siberia do not

dessiatines, exlusive of course of the Cabinet lands.

very considerable portion of the lands belonging to the

adapted to

Crown and

to the Cabinet,

under the immediate

almost

exclusively forests

control

and disposition of the Government and the Cabinet which, where there

of so doing,

pastures,

respect

or

regions

not

draw an income from them by

fishing to the

rights

number

of

and

them no revenue whatever.

In Western Siberia the sale of lands to private persons continued until

when, with the

lost in

of their insignificant extent, and as regards

et

cetera.

cultivation,

felling the timber

Another part,

of inhabitants living thereon,

enormous and

its

is

is

a possibility

and leasing the meadows and in extent but insignificant in

capacity for cultivation, namely,

87

TENURE AND USE OF LAND.

urmans, taigas

of the far uorth, consists entirely of

whole

the

of forest),

tundras

(uninhabited expanses

and wildernesses, a part being absolute desert, and apart being

disorderly disposition of tribes of wandering natives.

Finally,

more

agriculture and cattle raising, are in the usufruct of the peasants and of the latter use the laud either

natives.

The

ancient

documents

peasants usufruct

existing

is

extremely varied in

many

now

even

is

The

few peasant communities, and even whole land

is restricted

use them

<,hatchet,

volosts,

mow

by

of the

in intro-

which has already continued during There

results.

remain not a

still

which the existing enjoyment of the

in

working powers and the amount

and harvest, cut timber, catch

and plough may

scythe

their

Government

The peasants dwell upon the CroA'n lands and

within no definite limits.

to the extent permitted

They plough,

activity of the

from showing complete

far

The foundation

native communities.

nature.

its

ducing order into the use of the land by the peasants, several decades,

civilized

on the basis of mere actual prescription, or on that of

great

a

in

at the

best fitted for

lands

the

all

the expression

fish, as

of their capital.

is,

wherever

only

But the greater part of the peasant population use

go:>.

the land within definite limits, although these limits are without complete legal force. Siberia has not yet seen a final land survey, like that which has established the surface allotted to the greater part of the peasants in the

European Russia. Land has been

relations of

of proportion of eighteen dessiatines per caput of the male population, according to the returns

convict the tenth census of 1859, with the addition, whenever possible, of three dessiatines for settlers.

In some cases the provisions of land were

ranging from 4

made

each a few villages. In the

cases, for small groups containing

whole volost was surrounded with one common boundary all

for a

whole volost with a population

15 thousand souls, in others separately for each settlement;

to

first case,

which the peasants of

within

line,

in yet other

the territory of the

the settlements were given the right at their discretion either to use the land in

by mutual agreement

or to confine themselves

to separate subdivisions thereof. In

case, such estates were laid out for the settlements by

consequently tance.

lost

completely

territorial unity

its

Government surveyors, and the

became the

territorial unit.

of the land within each separate territorial unit,

at

This

the most various forms.

upon the natives.

it

is

indeed comprehensible,

to a considerable degree, are conditioned

yet

the relative supply

of

land; and

in this

Side by side with localities where there tion

can

till,

government, land really

But

there

not fit

are, especially

a few

places

in

where

for agriculture, per

respect is,

even

this

principle

single

if

in

not

presents an extraordinary variety.

now, much more land than the popula-

are not

in

more than

male inhabitant. There

are,

particular in the Tobolsk six to eight

finally,

the tillable land has to be created by means of artificial irrigation, the removal of the superabundance of water.

was clothed

by the density of the population and

Western Siberia and there

was

at all times and

for the forms of land tenure,

Siberia till

or less extensive,

with him the communal

any rate in the explored parts of Siberia, brought

principle and even ingrafted

entirely,

more

Russian peasant,

also organized in extremely various ways. It is true, the

in all places,

volost

and preserved only an administrative impor-

the third case, both the volost and the settlement, remained only adminis-

Finally, in

trative units, while the group of settlements

The use

common

the second

dessiatines of

even localities where

or on the contrary,

While furthermore, some places rich

by

in arable

88

SIBERIA.

land suffer from a lack of meadows or from an absence of trees;

suited to agilcultural industry.

could not

then

evident

It is

that

allowing the observation of the development of land usufruct under

an uninterrupted series,

Under such circumstances the high

the influence of the increasing density of the population.

by the investigation of Siberian

interest afforded

history of the primitive forms it is

land enjoyment,

of

most

the

important types

of

the

that

institutions,

perfectly

is

living

from the

spray

intelligible.

Here of course

than in the most general terms,

impossible to refer to these institutions otherwise

characterize

little

These forms in Siberia exhibit

be reflected in the forms of land tenure.

fail to

contrary,

the

pastures, but

and similar distinctions

these

all

on

others,

meadows and

present an unbroken dense forest or are exceedingly rich in

to

corresponding to the principal

use of land,

stages through which the people of the country are gradually passing.

mainly in Eastern Si-

In localities comparatively recently and very sparsely settled, beria and on the Amour,

much resemblance time to form,

may

each

it

mow,

year round,

the

else thereby.

Each

himself structures in the all

owner

the

right

result of such

have

he

is

to

a

refening to his land.

are almost unlimited.

him thereon.

Xo

1,000 or more dessiatines,

average

the

z a

i

in the

becoming

zaimka,

but

mk

a

s,

use as well.

form, the

but

there comes a time

within

v o

1

na

the i

a

The

bounds not

its

may

inheritance,

be

abundance of free lands has rarely

zaimka zaimka of

man

cannot have any

when

to

exclusively upon the

depends

man embraces 500

a rich

60

dessiatines,

grudge

against

there are no more free lands

plat of ground has

occupation

in the

that which lies waste and

Such land passes by

owner occupies 50

nevertheless the growing

Then

zaimka,

his

entered

population and

form loses

its

or free form of land usufruct

left,

at

if

to

poor

rich

man,

he wishes.

any rate of

general total of the

the

immigrants require land for their

raison is

into

and a

the

one prevents him from seizing 1,000 dessiatines or more of the free land,

Every convenient

or

builds

village,

Zaimka,

cattle.

He owns

of the

The

owner.

peasant, 5 to 10 dessiatines; the poor

However

that

one interferes with the occupant in his acts or dispo-

The extent

degree of prosperity of each given

good quality.

not yet had

much land

summer and sometimes

the

building

actually tilling at a given time,

molest

an opportunity of being realized.

as no

so

enclosures,

home

a in

lives

such

sold and leased, although the right in consequence of the

sitions

is

moreover perfectly possible without any buildings.

is

zaimka

to the

which he

only the land,

if

wherein he

surrounding

land

sense of actual land enjoyment,

no one has

As a

even

peasant,

field or forest

the

all

There

power.

where he alone ploughs, mows and pastures his

his sole property,

rights of the

The commune here has

its

put under garden or hedge in as pasture lands, any space he likes,

formed.

are

need to show

no

has

exists,

incommoding any one

without

form of land use which externally presents

a

to homestead, personal land tenure.

or if

plough,

farmsteads

predominates

there

d'etre,

introduced.

and gradually a new

The essence

of this form,

this, that

everyone

has the right only to that land into which he puts his labour, and only so long as

he con-

observed principally in the governments of

tinues to

till

moment he plough

it

it.

The peasant owns

leaves

afresh.

it

to rest,

Tobolsk, consists in

arable land so long as he ploughs

the land

Upon meadow

Tomsk and

becomes free and the

first

it

and sows

it,

but the

comer may occupy and

lands the grass which has grown without individual

labour

TENUKE AND USE OF LAND. is

Everyone mows where he

free.

cuts and preserves for his it

own

Free and

it.

will,

and the hay hecomes the property only of him, who

accessible to all

is

the forest also, and

who has

exclusive use a given portion of wood,

of dead wood, and in general expended his labour upon

member

every

the pastures are also free;

own

The occupation and part of Siberia; but

with

enclosed

to protect

it

from

it

may

seize

Finally,

fire.

over the

cattle

his

may

this purpose, but no one

he

only

with a ditch, cleared

it

community may feed

of the

whole area appointed by the community for plat of pasture for his

89

enclose a

single

exclusive use. free forms of enjoyment of land

till

to-day prevail in the greater

compared with the

of the excess of land,

density

increasing

the

standard of labour, the free form begins to become as oppressive for the immigrant population

had once appeared

as the occupation form

struggle

between the

different

a passage

community,

is

Then

to be.

groups of peasantry,

accomplished

to

a

gi-adually, at the

entering

communal form

the

into

cost

of enjoyment of the

the narrow sense of the term, accompanied with a redivision. This passage begins

with that group of lands of which in each given place there

The

lack.

is felt

regard to those lands, of which

there

of

an abundance in the given commune and

is

demands particularly a great expenditure

whose bringing under cultivation

land

in

ordinarily

comparatively the greatest

and occupation forms, on the contrary, are preserved longest

free

severe

of a

composition of the

in

all

to those

The

of labour.

passage to a re-deal begins sometimes with the ploughed land, sometimes with the meadows,

and sometimes with the

The very forms to

forests or cedar groves.

of repartition

meadows everywhere, and when which are

tribution prevail

completely

European Russia. The principal breaking up of the

to avoid the

Another not

dessiatine. is

met with

there

is

In regard

in Siberia are exceedingly various.

much

comparatively

commune

elaborated by the

from those

distinct

arable land, forms of redisof

distinctive peculiarity of Siberian repartitions is the striving

land into

less characteristic

small

the

lots;

feature

is,

that

latter

it is

seldom less than a

are

not so

much

the area which

taken as the basis for the distribution of the land among the commoners, as the productive-

ness and other

commoner the

is

qualities of the soil,

which determine

its

value for each given owner.

Each

remote

from

allowed to take at his discretion a greater quantity of poor land

homesteads or inconveniently situated, or on the contrary, a smaller quantity of good

land or that which land,

principally

is

the

situated near the house. In the localities where there is little

northern

region of the

agi'icultural

part of the

bolsk, on the contrary, methods of repartition have been established,

with the Great Russia methods equalization which

small

is

and characterized by a

government

arable of

To-

on the whole agreeing

strict quantitative

and

qualitative

attained by breaking up the allotment per head into a large

number

of

lots.

The

lands

belonging to the Crown, peasant

or native,

occupied

or

waste,

cover in

Siberia vast areas measured by millions of square versts and hundreds of millions of dessiatines.

seem

Compared with the few infinite

of millions

millions,

now forming

and the thought involuntarily

more of inhabitants, and

for

European Russia from over population and

the population of Siberia, these expanses

arises that Siberia

many

tens, if not

serve, as

it

can make room for many tens hundreds,

of years

guarantee

were, as a reserve, capable of taking

SIBERIA.

90

from the goYermnents, suffering from a lack of land,

rememhered that almost North America unsuited

and only

to agriculture,

with the

if it

if it

of the north

already

the

unadapted to

absolutely

Xor

Amour

swamps,

vast

may

doomed forever

The proper arable part the

almost

or

where

even

develop

is

by the central

possessed

and

steppe

whole of

the

where but

territories

the remainder presents an expanse

all

remain the scene of Kirghiz nomad

to

or less

mountainous

or

Tomsk governments, almost

be said of the three

entirely,

the more

in

it will

regions

cultivation

this

tundras

life.

however, of their northern

eastern, with the exception,

government of Tobolsk, the Berezov and Surgut

regions, namely, in the

The vast

Siberia embraces at the present time four governments of

and

western

Siberia,

original

of

life.

entirely,

Such a character

insignificant patches are suitable for agriculture, of salt marsh, probably

may

or

cultivation.

the same

country, and

all;

present time

part of the Tobolsk and the northern part of the the

this

is

present

the

spaces

interriverine

remain

for all time to

to cultivation.

along the rivers at

exists

near future, regions,

doomed

are

Siberia

of

and inaccessible

uninhabited

destined by nature for civilized

is

same

are iu the

remembered what

be further

are the climatic and, in general, the natural conditions of the greater part of Siberia,

be clear that only a part of Siberia

he

expanse of British

southern borderlands

its

borders of the United states;

latitude with the northern

surplus population. But

all their

Siberia lies in the same latitude

all

ern halves of those of Tobolsk, Tourinsk and Tarsk; from

districts,

and the north-

Tomsk must be excluded

the

Xarymsk

country; from the government of the Yenisei, the Yeniseisk district; in Irkutsk the districts

Besides

and Verkholensk.

of Kirensk

vable character, and the banks of the

this,

the whole of Transbaikalia

almost

Amour and

the Ussuri iu the far east,

as will be seen, cultivation exists rather iu the future than in the present.

steppe territories agriculture exists and

is

has a culti-

although here

Finally,

in

the

capable of development only in a few parts of the

following districts: Kokchetavsk, Atbasarsk and Petropavlovsk in the Akmolinsk territory and

of

hill tracts

and in the

namely,

versts

population

is

chants and their agents, lation, the density of

the

above

enumerated

the whole Yakutsk territory,

Kamchatka and

zones,

riverine

millions of square

of

here

the

tundras confined

littoral

of the

to

Yakutsk, Kamchadals

and

others,

a

who

three,

consists live

of

for bread

as

it

were

a

uncivilized

zone

bolsk, the southern

of

portion

of

a transitional

Siberia

and

native

exclusively

character.

its

To

mer-

The remaining popu-

Samoyeds,

Ostiaks,

by hunting and

traders.

Between

purely agricultural it

to

and in the territory of Yakutsk

and other provisions furnished by the Russian

absolutely

The

soil.

and

fishing.

produce of these industries partly serves for their own consumption, but mainly goes

ern,

govern-

this consists of

all

swampy

government,

with the native nomads.

than one inhabitant per square mile,

less

Okhotsk Sea;

officials of the local

the

engaged in barter

guz,

districts of the four

the exception of the insignifi-

with

and wildwoods growing on

which moreover does not exceed

even

ter

foot-

of the territory of Semiretchensk.

Xext, the whole north,

Prussian

in the Zaisan district of the latter tenitory

irrigation

artificial

ments of original Siberia, cant

Furthermore, are to be named the

and Pavlodar in that of Semipalatinsk.

in Semipalatinsk

regions

belong, in

this

Tun-

The

in bar-

north-

regions stretches

the government of To-

half of the Turinsk and the central part of the Tobolsk district, as also

:

TENUEE AND USE OF LAND. tlie

northern voiosts of the Tarsk district; in

Tomsk and Marinsk

lands of the in Irkutsk,

tlie

government of Tomsk, the northern border-

districts; in Yeniseisk, part of the district of the

the Tunkinsk country and some other places.

This transitional zone

hy the circumstance that agriculture there attains

ized

development, industries.

extent

their

secure

its

while

dividing

Along the is

part

its

main source

the

as

well-being.

At

development of trapping and

occupy

to

whole

the

same time the

the

and a few household trades.

felling of timber

Russian peasants

are

mingled with more or

of both races no substantial

nut

of lands suitable to cereals but

of the population

still

cutting

the

industry,

of

field to the

and the

fuel

In the population of this transitional zone the

and

less russified natives,

in the

mode

of

life

compose a considerable part of the population

was accomplished comparatively

of the Irkutsk government the natives

30 per cent of the population

;

east,

in

and whose

recently. In the agricultural districts

form about 17 per cent, in the Thansbaikal

still

already

is

insignificant, while

quite

ter-

governments of Yenis-

In the cultivated region of the

and Tomsk the number of natives

seisk

and completely

and waters open a wide

diifercnce can be observed.

Natives, in the main Buriats,

ritory,

character-

less considerable

those portions of the cultivated zone proper of Siberia lying further to the

settlement by Russians

same name;

is

of prosperity with several other

labour

forests

the cedar

fishing,

more or

a

at last

rivers everywhere extend great reaches

insufficient

91

purely

the

in

agricultural districts of the government of Tobolsk they are almost non-existent.

The

chief characteristic

feature

the

of

consists

in

the

predominating importance,

its

as

the

Siberia

of

tract

cultivated

considerable dimensions attained by agriculture and in

fundamental source of the prosperity of the population. The average extent of the sown area per household of the rural population, including under this terra victs,

according to the latest statistical data,

is

peasants,

natives

5.4

des.

»

»

central part

»

»

Tomsk

i>

.

.

5,8

»

»

»

agricultural region »

»

Irkutsk

»

.

.

5.4

»

In the southern districts of the Tobolsk government

and to every 100

souls

of

the

actual

auil

con-

as follows:

population

there

an

is

.

.

sown with

area

grain,

as

below In the southern districts of the Tobolsk government » ;>

The

relation

volost,

»

central part

»

»

Tomsk

»

agricultural region »

>

Irkutsk

between the production and consumption

» ;>

of

and not unfrequently for an individual settlement,

lands suitable for grain growing and their conditions of cultural region not only supports grain.

and

The

its

population,

satisfies its principal

districts of the Irkutsk

des.

87

»

97

;>

varies

of

course

soil.

Taken

as

a

whole,

considerable

on

every

an average crop

per cent of the grain raised; that of the north-eastern corner

of

not the

more

the

the

agri-

surpluses

whence the population pays

wants. According to the latest data the people of

government consume

for

dependence upon the quantity of

but yields very

sale of these surpluses is the chief source

104

.

... ...

grain in

.

.

its

of

taxes

agricultural

than

agi'icultural

about

59

region of

92 the

SIBERIA.

Tomsk government, about 66

34 per

per cent

41 per cent in the

;

And

cent in the second, form saleable surplus.

from belonging to the number of the most ities as the

Altai mining district, the Minusinsk

by the produce of grain to

consumption

its

The

pouds annually.

to 12,000,000

question

in

of

district

more favourable and the

than half of the whole

less

Western

far

government, the

Yeniseisk

the

are

In such local-

Tobolsk government, the proportion borne

yet considerably

is

forms not

of grain, principally spring wheat from

regions

fertile areas of agricultural Siberia.

best volosts of the south-western districts of the

able surplus, on average harvests,

of the said localities, and

first

yet the

Siberia, reached in

total quantity therefore

recent years 10,000,000

grain raised

of

sale-

The export

yield.

in

this

part

of

Siberia forms not less than 85,000,000 pouds a year. It must not be forgotten, however, that

where the land, on account

in the pale of the agricultural tract of Siberia occur such patches

of the

bad conditions of

and climate, cannot feed the population. But such spots are

soil

very small and their population exists upon the

surplus

nearest

the

of

gi-ain

more

fertile

localities.

However zone of Siberia

this is

of cattle-breeding attains a high

may

be, the

entirely so

degree

whole

connected

closely

Trades

the

life

the

banks

of

population

is

great

importance

and

Thus, rivers

is

of

the

shares

either

first

of all

where

a

played by fishing,

the raftage of timber.

of

may

very

service on

In localities

agilcultural

it

with

of

agriculture

out

part

many

in

the

part

considerable

least

But there

Siberia. loses

other earnings

be pointed essential

the tract

position as

its

or even

altogether

localities

lying

economic

life

along of

the

vessels and in the neighbourhood of fine forests,

nearly approaching uninhabited taigas and urmans

great

possessed by hunting, the gathering of cedar nuts, and in the presence of a good

market, the felling of timber.

The

volosts

bordering on such great town

Tiumen, Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk have the character usual little

tide of

settlement.

such regions also where

zone

agricultural

good the population

is

poor, the population ordinarily lives in poverty and not

population

of the

latter.

the land

cultivated

of agilculture and

by natural increase and by the

speaking in general terms, play

the sole source of prosperity yields it to the

alike

in search of better places

and industries

in the economical

are within

away

is

Where

therewith.

and gi'ows

of wealth

immigrant elements; when the land unfrequently dwindles

economical fate of the population of the

determined as a general rule by the condition

for

centres as Tomsk,

suburban regions. Agriculture

is

developed in them or non-existent, and the population lives by market-gardening, dairy furnishing of hay

and wood

summer

farming,

the

works

connexion with the cleansing of the streets and other similar occupations, directly

in

serving to satisfy

the

therefrom to the north-west; small industries occur in

wood

all

The

the

the

of all the

enumerated

caravans

There

in

second

is

situated

villa

residence,

furthermore a few regions

are

largest of these suiTOunds

of

the

town Tiumen stretching

around the town of Tomsk;

other such

the governments of the agricultural tract of Siberia. In all these

are principally manufactured, as also the results of

These products are destined partly to furnish

the letting

wants of the town population.

engaged in household industries.

regions articles of

fuel,

wood

distillation.

for the needs of the local true peasant population,

moving over the great Siberian and other non-agiicultural

earnings

in

the general

tracts.

partly

But the importance

economy of Siberia and

in

TENURE AND USE OF LAND. particular in

agricultural zone

its

Siberian

great

plays,

tract

absolutely insignificant compared with the part which the

is

and

more

still

in

and through

The

enormous.

it,

with China. The

traffic

conveyance of travellers

Formerly when yet there was

former years.

the sole artery uniting European

no communication by steamer, this tract was Siberia,

93

over the tract both

Russia with

summer and winter was

goods, posts and prisoners, local

and

and

officials

bodies of troops, absorbed almost the whole working power of the population along the tract.

Comparatively few were engaged in agriculture in

their

it

principal

The mass

occupation.

along the tract and even

exclusively by the trade of carriers or innkeepers. tract

is

far from being

almost completely

what

killed the

was.

it

summer

population

of the

At

not see

did

almost

the present time the importance of the Irtysh and Obi has

The steamer communication on the traffic

they

exclusively or

lived

upon the section of the tract between Tiumen

and Tomsk, the steamer communication on the Chulym has absorbed a considerable part of the traffic between

even then

Tomsk and Achinsk. The

the traffic

to the tract

profits

is

much

The

population.

been

increased,

have

and

already

is

far from

thrown

latter has therefore

and the population of the tract

future,

wakes up

tract here only

than formerly, and

less

have everywhere

patches

cultivated

now

into

itself

will be

former

the

agriculture, the

further enlarged

still

part

considerable

a

lost

winter, and

in the

yielding

in

of their

former peculiar character.

Here the general description of the agricultural zone far as concerns the outlying

Yakutsk Here

It

almost its

regions,

mention has

already

made

of

all

be permitted to indicate

the importance of the

only

Russian population of the

the

chief source of existence.

whole expanse of these live exclusively

territory is gathered

The three steppe

territories

met

serious importance. of the southern

among

Even

hired from the

the Kirghiz

part of the Tobolsk

peasants,

thereto

territories as already intimated contain cultivable

The attempts

at

who

any near future

at such a passage to

are as a rule quite isolated and

government and who have not unfrequently raising,

cattle

not seldom in horse-stealing;

numerous

horses.

of any

devoid

households in the peasant colonies

settled in separate

exclusively in

oats, in order to feed their

terization are the Kirhgiz

which

along

and which furnishes

serves but as the wandering grounds of the Kirghiz,

the Kirghiz

orthodoxy are also employed

and fishermen.

tract,

by the products of their cattle raising and do not promise

with

territory of

capable of further development. Beyond these the

is

date to pass over into the agricultural or industrial state. agriculture

Lena

As

be closed.

the

as a district absolutely uncultivable and inhabited by native trappers

may

oases where agriculture both exists and

sow

may

of Siberia

been

the

pasturing of cattle

only the more wealthy

The only exception

living in a part of the Zaisan district

accepted

on land

among them

to this general charac-

and upon the

foothills of the

Semirechensk territory, the so-called Kirghiz of the Great Horde and the Dikokamenny, whose life is

woven

of a very curious

combination of nomad existence with very intensive irrigat-

ional agriculture. These Kirghiz too, like the others,

roaming, but from the latter they

wander

off

their lands under tillage in order to water, plough

On

have their places for winter and summer

several times in the course of the

and sow them, and

to

to

grain.

own

agric-

surrendered to them a considerable part of their irrigated lands,

while

the arrival of the Russian population the Kirghiz not only taught them their

ultural methods, but

summer

harvest the

SIBERIA.

94

By

themselves transferriug the centre of gravity of their economy to cattle raising.

doing so

which they lost nothing as the profitable sale opened to the produce of their cattle breeding,

mXh

appeared

them

the arrival of the Russians, fully compensated

for the contraction in the

extent of their agriculture.

Amour

Passing at last the three parts, the

of

first

which

border land,

may

appears that Amouria

it

be

up

split

into

Zeya with the Amour,

situated above the confluence of the

is

reaches of these the second below the confluence of the Bureya, the third between the lower

In the

two streams.

tracts the only lands

first

summer and

times every

the

of

situated on the second terrace

therefore

is

Amour

at

present suitable for cultivation are those the

valley,

ten-ace is inundated several

first

unsuited to either settlement or agriculture. Outside this

scored with gullies valley the region presents partly mountain ranges, partly tablelands to the dense forest covering them, never dry

whose summits, thanks

valleys,

swampy

therefore have to a considerable degree a

burning

question

this

the

in time

that

so

But

tract.

will

latter

in

a

and

at

any rate

aS'ords only an arena for the industry of the trappers

occupation

of

the

The

for sale. of

furnishing

the

to

Upon

the steamers.

adapted to

hay

on

is

mines,

gold

earnings

its

are

much

wider,

not only

here

is

valley suited to agilculture, but also the watershed of the

is

name

and grain

greater,

district, as in the

is

to five dessiatiues per

own

provision but has no surplus

the

carriage

of

goods

and the to

the second terrace of the

Amour

Zeya and Bureya, which has earned

Amour». The population, partly Russian, partly Manchurian,

of the «prairie of the

much denser than

here

The main

population.

and the supply of wood fuel

trapping

fishing,

at the present

absolutely desert and

between the lower reaches of the Zeya and Bureya the zone

section

cultivation

whole secures

the

supplementary

chief

Amour

the

of

is

Sowing on an average four

agriculture.

is

population

local

household the grain

latter

wider and yet wider

undoubtedly take

of rapid settlement,

incapable

is

the whole mountainous part of the locality under consideration

time

the

and becoming suitable for

of the forest, the soil of the tablelands is slowly drying

cultivation,

the gradual felling and

With

character.

and

up properly and

the

in

rest

of the arable land

extent

Amouria, the

of

produced not only for home consumption,

but for sale.

But

much

in this

whole of Amouria, climatic conditions stand in the way of the development

The beyond measure damp and rainy

of cultivation; there is in effect an excess of moisture.

climate has a sinister effect upon both the quality of the gi-ain and upon the raising of live

The

stock.

latter industry

so

far brings hardly any profit to the local population.

development here of cultivation, of

which there

cattle raising

parison

of

his

own

travelled in the

A

still

to

wanted

hope in the future,

either a

Amour

For the

change in the climatic conditions,

or the elaboration of methods of agilculture and

Such a change

in the climate

the Academician Korzhinsky,

observations with the statements

greater

Amouria and indeed impossible

is

suitable to these conditions.

latest explorer of the country,

by the

who

a

is

more

there

made by

was observed

as a result of the

com-

the academician Maximovich,

region thirty years earlier.

excess

of

moisture

is

of the whole of Siberia,

sow grain otherwise than

in

met with

in

the most eastern borderland of

namely in the Ussuri country. ridges

drainage of the water and the free movement of the

leaving air.

Here

it

is

between them trenches for the

The development

of cultivation

is

95

TENITKE AND USE OF LAND.

here

than in the rest of Amouria otherwise than after a preliminary drain-

less possible

still

measures for combatting the excess of

age of the country, or by the adoption of some other moisture.

With

may

this

which Siberia

closed

be

according

falls

main mass

of

to

sources of prosperity of

the survey of the separate

In consequence

the population of Siberia. the

degree of development of the practice of agriculture,

the

and the transition may now be made

for

general economical appreciation of those regions into

the

to

the

of

importance of agriculture

predominating

this population the largest share of attention

must be devoted

to its

description.

The fashion and character

of agricultural production are determined, on the one hand,

by the denseness of the population, the conditions of sale and other similar economical quesand on the other, by the natural and physical

tions,

The density

and climate.

soil

of the population

mainly those dependent on

conditions,

and the climate have been discussed

in the

preceding descriptions. The discussion of the conditions of sale and of the general economical

Here then

situation will appear below.

An

exact

and

exploration of the

scientific

been carried on

only in two

reference

to

country.

These

a

of the soil and

few

soils,

humus

Tobolsk

the

of

few

in a

this direction

cases

only with the determination of samples of

contained, and other more exact methods. In reference to

upon the conditions of the

of

a

whole

the

Railway. Till then superficial

soil exist in

Amour

to the

based upon a

it,

A

awaits a serious investigation.

great

many

it

is

expanse

of

for

Siberia,

its

object

the

localities there

It

may

thus be said

step

will

be made in

soil.

near future when fruit shall be borne by the expedition

the

in

still

by the Ministry of State Domains, having soil

and Tomsk governments and

more rarely by means of the method of subsidence, the determination

that the soil of Siberia

only

government of Irkutsk

the

of

founded upon mere surveys, connected with measurements of the depth

are

exist no published indications whatever

the

accompanied by chemical analyses, has hitherto

regions, in one district

limited

districts

superflcial inspection,

of

necessary to give a general characterization of

is

Barabinsk steppe in the Tomsk government. Further descriptions of the

in the

of the

it

the data existing upon this subject are far from complete.

Unfortunately,

the Siberian soils.

now

projected

exploration of the conditions

traversed by the line of the Great Siberian

only possible to present the most general sketch of these conditions,

characterization

is

possible,

far

from satisfying the demands of a

strict

scientific description.

The

greatest variety and at the

case of the soil conditions of the

ing

agriculture

may,

same time the

fullest

account are

met with

government of Tobolsk. That portion of the

latter

in

and of the conditions

in respect to the situation of its arable lands

the

possess-

of

the soil, be divided into three zones, the northern, lying approximately between the parallels

58" and 59" and embracing the northern parts of the districts of the

Turinsk

and Tobolsk;

the middle zone, lying between 56^ and 58V'^°, and including the southern halves of the above

named

districts, the

whole Tinmen

district

and the northern parts of those of Tarsk, Ishimsk

and Yalutorovsk; and the southern, taking in the southern portions of the districts, the

whole of Kurgansk and Tiukalinsk, and

adjacent to the frontier of the government of Tobolsk.

the strip

of

the

last

named

Akniolinsk

three

territory

SIBERIA.

96

where agriculture

of the zones just described is a region

The northernmost

sporadically. It consists of

part wholly unsuited to tillage and brought under the plough only in narrow to a condition

margins of the larger rivers and owing their conversion their

on the drainage. The arable lands are

influence

river valleys comparatively elevated, and so not subject

being drowned

to

overflow of the rivers; partly on the inclined banks called u v a valley with the

and partly

interriverine space;

flat

yars;

swampy urman. As

regards the

soils, in

in such cases

an argillaceous chernoziom upon the

first is

of all the soUs

sufl'er

yield

to

soils

strips

uutilled

group

first

con-

partly black,

present two varieties;

with a raised contour, the most

from an excess of moisture

a peaty character unable even

soil of

narrow

is

it

;

crops

satisfactory

adapted to sowing oats. Upon the sloping valley sides, or uvals,

a

very

winter

of

soils of

and

poor

spots,

barren

and

rye

the

fertile

The second shows black earth upon the

in the given region.

met with

which are depressed and

The black

localities

not bounded

is

the

the fields belonging to the

prevail very sticky clayey soils, partly gray, slightly tinged with humus,

taining from 10 to 15 per cent of this substance.

to

the

ordinary

by the

which again commence the

of the plateau bordering these yars are cultivated, behind

expanses of the

of

uniting the bottom of the

where the valley

in places

by gently sloping sides but by abrupt precipices or

1 s,

on the

cultivation

on portions

partly

disposed

most

the

strips,

for

fit

hut

exists

unbroken urmans or expanses of forest and swamp, for

only

a more friable nature

predominate, although for the most part of a clayey character, fairly rich in humus and stained dark

brown, upon a reddish-yellow clayey subsoil. These of the river valleys are reputed to be the best.

soils together

Ural

fields

to their situation they are better secured than the others

with the clayey chernoziom

are valued the

more that owing

from unfavourable atmospheric

influ-

have ences. Finally the lands tilled along the yars on the skirts of the interriverine plateaux

humus and capable

a soil very poor in of

manure. They are

of yielding harvests

only by

the liberal

application

partly crumbly sandy tracts in the regions nearest to the Ural with an

appreciable admixture of small stones or

galkas,

partly sour clayey soils of the type pre-

vailing in the localities lying further to the south.

The whole

central

zone of the Tobolsk government presents a perfectly

tersected

more or

less

by wide valleys belonging to

northern

zone,

has

for the

it

different rivers

most part a forest character.

But

plain in-

flat

Like the

and streams.

in contradistinction to the

conifers. Morenorthern zone, forests of deciduous trees, principally birch predominate instead of the total area of less much occupy here yet extensive very although morasses over, the middle zone not than in the northern zone. Hence it is that in the localities situated in the

bordering lands, only are the river valleys suited for agricultural operations together with the but more or less considerable portions also of the interriverine plateaux. raising grain are here

patches these

between

fields

forest

characterised

which clayey

at

woody are

times spread over more or

swampy

or

very

lands

monotonous,

by a very thin layer of stratum five

or

six

unfitted

they are

turf,

vershoks

The lands

suitable for

less extensive tracts, at others

for

cultivation.

The

in small

soil conditions of

almost exclusively so-called

b

i

e

1 i

k

s,

a vershok or vershok and a half thick, under thick of almost unproductive,

light-gray, sour,

lies

a

soil,

farmer superimposed upon a reddish yellow clay. These bieliks fairly useful to the

when manured, without

it

are

very

illsuited

to

agriculture

on account of their properties

TENURE AND USE OF LAND. and are very

when

from

nourishment

derive

only

Cereals

stingy.

97 Ihc

abandon

the

formed. It

twenty

for

field

and more

to twenty-flve

why

clear under these circumstances

is

capable of a feeble development.

layer is

turf

is

only

in the whole of the central zone along

much more

the rivers where the conditions of soil are

new

a

until

and

necessary to

is

it

agriculture upon soils of this kind

concentrated

It is

years,

layer,

turf

superior

the latter becomes exhausted, which ensues after three or four crops,

favourable. It

principally the sloping

is

uvals near the rivers that are brought under the plough; these extend in some instances along

both banks,

in others along

attaining

one only,

case

the

in

more considerable

of

rivers a

The

breadth of several versts with a height above the valley of thirty to forty sagenes. conditions of the uval lands pretty friable,

the subsoil

from

is

not

little

variation;

The thickness

The

soil is

form of great thickness, 10 17 per cent but of

to 12

vegetable mould and therefore more

in

Above the uvals on the

vershoks and more,

and rich in humus,

as

an undoubted peaty character.

fertility, possessing

little

ordinarily

of

tracts

the

the soil frequently passes into a black friable

on the same,

plateau bordering

soil

clayey, the eye;

to

workable layer varies

the

of

richer

the

the greater the depth of the tillable layer.

interriverine

a dark brown and

everywhere

is

with an admixture of large grains of quartz visible

seldom

reddish yellow clay.

five to eight vershoks.

fertile,

is

show

much

Little

as 15 to

ploughing

done within the river valleys, for the most part presenting meadows subject to inundation

narrow that they leave no room

or so

Where however

for agricultural operations.

are tilled, tenaceous clayey soils prevail of the

same types

were described

as

in

the valleys

speaking of

the soils of the northern zone.

But the greatest

the whole absolutely level,

extend small elevations, their length sometimes is

it

of

this

ridges or islands.

many

reaches

steppe

direction of their long axis from

They have extremely

nance of dark browTi, friable

number

a

between which

horizontal section,

in

while their breadth at the level of the horizon

to

a

are

always trend in the

they

verst,

E.KE. and

more than three

not

to four

sloping sides and are distinguished by the predomi-

clayey soils with a heavy admixture

In appearance closely resembling the uval

reddish clay subsoil.

in the highest degree.

of lakes,

Always long and narrow

versts,

W.S.W.

remarkable

is

scattered over with

is

measured by hundreds of sagenes and never exceeds

sagenes in height.

soil conditions

government of Tobolsk, which enters into the composition of the

The contour

so-called Ishimsk steppe.

On

and the greatest variety are afforded by the

interest

of the southern zone of the

of

white

soils of the

sand,

upon a

middle zone, the

upon the islands of the Ishimsk steppe, characterized by the thriving upon them in the

soils

the raising of wheat,

with

lying between the islands,

much more

are

unplougaed state of the wild cherry,

fertile

which they are accordingly

and are particularly adapted

As

chiefly sown.

to

for the flat spaces

they are partly naked salt marsh, absolutely stripped of

all

vege-

steppe over tation or clothed with a typical flora such as salsola et cetera, partly feather-grass

which «k

1

are

ka

s».

scattered,

The

the soil is so-called

a thin layer of

in

scarcely

perceptible

hollows,

spinnies

of

birch

soil conditions of the two classes are absolutely different.

turf.

podsolonok, In the kolkas,

with a decided peaty character.

it

that is

is,

dark grey,

very

and aspen called

Upon

the open steppe

tenacious clay,

black, very deep, but at the

covered

with

same time very bairen,

Both the general

western border in the Kurgausk

its

occupy the greater part of the expanse, and communicate

that they

so

The

rolling character.

sign of

comer

on

upon the islands

soil

excellent quality,

its

eastern soil

conditions of the Ishimsk steppe change a

soil

Upon

east.

and the south-western part of that of Ishimsk, the islands are small, but very

trict set,

and the

appearance

on moving from the west to the

little

the

by

each

on

has

islands

themselves,

evrywhere

is

much

itself

longer,

that the latter here assumes rather a

A

contour very similar to

steppe lying to the east of

flat

with. Further to the east, in the south-

Tiukalinsk,

of

the

much

is

chen-y

other with oblong elevations, ridges or islands.

«knowing the contour of

Upon

steppe

and more abrupt ridges, a clayey precipitous southern sides.

and clayey are

plots

ridges,

cases

As

all

so

is

possessed by the Barabiiisk

one

of

the

latest

determine the

everywhere

Here

for the flat space

to

is

explorers remarks, lying there».

soil itself,

deposited;

upon the

narrow

sloping northern and

ridges possess

chernoziom

partly

district.

hand with lakes and on the

more

be found on the northern incline

between the ridges the more low lying

or covered with a saline efflorescence and

white

vegatation, partly black, covered with a herbaceous growth but equally unsuit-

Upon

raising of grain.

the

thinly,

as in the Ishimsk steppe, the dependence as

is

Some broad

soil.

composed of saltmarsh,

deprived of

ed to the

chernoziom

such

In

on the southern.

soil

Here

close that,

this or that site, it is easy to

the broad and sloping ridges

the

islands

Tobolsk government the eastern half of the

in the

also the horizontal surface of the steppe is sprinkled on the one

soil is so

The

somewhat

are scattered over the steppe

Tiukalinsk district and in that of Tomsk, the south-western half of the Kainsk

between the contour and the

vanishes,

less fertile.

than a rolling character.

that of the Ishimsk

embracing

it,

met

in that

whole a paler tinge and

the

to the latter a

very darkly stained and the wild chen-y, the

is

be

to

of the Ishimsk district and

dis-

thickly-

soil

is

pod

s o

o

1

the more

elevated parts, lying nearest to the foot of the

n o k of the same type as in the Ishimsk steppe

and adapted

to the cultivation of cereals.

In respect to the fertility of conditions

as

its

arable lands the Barabinsk steppe

borderland, and

Ishimsk

eastern

the

in

worse

is

placed in the same

than the western part of the

In the Barabinsk steppe, as in the eastern part of the Ishimsk steppe, the wild cherry,

latter.

characteristic

of

the

best

wheat lands

occur.

Within the Barabinsk steppe

Least

fertile is the

into an expanse of

of the western part of

itself the

the Ishimsk steppe, does not

general level of fertility

is

not without variation.

northern borderland of Barabinsk, where the steppe gradually passes over

urman and swamp. Most

fertile is the

southern

borderland,

embracing a

part of the Barnaul and Bisk districts and reaching to the foothills of the Altai.

From

the eastern frontier of the Barabinsk steppe right up to lake Baikal, including the

eastern districts of the seisk

Tomsk government and

and Irkutsk, stretches

and in

its soil

conditions.

A

lands of the Yeniseisk and

a tract certain

Irkutsk

the whole cultivated portion of those of Yeni-

showing great uniformity both in peculiarity

is

governments,

presented

the

especially

possess a steppe character, with a predominance of chernoziom excellent harvests of wheat.

The whole remaining space has

called the central Siberian p o

1

e s

i

e or forest region.

only

its

general character

by the southern border-

Minusinsk

soils of

district,

which

good quality, yielding

the appearance of

what may be

I

9^

TENURE AND USE OF LAND. the south, the whole of central Siberia

On

and

uninhabitable

almost

locality,

tral Siberian polesie presents,

found

be

to

inequalities

the rivers have washed out in

Where

where the

shows

elevation, and the considerable

flat

Where

deep valleys.

and

itself quite manifestly,

seem

be

to

and not so

as

flat

watersheds.

As

the successful development of agriculture, than a

As

far as regards

any rate of

soil,

character of the locality

flat

occupy only an insignificant part

to the soils of the

is

much

the character of the

with

central

a characteristic feature of the

Siberian

At

in general, dark-coloured soil.

soil is

are dyed a perfect black.

As

in the localities, described earlier,

dry land flora are situated exclusively upon

a

Where

the uvals are more gently sloping, the soil

clayey character,

is

with

spots

is

uvals

humus

and

its

is

its

less

Where

this

soil

The highhigh

a

relief,

bordering the

deeper (from 6 to 8

yet fairiy friable. Both in respect to

cultivation of grain and especially for rye.

vershoks,

physical

its

for

(from 5 to 6 per cent), the thickness of the soil

soil

itself

productiveness perceptibly lower than that of the black

peat.

ness in

humus (15

a vegetable It is

region

is

and grey

more rarely

Notwithstanding the considerable depth (12

tion of grain.

Not

does is

exceed 4 to

not

much more

soils, eariier

soil

now

friable soils

clear

6

tenacious,

characterized.

As

More

composed of humus

16 vershoks and more) and the rich-

adapted to the

cultiva-

speak of wheat, even rye grows badly on them, so that the lands with

are principally

more suited soils of

to

to 17 per cent), the soils of both types are little

to

the

the uvals are more abrupt, the percentage

colour instead of black becomes gray, the

often tenacious, muddy, clayey soils are met with,

ver-

while

qualities

favourable

very

is

and

colour

for the flat interriverine plateaux, there black soils with a vegetable character prevail.

and

the

is

in distinction

here also in the closest dependence upon the contour.

and the degree of abundance of nutritious substances,

of

forest region,

same time,

the

shoks) and richer in humus, (10 to 12 per cent). It has a perfectly black its

to

rolling contour.

affording a free drainage to the water, and consequently mainly on the

preserving

flat

favourable

less

Tobolsk government rich in humus, the chernozioms of this locality do not

possess a brownish tinge but

river valleys.

such a

will immediately appear,

cultivated portion, (in the taiga, tenacious gray clayey soils prevail)

its

predominance of chernoziora, and

quality soils

more

were low mountain ranges.

it

the

full,

and the narrow river valleys

compared with the

composed

is

the locality produces the impression of a hilly

contour, on account of the soil conditions connected therewith,

at

the rivers are well filled

there the general plain character of the locality

watersheds

interriverine

up a

fill

mountains having the form of

offshoots of the

expanses are hardly to be seen, the whole contour

the rivers are less close together

of the space

less

each other,

of the uvals bordering the river valleys, district,

mountain

lofty

proceeded almost exclusively from the fact that

susface

more or

it

to

Flat

completely masked.

its

known by

is

Further the whole cultivated part of the cen-

speaking generally, a typical

upon

and their beds situated near is

the last

enter into the limits of this zone.

hills

bordered as

no way belonging to the composition of the cultivated

in

zone of Siberia. Only here and there small

is

But the mountain systems of these ranges

and Sayan.

Alatau

Altai,

the

ranges,

why

sown with

oats.

the rolling contour of the locality in the central

to raising grain than the flat relief.

good quality predominate, so that

Where

in localities

Siberian

slopes prevail, there

ploughed up in

all

forest

black

directions 7*

by

:

SIBERIA.

100

and streams, nearly the whole ground

rivers

good chemoziom

row

strips,

Where

soil.

flat

hounding the hanks of

rivers,

With beria

may

soil,

swampy and vegetahle

of a

this the sketch of the soil conditions of the

he terminated. In conclusion

with

land

arahle

good quality occupy hut nar-

soils of

and there predominate partly wet lands unsuited

had

agriculture, partly arahle lands with a

with

occupied

not seldom

is

plateaux prevail, there

it

zone

agilcultural

necessary to say

is

still

primitive

of

a few words on

conditions of one of the borderlands of Siberia, in reference to which

to

nature.

the

Sisoil

more precise information

namely Amouria.

exists,

The three reference to

sections into

Above

soil.

hrown, clayey

the

which Amouria was divided above are sharply distinguished

mouth

of the

Zeya and helow that

on stony fundamental rocks, in

soils lying

some places covered with a thin

meadows

turfy layer of humus, in others entirely free from a tinge of mould. In the inundated

Amour

of the

in the lower.

to a sour soil

with a pale gray

upper

tint in the

fertile

less

soils,

upper layer, and a whitish

Over the expanse included hetween the valleys of the Zeya and Bureya the

whole area as stated by Professor Korzhinsky in the

much

sandy,

the clayey soils yield place to coarse-grained,

and in the thick woods,

in

dark

Bureya prevail

of the

black vegetable

manifestly of a half-swampy

is

it

soils of

6

dry ele-

physical properties and structure recalls the Russian chernoziom

soil in its

in the lower places

Upon

hottoms».

vershoks on the sloping uvals, and one and a half arshines on the

vated places this

fairly tenacious

composed of sandy clays

«is

are covered with a layer of dark mould, having a depth of 4 to

They

levels.

Western Siberia and neither

in

recalling

origin,

the

respects

all

farming

in its origin nor significance in

having anything in common with true chernoziom.

With

it

is

impossible to look for any uniformity in the methods of farming

employed in Siberia and especially in the system of

and types

and population sketched

the extraordinary variety of climatic and soil conditions

in the preceding pages,

of field culture

And

field culture.

in fact

the

systems-

and the rotations of crops are very varied.

In those of the Siberian governments which comprise the mass of the agricultural pop-

and lands suitable for farming operations,

ulation

Tobolsk, Tomsk,

Yeniseisk

the Transhaikal territory and the cultivated portions of the Akmolinsk and peculiar system of agriculture prevails which

hears the

name

is

absolutely

unknown

of the resting and fallow system. Agriculture

hy the combination of two means, the ahandoning

nuring, and renewed

a It

founded exclu-

upon the exploitation of the productive forces of the land, unsupported hy

sively

Irkutsk

European Russia.

in

in this case

is

and

Semipalatinsk,

any

ma-

of the land to waste,

and the rotation of crops with fallow. The land, whether cleared from forest or ploughed up in the

open steppe,

year in fallow. It fallow.

is

is

sown two or three years consecutively with

then sown one or two

Such a rotation

is

continued until

years

the

with

grain

severe falling

with weeds compel the land to be abandoned to rest, and a land its

is

allowed to rest until definite signs, which are well

productiveness has been sufficiently renewed.

process

is

Then

gone through from the very beginning.

rule, that in the

beginning of the

period

At of

it

is

grain,

and then

left

a

and then again goes under

off

in

yield

new patch

known again

broken up. The

to the peasants,

show that

ploughed up and the same

the same time cultivation

and the choking

to be

it

may

and on the

be

said, as

fallows

a

more

TENURE AND USE OF LAND.

101 end

exhausting grains are sown, such as wheat, winter and spring rye; towards the

and upon the stubble

period,

fields,

such

ning of the period of tillage the land

two crops,

thus, at first after every

gi'alns as

more seldom

is

at last after

fallow;

left

every

the

Such

rest, as

the

is,

often;

Finally, the

such as have never

general longer than for lands which have been ploughed

is in

and again broken up after a prolonged tility of

more

end,

harvested.

duration itself of the periods of tillage for freshly broken lands, that

been under cultivation,

the

at

crop

single

of

Moreover, at the begin-

barley and oats.

before

such rest seldom completely renews the

fer-

soil.

As

the general character of the rest and fallow system.

is

are extremely

numerous.

Not only every

Siberian

farming

is

all

commune, but each farmer independently determines the

volost or

crops for every patch of land which he

using,

is

and conditions of the market,

to the climate

for its varieties, they

distinguished by the absence of

himself to

adapting

finally, to his

and situation,

its soil

The number

personal means.

crops taken from the land during the period of tillage fluctuates

pedantry.

rotation of

between 3 and

of

poor

4, for

sour lands, and 25 to 30 for the best chernoziom, and there even exist lands, especially in the

southern part of the Tobolsk

100 years and

have

between 5 and

10,

and on the

left to rest.

The duration

the degree of exhaustion to which

the

land

more than

plough

the

of the period

of rest

and 25 and 30 years, depending on the one hand, upon the

upon

other,

which have been under

government,

never yet been

has

varies

soil conditions,

been brought by

previous sowings. In some places and on some lands, sowing on the stubble field

is

a normal

occurrence, so that the rotation of crops approaches the rest-three-field type; in other places at all; the land

and upon other lands such sowings form an exception, or are not carried out is

fallowed after each

As

so on.

to the

and

crop

predominating

the

sorts,

rotation in

approximates

to the rest-two-field

each locality the more

exacting

are

characterized

whole gi-ain.

Thus upon the splendid sandy chernoziom

of the steppes of the localities of the

ates, in

some places occupying

central

agricultural

Tomsk

soils,

the crops

of

as

the

much

and friable

government,

distinguished

and spring

chernoziom

sown with

enumerated,

Besides the cereals

there

oats,

are

localities,

The system

The

winter rye,

Along the whole

which only

line of the Siber-

profitable sale.

there, millet,

almost universally sown,

With

buckwheat,

hemp

in the

prevalent in Siberia exhibits the greatest

variety not only

the growing density of the population and the contraction of the

land space, the periods of rest of the land are gradually increased.

In the

and sunflower in the Altai.

of agriculture

in space, but in time.

and more.

Over the whole expanse from

favour

sown here and is

in

by the prevalence of

which here have a certain and

further

peas and potatoes, while of the industrial plants flax

chernoziom

rye.

soils

yields place to spring rye in the places stripped of forest.

ian tract the largest areas are

part of the

territory, as also

as half of the whole area sown,

Tobolsk

mainly barley

are

to Irkutsk the forests

south-western

Akmolinsk

Yenisei government, wheat predomin-

the Altai mining district and the southern part of the

sourish

may

be,

Tobolsk government, and of the agricultural

part

and

are to be

by the prevalence now of one, now of another kind of

found on the best lands, and the coarser kinds on the worst. But however this districts

type,

grains

reduced, and the periods of tillage

rapidly progressive exhaustion of the land, resulting from this,

it

is

attempted

SIBERIA.

102

At

rest-two-field.

kinds.

same time the exhaustion

the

makes

of the land

Wheat

At

spring rye ; the latter, by barley.

most

forest has been

and, where the

by

their replacement

winter rye, are expelled by

cut,

same time the lowering

the

ever less capable of

it

harvests of the more valuable grains and compels

yielding satisfactory

coarser

rest-three field rotation is gradually abandoned for a

more frequent fallow, the

to arrest by

of the crops gradually brings

the population to the conviction of the impossibility, under the changed conditions, of carrying

on farming in the old way and of the necessity of passing

new

necessity and prefers to leave for its

where there

places,

is

to reconcile

still

to

itself

As

energetic minority begins by degrees to pass over to the manuring system.

first

majority,

and

little

by

little

more

individual

faint-hearted and frequently unsuccessful attempts at manuring the land find more and imitators,

the this

where

plenty of land and

in spite of everything to carry on the old methods. Finally, the

and continues

remains

new methods, namely with

farming by the customary rest method. The other part, the

permits

freshness

to

however does not wish

Part of the population

use of manure.

more

manure from being a rare exception becomes

agriculture with

the general rule.

Some

localities of Siberia,

in the main,

zone of the Tobolsk government, that district,

have already passed through that

in

farmsteads, this system has become firmly

established.

system as

is,

it

As

manuring,

the

for

agricultural

others

It

precisely

is

nearest to the

those

only

regards

as

the

of

form of the

has long existed in the central governments of European Russia, that

with a predominance of rye in the winter

green fallow.

the

In these localities, in some places

critical period.

as regards all the lands under the plough,

three-field

of

borderland

the northern

the Turinsk district and the middle of the Tobolsk

is,

field,

and

oats

extent to which

the

barley in the spring,

it is

carried

and with

very different,

is

in

dependence on the relation of the quantity of meadow land to that of the land under crops. In the comparatively southern localities, where there

and few meadows,

where there

to the north field is

manured,

limit

very

of

little

field,

is

in

still

on

the

best

lands,

a

heavy

manured.

land, the

Further

whole fallow

more constant crops are obtained than

application

Here two

of

at

the very

manure does not make

fields are used,

it

with winter rye predom-

With heavy manuring

agriculture even

incapable of attaining any considerable

development, in

and barley on the is

V2, is

much meadow

further to the north near the 601h parallel,

agriculture, even

here yields excellent results, but

a fairly large amount of arable land,

spite of the comparatively unfavourable natural

particularly important,

possible to carry on the three-field system.

inating

is

equivalent to Ve to

arable land, and

a consequence

what

Finally,

in Siberia.

northernmost

is

and as

conditions, larger and,

anywhere

of the fallow

a part

rest.

consequence of the extremely limited supply of lands suitable for sowing grain.

The

cultivation of the arable lands in Siberia

better than on the peasant farms in central Russia.

ant

farming

is

determined mainly

is

on the whole very satisfactory, far

Such a superiority of the Siberian peas-

by the abundance there of working

cattle,

possible

on

account of the wealth of the country in hayland and pasture, and secondly of the comparatively

good construction of the agricultural implements.

The implements used

kolesianka, saban,

in Siberia for ploughing, to wit, ploughs, here

rogaliukha,

et

cetera;

but

their

bear various names,

fundamental

construction

is

TENUEE AND USE OF LAND.

left

consist of a broad triangular ploughshare

They

everywhere the same.

two parts) whose

angle

(more often made in

hent forward and plays the part of the weh, a wooden mould-

is

The work

board, a lifting screw or a system of wedges regulating the depth of ploughing. this

the

of

p

1

The depth ploughed may he

u g.

the breadth of the clod being field

plough

plough has no resemblance to that of the Great Russia

like that

also six

riage and furnished

with

limit of agriculture, the

is

are

three

latter

cut

is

but

a)

very cleanly and a

off

directly

lying near

wooden frame with

iron teeth, in

number from 16

up to

six.

used, but they here

Thy

very

many more

both simple and with fingers (cradles), differences

flails

The

teeth.

send one

implements,

other

one harrow

is

scythes,

sickles,

for thrashing, shovels for winnowing, present no

from those employed in European Russia. Until lately there were no machines

hand winnowers of the Grant system have been largely adopted

Siberia. Recently small

is

consist

In the purely agricultural zone

to 20.

In the north, where the strips are not large, usually

have

u g. In

northern

the

to

of Siberia, the average farmer harrows with three harrows, while the rich farmers after another

1

and the plough

the mouldboard

to

harnessed to one horse. The harrows used in Siberia belong to the half-heavy type. of a

of

very

is

fastened to a two-wheeled car-

is

In localities

horses.

fastened

kh

appearance from one ploughed by a p

most developed the sokha

two or

shafts

differs in

(s o

carried to four and even six vershoks,

The

vershoks.

ploughed by a Siberian sokha hardly

the regions where agriculture

OS

1

in

in the

Altai and in localities lying to the east of Tomsk, and horse thrashing-machines have begun to

appear among the rich peasants.

The

chief- object that the

land for sowing

is

Siberian

peasant

places

richness in organic substances

grow up

in great

himself

before

the struggle with weeds, which with the

the their

abundance and are one of the worst enemies

of grain crops.

Another problem, the bringing of the

bleness, in the

mind

the requisite condition of fria-

soil into

of the Siberian peasant, yields to

that

of

destroying

each

case

the

greater

degree of their abundance mainly determines

preparing

in

freshness of the soils and

in

the

or

The

weeds.

less

extent

of

mass of other

ploughing and harrowing, the time for these processes and for sowing and a less essential details.

The normal type rowing after the the beginning

case of

of

first.

June and the end of July.

many weeds

and threatens soils the third

to

of the cultivation of fallow in Siberia

or heavy soil, especially

An

twice ploughing, with har-

if

additional third ploughing

ploughing of the fallow

is

effected in spring,

are ploughed once only,, usually in spring,

fields

soils in

autumn. Before ploughing the remaining stubble

crust.

is

upon friable

and is

only

not seldom drags on to the beginning of September.

ially barley.

The time

May, wheat being sown

autumn.

on very crumbly

burnt and the ash serves in some last

The spring grains

of July

days

case

poor

of

in the

earliest of all,

of sowing has on account of the Siberian

and

latest

climatic

and

men

it

southern local-

Siberia are begun to be sown at the end of April, in the

gions, in the beginning of

water

heavy, clay

soils in late

rarely

concluded in the middle of August, although in the

ities of agricultural

between

added in the

Upon such

manure. The sowing of winter grain begins from the very

where possible

time

is

the later has been washed with snow

become covered with an impenatrable hard

Stubble

sort as a

is

All these operations are carried out in the interval of

northern

re-

oats and espec-

conditions a

very

104

SIBERIA.

With

great importance.

too early sowing the grain suffers

from weeds and autumn hoar

frosts.

A

from spring

day's diflerence in the time

frosts;

with too

sowing often

of

late,

deter-

mines a good or a had harvest.

The

field

once sown

main wheat and spring

not attended to any more.

is

rye,

Only young

have to be very frequently weeded, as

spring

crops,

in

the

neither ploughing

often

nor harrowing are capable of stopping the growth of weeds. The harvesting of winter grain begins ordinarily at the vesting of all gi-ains

but

when

is

the weather

end

of July;

of

spring,

beginning

the

at

is

unfavourable,

is

frequently

delayed

much

z a

i

field

mk

a

and on the arrival of winter

s.

It

is

p o d

s

i

e

is

to the

gathered into heaps

carried on sledges into the farmsteads or to

the

then kiln-dried in out-houses or barns, thrashed and winnowed. Next the

grain intended for sowing so-called

is

sometimes

later,

beginning of October. The grain, cut with sickle or scythe, after drying

on the

The har-

of August.

concluded under ordinary circumstances at the beginning of September,

v

s,

holes of various sizes.

is

subjected to a final cleansing by means of

cylinders

That which

turning is

instruments,

special

about a horizontal axis, made of sheet

intended for food

or

sale

is

subjected

to

iron

no

with

further

treatment. It is impossible to give

any data on the cost of production of grain, in consequence

of the considerable variety in the level and the violent fluctuations in *

apply to the whole of Siberia or even to

its

agricultural region only.

operations and of the whole together, in the production of grain

per pond in different localities presents very wide variations. cost in

some parts

of gi'ain,

may

give

of agricultural Siberia

some idea

Per dessiatine.

thereof.

of

the

The

wages,

The

which should

cost

of

separate

whether per dessiatine or figures below,

more important operations

showing the

in the raising

105

TENURE AND USE OF LAND. Thus 22

25 roubles per dessiatiue for spriug grain, sowu on fallow, and 12 to 15 roubles

to

per dessiatine ou stubble

field,

are the approximate standards, around which the

of

it

where farming

is

cost

entire

such parts

of the production of grain in agricultural Siberia fluctuates, and in particular in

carried on according to the rest-fallow system. In those localities of the To-

bolsk government, where the passage has already been effected to farming with manure and a

necessary three-field or two-field rotation of crops, the total cost of the operations per dessiatine is

as follows:

Three-field region with manuring of part of fallow 32 to 34 roubles^ 2 grain crops in »

»

»

»

»

»

»

»

whole

;>

Before passing to the question of the yield, thickness of sowing. Here, as in

43

»

19 to 20

»

»

»

it

per crop.

necessary to say a few words on the

is

it

what has preceded,

rotation.

'

is

impossible to cite any figures having

of sowing

an application to the whole of Siberia. The thickness

different

in

per dessiatine

localities varies as follows:

For winter rye between »

»

wheat

»

spriug

»

»

oats

^>

»

»

barley

»

»

But the lowest of these cleared, very fertile lands.

.

6

.

—

7 and 14

.... 5 — 7 .... 6- 8 .... 12 — 16 .... 8-12

figures

now

The highest

culture, to localities with two-field

.

.

— 16 — 12

»

11

»

14-16

»

— 32

»

23

»

20-24

are very rarely

chetveriks.

»

met with, namely only upon

farming, and also three-field with manuring of the whole the limits

agriculture of the fallow. In the case of the region of greatest development of

variation are

much narrower. The amount sown per

dessiatine

from

Rye, winter and spring

»

12

Barley

»

12

»

14

»

16

»

20

The sowing

the earlier the given land

north, the

8 to 10 chetveriks.

10

the thinner the more

more the land

thickness of the sowing

is

sown;

it

»

southern the locality; the better and is,

farmer

the

with

very

lamentable

A

mistake in the

if

too thickly,

and the ears

fill

with a rich

soil

and

The extremely treacherous nature

An

may

danger from

easily

over

tiller

badly.

high figures to zero, form an important

economy.

moist weather, the grain

If the

consequences.

sowing has been carried out too thinly, the young plants are threatened with weeds;

fresher the

on the contrary, the thicker, the further to the

exhausted and the poorer in organic matter.

is

threatens

of

ordinarily:

»

Oats

soil,

is

Wheat

is

freshly

refer exclusively to the northern border land of agri-

exception

only

is

agriculture, those localities

of the harvests, their violent fluctuations

and characteristic feature of Siberian

formed by the

localities

lying near

the northern

where the transition has already been accomplished

the three or two-field system.

Thanks

to the influence of

from very agricultural

to

manure and the treading

Umit of

manuring and of the fallow

SIBERIA.

106 by

field

also to the favourable natural

and

cattle,

absence of droughts

the

conditions,

and

hailstorms et cetera, complete crop failures here hardly ever occur, and in general very bad

Xot

harvests are rare. standard, which

rising very high, the harvests ordinarily keep near the average

often

here very

is

between

average yield of rye fluctuates worst

fields falling to

In localities where part of the fallow

fair.

60 pouds. The yields for

and barley, from 90 to 100 pouds per

60, oats

manured the on

only

the very

and barley vary within about the same

oats

Further to the iiorth where the whole fallow

limits.

field is

70 and 80 pouds per dessiatine,

manured, rye gives on an average

field is

On

dessiatine.

the region of two-field farming

the yields of rye also flactuate from 70 to 80 pouds, but spring crops give considerably more.

an

on

110

average

barley 100 or 110 pouds per dessiatine. Thanks to

Oats

give

such

high yields the population of some localities of the Tobolsk government, lying near the

very northernmost

limit

arable land, on

own

Very

its

120,

to

of husbandry,

60

localities

80,

and

wheat

unfavourable

conditions of

soil,

to 50,

fall

abounding in forest and having suitable

sometimes even

as

prevails.

The average

much

above indicated wheat regions

fluctuate in the

only where wheat reaches

and

80 pouds,

still

here also fairly, and in some places, very satisfactory. Thus,

productivity are

the average figures of the harvests for

encounters

where the rest-system

different is the case in localities

figures of the

between

notwithstanding the insignificant extent of the

lives

grain.

90 pouds per

as

soils,

extreme northern

its

limits, or

Winter rye

40 pouds and lower.

in

gives on an average also from 60 to

and only on the very worst

dessiatine,

soils

does the average yield sink from 40 to 50 pouds. Such are also the limits of fluctuation and the

average figure for the yield oats,

when sown on

stubble

on an average not

less

in the localities

where

average yield must be noted

In the

fields.

rye

spring

of

two figures representing the

first

it is

most grown. As for

when sown on

:

fallow, and

case oats, even upon comparatively bad lands, yield

than 80 to 100 pouds per dessiatine.

When

the sowing

on stubble,

is

even the best lands do not reach this average standard, while bad lands yield not more than

40

to

50 pouds per dessiatine. Finally, barley in the region of the rest-system of farming

only sown on bad and exhausted lands, where

Where

rye either does not grow at

all,

it

is

gives better crops than any other breadstuff.

some 30

or yields

to

40 pouds per

dessiatine, barley

with an average harvest gives 50 to 60 pouds.

But the

figures quoted are far

from affording material for drawing true conclusions in

The extremely

reference to the economical position of the Siberian agriculturist.

wide fluctuations deprive these averages of almost fluctuations are very high, 180, 200,

250 pouds of barley, 250 or

to

all

significance.

240 pouds of wheat, 180

The upper

and

violent

limits of these

200 pouds of rye, 200

to

to

350 pouds of oats per dessiatine; such yields without irrigation

manuring have excited the wonder of travellers and created for Siberia the reputation of

a country of fabulous

But such harvests occur once

fertility.

in

several

then only upon the lands which are best in respect to conditions of

Of course, a much and

so

on

is

less yield,

sufi"icient it

During the

decades

years,

and

enrich

the

there

argiculturist.

the

Such

harvests formerly

prosperity of the

have been not seldom more or

Siberian

less

peasant

complete crop

and

freshness.

100 or 120 pouds of wheat or rye, 150 to 180 pouds

was they that created

pretty often, and last

to

dozen

climate

of

oats,

happened farmer. failures.

107

TENURE AND USE OF LAND. This

is,

be

The

remembered, true only as regards spring crops.

it

places suited to

never

it

and therefore bad harvests

complete

a

zero;

to

fall

failure

in the forest rye region, lying to the east of

winter

of

yields

wheat

Here occur complete

steppes.

in

strips,

Tomsk, never place

the population in such a difficult position, as in the region of spring crops, and In the

rye

separate

on

occurs

only

particularly

and very bad harvests not unfrequently

failures,

follow each other three and four years running. chief causes of the failure of the crops in these steppe localities are drought and the

The

ko by Ik a, an

insect belonging to the order of orthoptera, similar to the locust

species of grasshopper. In forest

localities

place

causes yield

these

and applied

to several

conse-

baneful

the

to

quences of unfavourable winters, which react destructively upon the winter crops,

but these

steppe

localities.

circumstances never here attain such a character as the

Not

and

frosts

when

it

According

filling.

the

in

the

and steppes, are

forests

damage the sprouting grain

former

the spring frosts and autumn hoar frosts, of which the the latter injure

droughts

causes of crop failures, operating equally in

less essential

to the soil, situation

and time of sowing, the hoar

sometimes destroy the grain without leaving anything, sometimes destroy or

frosts

The

spoil only part of the crop.

influence of frosts

much more

frequently. There are even

Tomsk, where the spring crops freeze every

spots, as to the north-east of

In some

different in different localities.

is

they injure the crops once in several years, in others,

year.

Oats in such

places are sown for straw and feed; the seeds are always brought from without. Further mention

must be made of the fogs and especially of the appearance of microscopic fungi, such as

smut and

At

ergot.

continuous

times,

prevent

rains

the

from ripening

grain

and hinder

harvest operations; at others hail, laying the crop, are the cause of failure.

above

It is stated is

practised agriculture

perity,

rest-system

not the only at any rate, an essential source of the peaple's pros-

and the sale of the surplus produce, the principal source of

its

money income. Such

The wheat from the

grain surplus finds a market in different directions. gions,

part of the zone where the

forming

that in localities

is, if

Altai, the steppe re-

and the southern part of the Tobolsk government, goes partly in a raw

state, partly in

consumed by the great Siberian erable

tract.

The same

traffic

is

over the tract swallows up a consid-

of the grain produced in its neighbourhood. Lastly

part

oats

of

meal, to the west, namely to European Russia. Nearly the whole of the surplus

a

large

part

the

of

grain

surplus of the agricultural region contributes to the food supply of the population of the nonagricultural borderlands of Siberia, or

miners. There

still

is

bought up by the gold mines for the needs of their

remains a large quantity which goes to the

distilleries

to

converted

be

into spirits. All these outlets for the grain produce, in spite of their apparent variety,

common when

feature,

there

is

Siberia

equalizing

namely they

all

prices

does

surplus

not

and

according

Siberia and the for

example,

it

a crop failure. yet deficit

possess

in

to

locality.

insufficiency

the

Yenisei

a properly

according

prices of grain. Neither does there

and

have one

absorb the surplus from good harvests and do not return

of

such

exist

In the

organized

good

to

a regulator

consequence

ways

and even

of

local

grain

trade,

capable

of

and bad seasons, and regularizing the

of the

of the

fluctuations

In

harvests

immensity of the distances in

communication grain, grown

Tomsk governments, cannot

in

supply

abundance the

deficit

108

SIBERIA.

in that of Tobolsk.

The

cost of carriage would be too great, and

extreme want

accordingly

may

be experienced in one government simultaneously with an extraordinary surplus in another.

Add

to this the

or

when grain it is,

complete absence of organized credit in Siberia, whether for general purposes

in reference to grain, is

follows that

and

ture

to

buy

farming,

higher

an extremely low

chief

his

outlays

antumn

in

when

spring

in

it

it

dear,

Is

obliged to throw the more grain on the market the cheaper

is

From

in proportion to its dearness.

scarcity

of

peasant

the

Siberian

of

times

und the fact that the peasant makes

cheap, while in years of scarcity he must buy

the extraordinary

want of

it

one more charateristic fea-

all this results

fixity in the prices of grain,

rising

in

than anywhere in European Russia, and falling in good

years

to

level.

In the sketch

made

pages of the

in the preceding

position of agricultural production,

original Siberia, or the four governments with the adjacent territories of

Yakutsk and Trans-

baikalia to the east, were mainly in view. Of the two last-named territories the former, as far

•of

the Tobolsk government adjacent to the northern boundary of grain raising, Transbaikalia

with insignificant differences resulting from

more steppe

its

like character

No

approaches the conditions of the conterminous Irkutsk government. of

the

conditions

of

agriculture

Semipalatinsk where grain

ance

is

those

in

districts

of the

crop

failures occur

To complete

required

and

therefore

their

governments, with yield is higher

and

more seldom. the picture

position in localities

its

is

Akmolinsk

of

territories

obtaining in the wheat regions of the Siberian

with the conditions

and better climate,

special account

raised without artificial irrigation; they present complete accord-

but one difference, that the lands are here fresher, and

on

agreement with the parts

exist there, presents a complete

as the beginnings of agriculture

agriculture

of

where

it

is

it

is

necessary to add a few

howevej-

placed in conditions absolutely

described above, in the Zaisan district of the Semipalatinsk

territory and in

words

from those

different

Semirechia, as

well as in the Amour-Ussuri region.

Alike in the Zaisan district with

only possible

a ryk

ditches, s

k h

a,

thus

s,

artificial

and

irrigation.

from which when

Semirechia, agriculture,

The

fields

ploughing,

little

as

was indicated above,

are here intersected by great

runlets are led in all directions

distributing the moisture equally over the whole field. In the Zaisan

the irrigated fields are sometimes also manured, and the water

is let

on

first

As

later,

a rule the crops are

watered

first

thirty

days

after

sowing,

again

and a third time after the lapse of forty days more. After eight crops the

either a three years rest or manuring. During the whole eight years

one and the same

kind of grain,

wheat,

rye, millet

or oats.

An

by the district

before ploughing,

and then, during the growth of the plant, according to the weather, from twice more.

is

irrigating

however

it

to four times fifteen field is

days

requires

sown with

alternation of crops, and

even a mere change to another kind of grain, are not practised here, because the seed, falling during

the

operation

Semirechensk

a year; the winter harvested

is

kunzhut,

of harvesting, springs up and would only spoil the next

territory, the irrigated land in field

sown with wheat and barley ripens

sown with a second crop mash, a small poppy or

lentil.

crop.

In the

consequence of the hot climate yields two crops

The second crops

pea,

at the

end of May,

millet

or carrot,

ripen and are removed in the

and when

more rarely

autumn

of the

109

TENURE AND USE OF LAND. same

Then

year.

Held

the

sorghum, and also

and

both of Semipalatinsk

mainly

for tlie next spring with spring plants,

sown

is

and lucerne. The harvests

in small quantities, cotton

very heavy

produce

Semirechensk

rice

and

in the irrigated lands

and

yields,

crop failure are

unknown. The grain raised on the irrigated lands not only suffices for the uses of the farmers, hut a portion of it goes for sale to China and the nearest Kirghiz nomads. In the

Amour

must be made between the farming of the

territory a strict distinction

Russian population, peasant and Cossack, and that of the natives, Coreans and Manchurians. The Russians practise an extremely extensive system of farming, the newly cleared arable land

ploughed

is

over

grain without fallow or are

made

manure

many

to yield as

times

several

until

during a whole year, and it

wheat or spring rye

to oats, and then for a year or two, buckwheat. After the

reestablishes the fertility of the soil, they again until the latter ceases

to

sow wheat or spring

rye, followed

the quality of the

but

very high,

respect

The

Amour

by oats,

abandoned are very seldom It is

break up, almost exclusively, fresh hitherto untouched lands, of which up of the recent settlement of the country, there is no lack.

is

a crop which somewhat

ploughed up afresh, although they might after a rest yield very fair crops.

tative

thus

sown, next a passage

last,

satisfactory crops. Fields once

produce

is

soils

more than seven

as fifteen crops, one after another, poor soils not

or eight. During the first years after the clearing,

made

then annually sown with

is

completely exhausted. The best clayey

is

the custom to

now, on account

till

yields of grain are in a quanti-

grain

is

far from satisfactory.

excess of moisture prevents the regular ripening of the grain, which

The

dark, of light weight

is

and of low nutritive value. the whole attaches to Russian agriculture in the Ussuri region

The same character on that

except

in

order

to

,

sowing

soaking,

avoid

is

here carried on in rows in the form of

small ridges, the furrows remaining between them serving as drains and for ventilation.

plots in

not

is

Manchurians

far as concerns the Coreans and

As

opposition to the Russian, great,

living in

Amouria

by great intensiveness. The

distinguished

is

but on the other hand the fields are most carefully

tilled,

the sowing is

rows by hand or machine; the young plants are weeded several times during the summer, so

that weeds are hardly to be seen on the are such a dangerous

enemy

garden plants; buda

is

the

of

the Coreans and Manchurians

is

fields of the

Coreans and Manchurians. while they

beria,

<.The

hundred

and

An

it

necessary to proceed

is

now

two hundred ponds or more,

future of the country. It

Brehm

<

be

Yeniseisk

fall to

And

Siberian, and in

assumed that from the whole

on an average, harvested about 160,000,000 pouds

20 per cent

so that the

half.

of agriculture existing in Si-

the true gold of Siberia)).

occupation of the settled

may

systems

and a

to the consideration of the statistics of its present position.

constitutes)), says

the chief and safest

among

expenditure of eighteen to twenty pounds of

fifty to

finished the description of the principal

Chernoziom

chief crop

b u d a (setaria Italica); next follow various other cereals and

yield of one dessiatine provides a whole family for a year, or a year

Having

The

of the Russian population.

crops

also their chief food.

seed on a dessiatine gives one

is

their farming, in

size of the cultivated

it

3

of various grains, of

to 5 per cent to

the whole

teiTitory of Siberia there

is,

which approximately

Tobolsk and Tomsk, as the most densely populated, 12

and Irkutsk and Semirechia,

in fact agriculture

consists

to

15 per cent to

each of the territories of Semi-

110

SIBERIA.

palatinsk, toral

Akmolinsk and Transbaikalia. The remainder

and the

steppe regions

Amour it

As

territories.

is

divided between Yakutsk, the Lit-

regards the two latter territories and certain localities of

must be observed

thanks to successful

that,

colonization, the

grown extraordinarily

productivity of these localities has latterly

agricultural

and that there

rapidly,

is

no

doubt but that In the near future they will occupy a very prominent place in the ranks of grain

producing countries. Turning

kind of grain cultivated in Siberia,

the

to

per cent winter rye, while the remaining 20 per cent represents

The

the prices

of

instability

must be observed

it

whole production consists of spring wheat and oats, about 20

that about 60 per cent of the

all

other kinds of

the most striking feature, as also the

is

the harvests, in the wheat area, and this

is

gi'ain.

uncertainty of

particularly the case in the southern part of the

Tobolsk government. The average prices for this locality are as follows:

Rye

in kernel

.

— 25 kopecks per poud — 60 1.20 — 1.30 roubles per chetvert or 20 — 22 kopecks per poud

.20

.

.

Wheat

50

Oats

The minimum poud; the

which rye has

price to

maximum

limit, in 1870,

The rapid change

over 2 roubles per poud.

between the

autumn

fallen during the last

80 kopecks

of

Tobolsk enhanced almost

1887

»

20 years was 8

to

10 kopecks a

to 1,20 roubles; in 1884, 1.50 roubles,

of prices

and that

may

and 1892,

be seen for example from the fact that

of 1888 the price of rye in the

namely from 12

iivefold,

»

»

southern

part of

15 kopecks to 60 to 70 kopecks per poud.

to

In localities situated to the east of Tomsk, which sow for the most part rye, the fluctuations of grain

prices, as also those

prices rise in of

Tomsk

of the

moving from west

are

harvests,

to east.

somewhat

The average grain

less severe.

Thus, in the north-eastern part of the

government

the prices during a twenty-five years period were as follows:

R,ye flour.

Wheat

...

flour.

.

.

Oats

48 kopecks per poud 76

»

»

»

41

»-

»

»

In the Irkutsk government the standard average prices for the last seven years were:

Rye

flour

Wheat

about

1.

^

Oats

The

Tomsk market during

fluctuations for the

20 roubles per poud

1.

90

»

1.

10

>•>

»

»

»

»

the last twenty-five years fall

between the

following limits:

Maximum. Rye

flour

Wheat Oats

»

.

.

.

...

Minimum.

Ratio of max. to miu.

1.

45 roubles

23 kopecks

6.

1.

80

»

30

»

6.

1.

10

»

17

»

6.

3

5

:

TENURE AND USE OF LAND. Thus, the fluctuations in the prices of grain in the

from

are far

Ill

Tomsk government

attained by the fluctuations

reaching the intensity

although considerable

in the

wheat

localities of

the Tobolsk government. In the agricultural governments of Eastern Siberia the fluctuations in

approximately the same character. In such

prices exhibit

ment, where farming with the application

and harvests are

prices

influence

by great

distinguished

stability,

upon the prosperity of the population. Thus,

agricultural

localities of the

Tobolsk

manure has already become

of

government the

Per poud of rye

.

the

which naturally has a very good northern

boundary of

prices for grain during

the last ten

at the

operations in the Tobolsk

govern-

established,

extreme

years were

Minimum.

Maximum.

»

»

»

flour.

.

oats

.

55

k.

80

k.

1.00

40

k.

55

k.

»

Thus the maximum price exceeds here the minimum fluctuating

movement,

the prices of grain in

further a tendency to rise, which sale

of

Siberian

grain

Tomsk market may

for

is

explained

distilling

all

the

among

five

Years:

2' ,'2 times.

agricultural

other

rise.

Independently of the

have

localities of Siberia

causes by the expansion

and export to European Russia.

give a perfectly clear idea of this

years period, taken for each

Average.

1.30 roubles

These

The

prices,

years, give the following increasing series:

prices

of the of

the

during a twenty

] 1

SIBERIA.

2 But

piesent.

main mass

the

as

labour

peasant

of

expended upon

is

cattle

agriculture,

breeding actually attains large dimensions only where there exsists, on the one hand, an abund-

ance

meadows and

of

summer time

other hand, the lack of arable land liberates in

pastures, and on the

of the working

the greater part

government cattle raising

ary source of existence. Thus, in the Tobolsk

oped in the steppe localities of the Tiukalinsk

Kainsk

of the

and

district

where agriculture

yields the

main support of existence,

serves to satisfy

which appear in the peasant economy

The extent

necessities,

is

40

30 head of large-horned

cattle,

40

and

make good

to

who have from 10

The

latter

those

deficits

that they possess either no live stock at

farm horses, 25

to 15

50 sheep. There are again wealthy

to

50 horses and a hundred or more head of

to

even the

agriculture.

very various both for whole localities and for in-

dividual homesteads. There are well to do farmers to

localities

in these places

consequence of bad harvests.

in

of live stock breeding

in the steppes

the population, while cattle breeding only

feeds

it

secondary

comparatively

its

But

nowhere be placed above that of

can

especially devel-

is

them being

district, all of

conditions.

at the

some supplement-

Tomsk government,

the

Tomsk

of the

bad

comparatively

importance of cattle breeding still

Chulym part

in the

placed in

is

district, in

where

of the peasantry, and

capacity

of the ploughed land forces the peasants to seek

same time the bad quality

all,

one horse or a

or only

men who have

men

some

Finally,

cattle.

are

so

it

animals,

owns 5 or 6 farm

15 to 20 sheep. Others again on an

6 cows, and

5 to

horses,

average per household have not more than two horses, one cow and 3 or 4 sheep, or even

Summing up per household

may

3 to 4 working horses, 2 to 3 milch cows, with the corres-

be taken at cattle,

and 6

to 8 sheep.

kept mainly for farm

Horses in the agricultural tract of Siberia are localities besides this for the

conveyance of goods.

Upon

on the whole small,

He

cold.

is fast

but not strong, so that the

20

on a good road does not exceed

28

as regards food and water,

is easily satisfied

25 pouds.

to

Siberia are not uniform.

in the southern

Thus,

the horses are a cross with the steppe or

dinary

speed

and staying powers.

bigger and do not possess

the

In

normal load of the ordinary peasant horse Only the better sort of dray horses draw

portion

steppe

speed of the

region around

steppe

or Kirghiz

fetch a high price over all Eastern Siberia and Amouria.

The

is

short and thin and

prices of horses

average

districts of the

not distinguished either by

are everywhere

of the Tobolsk government tract, the

is

subject

and in the

peasant horse

is

Tobolsk government

different localities of

of the Tobolsk government

Tomsk

hand, very good for heavy draught and farm work, for which the

hand,

to

localities

wide

pace

fluctuations.

of the

horses are famous and

The Transbaikal horse on its

in the tract

somewhat

but are on the other

breed,

Tomsk

by extraor-

horses are

the

or capacity

In

the

the other

for draught.

steppe

districts

Tomsk government remote from

not worth more than 12 to 15 roubles.

and

The Siberian horse

Kirghiz strain, and are distinguished

the

in

and supports alike heat

30 pouds and for short distances, 35 pouds. The types of horses in

to

work, but

the tract a considerable part

of the horses are kept specially for the passenger traffic, the post et cetera.

and

less.

for the whole agricultural tract of Siberia, the standard allowance of live stock

ponding number of young

is

to

appears that there are volosts where the household, leaving out of account young

averages

many

poor

Turning then

cow.

localities of that of

In

the

Tomsk,

the

northern it

fetches

I

113

LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY.

20

to

A

25 roubles.

horse

lit

horses are

In Eastern Siberia

price of a working horse

is

The homed

Tomsk

cow

from V2

a vedro.

to ^'8 of

Russian breed. They are small;

to 7 pouds, rather lean

gives about V^ to

In winter, the yield

vedro, and only

^js is

much

a small Transbai-

150 roubles.

horse, 100 to

cattle over all Siberia belong to the ordinary

feed, a

and gives

when

towns is

sell their

milk.

On

and does not on

less

used by the peasants at home, and

only

milk. In oil

an

cake,

average

as such products

near

localities

the

the contrary, hutter forming an important article of Siberian export

go to market; the greater part

all

offered for sale.

The quantity

consumed hy the peasants, only the surplus being

is

sold therefore depends not only on the

number

of cows, but on the

composition of the family. Taking the average family as containing 5 to 6 members, to three

it

can with two

cows, in the localities most favourable to cattle raising in the agricultural zone,

not moie than 10

to 15

pounds per cow; with 5

to 7

it is

The

down and kept

bought up by factors who supply sale of milk

till

it

sell

cows, 25 to 30 pounds; with 8 to 10 cows,

a poud for each milch cow or somewhat more. The butter in the fresh state hut salted

when

on

from every household possessing more than one or two cows. Here too the hutter does

sold

not

and buttermilk, are

little

fed

exceed Vs vedro a day. Most of the milk obtained from the cows, as well as curds

60 roubles.

to

government the average

Amour

not less than 35 to 40 roubles; on the

cow has a carcass weighing 57^

summer, on usual

government 50

in the Irkutsk

considerably dearer;

kal horse fetches from 50 to 80, and a

a full-grown

costs in either

for post service

is

made from sour cream.

It is not sold

certain dates, occurring once or twice in the year,

merchants who melt

to large

it

down and

clarify

it.

and dairy produce has a prime importance for the peasant only in a few

localities, principally in the

neighbourhood of towns or in the steppes. For the most part horned

cattle are kept for slaughter.

The meat

is

consumed mostly by the peasants themselves, only a

small quantity being sold in the towns; the tallow and hides are as a rule sold; they go from

Western Siberian Siberia, of

to

European Russia, while a considerable proportion of the h-des from Eastern

which come from Transbaikalia alone 150,000 skins a year,

Dairy farming, and even so very badly organized, the neighbourhood of the

is

cattle is the sale

do peasants selling them at a later age than their

bought up by

a special class of traders,

the towns or export the

The average

same

to

prices for cattle for

some parts

Southern part of Tobolsk gov.

Tomsk

»

»

.

.

.

.

9

.

.

.

.

10

gov. near capital and on the tract

Remote

parts of

Tomsk gov

Irkutsk government

the

live

peasants

the

beasts,

brethren.

either sell

The

more

cattle are

produce

the

in

Perhaps

others.

of Siberia appear In the following

R »

of

poorer

who slaughter them and

Cows.

»

by

only

in

European Russia.

Regions.

Middle

used to cover tea boxes.

more important towns, Tomsk, Irkutsk, and a few

the most important source of revenue from

well to

is

carried on

— 12 — 12

12-15 10—12 25

— 30

Bullocks, 3 yrs.

Bullocks, l*/2

FS-

u

6— 7-

8 9

3454— 5

4 5

7 5

— 10

table.

]

SIBERIA.

14 Cattle, like horses,

become dearer the further

At

east.

same time the

the

are

prices

subject to extremely sharp fluctuations in dependence upon the harvest and the cattle plague.

When

there

a had harvest the poor farmer sells his cattle to

is

On

commissariat.

the approach of an epidemic

all

make up

even for a song than to risk the plague. In both cases a quantity of cattle the market, and the prices fall to almost half, in after the

in agricultural Siberia

yield little meat; a three-year old

to

thrown upon

is

more or

rise

considerably

less

belong for the most part to a very bad

sheep

gives

carcass

a

of

30

per ten sheep. ant at home.

The produce

The

farming

sheep

of

almost

is

entirely

breed.

40 pounds, very

to

and wool of inferior quality and of small quantity, namely from 25

tallow,

little

order

good harvest, or after the subsidence of the plague.

first

The sheep bred They

his

the deficit in

try to sell their cattle, prefenlng to do so

to

40 pounds

consumed by the peas-

one hand, on the southern border-

best breeds of sheep are raised, on the

lands of the governments of Tobolsk and Tomsk, adjacent to the Kirghiz steppe, and on the other, in the

Minusinsk region and in Transbaikalia. In the former a considerable part of the

Kurdiuk

sheep belong to the Kirghiz yields

20 pounds, a three-year

merinos

is

bred chiefly for

its

fat-tailed breed, kept for its tallow; a yearling

or

a pond or more; in the latter place a degenerated race of

old,

wool.

Cattle breeding, although as already remarked only a secondary source of the prosperity of agricultural Siberia, affords an essential help in bad

people, hardly less so than a bad harvest,

is

years.

A

calamity

terrible

the plague, whether the Siberian or c h u

the

for

m a.

Both

forms of disease are particularly destinctive in the Barabinsk steppe and the localities adjacent to the Kirghiz steppe,

Western

Siberia.

which are the chief

The propagation

of the

foci

of epizootic diseases

here

facilitated

treatment of the cattle, although they are on the whole very well the majority of places in agricultural Siberia

ing

horse

is

whole

plague for the

Siberian is

fed.

of

by the careless

The standard feed

in

150 to 200 and more pouds of hay per work-

with an addition of 10 to 15 pouds of oats, 50 to 100 pouds of hay with

a

cor-

Trausbaikal

Bu-

responding quantity of straw per cow, and 25 pouds of hay per sheep.

For

the

Kirghiz

riats, cattle raising is

no

the

of

longer

steppe

regions

secondary

a

and

but

the

in

part

chief

for

source

steppes, horses and sheep are the principal live stock, there being but

are bred for transport and for food in the form of

meat and k u

m y s,

the of

livelihood.

few

cattle.

and

for

who take them

in

summer

surplus flocks are sold alive to

to

the

which

the

sale

cattle

drivers

where they are slaughtered. The Kirghiz also keep cam-

to the tallow works,

which they employ

els

The

the

The horses

neighbouring settled population, sheep for slaughter for their meat and tallow, of steppe variety produces a large quantity.

In

as beasts of burden

and in

winter harness

to

common

peasant sledges.

The Kirghiz

scarcely prei)are any hay for winter, but leave the cattle to wander over

the snow-clad stcpiic and pick up whatever food they can.

not

lie

thick, large cattle

the sheep. is

But when the

easily first

dig

down

to

tin;

dry

When

herbage,

the

snows are succeeiled by rain and then by

covered with a crust of hard

ice, a

snow

soft

is

and are then frosts,

conse(iuence of such a glazed frost

is

and

followed

does

by

and the ground

a lack of fodiler

during the continuance of which tens and hundreds of thousands of large and especially small

LIVE STOCK INDUSTKY.

cattle

perish.

No

number

small

also

perish

115

from blizzards or

steppes several days in succession. Herds of horses

and

burans,

flocks of sheep

lasting

in

the

caught by the storm

are unable to stand against the force of the wind. Driven in the direction taken by the bliz-

zard they

fall into gullies

and ravines covered up with snow and there perish in masses.

In the northern uncultivated

borderland

of Siberia

the

wandering native

keep reindeer and harness dogs. The former are indispensable companions native.

The extreme

indifference in the matter of food allows of their

where no other domestic animals could long as the reindeer furnishes

warm

is

live,

and their services

to

man

of

being

the

kept

population

wandering in

places

are most various.

As

alive he is a beast of draught; killed, his flesh goes as food, his skin

clothing,

and

his sinews yield thread.

-^<^-

SIBERIA.

llg

CHAPTER The The area occupied by

forest;

VIII.

forest wealth of Siberia.

the division of the forests into zones; the northern zone of tall

hound aries; the prevailing kinds of trees; the hirch zone and its limits; the importance of this zone for the agriculture and economy of the inhabitants; the zone of mountain forests and its significance; causes serving as an obstacle to the introduction of forestry into Siberia; measures of the Government for the regulating of the forests of Western Siberia; establishment of a Forest Administration: results attained in a short time; the position husbandry in Eastern Siberia; measures for ascertaining Crown forests in of forest conifers

and

its

the

region.

belongs to the number of countries abounding in forests. In Western Siberia alone

SIBERIA

the area

of forests

belonging

to the

Eastern Siberia the area so occupied

The

tained.

Amour

Amour

Littoral

region

Crown

is

estimated at 110,000,000 dessiatines. In

considerably greater, but

is is

rich

also

in forest

is

there not exactly ascer-

consisting of very various and

valuable species.

The vast tory of Siberia.

resources are however distributed unequally over the extensive terri-

forest

The

greatest expanse of forest

According

most entirely absent in the south. of Siberia

may

is

situated

in its northern

part,

and

it

to the density of its tree covering, the

be divided into three zones, of which each

is

is

al-

whole

distinguished by characteristic

features and situated in a direction from west to east.

Northern The zone all

of

the

northern

tall tree Forests.

tall-stemmed

woodlands stretches uninterruptedly through

Siberia from the Ural to the eastern shores of Kamchatka. This

rian u r

mans

and taigas.

To

the north

the growth of the larger vegetation.

it

The southern

it

parallel

Tomsk and Mariinsk, thence

to

the

is

life.

main

Siberian

tract,

forest expanses are interrupted only

the northern parts of the districts

passes through the whole of Eastern Siberia almost

and in the Transbaikal

teiTitory

becomes confounded

man,

range. These

impassable bogs wherefore

many

right to be called virgin soil,

as so

by large marshes and

immense northern taiga have an undisputed

far they have not been penetrated to

by

Beginning with the Tu-

with the southern zone of the mountain forests upon the Stanovoi or Yablonovi

parts of this

the limit of

passes through the northern part of that of Tobolsk and abruptly rises along

the right bank of the Irtysh to the river Tara, embracing of Kainsk,

the zone of the Sibe-

side of this forest zone is determined

the line of the greatest development of corn raising and settled rinsk district

is

borders on the tundras which

by the most fearless trapper. These

localities, inaccessible

will yet long be subject to only the elemental forces of nature.

In this zone are the conifers, the pine, larch, pitch piue,

The prevailing arboreal forms fir

and so-called cedar.

A

complete enumeration of

grow

not trees that

is

it

the species of trees occurring in the

all

made already

Siberian flora with their systematic names has been

gxaphy of Siberia. In forestry

117

WEALTH.

FOEEST

Geo-

in Chapter II, on the

but those that grow in great

solitarily

masses that are of importance. The deciduous trees possess in this zone an insignificant importoccasional admixture of aspen and willow, and birch occurs on

swamps show an

ance; the

the skirts of the taiga. In

Western

met with

rinsk, a lime-tree is

Siberia, chiefly in the

in the

urmans of Tarsk, Tobolsk and Tu-

form of underwood, which supplies bark and bast which

serve as a source of income to the local population.

The northern

zone

forest

occupies

those

all

regions of Siberia where agriculture

impossible from the deficient quantity of heat during the five months fixed population in this zone

and there,

up a

is

insignificant

and grain raising

is

vegetative period.

sporadically, here

met with

have

in small patches on its southern border. The' forest reaches of this vast zone

to the present

pleasant

time been abandoned exclusively to the forces of nature and cannot present

spectacle

man,

civilized

to

but

preserve

many

supply of splendid building material. There are

within

localities

The

are so monotonous, that

themselves an inexhaustible

where

for tens

and hundreds

which with their interlaced sum-

of versts in every direction stand clean plantations of pine,

mits hide the sky.

is

The

absolutely naked trunks rising perfectly straight to an enormous height a

even a wild beast, cannot

man who find his

once chances into such a part of the Siberian taiga, or

way

out again.

Experienced native trappers are afraid to

penetrate into these, in their opinion, enchanted spots, and they record every step they take by scoring the trees. Access to such places

is

difficult,

and the timber contained in them

without value, but with the growth of the population,

means

destruction of the forests in the inhabited parts,

The scourge

so far

make

will be found to

now

use of the

the wealth of the future and are merely awaiting

remote forest resources. They form indeed their turn.

is

the improvement of the roads and the

of the forests of this zone at the present time

not unfrequently devastating hundreds of versts.

The burned timber

by young underwood growing up under

influence

the

of

is

natural

only the forest

is

fires,

however rapidly replaced selection.

observed however that the southern limit of the zone of high-trunked trees

is

It

must

be

gr'adually retreat-

ing to the north, yielding place to the raising of grain.

Birch forest zone. The zone

of

birch

forest

Siberia. This area is occupied

the

covers

by a

The

cultivated or agricultural zone of Siberia.

growth of

damper

this zone is the birch

whole low lying or so-called steppe portion of

settled population

with a

and nearly coincides with the so-called

principal,

slight

it

may

almost be said, the only forest

admixture of aspen and

t

a

1

(salix)

upon the

spots and along the banks of the rivers. Coniferous trees are entirely absent.

a few plantations of these species occur Borovliansk and Yelets-Ikovsk on the tinsk upon the right

bank of the

on the

left

Irtysh.

outskirts of the birch zone,

Merely

namely those of

bank of the Tobol, and Pavlodarsk and Semipala-

The two

latter estates are outside the birch zone.

SIBERIA.

113

characteristic

Western

of

therefore this zone

and

thrives on a chernoziom soil

The birch and particularly

Siberia,

the most populated

is

between the middle course of the Tobol

Akmo-

and the upper waters of the Obi. This space embraces the so-called steppes of Ishimsk, Kurudzhinsk, and Barabinsk. Although

linsk,

absolutely

usual to understand by the word steppe an

in Siberia with the exception of the whole Kirghiz steppe region,

space,

treeless

is

it

also produces over large areas shrubs used as fuel in the

which

mining works,

the remain-

all

language

ing plains are covered more or less thickly with birch patches or spinnies, in local

k

k

1

giving the locality a very peculiar appearance. These birch copses, mingling

s,

viewed

at a distance,

produce the effect of an unbroken

ands of versts by the Western as

were uninterrupted

it

pasturing of cattle. Thus the

herds

there these birch spinnies

here and

destruction

nomad population

by the axe and

of the

Akmolinsk

which

account

barren

the

desert

now

especially

distribution of birch patches

that

over

advancing more

ever

is

it

numerous

territory with its

railway

a

and more from the south.

should be one of the chief duties of the

steppes

of preserving these groves in the

local authorities,

being carried through this locality. The

is

the steppe surface

may

for the

most part be called

constituting precisely that combination of wood, arable land and pasture which at

all

Thanks alone

agriculture.

of

times desirable in the interests

sition of the forests in this part of Siberia, notwithstanding the not

and the mediocre

conditions

pheric

absent,

are

and the subsequent

fire

gradually thrusting back towards the north the line of forest vegetation in the steppes,

is

The care

and

when

Traversing hundreds and thous-

the traveller sees everywhere on the horizon

tract,

Where

the majority of cases due to their

is in

on

Siberian

forests.

forest.

zone would not

know bad

in the

Kirghiz

treeless

soil,

harvests, were

crops it

and grass thrive

is

to this

ideal,

everywhere

happy dispo-

wholly favourable atmos-

well.

The population

not that the grasshopper, always laying

steppe, creeps thence into the rich crops of the cultivated

of this

its

eggs In

fields.

most densely inhabited zone the birch furnishes the peasant with everything, timber

this the

and fuel and wood for every purpose. All the huts and farm buildings in the villages are made of

it,

even the roofs are of birch bark. Birch

as in works, and furnishes

is

the exclusive fuel in towns and

the sole material for

all

settlements

farming implements. The consumption

enormous, and the birch spinnies are melting away like spring snow. This zone cut through by the chief artery of the railway, which will

call forth

a

still

is

is

now being

greater consump-

tion of birch fuel.

The predominance over

the

whole

extent

of the birch in the

of Siberia

middle

low lying cultivated zone

from the Obi to the

east.

however with some interruptions caused by the contour of the acteristic

appearance in the Achinsk

district

and

in

is

manifested

Here the birch zone continues locality. It

shows a more char-

Transbaikalia.

Mountain Woodlands. The zone rechia

of

mountain forests embraces the whole of Siberia from the south. P^romSemi-

to Vladivostok lies

Thian-Shan,

the

two

an almost uninterrupted chain of mountains, under various names,

Alatau,

Tarbagatai,

Altai,

Sayan,

Stanovoi

range, Yablonovy,

and

WEALTH.

FOREST The northern

others.

Here the

slopes of these mountains are almost

They

yield a timber of excellent quality,

forest presents great difficulties.

of the timber upon the steep slopes

into shivers,

damaging

rivers in the

at the

The mountain

with

exploitation

accompanied with no small

is

same time

the small saplings

all

full of rapids

meets

it

of the mountains serve as a

Hence

the humidity of the atmosphere. their defense

The

with

on

way.

its

and do not permit of raftage. In the

there

is

forest

mighty regulator

the

of

management

the proper

of the railway there will

wealth,

the

forests

flushing

of

covering

forest areas of Siberia

which have brought

of the mountain forests

in,

and

many

in

places even where they

the Siberian

a

as

forests

expected that the local population should take any trouble

up of windfalls, frequent

fires,

unsystematic felling, the

more inhabited parts of Siberia even a lack of

introduction of some order into the use of the timber of

governments of Tomsk and Tobolsk, and

in the

to

Western

territories of

The preservation

of the forests in

needs, but not for sale.

The looking

upon

them

after the

the

condition, while

itself felt.

trouble Siberia.

itself

about the

In 1863

the

in

Akmolinsk and Semirechensk, for

use

the

Western Siberia was imposed by the said

exclusively upon the rural population, allowing

own

was not

them; the heap-

temporary regulations were introduced establishing a tax per stump and sagene of wood.

it

cattle

chaotic

made

forest has

the beginning of the sixties the Government began

of

God»,

of

<^gift

to preserve

pasturing

nearest clearings, have brought the majority of timber estates to a

From

Even

and for the construction of vessels, without payment (Art.

The law regarding

according to the expression of the peasants, or as a free gift like air and water,

in the

and

a direction in the law to the effect that «the inhabitants of Siberia are allowed the

free use of the forests for all their needs

to be

the

and of

rivers

from destruction constitute a pressing need of Siberia.

411, Forest Code, ed. 1876).

ing

upon

defiles

do not bring in any revenue to the Crown, were for a long time free from any surveillance.

now

trees

broken

is

have an extremely great importance in the economy of the

appear private initiative in the exploitation of the siiles

mountain

of

spots, the felling

and Semirechensk the Kirghiz transport logs from the

forests

forest.

Not seldom the

risk.

]

pitchpine,

down below and

Independently of the fact that with the carrying through

country.

steep

but the

sides that the felled tree falls

mountainous places are

territories of Seraipalatinsk

camels.

covered

Such plantations are remote from inhabited

grow upon cones with such abrupt

The

everywhere

forest vegetation is very various, hut conifers prevail, such as the larch,

cedar.

pine,

]

rules

in return the right of free use for their

fulfilment of the rules

was imposed upon

the volost administrations. This measure however did not bring the expected advantage.

The

population was burdened with a natural service, timber was cut for the works and towns, but the

Crown received

certain

company

nothing.

Nor was

the unlimited right of

1869 a law was promulgated, granting

this all, in

making use

This company was permitted to cut timber free on the banks their tributaries for the

building

Code, ed. 1876). Apparently

this

of

ships

a

of Siberian timber for industrial purposes.

and the

export

of

of

company made a generous use

the

Obi and Yenisei

lumber. of the

(Art.

right

412,

granted

and

Forest it,

as

timber trees have almost entirely disappeared from the shores of these chief rivers of Siberia. It

must however be remarked that the term

expired.

of

the

priveleges, granted

the

company, has

SIBEKIA.

120 With year 1884

administration of the forests of Western Siberia since the

a view to the proper

been placed upon the same footing

has

it

European Russia are managed, a paid

In the course of

to look after the forest placed at their disposal.

has

the Administration

Western

Siberia.

that part

dues

been

has

it

in

which

population,

ral

over

as

found

Western Siberia

conveyance of

the

before

as

possible

low

the

enjoys

bring

to

500,000 roubles

to

time with the existing very

it

such measures,

of

prices

a

timber

This

year.

works

own

its

domestic

Crown

the

from

considerable

figure,

uses

for

now being

the

present

wood, cannot give even an approximate idea of

for

carried through the country

when

the northern timber zone, and

free,

pi-operty

its

that enormous revenue which the forest resources of Siberia promise in the near future,

the railway

each

any hardening of the local ru-

for

of

of

the timber has been

of

steaoi^r wharves and the

to the

without

revenue

the

forests of

every year only

to the conditions

raftage

control over the

years existence,

Crown

and described,

according

permissible

is

regulated,

CroA^Ti forests of

eight

its

for the organization of the

little

cut which

By means

manufactories.

a

have been ascertained

estates

been

have

well

established, as

and

The timber

appointed to be

is

estate; the

not

effected

by which the

as that

guard being introduced. The peasants are required

forest

the consumption of

increases

in the south a regular

same

sale of the

when

wood from

organized to

is

the conterminous and absolutely treeless regions of the Chinese Empire.

In Eastern

Siberia

all

forests for all their needs,

and

one

forest estate

inhabitants are allowed, as before, free use of the State

the

control

all forest

is

entirely absent.

has been declared exclusively belonging to

To

the present time only

the Crown,

ervation

of this estate.

Crown should be exacted

The for

law, although

various works, and this payment

authorities (Art.

Courts,

the

forest code

of this

415 Forest Code,

According revenue

to

received

the

requires

that

be determined by the

works, yet as the superintendence

insignificant.

it

wood received from the

all

ed.

is

1876)

returns

from the sale

were as in the following

Governments:

table.

quantity

imposed upon the amount

furnished of

payment free

the

of

in

the pres-

for the benefit of the forests

by the

wood consumed by

Crown

the

courts and the local

of revenue obtained

and the

this only

itself

Government

by the Irkutsk

timber

and

upon

consequeuce of a petition of the Irkutsk Hunting Company, vvho took

and

is

extremely

Yeniseisk

fines for the

Crown

breach of the

FOREST

to

brook no delay. to

officials

carry

from the free use

The Miuistry out

the

of

WEALTH.

Crowu Domaius

law of removing

the

of the inhabitants, and of their

is

best

121 now

despatching

and most

a party of forest

important

Crown

preservation for future time by

forests

means of

the formation of closed forest estates, and also for the protection of the State forests attached to various industries,

In the

Crowu

forests

Amour

works and manufactories. country, steps have

been taken since

1888

towards

ascertaining the

and the setting aside of the best of them as closed estates, but the

the efforts of the forest officials sent into this country have

not

yet

been

made

results clear,

of

the

dues on the sale of timber are not yet established and the State so far receives no revenues

from

its

vast property iu this part of Siberia.

—^<S>-

CHAPTER The Industries Industrial earnings;

hewing

AFTER

the

and

fishing

of timber and

sketch

wood

IX.

of the rural population.

hunting;

gathering

the

cedar

of

keeping;

bee

nuts;

the

fuel; kustar industries; the carrying trade; concluding remarks.

preceding

of agriculture, cattle raising and forestry presented in the

account, which constitute the chief sources of the prosperity of the mass of the Siberian population, there remains

now

to pass to a survey of

consequence of their merely auxiliary importance

it

other

the

and secondary sources.

In

much

less

only possible to set apart a

is

space than was necessary to devote to agriculture, so that the pages here following will form not so

much

a description as a

short

catalogue

a

survey,

raisonne

of

those

industries

in

which the Siberian people are occupied.

Most prominent on account of the number fishing

and hunting

The lakes,

employed

hands

of

be

placed

the

Internal waters of Siberia, both the large rivers and the greater part of the steppe

were once very rich

dace and such coarse

fish;

in fish. In the lakes

the

in

rivers, the

there chiefly bred perch, crucian carp, pike,

most various species of

beginning with the same perch and pike and ending with n e

The abundance

trout.

must

industries.

which completely

of fish

filled

was

There

fabulous.

the bed of the

exist

1

m

a,

At

the present time

red

and

credible evidence of a

fish,

mass of

fish,

surface, and which even

river from its bottom to its

leaped into the windows of passing steamers.

white

sturgeon, sterlet, eel pout,

the supplies of

fish in

the

Siberian waters have become considerably exhausted. In the limits of the purely agricultural zone thickly populated with Russians,

population

along

the

almost exclusively serves the wants of the

already

fishing

banks for their own

consumption, and

in

but few localities provides

them with more important earnings. Fisheries are now principally concentrated I'eaches of the great Siberian rivers, outside the limits

ern

Siberia there are the

districts

Berezovsk,

of

The

are

for the

to

peasants

or

them.

work but

Yakutsk

The grounds belonging

natives.

insignificant portions

The remainder they

let,

as a

lower

West-

of the

I'ule

territory,

Kam-

without owners, partly belong to the

most part exploited by themselves individually or on the

contrary, the natives

belong

Yenisei, the

fisheries in these parts are partly

bank population consisting of

in

Surgutsk and Tobolsk, and the Narymsk

country; in Eastern Siberia, the lower waters of the

chatka, et cetera.

in the

Thus

of the cultivated zone.

for a

immense mere

to the

peasants

artel principle. fisheries

trifle,

On

the

which actually

to the

neighbouring

123

RUKAL INDUSTRIES. peasants, or, in the majority of cases, to capitalists

of iish is carried both

The catching

made use

According

of.

when

the water

the

of

rivers

natives and the

caught

got,

fishing

on a large scale trouble the

and quickly

themselves

very

fish,

little

peas-

about the

flsh in

the Siberian waters.

not consumed on the spot, goes on the market either frozen or

if

This circumstance

spoils.

on commercial lines in the lower

rapacious methods, to which in a large measure

most

salting in Siberia is carried out very badly

But

salted.

once

the end of

In their choice of means for catching the

length.

traders

must be attributed the exhaustion of the supply of fish

At

the weir.

rushes for fresh water into

fish

such points through holes in the ice in bag-

at

But the wholesale

future and do not disdain to use

The

left in

carried on exclusively in summer, with the aid of huge drift nets

is

300 or more sagenes in

to

means being

nets of the most various sizes,

Iish,

goes bad and the

rivers

are

and even by hand.

nets, ladles,

ants and

the

in

they

the small spring streams,

250

winter, the most various

or that

and traps are placed In gaps

rivers are fenced right across,

reaches

summer and

of this

with several scores of hooks, with bait and without, are employed. In winter, some

lines, seines

the winter

habit

the

to

the industry on commercial

who conduct

numerous parties of hired labourers.

principles with the assistance of

is

a

great

so that the flsh acquires a

obstacle

bad

taste

proper development of the

to the

Siberian fishing trade.

This industry also exists in the Littoral territory in the waters of the Northern Pacilic. Besides

fish,

seals

and morses are caught. The meat

Whales

natives, the tusks alone being sold.

the

Commander

borderland

from the cultivated of

localities

and fat of the latter are eaten by the

same waters, and

in the

fur seals on

Islands. This industry will be described in the next Chapter.

Hunting and trapping form the uncultivated

are taken

tract.

As

a

agricultural

the

of

Siberia,

of

employment mainly of the population of the northern as

zone,

of

also

secondary

the

situated

zone, separating this region

transition

occupation

near

they

exist also in

enough

to

the

a

number

fair

uninhabited

forest

areas.

The

taigas and

urmaus form the arena of the hunter's industry, these boundless

forest

lands everywhere lying adjacent to the inhabited zone of Siberia on the north. This industry

conducted partly with firearms

or, in

with traps of the most variable construction. shooting, after which

come the

is

the case of some natives, with bows and arrows, partly

killing of various

The most widely spread form

of sport

is

squirrel

wood and water birds. Fur animals, formerly

eding in abundance throughout Siberia, have now, with the exception of the squirrel,

bre-

common fox,

ermine and bear, almost disappeared from Western Siberia, so that in that country but very

few hunters are now occupied of

valuable

destruction

peltry of

wild

animals

bear and elk, are hunted over but only to the more skilful

Tunguz and

in

catching either the sable

now proceeds from

the

or the marten.

has not yet assumed such dimensions. all

and

Siberia, but this kind of sport

courageous.

The

chief supply

northern regions of Eastern Siberia, where the

In

is

Large animals, such as not open to every hunter

the tundras of Eastern Siberia the native

others hunt the northern reindeer; in the southern mountainous parts of the East-

ern Siberian governments and Amouria, various kinds of animals, or Siberian stag,

whose horns fetch a high

price.

among

others the

mara

1,

124

SIBERIA.

The excessive hunting

Yakutsk

virgin thickets of the

animals, and

wild

of valuable

Western Siberia, compel them

fires in

Here the precious sable

forests.

particular, extensive

in

them mainly eastwards

to emigrate, driving

forest

into the

abundant, but hunters

is fairly

are rare. Hunting the arctic fox also forms a not inconsiderable addition to the livelihood of

the Yakutsk, Dolgaus and other natives. During his migration from the sea up the river, the latter is barred across with nets or fences,

and

this

animal

sometimes caught with the aid

is

of special traps in considerable quantities. Thus, in 1860, during a great migration of arctic

them were caught.

foxes on the Yenisei some 7,000 of

The earnings

A

most variable.

the

of the inhabitants less

from hunting and trapping belong

accidental character

animal, in dependence upon the harvest of fir-cones forming into the

most distant

more nearly situated

many

as

kill

as 500

remote parts of the

The hazel hen

government 200

squirrels per gun.

the

forest,

When

hunter

best

riabchi-k,

or

to

majority

the

wildgeese,

and ducks, has not much importance in Siberia.

and but small quantities

well as bears and other such

chase after

are

for

offered

wild animals,

all

earnings of hundreds of roubles.

produces

As

such

Ermine

With bad luck

because

they

demand

own by

much

For the convenience

are hardly shot at

all.

and k

The

With luck such a

happens that the hunter,

it

The main

them loans provided

k

o n o

or

with

Siberian

weasel.

chief fur traders are the natives,

and because they possess as

prescription all the best grounds,

of the natives

chief

means

of powder, shot and lead.

with

1

all or

fur animals

greater knowledge, skill and endurance than the Russian peasant. of

the

northern

Tobolsk and Yeniseisk and the territory of Yakutsk, for any rate, one of the

o

for

auimals, as

of fur

to the pursuit

here depends on chance.

marten

are the sable, fox,

Siberia

for the lack of

regards this industry

at

blackcock,

as

wandering through the forest half the winter, returns either with nothing at

taken in Eastern

figure.

Such birds are mostly shot

a booty which does not cover the cost of feeding himself and his dogs.

both

part of this

shooting of other birds

sale.

retire to the

squiirels

fifth

get

to the east they

one winter reaching 50 to 100

in

if

sport,

Good hunters

mainly for the European

government

shot in the Tobolsk

much more. The

the

of

even a

will not shoot

Russian market, yields a fairly constant earnings, the bag successful

comes out upon the

results.

300 head, while further

brace, and

very

good

spots. In the latter case the sport yields

during a winter in the Tobolsk

of

chief food, sometimes retires

its

accessible to the hunter, at others

least

forests

number

to the

attached to squin'el hunting, but even this

is

the necessary

of

For

existence,

region

whom

governments of

the

of

hunting forms

the Government in

not the only,

if

many

makes

places

stores are constantly

this purpose the native grain

supplies of these articles, and the natives

very

eagerly

avail

themselves of the privilege in order to avoid being indebted to private traders.

The same boundless Siberian portant in the economy of pretty

forests are the centre of another industry also

considerable portion

cedar nuts. This industry exists in

all

of

the

population,

the Sibenan governments.

The cedar

the

very

gathering

forests,

imof

sometimes

of small size, but not seldom extending to tens and hundreds of square versts, are scattered

through

all

the urmans and taigas, and are for the most part, as

the Government to the free enjoyment of to gather these nuts

all

who wish

to

from settlements situated thirty and

sometimes over one hundred

versts.

make fifty

mentioned above,

use of them. People versts

from

the

left

by

collect

grove,

and

EURAL They assemble from cedar plantation

age

the

125

INDUSTRIES.

more extensive regions according

greater

to the

cedar groves that are at

Good harvests generally do

remote do not attract any traders.

all

not occur more often than once in four or five

in ten to fitteen years. In the gathering of the nut a division of labour is

The

cone

fir

is

youths and women. to fifty

workmen

plucked from the cedar by the strong, skilful

They throw the

climbers.

fir

happen once

and excellent harvests

years,

that

insignificant

nut ripens once in two years, but frequently the harvests are so

the

the

of

size

and the better the crop. Crops do not happen every year. On an aver-

itself

commonly called

practised.

azo k

1

or

s

cones on the ground where they are picked up by others, mostly

With a good

harvest, a lazok and his

ponds of nuts, or when the harvest

will gather thirty

two or three helpers

In

hundred pouds or more.

exceptional, one

is

nut the Tobolsk government the harvests are not so great as further to the east. But as the

about the same in

government of Tobolsk much dearer, the earnings are

sells in the

Siberian governments, the relative crop being the same also.

from an average harvest, and 200

A

an exceptional

250 roubles and more from

to

such harvest sometimes leads to the prolonged improvement of the that part of the population which has chanced to avail itself of

Among

the

all

lazok gets 50 to 100 roubles

One

one.

condition

economical

of

it.

the forest industries in Siberia must also be referred bee keeping, which

is fairly

disdeveloped throughout the Altai mining district and in the nearest parts of the remaining

tricts of the

Tomsk government. Bee keeping

of very simple construction called b o r

t s,

hives

in Siberia is carried on with the help of

hollowed out of thick trees. The bees are bred in

and bushes flourthe woods, and receive no artificial food, but feed themselves on the plants ishing

own

in

The dimensions

the taiga.

of these bee farms are very various.

Some beemasters

and not more than three to five hives while others possess from five hundred to a thousand,

more. The average size of a peasant's bee garden in the localities where the industry

edge

highly developed, namely in the groups of settlements lying on the very

most

is

the

of

taiga,

may be taken as seventy-five to a hundred hives. In such places the number of beemasters has now conforms a third, half or more of the total householders. The extent of bee keeping Not a few bee ago. years twenty or fifteen it was what with siderably diminished compared diminished gardens have ceased to exist, and in those that remain the number of hives has

Two

by half or more.

causes

lie

at the root of this state of things,

Numbers

and diseases of the insects themselves.

began

to yield

much

less honey.

now

is

forest again is the arena of a

not a finished

or

hives

less

especially the cutting of

wood

fuel.

Here

The

first

rivers.

region containing about fifteen thousand souls, where is

one

but

man

material, upon

only a

and foremost comes the hewing of timber and

regions where these

towns and along the navigable and raftable

town population

others of

whole series of industries, where nature gives

industries

are

most

of the are scattered over all Siberia, being concentrated in the neighbourhood

able

while

than an average

considered a very good yield.

almost finished product as in the cases above,

which he must expend his labour.

bad harvests of bee food,

perished altogether,

Formerly each hive gave not

poud of honey, while half the quantity

The

of

the

one of the chief sources of livelihood.

Thus Tomsk preparation

is

of

developed

more consider-

surrounded with a

wood

fuel

Similar districts encircle

the timber Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, although these towns receive the greater part of

they require by raftage from comparatively distant localities.

for the

Tinmen, and wood

STBFRIA.

126 As

to the riverside localities, there the principal activity is

wood

ishing the steamers with

Some

spots situated up stream above the

rafts both timber

and fuel for the

southern part of the Tnrinsk

Thus Tinmen gets nearly

Tobolsk from volosts

district,

hew and make up

more considerable towns,

latter.

with the furn-

connected

consuming on the Obi alone enormous quantities.

fuel annually

of

all

the

same

are

undertaken

into

from the

timber

its

and

district

from

that of Tobolsk, lying along the river Tavda.

Every peasant hews

The

less extensive firms.

for himself, while the large

employ a mass

latter

orders

workmen

of

on

either

by more or by

hire

or

special

contracts.

Household industries

in Siberia do not present

number

branch, employing the greatest

wood

earnings, comprises various forms of

hands

of

groups

of

kustar

raw

the

to

ku

Individual

Siberia.

s t

a r

population are

and

material,

met

are

s

trade

occupying such

with

everywhere.

the

for

wooden

carts, shovels,

antry,

which must be added wood

to

and sold

among

Tomsk and

Irkutsk.

thills,

made

Here, as in the

of birch bark

objects of every-day use It thus is

Tomsk

first

The needs

region.

region,

various

kinds

and some kinds of turned goods

among

whence

in a lamentable state.

are

appliances used the

market

villages

Tinmen

in

employ most

sledges, carts, wheels, all

axles,

of

which

in the kustar industry of the

of

are

wooden

vessels, furniture,

produced,

constituting

all

the peasantry.

most

appears that the forest yields the Siberian peasant the

the chief source

made

of the peas-

life

of the latter traffic

They make

of

embra-

first

here

articles

hawked about

class are

largest

The

mats, wheels, trade sledges and

The same goods predominate

Tomsk

deficits

earnings,

varied

on account of agi'iculture and cattle rearing are made

good and the peasant's budget balanced. is

The

position

easy access

is

The

horse collars, tar, troughs for the horses, charcoal for the smithies,

Irkutsk region. articles

districts.

to the peasants, while those belonging to the second class find a

are sold in the bazaar in Tomsk.

and

fibre,

Articles belonging to the

of the energies of the kustars in the

largest

extensive

less

and other things used in the

the carriers employed in the inland trade.

yokes,

or

articles.

Tiumensk and Turinsk

vessels, simple furniture,

in fitting out caravans.

the

prominent

manufactured

these groups are situated around the towns of Tinmen, ces a considerable part of the

a

More

concentrated mainly in spots where there

ready sale

a

population

industry, partly in satisfaction of the needs of the

local peasantry, partly of those of the carrying

in

The most important

any great variety.

and affording the

The exhaustion

Unfortunately however the forest wealth of Siberia

game and

of the supplies of

fur

auimals

was

re-

ferred to above, but the forests themselves in Siberia are being destroyed exceedingly rapidly,

considerably more rapidly indeed than might be expected with the actual insignificant density of the population.

very

little

Of

fine,

actually virgin forests, at any rate in the cultivated part of Siberia,

Western

has remained, while the southern districts of the

Siberian

are already to a considerable extent stripped of trees and are experiencing a

only in timber, but not seldom also in

immoderate and disorderly

fellings,

wood

fuel.

destroying

The cause

many

times

permits, and in the forest conflagrations extending ovei' versts.

of this

phenomenon

more than

hundreds

governments

deficiency

ami

the

lies

annual

thousands

of

in

not the

addition

square

127

EUKAL INDUSTRIES. The importance of

the industries not coiuiected with the exploitation of the

economy

regard to the general

place be directed to hand

of the country

spinning

and

is

converting

weaving,

and wool

flax

linen and cloth are

main mass being consumed

offered for sale, the

by the peasantry. Further,

in

many

and other industries,

employed in these industries

Ordinarily those

form of clothing

in the

home-spun linens and cloths are driven out by imported manufactured

shoes, hat, girdle, worsted glove,

and

near the towns or the tract,

localities, particularly those

Next, notice

fabrics.

making

in connection with the

must be taken of the leather, sheepskin, wool beating

first

linen

into

but small quantities of

Weaving has an almost exclusively domestic character;

coarse cloth.

forests in

Attention must here in the

not great.

of felt

which are of universal occurrence.

all of

occupying

live isolated in different settlements,

own

themselves with their particular industry as an aid to agriculture, and working in their or the neighbouring

however sheepskin

dressers,

makers

erable regions lying around.

shoes,

of these trades

own. In some places

their

and tanners

work

trade and

The second

districts of the

felt

.of

extent in their

specialize to a greater

Kurgan and Tinmen

work upon material not

villages at piece

whole communities,

in

live

population

for the

more consid-

of

established on a large scale in the

is

government of Tobolsk, which supply not only the neigh-

bouring localities, but also the Eastern Siberian market.

Other trades

refined industries

skins near

may

Of the more

district,

the construction

Tomsk, the winnowing fan industry

of

mills

in

Ishim,

in the Mariinsk district

dressing

the

and

somewhat highly specialized

the population employed in

To complete

the Altai,

in

the description of the peasant industries, there

still

with

occupations connected

the

it

is

this trade is that

without

situated

all

is

is,

tracts,

but

attraction

a a of

Next

and European Russia.

carriage

grounds

of

goods

order comes

in

the

nom

of the native

the pale of the cultivated zone of Siberia; after this, follow the rest. all

is

the traffic over

the

great

Siberian

tract

of which

necessary to speak.

The productions

chief articles of export from of

manufacturing

industry,

European Russia beginning

ery and ending with machinery and bar iron. sia

of

only

not

mainly Tinmen, Tomsk and Irkutsk. The principal

kinds to the gold mines and the

But by far the most important of it

the

of

along the great Siberian tract, including the

different localities of Siberia

conveyance of provisions of ads,

The conveyance occupied

of peasants living at a distance from the latter in the sphere of

one or other of the leading depots, that

between the

remains to say a few

it.

considerable part of the population dwelling in the immediate vicinity

branch of

as set-

and provide

in the region of their distribution

goods constitutes the chief form taken by this industry, and with

number

of

them very considerable wages.

words upon the carrier trade and

large

sign

hare

of

well as some others. All these industries exist only in distinct settlements or groups tlements, but are

which

branches,

here and there form small industrial communities.

be mentioned the making of metallic sieves, carpet weaving and

Tinmen

painting in the

brick making, and similar

carpentry and joinery,

are

everywhere,

while existing

are

tallow,

conveyed grain while

and the

with

into Siberia

ladies

From Western

are

fashions

Siberia

produce from the slaughter of cattle,

from Eastern Siberia goes almost

exclusively tea

with

into

the

and

most

varied

confection-

European Rus-

such as hides

and

which many thous-

SIBERIA.

128

now employs hundreds as

The

annually loaded.

ands of carts are

of

thousands

said above its dimensions at

was

with former limes.

At

the

goods

total

have

time

present

the

was from 2.50

poud of

to 3 roubles per

Tomsk and

freight,

does

it

not

fallen

Tomsk

expenses, from 200 to 250 roubles.

40

Thus

in former times a

months

and back lasting two

to Irkutsk

Now

While the

ordinarily

The expenses

road on the other hand have not only not diminished, but rather, thanks

ing a trip from

off.

Irkutsk, about 1,500

now

1.60 roubles to 1.80 roubles, and sometimes falls short of this figure.

in the price of grain, have even increased.

even

tract

shrunk, compared

considerably

same time the revenue therefrom has notably

average payment for carriage formerly for example between versts,

Slherian

the

over

traffic

and tens of thousands of people, although

of horses

man

with

the

of

enhancement

to the

earned,

exceed

five

horses dur-

covering

after

all

the net profit under average conditions does not exceed

50 roubles, and in case of misfortune, especially embezzlement of goods for which the

to

carriers are

bound

answer, not seldom large losses are incurred. The peasants continue

to

circumstances

occupy themselves with the business of carriers under these the one hand,

is

it

to

because, on

only

important for them to receive at one time in the form of earnest

money

comparatively large sums, and on the other, they count as pure profit the maintenance during

man and

the journey of

whom

beast

would otherwise

it

necessary

be

keep

to

during

the

course of the winter with no return. trade on the Siberian tract

In any case the carrier

being what

it

was formerly and together with

it

points situated along the tract have fallen into decline. of the caravans, the conveyance

changes of horses,

from station

the replacement

of

fourth part of the

and

various

at

Among

to station

the of

day far from

present the

population

the

of

such earnings were the baiting

which went by

of fast traffic goods,

and

tired horses in the trains of carts, the unloading

damaging

transhipping, ensuing on the freezing of rivers, or the

the most various kinds

is

the earnings

all

occasional

All

earnings.

former income, and the population

of roads, passenger traffic of this

now

does not yield the

of the tract is forced to occupy itself

ever more and more with agriculture.

The preceding all

review of these

earnings

place in the economic

on the whole, without

its

is

life

at the

had

to

earnings

falling to the peasant population

keep in view only the most important and

now

time

only

considerable

improvement

of

the

The

to indicate their

too play a secondary part.

technical

and

especially

latter.

^x3-

for those parts of Siberia

which

of the same. In the agricultural zone

inseparably bound up with the future of agriculture the

exhaustion of

of Siberia.

of the population. This place, speaking of non-agricultural earnings

present

cultivated zone or on the borderlands

agiicultural earnings

nay had not in view, the

disquisition has not exhausted,

the kinds of non-agricultural

The and of

future of the Siberian peasantry is

lie

nonis

therefore in close dependence uu

the economical

surroundings of the

HUNTING AND THE FUR INDUSTRY.

CHAPTER

129

X.

Hunting and the fur industry in the Far East. end of the eighteenth century; the and Co.; statistics of the yield of seal skins; the preparation of the fur; the trade in skins in London; activity of the firm of Hutchison and Co.; formation of the Russian Association of Seal Traders; new conditions of the lease; piratical destruction of the seals; international agreements for the regulation of the seal industry; beaver, arctic fox, morse and whale trades; fur industries;

The

seal

cursory

industry;

thereof from

sketch

Company; Hutchinson,

Russian- American

Cool,

the

Filipeus

total dimensions of the yield of furs for all Siberia;

THE

hunting

of

hundred years

and

other animals

sovereign right

the

ivory.

Far East has formed

in the

of revenue to the State.

for

more than a

In consequence of the remoteness of

Government always farmed out these industries

this region, the

ing to itself

fur

a source

mammoth

to private

undertakers, reserv-

carrying on of the industry and

of controlling the regular

preserving the animals from extermination.

The most (otaria), that

considerable

of

the industries

morsko

The Russian name

paratively easy.

The

to its appearance.

it

is

Extremely

known

ing in the

Pacific

northern

ko

i

t

i

k,

lively

exceedingly clumsy and therefore

several varieties, of which the best

A

the catching

is

or

fur,

while

sea-cat,

is

of the sea its

far

fur

capture

from

is

seal

com-

answering

fur seal is a fairly large animal, attaining a length of seven feet, its

average length being about an arshine. water, on land

part

of

Another variety, otaria

Straits.

named

bear-like seal yielding an exceedingly valuable

the

is

and quick in

the otaria ursina or

Ocean

australis, breeds

in

its

movements

in the

exceedingly helpless. This animal has calorhinus

ursinus, breed-

between California, Japan and Behring South America on the Galopagos Islands;

third variety, otaria pusilla or arctocephalus antarcticus, breeds at the

Cape

of

Good Hope,

a fourth variety, otaria Forsteri, upon the oceanic islands near Tasmania, and others. Possessing splendid fur the otaria early attracted the attention of sea hunters,

where

this It

animal

was only

comes out upon

at the

end of the

dry land

to

last century

who

long sought the spot

breed.

that the

celebrated navigator,

Behring, succeeded in discovering a group of four islands, called in his honour the Islands.

One

of

Behring Island,

them,

Commander

Commander

upon which subsequently the navigator himself perished, was called

and another Miedny, The two others, on account

of their small dimensions.

SIBERIA.

30

1

no importance.

have of

year

the

was ascertained that upon Behring Island

It

fur seals appear

the

a

at

However

enormous numbers.

in

season

particular

the hunters, intimately

acquainted with the seal industry, were convinced that besides the said group of islands the

must have other asylums,

seal

A

pended,

which much time and

search for

the

in

were ex-

trouble

two

sailing craft, the «St. George», spent

small

a

skipper, Pribylov, in

daring

years in such quests, fortunately crowned with complete success by the discovery of a group of islands in the

One of

tlie

was named

the Russian

and planting there

merchant Guprov's expedition, discoverd the

trader

Andreanovsk

the Pribylovs.

who

Thus,

flag.

in

the

north-western

crowd

of Siberia, there constantly hovered a

new

not seldom succeeded in discovering

the sailor Nevodchikov, in charge of the

1745 the Blizhni, Attn and Agatu islands. In 1759 In 1760 the trader Tolstykh discovered

discovered the Lisi Islands.

Glotov

of the Pacific between

in the part

America and the north-eastern shore

of different adventurers, hunters of fur animals,

lands

navigator,

of this

the ship St. George; another, St. Paul. Independently

after

two above-named navigators, of

shore

Behring Sea, and called in honour

same

of these islands

islands, called after his Christian

and others

name,

the

the Aleutian

belonging to

and Kuril groups.

On

close examination of the matter

proved that the main mass of fur seals came out

it

on the Pribylovs Islands. Not so very long ago there appeared upon them annually seals,

while the number on the

however from the

Commander

Islands

latest information these figures

for the Pribylov Islands, for the animals scared

begun

to

was not more than two

is

million

Judging

must be considerably diminished especially

by the

piratical traders

have

of

late

becoming more

Again the

rarely coming out on land.

marine,

apparently the already

seals are

appearing in diminished numbers upon Tiulen Island near Sakhalin, about 10,000 only, the Kuril Islands forming part of Japan, at the at the

Cape

of

Good Hope, upon the Falkland

of the southern hemisphere,

met with

years

appear more frequently upon the shore of the Kamchatka peninsula, upon the north-

eastern shore of Siberia and the north-western shore of ISTorth America, and

animal

five

millions.

in countless

ago, Russia

where

numbers.

it

carried on. But since 1867,

when

Tasmania and many other places

Islands, in

would seem the animal in question in former times was

Thus

was the only country

upon

of Corinth in the Argentine Republic,

Cape

in

it

twenty-five

only

back,

resulted that not far

whose

years

territories the highly valuable seal industry

the Russian possessions in

some islands from the Aleutian archipelago, were ceded

to

was

North America, together with the Government

of

the United

States, the advantages of this trade are shared with the latter country.

In order to explain the economical importance of the seal industry to define its dimensions,

the value of

it

is

the State

to

animal

of the

life

itself

and and

its fur.

Of the favourite haunts St.

necessary to say something on the

George and

St.

Paul, are

of the seal in the Behring and

now

the property of the

Islands, Behring and Miedny, and Tiulen are

The Commander

Islands,

the limits of

within

lying at a distance apart of

nearest point of the continent of Kamchatka,

rocky mountains and in part with

30

are deprived

marshy tundras.

Okhotsk

seas, the Pribylov Islands,

United States, and

miles, and

of

all

100

miles

vegetation,

The damp sea

Commande r

the

Russian

the

air

dominions.

from

the

covered with

yielding

abundant

HUNTINO AND TRE FUR INDUSTRY.

131

atmospheric precipitation maizes the climate of these islands extremely unhealthful, and exceedingly probable that but for the existence there

The

uninhabited.

Commander

At

on

out

the

May

choosing spots

shore,

By

defending them form being seized by others. shore,

Sakhalin and

as

is

Islands.

the end of April or the beginning of

come

is

it

would remain

they

rookeries

seal

Tijilen Island adjoins the eastern shore of the island of

inhospitable as the

males

of

seals approach

the the

for

these

establishment

May

the end of

the

islands;

family and

the

of

approach the

the females

and are enticed upon the selected locations by the males, each male absorbing ten

to

fifteen females.

A

male that has reached

full

physical development

called on the islands s

is

corrupted from the English «sea catch»; a young siekach with small withers

one without withers, catch

the

is

kholostiakor

a

kholostiak,

moulting, that

two

loshinov,

who was

sent by the

taken up

its position,

Government

which the

spot upon

them with

head are cut

and when those which are suitable as

by a blow on the head with a

to sex

few minutes on the place chosen

may

third,

and so

Twenty men can

on.

employed

ulation

of

in

the

elements. It

Islands

on

the

on

and of

kill

the

seals

was formed from the workmen who were brought

in

in

rows

consists

a

di-

place

twenty-four of

in sheds.

workmen The pop-

extremely various

of

thither by

the

is

the

fill

party

another

In

the mor-

writhing, with

seen

are

a thousand seals

slaughter,

occupied in killing

thirty

spot.

among which

In a short while thousands of bodies

removing the skins and salting and packing them

Commander

two men are

or

After finishing with one heap, a second party

easily drive off

pro-

is

of the fur seal are so

be killed

on account of their unsuitability

to the sea.

Simultaneously with the carrying

hours. is

way

one

it

and age have been ascertained,

for their slaughter a heap of slain,

tally frightened animals left alive

of slaughter.

has cut-

drive at once

A group of twenty to

The head bones

stick.

weak, that with one slight blow with a stick the animal

and then a

Vo-

where

men can

even

a herd of five or six thousand seals in the drive.

off,

the

Colonel

flock of kholostiaks

sticks further to the point

almost the same number of thousands of the animals, and then

vided

although

to

the inhabitants early in the morning run out to the seashore thus

sufficient to hold

difficulty finding their

of July,

According

posed to slaughter them. The seals are so helpless that ten to fifteen

they are killed

h,

to investigate the position of the seal industry, the

Having found the

ting off the animals retreat and drive

out,

k ac

time preceding

the

at

middle

the

to

e

chief constituent of the

taken

is

September.

slaughter of the seals continues not unfrequently to

seals are killed as follows.

which

old,

June

say, from the beginning of

is to

The

bachelor, and so on.

and three years

i

called a half-siekach,

is

the

traders

partly

from the continent of Asia, partly from that of America, while others chanced here accidentally.

There

are thus to be

met with here together with Kamcliadals and Aleuts, Yakuts,

Cossacks and others.

On Behring

Island the conditions of

life

are less severe than on Miedny, and therefore

the population on the former is twice that on the latter.

does not exceed six hundred

souls.

coming there from Behring Island

On Tiulen

The

total population of both islands

Island there are

no

fixed

for the slaughter of the seals and, the

home. During nearly half the year the island

is

thus

left

inhabitants,

men

work done, returning

unprotected and then foreign vessels

SIBERIA.

132

frequently call and their crews complete the

The population

island.

slaughter

Commander

of both the

commune, the whole earnings being divided among

sum being annually

small

set apart as reserve

all

has

an

conditions under which the seal industry is carried on, only the

Commander and Tiulen

near the

with the necessary supplies

ships

Crown

on

the

the

of

a

exceptional

the

of

come

lessees

The

contractors.

company

are afforded the right of free trade, and although by agreement the its

on the

and consequently the furnishing of the population

islands,

entirely in the hands of the

is

based

certain principles,

consequence

In

left

still

organization

workmen on

the

capital.

animals

those

of

Islands

latter here

obliged to

is

sell

goods at a fixed price confirmed by the authorities of the islands, this point has

always

In the same way, from the absence of

compe-

called forth a

number

of misunderstandings.

the inhabitants of the islands were compelled

tition,

which were not included

furs

On concluding

latter.

At

the Crown,

was

way

gains, without in any

from

whom

also free

the

same time the two

the

not

company obtained the

new

with the

skins at an incredibly

company

low

The

price.

it

is

expended no

advantage, although they

little

contract these conditions have been

To render

industry are more clearly defined.

Far East,

the

of

touching the question of the

latter together yielded the

the better, and the relations between the aborigenes of the

the

agents

Government held

enor-

themfishing

from any control on the part of the State, and beyond providing the inhabitants

Now

it.

industry, the

and other

fox,

profiting not only the State, but even the inhabitants

with food brought the latter very

upon

arctic

company's rights, at prices fixed by the

in the

only the seal industry to be the property of

selves,

beaver,

sell

the agreement with the lessees of the

beaver and arctic fox.

mous

to

considerably

little

labour

changed for

and the lessees of the

islands

clear the present position of these industries

in

necessary to throw a burned glance at the relation of the Government

to

this matter.

In the XYIIIth century, as has been already said, the fishing, fur and other industries

and

upon the Siberian shore of the Pacific, as well as

Okhotsk zation.

of

seas, occupied

This latter

many

fact

business, the largest

in

led

all

and

furs

tors

it,

of despatching

known and unknown,

explorations and the establishment personally

islands,

of the undertaking.

However

to

in the

settlement

among the

and

crossed over to the

it

of the in

1780

on of the fur industry and

for the carrying

guarantee success

Galikov,

expeditions «to Alaska, called the

small

having become acquainted with the local conditions were

Behring and

to the disputes

trade with the natives».

of free

visited all the nearest

among them

merchants Shelekhov

the

in

possessed no regular organi-

order for the exploitation

a regular

sstablish

to

representatives of

land, to islands

who

To put an end

to interfere.

North America,

in

and other islands lying

misunderstandings

constant

to

formed a company with the object

American

Kuril

individual traders and companies,

which the Government was forced

hunters and traders

Russian possessions

in the

Commander, the

on the Pribylov,

The

energetic initia-

American continent and

easily convinced of the advantages

was necessary

for

them

to further ensure

themselves from the Government the exclusive right of carrying on the industry, which Shele-

khov and Galikov succeeded,

Government

at that

time

in 1788,

had not

its

in

own

doing,

without

any

particular

representatives in the

company was completely reorganized; new workers with

trouble,

as

the

Far East. Soon the new

fresh capital entered

it,

and

in

1798

HUNTING AND THE FUK INDUSTRY.

it

was Imperially confirmed under the

title

of the United

133

American Company. The Emperor Paul

took a lively interest in the fate of this company; hy an ukase of the 8th June, 1799, he took

under His protection and ordered time granting

<;

in reinforcement of the undertakings of the

Company was

In virtue of this ukase the Russian-American

make

company

assistance on

all possible

granted,

among

other things, «the

latitude

Behring

in

and further on

Sea,

are unoccupied by

any nation;

enjoy the

to

shall in the future be discovered

use of

that has

all

of the earth, without any claim on the part of others; to navigate

peoples and to carry on trade with

all

position,

the first term of

(luring

roubles,

paying

company

was

and even had a

wider scope

its

still

shareholders

a

all

neighbouring

the

dividend of 30 per

when

in

Thanks

character.

namely twenty years,

the

to

The continued

cent.

beginning of the

exclusive

its

earned

it

twenties

20,024,698

progress of the

present

of the

century the Government recognized the necessity of limiting the rights of foreigners in

if

With

Behring Sea and the Sea of Okhotsk, as also on their shores.

company

at the expiration

of one term

renewed

the sole, at any rate the richest

not

Commander and Pribylov

privilege,

its

enjoying

fur seal fishery in the

world,

varied

without

for seal skins

limits of

was then very

mander

namely that

it

by

got

the

In

Kiakhta these goods

American Company

the

in

trade.

Instead

March

former country fetching about

30,

were bartered

1861,

of merely preparing the skin as heretofore, the fur itself

jected to treatment, the long hair being

An

until

all

for

silk

In the thirties a sharp change took place in the

goods, tea, and other productions of China.

was sub-

plucked out and the remaining down dyed a dark

exceedingly elegant article was thus obtained and quickly a large demand

for it arose in England.

But

in consequence of inability to salt the skins, they spoiled in the

prolonged voyage in sailing vessels past

islands

two Com-

exceed 11,000. These skins, dressed like any others, and even rather roughly,

six roubles apiece.

colour.

the

Pribylov

American company took on the same

found a sale almost exclusively in Russia and China, in the

brown

of

was apparently declining from

In the same year, 1837, about 4,000 seals were caught on the

Islands, so that the total quantity of skins

sealskin

the

competition,

Behring Sea and the Sea of Okhotsk. small, and

islands alone, while twenty years later the Russian

thirties did not

trade

fortune

the beginning of the present century, as in 1817, 60,000 seals were caught on the

only 7,000 skins.

to

Islands, as also on the less important points of the Pacific coast of

North America and Siberia within the

The demand

or

limit its activity to the fur trade alone,

political

its privilege,

fuilher assured

discovered

and in the bowels

the powers lying around»

Thus the Russian-American Company did not set itself a

to

lands

these

if

been

yet

surface

both .on the

these places,

in

and

the Aleutian, Kuril

other islands; to discover and occupy lands to the south of 55° north latitude,

but

Amer-

use of the fisheries and establishments upon the north-western shore of

ica, north of 55'^ north

it

same

at the

with land and sea forces on demand made by the same».

the part of the military authori-ties

right to

Russian-American Company,

to he called the

it

from

the Pribylov

and Commander

islands

London

to

Cape Horn. Notwithstanding however

valued in England, than to

gravitate

to

in

this

inconvenience, sealskin

Russia and other places,

London, and

soon

the

latter

furs

began

to

be more

the

whole

of

these

became the

centre

of

the

so

that

highly

goods world's

SIBERIA.

134 trade in sealskins.

was founded

in

The business was

London which

to this

so profitable that already in 1849 a special

day turns out

taken in 1867 by the Russian Government

false

in regard to the

possessions with part of the Aleutian Islands, namely the

put an end to

before

its

its

cession of

Pribylovs,

its

to

affairs,

it

could not count on

making various claims

termination.

In

its

against

former

profits

manufactory

The

the

United

States,

best

fishery

its

and therefore resolved to

the Government for breach

satisfaction of these the

decision

American

North

the monopoly of the Russian-American Company. Deprived of

upon the Pribylov Islands

wind up

materials.

sealskin

Government was obliged

to

of

contract

buy

company's shares, while A. Filipeus, carrying on trade in the Far East, acquired the

all

the

latter's

Kamchatka and the Sea of Okhotsk. The Russian-American Company during the first period of its activity from 1799 to sealskins; 1821, that is, 23 years, took upon the Commander, and other islands, 1,232,374 fur

property in the ports of

during the second period from 1822 to 1841, that third period from 1842

During the

to 1861, that

is,

is,

20 years, 458,502 skins; and during the

20 years, the catch was 338,600

last years of its existence the

skins.

company considerably increased

its activity,

and finally in the last year, 1868, the slaughter of seals reached unheard of dimensions.

1

Years.

HUNTING AND THE FUR INDUSTRY. of the year, to the Tiie contract

number

was concluded

more than 100,000 skins

of not

20 years

for

till

135 the

in

May, 1890.

the 1st of

company on the 18th February, 1871, concluded a contract with catching seals on the

Commander

bound themselves:

to take into their

1.

Islands, Behring

on

season

both

islands

For the same term the Government

the Russian

for

and Miedny, and on Tiulen Island. They

body a Russian subject;

2.

pay

to

5,000 roubles

a

year and two roubles for each fur seal skin taken from the said islands, and further to pay

50 kopecks to the inhabitants of the islands for

from them.

each full-grown

and perfect skin received

In 1877 these conditions were subjected to substantial alterations in respect

the payment per skin, so that the inhabitants were paid at the rate of

50 kopecks for the

first

of

one

to

instead

rouble

30,000 skins, and the Crown received at the same time instead of

two roubles only one rouble 75 kopecks.

The new company without delay

set about placing the trade in seal skins on

regular footing, to which contributed in particular the opening not long before, the Pacific Railway connecting the Atlantic with that cation the Alaska

Commander route,

and

it

its

Company was

Islands to

London

Thanks

to this

in a position to forward its fur goods

in a

shorter

was then recognized as advisable

preservation from

ocean.

damage during

Independently

time.

of

in

a

more of

1869,

new communi-

from the Pribylov and

the

shortening

the

of

for the convenience of the preparation of the skin

the voyage, to salt

it

without previously removing

the fat, which with the former method of transport oxidised and spoiled the goods. Soon the

Alaska Company began the

same time

to

to put

on the London market a large quantity of skins, striving

improve the quality of their goods and

The Company introduced order and

system

into

the selection of

and in their preparation for transport, attaining in this respect goods became exemplary.

Company

During the time of

got skins to the following amounts.

!

Years.

its

at

to attain uniformity of selection.

the

existence from 1871

very to

the

sort

of skins

best

results.

1891

the

Its

Alaska

SIBERIA.

136 American

to be noticeable.

and the remotest parts of Kamchatka. But however

begun

to

is

the Alaska

Although de jure yet de facto

The cause

better.

elucidated, but the fact itself only

ies,

may

it

the

preferring

of such a change

is

not sufficiently

yet

as

In the majority of

established.

Company was

the only firm possessing rich seal fisher-

cases

however the goods proved

to

of seal skins, taken without distinction

of sex or age,

in question

land and sea. In consequence

piratical

of such

be contraband, that every

on

London market

in the majority

effected the difficult task of sorting

character

opportunity on the goods could

of the industry,

in a very

of cases

bad

dressing them. Of the

and

and

shape,

They came on

Commander,

Tiulen,

the Kuril Islands, and near

and

near

the

the dyeing

difficult

The whole treatment

of the

short

down

that

was

all

The

left.

of the skin

cost

from 5

to 15

25 roubles.

Islands, with an average

weighing

Tiulen Island,

pounds, 23 roubles, that

London

weight of

is, little

a sale, mainly

find

According

in

to great fluctuations, but

to the

data

were

pounds,

8.2

pounds,

9.3

operation

on the whole, Amer-

than Russian, the former fetching 30 to 45

to

last

roubles, according to its size

ican skins were

valued higher

the long hair,

and the secret of the process was long the property of one

were subject

20

be

of Victoria, upon

and quality. The selling prices

the latter only

to

consid-

product of the Prib-

shores

dressing of the fur consisted of three processes, the plucking of

was considered the most

were

Cape Horn.

the tanning of the skin and

firm only.

obtained

those

lastly,

had

there

quality

best

ered the skins from the Scottish Islands, in the Antarctic Sea, next the

The

from other

they consisted

is,

convenient

not only not be prepared properly, but could not even be kept in good couditiou.

ylov,

have

would seem

it

were obtained from various parts of the Southern, Indian and Pacific oceans.

sources. Skins

the

Islands

be, during recent years seals

London market was furnished with the goods

the

in conse-

Commander

appear more frequently on Russian possessions, the quality of the skins

same time becoming

at the

circumstance in

this

destruction of the animal on the Pribylov Islands,

are beginning to avoid them,

quence of which the seals

place

seal industry

of the

investigators

dependence upon the enhanced

of 1882, skins

more than half the American. namely

apiece,

valued at 41*62 roubles; those from

23.50 roubles; and from the

America,

roubles

from the Pribylov

Commander

When

9.5

Islands,

from

finished, sealskins

about 100,000 skins

per annum; next in

England, 80,000; France, 15,000; Germany and other counties, 7,000; and Russia, 1,000.

Thanks

to the

market

became

52,000;

in

1869,

measures referred

more

lively;

108,000;

in

in

to as

1860,

1872,

taken by the Alaska Company the London fur

some 20,000

129,000;

in

skins

1875,

were sold there;

136,000;

in

18S0,

in

1867,

148,000:

in

1885, 141,000.

Almost the whole of Islands.

Year.

this quantity of furs

was furnished by the Pribylov and Commander

HUNTING AND THE FUK INDUSTRY

Year.

137

SIBERIA.

138

However, notwithstanding the obvious advantageousness of

300.000 roubles per annum.

this

acquaintance Avith the matter showed the necessity of deferring for some

nearer

proposition,

time the solution of the question of retaxing the seal industry, in consequence of the question raised in 1887 of an international agreement for the adoption of measures against the piratical

destruction of seals in Behring

The

Sea.

of

result

agreement determined,

this

considerable degree, the profitableness of the undertaking. Moreover,

was borne

it

to

a

mind that

in

the renewal of the rating of the Pribylov Islands, imminent in 1890, must affect the issue of

Commander

of the

the fixing of the rent

The subsequent circumstances

justified

is

to receive

The term

of the lease

per

is

is

the administration

from

beavers, and arctic foxes. Section

animals

2.

The

for

10 years,

10.38 roubles; per

57.6675 roubles; per

first class

first class

blue fox, 11

and per white fox, 2.31 roubles,

.

all in gold.

year of

its

The

association

Islands the skins of seals,

The

Crown

association pays to the

beaver, 115.335 roubles; per second class beaver,

535 roubles; per second class blue fox, 5.77 roubles, Section

8.

The

bound once a year

association is

furnish the islands with all necessaries with an addition of only

Section 11.

princi-

19, 1901; the asso-

place and method of killing the

season, 4.

on the following

it

February

till

Commander

of the

quantity,

determined by the local authorities. Section

sealskin

and

Russian

competitors the Government gave

a contract with

Lepeshkin, Prozorov and Savich, and concluded

ciation

of

«The Russian Seal Fisheries Association)), founded by Griinwaldt,

the preference to the firm

1.

among the representatives

many

industry with more advantageous propositions. Out of

pal bases: Section

the above stated presuppositions

all

auction a mass of candidates appeared from

new

at the

Islands.

fully

20 per cent

must employ ships exlusively under the Russian

During the

flag.

to

purchase price.

to the

first

existence, 1891, the «Russian Seal Fisheries Association;) took from the administration

In the following of the islands 30,689 sealskins, one first class and one second class beaver. year,

sealskins, to 1892, there were handed over to the same association 31,315

skins of the

of 325,049.70 roubles gold; beaver

first class,

second class 108, for 6,228.9 roubles; arctic foxes of the

the amount

88, for 10,149.40 roubles, of the

first

1,601 for 18,467.535

quanlity

for 20.79 roubles, roubles; of the second 807, for 4,656.39 roubles, and finally, 9 white foxes,

or

a

total

of

roubles

364,571.95

gold,

which

is

equivalent

to

half

million

a

paper

roubles.

Thus the new

from

lessee

the Crown,

notwithstanding

a considerable

the number of animals killed, gave the Government fully five times as of 20 years, was received from Hutchinson, Cool and Filipeus. The falling off in the number of animals killed, above referred vity of the piratical schooners in Russian waters, which

is

to, is

of the United States.

The question

in the time of the Russian

-

the course

explained by the acti-

part

of

is

the Government

of the preservation of the seal industry from destruction

in the illegal catching of these

international importance and therefore

diminution in

as, in

increasing with every year. This

caused by the increased protection of the American waters on the

by persons occupied

much

it is

animals,

necessary to elucidate

possesses it

an

extremely great

as fully as possible.

American Company, which acted almost without

Already

control in Behr-

off Russian ing Sea and the Sea of Okhotsk, foreign vessels were sometimes observed to appear

local inhabitants, or shores with the object of secretly bartering various goods for furs with the

139

HUNTING AND THE FUR INDUSTEY, even of secretly killing seals, but

company on

said

the

When

wound

the company's affairs were

and then by

commenced

Bay with

authorities and

considerable fishing

killed,

foxes,

ious

on

and

ernment

to

pre-

the

to

of the

Canadians

to

nearest

the

bays

the

in

due

the

All

martens.

these

and black

reil

were

furs

traders for brandy, powder, shot, guns and

way

in

which they were hunted.

cruisers

in

fish

all

by

kinds

the of

number beginning

This In

those waters.

fur animals

Siberian gray-chested

foxes,

sold

several

between

Udsk.

and

considerable quantity of

a

also,

valuable

Russian

of

them with this,

other

Penzha, Gizhiga, Tauisk

of

absence

islands

and

cod

caught

industry.

illegal

Besides

almost nothing.

for

convenient

their

the

intoxicating

population,

native

to

with

themselves

occupying

cause the sea beaver particularly suffered, their the irregular

time

according

gulfs, not being protected

became, thanks

cruisers,

such as arctic foxes, beaver, bear,

sable,

piratical

1871,

Americans and

Holy Cross and Anadyr

uncivilized

the

chain,

unpunished,

practised

Kamchatka,

by the

first

San Francisco openly

in

firms

Sakhalin and the Kuril

were

at

and receiving from them valuable furs

brandy

they

those

of

depraved

systematically

the

visited by

little

anchorage, the favourite ground

They

in

other lovers of gain at other people's expense.

all

In particular, Anadyr

by Russian

large dimensions.

San Francisco, the regular organization

evidence of the Russian Consul General in illegal exploitation of both the seas

company

another

to

measures

energetic

assume

to

and particularly during the

up, in 1868,

ceding the concession of the seal industry

took

part

its

was not able

against such piracy, thanks to which the latter

natives

this

from

decline

rapidly

to

var-

to

From

rubbish.

This circumstance compelled the Russian Gov-

take measures against such injurious trade and with this object, in 1875

despatched to the Far East the clipper «Gaidamak»

it first

suppress the illegal trade in spirits with

to

the inhabitants of the Russian coast. Afterwards, more than once, other vessels were detached

from the Pacific squadron with the same object, and since 1884 a military

guard has been

maintained on the Tiulen Island during the summer and autumn months. The occasional despatch of

Men

War

of

to protect the

therefore since 1891 the transport

Sea.

The

catching

any

was the

result of

fur

seals,

fur

crew being

always

to

always cruise

schooners,

confiscation of the piratical

the

not

did

industries

«Yakut» has been sent

set

at

attain

its

constantly

and

object,

in

Behring

employed in the prohibited

liberty

without

the

exaction

of

fine.

The Americans on tion of their coast this matter,

their part took a series of

from the piratical

and the

the

governments of Russia, Great Britain, and the

United States of America. The conferences however appointed first in

London and then

not lead to

any

in

definite

distinction

to deliberate

the subject, at

Washington, with the participation of the countries interested, did results;

and meanwhile the piratical activity of foreigners not only

continued, but apparently even increased.

water without

for the protec-

For the regulation of

establishment of a close season for seals, in 1887 arose the question of

an agreement between

the necessity of

more energetic measures

catching of marine fur animals.

of

Fur

seals

were killed not only on land, but

age or sex in consequence

perished without profit to anyone, as the

wounded

of

retired to

which sea

a

quantity

and there

numbers. The destruction of the females led to the death of the young seals

of

died

still

in the

animals in

large

dependent on

140

SIBERIA.

their mothers'milk.

On

the Tiulen Islaiid the Russians, ou returning thither in the spring, frequently

found thousand of bodies of various ages, the traces

autumn, and of their slaughter of

in the late

of the

remaining upon the

still

Canadian minister of navigation and

fisheries,

island.

was the declaration

Tenner, that the multiplication of fur seals

not harmed by hunting them in the open sea but by the piratical attacks to which certain

islands are subjected it

of the presence there of the pirates

chief obstacle to the establishment of an international agreement

The

is

left

the animals

all

is

which possess seal rookeries, and that

for the preservation of the fisheries

demanded preliminarily

perfectly sufficient to protect the rookeries. Great Britain

to the

decision of the question of preservation, the collection of the results of supplementary inves-

upon the mode of

tigations

energetically

opposed

Government of the United States

seal, but the

fur

postponement of the question of the establishment of the

and succeeded

agreement

necessary

the

life of

further

the

winning the

in

prohibited

arily

the

for

subjects

the

of both

1891

In

point.

America concluded a treaty with Great Britain by which the

United States of

was tempor-

seals

waters

states in the

said

the of

killing

of

Behring Sea,

situated to the east of a line of demarcation fixed by the treaty of 1867 between Russia and

the United States. This agreement had a peculiarly fatal effect upon the Russian seal industry, as the

Anglo-American pirates incommoded

in the limits of the

Canadian and Federal possessions,

directed their criminal activity mainly to Russian waters. According to information afforded by the

Xew-York Russian Consulate by

of seals

whom more

waters. According to the of

same authority,

in 1892,

which being steamers, and they took 45,000 Notwithstanding the considerable

waters.

think that they are far below the fact. of the sealskin

were employed in the clandestine catching

in 1891, 8J schooners

than 50,000 skins were taken, of which about 9,500 were in Russian

trade, lead to the

same

62 vessels were employed in

this trade,

character of the figures quoted there

The

returns of the

to the

reason to

is

London market, which

According

conclusion.

two

which were from Russian

of

skins, 15,000

is

the centre

communication of the

Governor of the Commander Islands, 60 schooners were observed in their neighbourhood in 1892, which occupied

the fisheries.

Their

carried on in the

and as

it is

the interests

The consent would only

reached such

audacity

rookeries of

themselves.

a

height, that

This piracy

is

Russian subjects that

of Russia to the

have a value for her

above

Government

was

slaughter of the seals

and more every year

from

it,

mentioned Anglo-American

in case of the extension

of Great Britain

most

of the guard protecting

Government

this

state of things.

the waters of Behring Sea also lying to the west of

ever the

the

fire

growing more

suffer

attention to such an abnormal

could not but direct

party of

themselves with killing seals on land and on the water, one

the pirates carrying out the slaughter while the other returned the

of

agreement of 1891

the prohibition

mentioned

the line of demarcation of 1867.

has declined such a statement

of

the

to

How^-

question

and

from that time Russia has taken no further part in the negotiations. But protecting her own interests she has found

sea

is

it

necessary to pass a

new law by which

the

seal

industry

on

the

absolutely prohibited, the killing or catching of seals, or in general, the seal industry

on land,

is

only allowed with the

established by

unauthorized

it

for the purpose.

killing

on

land,

the

permission

of

the

Government, according

to

regulations

For carrying on the sea industry, as well as guilty

parties

are

subject

to

imprisonment

for

from

the

two

HUNTING AND THE FUK INDUSTRY. months

to a year

number

effective, the

new

by two

vessels used in the industry

To make

being confiscated.

protection

the

them

of special cruisers occupied with enforcing

more

still

will soon be increased

vessels.

The beaver and

Commander

not only on the

remain

arctic fox industries continue to

which the seal industry was

ditions in

catch and

and four months, their appliances,

with cargo and everything on board

141

till

Islands but

same unfavourable con-

in the

law. Beavers appear

the promulgation of the last

also

on

the

coast

Kamchatka, especially near

of

Yellow Cape where they have their dams. However the predaceous persecution are subjected

new

forcing the animals to constantly seek

is

sites for their

which they

to

dams, more remote

from man. Latterly beavers have begun to come out on the land between Capes Kamchatka and Stolbovy.

from 300

Thanks

to

The

Kamchatka beaver

fur of the

to the

high value of the

which their destruction

The morse

is

fur,

is

sold at a third of that price.

beaver are hunted very energetically, in consequence of

taking place very fast and they are becoming more and more rare.

industry, like the

last,

is

gradually declining,

and American

who

filibusters

shoot them with guns.

making the covering

of the y u r

tusks form the subject of a lively trade. the Chukches guns and

powder

a

t

The

s

The

flesh

a

mammals by English

of the morse is used as food,

of the aborigenes in

the

Far East.

filibusters further clandestinely

for hunting the morse, and then

being

circumstance

this

direct consequence of the development of the piratical catching of sea

the skin for

fetching

esteemed,

highly

peculiarly

is

400 roubles per skin, while the Commander beaver

the

barter

The

distribute

tusks

for

to

rum,

brandy and tobacco.

The whale

trade, as is already mentioned above,

never

possessed

a

regular

zation and large commercial development in the Russian territories of Behring

Sea of Okhotsk. The whale, proceeding from the Pacific siderable

Arctic Ocean, collect in con-

numbers near the Chukotsk peninsula, especially between the Providence Bay and This industry annually attracts here a crowd of American and English whalers,

East Cape.

who

to the

organi-

Sea and the

partly are themselves employed in killing them,and partlyin obtaining the whalebone from

the Chukches. industry,

of Siberia

Judging from the accounts in the American papers, specially devoted

may

it

to

this

be assumed that foreign whalers annually carry away from the Pacific coast

from 100,000

to

150,000 pounds of whalebone, valued at about 6 roubles a pound,

not less than 100,000 pounds of morse tusks at about one rouble and

fifty

kopecks a pound, and

a quantity of blubber and other products. Thus the whole industry in the Russian w^aters of the Pacific yields various products to the

annum; but

this trade escapes

amount of one and

a

half million

Government control being always carried on

in

roubles

per

a contraband

manner.

There have been several attempts but not one has met with success.

The

to organize the

whale industry

Captain of the second rank A. G. Dydymov, to

whom

1887 a loan of 50,000 roubles for three years, for the this officer

in the

Ear East

of Russia,

credit of the last attempt of the kind belongs to the retired

the Ministry

of

equipment of

Finance granted in a steam

whaler,

but

having made an excellent beginning to his enterprise in the Sea of Japan perished

somewhere on the coast

ot

Korea

at the very

in the Russian -waters of the Pacific

still

commencement, leaving the

killing

of

whales

an open question. The said industry requiring the

142

SIBERIA.

preliminary expenditure of a considerable capital, and presenting great danger,

time

The

ceasing to be profitable.

is

With

the Russian petroleum business.

circumstance

last

the appearance of Russian cheap kerosene in the

began

East, the price of animal illuminating

oil

stand the competition of mineral

In consequence of this

oil.

the whale industry at the present time fibres are

two

of these

information

is

valuable

article

solid

and

to

of fine

drawn

of fishermen

important

being

on the basis of which at no distant date

up.

The Okhotsk Sea, long celebrated crowd

needing protection from

there are yet others

industries,

by the Government

being collected

the required rules will be

most

unable

whether by foreigners or Russian subjects. The necessary

piratical or rapacious exploitation,

the

most

the

Far

course

of

from which extremely

whalebone,

is

was

and

to fall fast,

prepared which admirably replace horsehair in various plaited goods.

Independently

attracts a

same

the

at

connexion with the progress of

is in

who

cod.

for

abundance

its

always

of fish of every kind,

carry

away

out of Russian waters great quantities of fish,

This

fish

is

most of

caught

all

between Sakhalin and

the Kuril Islands, and in particular between capes Olotersk and Stolbovy.

For completeness, the sketch

Far East carried on

in the

of the fur industries

in the

sea and on the coast, must be supplemented by an account of the condition of analogous industries

on land. Great forest

purpose of clearing the land for

fires started partly intentionally for the

lage, partly arising accidentally

from the careless handling of

fire,

diminution of place

is

such animals

in the forests.

taken by the sable which

Now

forests of the Littoral Territory.

Among

the most valuable

occurred

ago

long

not so

til-

the rapacious

fur animals, all

which circumstance has again affected the

the forests,

to thin

all

when hunting

destruction of timber accompanying the construction of barriers

these causes have combined

and most of

comparatively

species the

numbers

vast

in

numbers

smaller

foremost in all the

are caught,

namely

about 10,000 skins valued at about 100,000 roubles. Next come the ordinary, and the excessively

rare black foxes, blue

brown and white

The main mass of

the

ordinary

the

of

passed through Kiakhta

into

amount of 130,774 little.

And

yet

is

principally

Far

the

of sold

raccoon, polecats, squirrels,

own

roubles

lynx and fox

skins,

Thus organized

roubles.

undoubtedly

this

East

industry

worth of

the nomad, nay even the settled population, necessity of contenting itself

the

Government comes

mih

hunting

stores are always ready, with

ration of

nets,

otter,

beaver

and other kinds

otter, the

and other

fishing

not

insufficiency factors,

in

1891

who there

and bear

skins,

specially

named

has

a great importance especially in a

way

of the development of agri-

Far East, particularly

in the northern zone,

placed by climatic conditions in the regrettable

various animals, and with fishing. In

where fishing

hemp, horseh tackle.

the

the fur trade brings the country compar-

to the aid of the helpless aborigenes, furnishing

shot for hunting, and in those places

ment

is

of

Chinese

to

For example,

country.

country where nature has placed impassable obstacles in the culture. In the greater part of the territory of the

account

on

nothing

almost

for

their

to

China 22,590

112,000 roubles worth of wolf,

atively

peltry

communications,

export this class of goods

to the

ermine,

gluttons,

foxes,

bear, Siberian weasel et cetera.

air

is

many

cases

them with powder and

the sole source of existence, Govern-

and other

articles required in the prep-

These things are distributed

to the remotest re-

HUNTING AND THK FUR INDUSTRY.

the

issued to

loans with in

at

the

cost

to

the

resolution

payment

year.

to

obligatory

consequence

of

the

next

extreme

its

although the rivers abound in

even

many

animals,

into

being

by way of

not being able

its

in

many

to

the

acquire

tackle in

want of

places suffer frightful

food,

fish.

places

of the original

Siberia

have converted the chase of wild, mainly

an industry providing them with the necessities

endowed Siberia with an enormous quantity great

and

rural societies

has been explained before, not only the aborigenes of the Far East but the inhab-

As itants of

a

Government

the

to

of the

Without such Government aid the population,

and

poverty

quantity and of due quality, would

sufficient

price

well-to-do

poorer classes according

gions, being supplied

143

importance

of valuable fur

more

And

life.

industry has

Far East asylum

affording

fur

nature has

as

said

animals, the

so that, as already said, the

Siberian fur industries, where virgin forests,

the

chief centre of

to the country, the

of

is

to

the

every

wild beast, are yet preserved.

There unfortunately

trade,

it

may

summing up the

exist no exact statistics of the fur industry, but

and of

information in the hands of the Government

be assumed that the dimensions

the

of

private institutions interested in the fur

whole of Siberia are

for the

former

approximately given in the following table:

-

Grey-chested

Ermine

...

•

Arctic foxes and cubs

Sable of

all

kinds

.

.

2

45

34

33

30

29

24

2,684

1,812

1,694

813

436

1,694

1,913

2,321

12,416

18,454

26,313

34,254

24,536

21,618

19,011

7,306

.

.

116

294

2,495

2,891

2,927

2,866

4,099

2,986

-

.

22,752

7,317

7,^1

9,825

18,610

18,176

20,149

31,312

165

Otters

Red

—

foxes

White

(arctic) bears.

.

314

....

3,295

2,706

3,866

4,246

3,508

2,300

23,758

12,218

22,000

19,405

22,334

16,659

.526

-

10

9

3

38

28

45

1,643

1,389

1,118

432

1,114

218 7,803

.

5,008

2,664

19,840

23,916

31,932

449

3,423

4,689

1,956

1,867

2,624

1,108

6,215

3,432

19,431

4,367

12,257

5,634

11,367

4,612

10,123

1,456

Mink Siberian weasel

168 4,111

-

3

.

Bears

Wolves and dogs

1892.

1891.

1890.

1889.

1888.

1887.

1886.

1879.

Black foxes

Lynx

On an average a million skins. 3,395 3,485 3,109 2,489 3,597 5,206 75

Martens

-

Squirrels

Siberian tigers leopards

»

....

6,384

4,860

6,256

1,364

9,244

4,684

2,492

6

8

4

11

21

15

9

4

32

38

39

24

29

28

26

23

Pyzhiks

1,109

1,364

1,684

1,573

1,932

1,917

716

1,223

Cats

9,684

13,412

18,450

16,486

31,434

29,313

26,415

15,773

In explanation of the figures quoted hares, as this small

animal

is

everywhere

not form an article of export, but

is

it

may

be observed

that herein are not

caught, and on account

of

its

little

confined to local consumption. Moreover, herein

included the furs taken in the lands belonging to the Cabinet of His Majesty.

included

value,

does

are not

J

SIBERIA.

44 the same table

From fur,

which

is

it is

clearly to be seen

far from being absorbed by

how

Siberia

rich

large

through the Pacific ports of Siberia abroad, partly to America, partly

London. Part of the goods,

strictly to

land through

and Nizhni-Novgorod to Moscow,

Irbit

of Russia and finds its is

concentrated

offere
way

in

whence

mainly not in Russia but in London and

to

the markets,

is

every

the

of

sent

is

or

more

despatched

over-

Europe,

the

Thus the Russian

Leipzig,

kind

amount

distributed to

it is

in considerable quantities to Leipzig.

in

is

A

consumption.

local

the

whole

fur trade

more valuable furs

being collected in London, In concluding

East

it

this

review of the industry in fur and other

will not be superfluous to say a few words

supplement ized into

to

what

is

stated above on the

same

on the

subject.

wild

gathering

about 700 pouds of

and morse tusks

mammoth

annually

ivory valued at

appear on

the

From

the

15,000 roubles

—^<$-—

Far

ivory in

altogether furnishes

Yakutsk

Yakutsk market

40,000 roubles.

mammoth

This business, although not organ-

a regular industry, but having rather a casual character,

population a pretty considerable source of income.

animals in the of

were to

the

the

territory alone in 1891

exported.

This

article

amount of 30,000

to

INDUSTRY, COMMERCE AND WAYS OF COMMUNICATION.

CHAPTER Industry,

145

XI.

Commerce and Ways

of Communication.

The mineral wealth and

the mining and metallurgical industries of Siberia; general items of the mining and metallurgical industries of the Urals; the mining and metallurgical industries of Siberia; gold, silver, lead, copper, iron, tin, mercury, sulphur, coal, graphite, naphtha, salt, rare

THE

minerals

and building materials.

Great Siberian Railway enters upon the borders of Siberia after having traversed the

southern portion of the Urals, that metallurgical treasure house of Russia. ous iron and copper

The numer-

works, the gold diggings and coal fields situated along the eastern side

of the Urals are, speaking strictly in a geographical sense, already within the limits of Asia,

although

in

an

administrative

sense

they

are

included

Russia. Without touching upon the details of the mining Urals,

it is

however impossible not

to

works of the Urals as a means of extending

Gold

Platinum

....

Copper

Pig iron Iron Steel

Manganese ore

.

.

Sulphur pyrites.

.

Chrome

.

Coal Salt

iron

ore.

the

governments

mention them in an article devoted

more as the construction of the Great Siberian Railway

works, mines and gold diggings of the

in

their

of

European

and metallurgical industries of the

is

market.

to

Siberia,

of very great importance

During the

last

live

all

years

Urals have yielded as in the following table.

the

to the

the

SIBERIA.

146 The value

mining and metallurgical industries

of the chief products of the

estimated

is

at from twenty to tAventy-five million metallic roubles.

portion of Siberia contains considerable deposits of every kind of mineral,

The southern

mineral wealth

in the

bowels of Siberia, and

its

But great

centuries.

become

exploitation will

the existing economical conditions will be modified by the construction of the

when

possible

untouched

lies

still

two

in its different regions for about

and a mining industry has existed

Great Siberian Railway.

The

chief mineral

There

iron.

are

riches of Siberia of

deposits

also

among

include,

and

mercury

tin

metals,

gold,

Among

ores.

copper and

silver,

and

carboniferous

the

combustible substances there are, coal and lignite, graphite, sulphur and naphtha; and among

common and glanber

salts,

which, Siberia

besides

salts;

rich in

is

kinds of rare stones.

all

Gold. At ing

the time

the gold

the Urals was extending more, and penetrat-

industry of

their utmost northern limits, the existence of

to

was only

that

in 1831

Toma and

rivers

when

was

it

to

the

east

borders of the governments of Yenisei

along

was enough

It

and

for

the river Birusa. But the activity of the

one

at that time.

The prospectings

1849 the gold deposits of the

many

and

others,

province.

a vast store

1840 and 1841 a

in

in

the

government

was established

industry

of gold exceeding all those

in the

of

east,

and

in

Bargouzinsk region of

In the Nerchinsk mining region the exploitation of gold has been

Amour

river Boureya,

At

province.

which

for gold

And

was permitted

lastly the discovery

the

fall into

Amour from

the Obi, Yenisei is,

governments

and

and Lena are

along the western

are

rare

provinces situated

declivity of the

ern Siberian lowlands from the

There

and in 1868

gold deposits

exceptions;

mountains

in

the Baikal)

of Siberia.

the

basins

which

border

rivers

the

in different

w^as

begun

the tributaries of the in 1875.

a vast area,

The gold bearing of

started. In

it

and gold

Lena and Amour, within

mountain chains which

the gold deposits

in

was only made

the left side,

exploited in the basins of the Obi, Yenisei, (with

that

of

in 1866,

the present time the Siberian gold industry extends over

limits of all the

to prospect

1865 the exploitation of gold by private individuals was

the Littoral province prospecting in the

and in

Yakutsk were put

carried on by the State since 1832, and private individuals were first permitted for gold in 1864,

gold

push towards

to

and further to the

pushed further

were

Olekminsk system

under exploitation. In 1854 the gold the Transbaikal

daring gold miner

and very durable gold deposits were discovered between the Verkhnaya

of rich

Podkamennaya Toungouski, which presented

known

to the

increasing, did not long restrict itself to the

the north, to the rivers Toungousk, to be followed by

number

it

There rich deposits of gold were found

and Irkutsk.

number was constantly

bearing system of the Birusa.

and

In 1836 they transferred

spurs of the Sayansk mountain chain,

in the

and most inaccessible places

gold miners, whose

in Siberia

for a certain period all the

gold workers were concentrated in this district.

their prospectings further

large

And

river Kiya.

Yenisei in the system of the

endeavours of the

in the wildest

was not known

gold

found by private individuals in the mountains between the

flowing

localities

from

the

is

the

along east

descend into the north-

Arctic

Ocean

parts of Siberia

on lie

the south. at

different

;

GOLD.

altitudes above the level of

the sea,

147

a rule they

but as

do uot rise above

2,000

the

feet,

mountain chains being twice and. three times greater. In the Kousnets Aiatau

height of the

.

of the mountains

the height

from five

is

thousand feet and the gold deposits become

lo six

smaller and poorer as the mountain chain rises towards the south.

The geognostic character

The gold bearing rock

ities.

of the gold deposits

of this mountain ridge the extreme slopes, of clay slate,

of Siberia also varies in ditferent

of the Kousnets Aiatau

down

is

greenstone

;

to the openings of the valleys, are

composed

which higher up the current changes into metamorphic and calcareous clay

which change into jaspers and hornblendes near their contact with the granites and

The predominating rocks is

made up

in

some

passes

gneisses, diorites

metamorphic

mica

into

slates

among which

clay slate predominates and

The northern system

schist.

also

presents

granites,

and porphyries, which appear more rarely in the southern system.

northern system, limestones, sandstones and conglomerites are also found in places. lie

and wherever

this

the southern

kinds of slates, near their contact with

in various

bearing strata

combination

regions

the

of

slates,

diorites.

of both the northern and southern parts of the Yenisei region

of various kinds of

instances

local-

on the eastern declinity

occurs gold

is

in the

diorites;

The predominating rocks

sure to be found.

government of Yenisei

and

granites

In the

The gold

in

spurs of the Sayansk mountains

are granite, cyanite, limestone and metamorphic slates.

In the province of Yakutsk

Olekma and Vitima

chief rock of the gold bearing systems of the rivers

the

cyanite , which changes

a granitic

is

places

in

into a

more

laminated

structure, passing into gneiss,

which imperceptibly passes into micaceous, chloritic talc

clay schists. All these

are

clay schists.

rocks

distinguished

The general character

for

their being gold bearing,

and

especially the

of the rocks of the valleys of the Nerchinsk region

is

the

same, consisting as they do of granite, gneiss, cyanite, greenstone, diorite and dioritic cyanite

and

felspar

province,

The

porphyries.

along the river Zei,

geological

characteristic feature of the presence of gold

The composition

Amour

structure of the gold bearing region of the

composed of micaceous and horublend gneisses and

is

is

slates.

The

the passage of the one class of rocks into the other.

of the gold deposits themselves

depends upon the rocks surrounding

them. The thickness of the deposits varies greatly, from two feet to three sagenes and more but

generally

it

contain bones of

varies

between

mammoths,

are covered by a layer of earth,

one to

fifty versts

two

and

seven

feet.

The

upper

strata

known

varies in each

accumulation of coarse

as

peat.

is finer in its

in the tail of the deposit there

The

soil of

the

nearly

deposit;

particles of gold

the middle portion the gold

state of the soil

The

length

all

the

of

the

As a

upper portion

mixed with quartz

deposits

varies from

,

along

rule the richness of the

generally

contains

a small

magnetic iron and pyrites; in

particles and the sand

poorer in gold,

and

lastly

remains a floating gold dust which only gives traces of gold.

the northern portion of Eastern Siberia

is

perpetually frozen.

The frozen

and the dense forests which subsequently covered the deposits have favoured

preservation of the gold in them, from

Many

of the deposits

and more, sometimes with a layer of gold bearing sand, extending

their entire length of sufficient thickness for profitable working.

gold bearing

strata

rhinoceros, and other extinct and existing animals. All the deposits

of the Eastern Siberian gold deposits

the

wearing and denuding action of the water.

show undoubted traces

of the influence of glaciers. 10*

us

SIllERIA.

to the cold climate

Thanks have

been

preserved

to

which, following the glacial the

present

an instructive example and traces

who has even of jasper

left

indubitable

of

day

their

in

perioil,

original

The following

table

gives

deposits

of the gold so

that

they present

a geological period partially contemporary with man,

traces

of

presence

his

in

and quartz, hammer heads, ornaments, coins, bones

Russia during the

many form,

data

comparative

last ten years together

with

its

for

the form of arrow heads et

the

made

cetera.

general production of gold in

value, and the production in

Western and

Eastern Siberia.

I

!

Total

produc-

I

in

lu Weastern

roubles

Siberia.

Russia.

Pouds

Per cent

In Eastern Siberia.

of

total

Pouds.

:

1

tion.

Per cent of

total

produc-

produc-

(gold).

1882

g:

i:

Value

tion of gold in

P0U(

tion.

149

Goi.i).

On comparing three times as

This

due to

is

these two tables

many men

as

seen that although Eastern Siberia employs

is

it

Western Siberia yet richness

the greater

is

Owing

to

of labour and horses in Eastern Si-

consequently

deposits

only

ten times as great.

nine or

is

the deposits worked in the former region.

of

the dearness of provisions and forage, and beria, the exploitation of the poorer

production

its

now

with the methods

impossible

in use

foi-

treating the gold bearing sand.

When

in

great number

1829 the Siberian

The gold miners became

along

abundant

the

rich

Siberian

and

national institutions, such as schools, churches and

a steam

navigation

to the erection of

sums

considerable

every kind of charitable and pious work.

towns of Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk,

of the gold industry reflected itself upon the

The development

remote region.

this

to

establishing

places,

and sacrificing

individuals a

private

to

way

development of the region with a

aided the

to inaccessible

rivers,

free

large capital found their

themselves

down roads

hand, laying

generous

made

was

industry

gold

men and

of enterprising

Irkutsk, Chita, Nerchinsk and Blagoveschensk,

employed

Beyond the 40,000 miners dustry gives occupation to

and other auxiliary works. Indeed

of the

indirectly

it

and

neighbouring agricultural districts

The extent

the

at

mines

the

of

from the gold Industry

an

These figures give

of consumption

objects

excellent

Idea

distributes over the entire region and

from

Passing

features according to

these

Vltlmsk systems

and

Olekmlnsk

of agriculture

aids the development

how

of

how

at those

12,268,000 roubles.

mines was of

the systems of the

land extremity of Siberia in the provinces

2.

On

of

Tomsk.

the western side

in the

3.

population, trade and industry.

its

Siberian rivers

may

of

the left branch the

the

Obi-Irtysh

system

On

1.

:

indlviilual

the steppe

along the rivers

Akmolinsk and Semlpalatinsk,

of

its

be considered.

the river Irtysh;

of

Kouznets Alatau in the Mariinsk region of the government

In the Altai mining region;

On

4.

the

eastern

side of the

Kouznets Alataou

Achinsk region of the government of Yenisei.

Owing the

of

of

the gold Industry

money

general data respecting the Siberian gold Industry, chief

seen from

to 6,789,000 roubles,

amounted

vast an amount

supports

it

is

wages of the men employed

In the vast basin of the Obi the gold Industry has been established

belonging to the system

in the

presents a profitable market for their produce.

It

sums acquired by the country

while the cost of the chief

of goods to the mines

in the transport

the following example. During the three years 1887 to 1889, the in the gold

Siberian gold In-

the

mines themselves,

a considerable population

to the

modes and

difference of the natural conditions in the different gold bearing regions,

processes of extraction

also

differ.

In

the

steppe

region

the

mining

Is

exclusively open workings, so that deposits with deep lying strata are not worked owing to the

great expense of the timber required for supporting underground minings. Thanks to the

warm

during

about

climate

the

washing of the sand

seven months. The workings are

who work

in the

Is

carried on from April to October, that

surrounded by a nomad

Hence

and Cossacks population,

mines partly for so much per cubic sagene of earth, and partly at so much

per zolotnik of gold extracted, and besides the mines.

Kirghiz

Is,

this,

they serve as the

the gold Industry in the steppe region

expenses. ]\Ioreover, the wages

and

is

living of the miners

providers of provisions to

not hampered by great preliminary is

far

less

in

the

steppe

than

150 in in

SIBERIA.

the forest region, and therefore

it is

which the amount of gold does not

possible to exploit comparatively very poor deposits,

in

some cases exceed 8 doleys per hundred pouds, of

sand, or 0.00002 per cent.

In

the

forest region

which embraces the Altai mining region, the Mariinsk region

the government of Tomsk, and the Achinsk region of the goverament is

more severe and the washing

months. The population

is

of the gold can only be carried on during five or at

more sparse and the conditions

of

the

of

of Yenisei, the climate

industry

most six

begin to acquire

another aspect, more like that which predominated, in general, in Eastern Siberia.

In the Achinsk region the gold industry

is

concentrated at the sources of the Chulyma

along the rivers Belaya, Chernaya and Sarala-Use. In the Altai mining regio n the gold mines are exploited both by His Imperial Majesty's

Cabinet and by private individuals.

The following last ten years

table gives the

number

both in the different provinces

of gold mines

and

worked and

their yield during the

in the various regions of the

Obi system.

151 low price of labour and provisions obtained in the Altai region

is

al the

gold mines

of

this

region.

The amouul

gold

of

constantly increasing owing to the gold bearing sands being of

very uniform richness while the number of deposits worked

is

on the increase. This also proves

that the stores of gold in the deposits of the Altai region are not yet exhausted. Gold quartz is

worked

at

two mines

amount produced

in the Altai but the

is

still

inconsiderable.

the last ten years the production of the Achinsk region has varied very slightly.

gold deposits in the Obi system, those in the Mariinsk, Altai and

most profitable for exploitation, owing

to their

Achinsk

Of

regions

proximity to the railway; and there

is

During all

the

are

the

reason

for thinking that the extraction of gold will be further developed in these districts.

The following last ten years.

Year.

table gives the

number

of

men employed

at the gold

mines

during the

152

SIBERIA.

Pita, all in the northern system; the basin of the river Ouderei

of the

Angara, the

Kamenka and

rapid current owing to the sharpness of their

become

idly

great

swollen

damage

The

On

so shallow that

rivers in the Yenisei

of

portions

it

the other hand during the prolonged is

of

steapness

summer droughts

necessary to stop washing the sands.

region are

navigable, with

not

the exception of the lower

Podkamenaya Toungouska and Bolshaia

Yenisei,

the

the

to

a

rains, they rap-

any great extent, nevertheless they frequently cause

to

to the gold workings.

some of them become

owing

although,

Pita,

have

systems

During the heavy spring

fall.

and overflow their courses, and

they do not overflow

iheir beds,

falls into the tributary

Mourozhnaya and

In the majority of instances the rivers of both

in the southern system.

all

which

the basins of the rivers Bolshaya

The more

Pita.

consider-

able tributaries of these rivers are only navigable to small boats and rafts.

The gold extracted as

it

in the Yeniseisk

were, rubbed; a coarsely grained

region

gold

is

generally finely granular, tabular and,

of -high purity

is

found along the rivers Ogne

and Enashimo. In the northern system the thickness eight feet, although there are

from two

of the gold bearing deposits varies

which are as much as

some

15,

20 and even 35

to

thick.

feet

In the southern system the thickness of the deposits generally varies between two and twelve feet.

The

covering of peat

superficial

both cases between 5 and 30

is in

richness of the gold bearing sand in the northern system

hundred ponds, but in the southern system

it

is

somewhat

is

about

31

However,

less.

The average

feet.

dolias

gold

of

both

in

per

systems

there are workings in which the quantity of gold reaches one zolotnik per poud.

In the Yeniseisk region the tem,

along

the

first

deposits were discovered in the present southern sys-

and Mamona,

Ouderei

rivers

in the

year 1838. At that time the workings

of the Birusinsk system, in the Xizhneoudinsk region of

the government of Irkutsk were of

great importance, owing to the abundance of gold they yeilded. deposits in the richness,

Yeniseisk

were

region

found to excel

As however

those

numerous prospecting expeditions were dispatched

of

the

the

newly discovered

Berusinsk

to this region,

and

system

deposits of the northern system were discovered in the valleys of the rivers Aktolik and

gash, while in the beginning of

the forties

claims, although their exploration

is

gion,

as everywhere,

the

richest

gold from this region attained ually decline. in

By

the

Russia. In the

amount year

first

its

quently the number of

mines,

12,100

miners.

This

of miners,

190

the

gold

miners,

soon

first,

and therefore the yield of

after its discovery,

and then began

among

washing was begun, and when the

yield

exceeded

T'/a

pouds

only

to grad-

the richest

one

mine

of gold. Subse-

and the yield of gold increased year by year: the

maximum

1847 when 1,212 pounds 12'/2 pounds of gold were produced by

amount formed

that year. After 1847 the

number

being carried on to the present day. In the Yeniseisk redeposits were discovered

maximum

after

with

Van-

the present gold districts were covered with

of gold produced, the Yeniseisk deposits stand

was under exploitation,

yield coincides with the year

all

in

1839 the

in

amount

about 65 per cent of the production in Russia during

of gold extracted

which in 1854 amounted

to

began 20,567,

to lessen, notwithstanding the increased

and also

the

increased

number

of

mines and the quantity of sand washed therein. The exploitation of the gold no longer formed an attraction fur large companies and gradually began

to fall into the

hands of small enterprises.

158

GOLD.

In 1882 the exploitation

veinous

of

was

gold

started in the Yeniseisk region,

but

it

developes very slowly, and as yet the production has never exceeded eight pouds, and in recent

years has even been under one and one-half pouds.

The gold workings

Kansk region

the

Only

Birusa.

which time

it

of the Nizhneoudinsk

the upper

courses

region

these

occupy

regions, although formerly

The

first

Kansk

was

in

in

1842 when

some years

attracted

last

pass through

it

there

was among the

Yeniseisk.

Siberian

At

the present

gold

producing

richest in Eastern Siberia.

system was made

numerous prospecting

Siberia.

production

even fallen the

of

reason

in 1836.

parties,

The

richness

and already in 1839

pouds of gold, out of a

The maximum

would once more stand

of

below mines

gold

more

these

in

15 pouds.

but

yield of gold

regions

However

chiefly

for thinking that if

the exploitation of the deposits

The following

of

the

total of

from these regions

equaled 204 pouds 6 pounds, or about 20 per cent of the total production

has

is

among

place

system

and of

the Nizhneoudinsk region, after

the government

regions yielded about iVj-i

Eastern

in

ascribed to the exhaustion systems, and

the

of

Berusinsk

the

system

Russia. Since then the

and

almost

and Nizhneoudinsk

iSVa pouds extracted

in

river

of Irkutsk

are situated along the system of the river

discovery of gold in the Birusinsk

of the deposits of this

the

of this

Kansk region

flows through the

government

region of the

of the government of Yeniseisk,

to

has

gradually

decreased,

this decrease should

the

discoveries

not

be

of gold in other

more detailed explorations were made, and

scientifically

carried

(jut,

then the Berusinsk

system

to the fore.

table gives the production of the gold-bearing regions of the Yeniseisk

system during the period 1882 to 1B91.

154 The number below table.

of

men employed

in the gold

mines of the

same regions

is

shown

in the

155

GOLD.

which flows into Lena from the of deposits under exploitation

Although during

right side.

scarcely varied, and the amount of gold produced has,

Of

all

above

the

appertaining

regions

cited

number

the

men employed has

of the

men employed,

of

Lena, the most is

the Olekminsk

between 53 and 60" north latitude and between 130 and 138° east

of this region are included

and are bounded:

west by the river Lena,

of

Yakutsk province. All the gold deposits

region, situated in the south-western portion of the

longitute from Paris,

system

the

number

and

of gold

important in respect to the yield

number

anything, decreased.

if

to

ten years

last

tlie

doubled, yet the

has more than

to east

south by the Yablonovoy mountain chain, which

Lena and Amour. This region

by the river Olekma, to the north and north-

west and south-west by the river Vitima, and

to the

is

intersected in

is

the

to

finally

here the watershed of the tributaries of the

Mouisk and

directions by the spurs of the

all

Yablonovoy mountains, and has quite an Alpine character. One of the chief spurs of the Mouisk mountains extends parallel to the river Vitima and this divides the Olekminsk region into two systems, the Titimsk and the Olekminsk. The Yitimsk system lies to the north-east of the same Irkutsk at a distance of 1,700 versts from it. The Olekminsk system extends in direction

further

still

across the watershed of the

watershed forms the true boundary between the altitude above the level of the sea, nor is there

ihe same rocks predominate in both.

blend

into

exceed fifteen

Among

The gold

so that in reality this

Both systems are

an equal

at

any geological difference between them, as

known up

deposits,

to the present time,

and the distance across the intermediate

another

one

Lena and Vitima,

tw^o systems.

almost

mountain chain does not

versts.

which the gold deposits of the Vitimsk system

along

the rivers

the river Bodaibo deserves particular attention, as all

and the richest

system

its

is

deposits are situated over a comparatively small area in this

situated,

rich in gold,

There

system.

courses of the gold bearing tributaries of the Vitima,

upper

are also rich deposits near the

are

exceedingly

beyond the watershed along the tributaries of the rivers flowing into the Lena. Among the Lena which water the Olekminsk system, the most noteworthy are the

tributaries of the

and of the tributaries

Patomo:

and Little

systems of the Great

of the

Olekma,

the

most

notable are the rivulets of Zhuya, Bogolonak, Khomolkho and Vacha.

The gold obtained from

With

of

pound and more

from these deposits

is

distinguished for

mode

respect to the

of the gold

of occurrence

in

ness

The

of the largest

be mentioned

average richness of

Vitimsk

the

superincumbent

befow the surface; as

crystalline form.

strata, it should

and not unfrequently even in three layers. The

the

has been:

are in

dirt

chiefly

from

system

amount

The thickness

workings

somewhat regular

size

Besides

being distributed in

However, In some workings 100 pouds of sand.

for the

distinguished

peculiarity of

the gold bearing sands during recent years

P/4 zolotniks, and

its

bearing

deposits has the

that the gold of the Olekminsk- Vitimsk alluvial deposits in two,

is

in weight are frequently found.

\'i

of its grains, so that nuggets this, the gold

Olekminsk- Vitimsk deposits

the

of

or

of gold

the

peat

gold varies

in

3 to 4^/4 is

as

veins

Olekminsk system from T'a

the

much is

between

to

zolotniks per 100 pouds of sand. as 6' 1 2 zolotniks and

from half

more per

2 to 15 feet and the thicka

sagene

concentrated in the deposits situated

to

20 sagenes.

at a gi-eater

the Olekminsk and Vitimsk systems these deposits are the

depth

richest.

>1BEKIA

156 The greater part

of the peat

and gold

hut sometimes the gold hearing rock stuff

and the other gated for

it

is

sometimes met with,

beariug sand

phenomena has not heen

hut this

are frequent instances where the frozen state of the soil

which

lie

The gold workings

at

Olekminsk system

of the

summer Yitimsk

the

are

system

have

is

where

only be

the

mouth

gold

of

on

workings of

350 versts from

this

backs

of

as

in

situated,

distance

to a

system

begin;

stations

their

Yitima. The

on in the winter over

the

Yitima

the

river

distance of about carried

transported

have

systems

the mouths of the

a

situated at

be

to

There

occurs.

it

taken advantage of for sinking shafts

is

Olekminsk

and

much more advantageously

communication from the Bodaibo,

Vitimsk

Lena near

communication can

goods

sufTiciently investi-

some depth and which are exploited by underground workings.

of the

chief depots on the banks of the

and vehicular

a combination of the one

lastly

guide in the exploitation of the deposits in which

to serve as a

in those deposits

perpetually frozen state,

in a

is

and

unfrozen,

is

summer

there

300

versts

of

the depots,

the ice;

For

camels.

moreover the

or

workings

and

in

working, the is

a steamer

up the

river

mines are

con-

nected by a carriage road. The miners of the Olekminsk diggings are chiefly hired from Irkutsk,

whence

also all the provisions

and

articles necessary for the

Notwithstanding the comparative the difficulties which are encountered

infancy of the

in

and the distance from any inhabited place, and

in the

this region

Olekminsk region, reached a has stood

first

among

all

th(^

still

workings and miners are bought.

the gold industry of

severity

the production

maximum

of

gold regions

those

regions,

dearness

ami

labour

of

of gold has developed rapidly,

939 ponds of

in

climate,

the

in

Siberia

1880; indeed since in

respect

to its

1868

yieW nf

precious metal.

The following

table gives

system, during the last ten yeais.

the prudiiction

uf

the

gold

regiuns belonging to the

Lena

GOLD.

Tlie

same

period.

following

table give^ the

number

157

nT inini'rs uniplnyed in tlicso regions duriim

tin

SIBERIA.

158 of the mineral wealth of the regiou

unknown

to industry,

Transbaikal province. During the this district,

At

Amour.

the

of

time this region was entirely

that

and was at a distance of 500 versts from the inhabited

50 pouds

localities of the

year, 1868, following the institution of gold workings in

first

were extracteil and the average richness of the deposits was

of gold

found to he over three zolotniks per hundred pouds of sand. The second group of deposits the gold hearing region,

deposits its

river

the

fall into

this district,

in

was

deposit

Zea from the

now known, and was

no stream which

The

is

some

comprises

of

the

rivers Gilui

and Brianta there

the system

the

of

The

Niman,

the

upper

fourth gi'oup, comprising the system of the

A

Boureya,

river

the

of

tributary

right

was

series of deposits

was

mountain chain that gives

at a

soon penetrated

at

left

90

about

eastern gi'oup of the

of

sagene.

peat

Hence

all

is

Amour

the

its

They

mouth.

gold bearing

The gold bearing beds

favourable conditions for exploitation. the

from

versts distance

deposits

system of the river Amgoun.

of

river

the

of

of

proved

to

industrial

into

The same

and most

fifth

was discovered deposits

its

Amour

the

into

the

in

under very

are

inconsiderable depth; the average thick

an

at

lie

Amour

in the

the source, only on falls

In 1868, the

region,

of

after

distance

These deposits

Mman, also forms Amguun which

Selendzha and

rise to the

eastern side in the Littoral province,

after

courses

discovered

also

disclosed here

be exceedingly rich in gold, and the fame of their discovery

Selendzha, the

river

was discovered here

the river Zea. In 1874 a whole series of deposits

spheres and attracted numerous prospecting parties to this perfectly desert region.

ness

is

also discovered.

hundred versts from the junction of the Boureya and Amour.

from the

richest

by Anosov. The exploitation of the gold depos-

not in some degree gold bearing, was begun in 187(i, and in 1883 a vein

the indication of Anosov, in 1875. six

group

This

side.

where over the whole area between the

the indication of Anosov. river

right

also discovered

third group of deposits is situated along

left tributary of

the

in

comprised by the tributaries of the rivers Gilui and Brianta which

is

about one sagene and the thickness of the

gold

bearing

bed,

the deposits are exploited by open workings, and only in certain

half

a

those

of

along the river Niman, where the thickness of the peat exceed 20 feet and of the gold bearing

bed 9

feet, are

underground minings carried

the system of the

Amour

numerous gold deposits have been found of Askolda, near Vladivostok,

whence a gold bearing sand

The gold workings

The remaining distance back only their

along paths is

is

in

many

named

above cited groups

rivers, for

of 200 to

this circumstance the

of

whence cost

of

belonging

to

southern portion,

parts of the continent and also on the islaml

Amgoun. up

a distance

400 versts

is

of

a more

they

to

labour

along

1.200 roubles per head, and on the Ximaii

it

Amour is

a

system,

steamboat

400 versts from

have their

communi-

their mouths.

partly traversed in boats and partly on horse-

convenient

obtain

the

There

leading through the midst of the taiga to

stations,

its

extracted.

of all the

there the possibility

depot

localities

where the gold bearing seam forms the bottom of the sea ami

depot stations on the Amour, Zea, Boureya and cation on the three last

Besides the actual

on.

within the borders of the Littoral province in

all

the

the

gold

workings.

In

winter

between the mines

communication

and

Owing

to

system of the Zea amounts from 1,000

to

their

provisions

in

the

winter.

even comes to 1,500 and 1,900 roubles. Notwith-

150

GOLD.

Standing ihcse very disadvantageous economic conditions

tlie

gold

workings

of

the

Anioiii-

province are gradually enlarging their production, and moreover the number of deposits under exploitation

is

constantly increasing.

workings in the

Amour

to this system, being

region.

o

The following

table gives the production and

river system; all the workings in the

grouped under the

number of

Trausbaikal province belonging

general designation of the deposits of the Nerclunsk

]

60

SIBERIA.

deposits the supi-ificial layer consists

peal

alluvium

the auriferous

an

of

as peat.

the thickness

of working

the system

determines

known

alluvium

the relation between

and

considerably

varies

thickness

parts of Siberia where the soil

is

by means of

in the winter in

autumn the

and the

pits are

drpih of the

pit

and

out

and the kind of

sunk

The

suil.

has sufficiently frozen through, a wood

ilie

pit

deposit

is

generally

pits are

stopped

is

depending upon the degree of cold, the protected from snow.

carefully

thawed layer

the

When

the

bottom and when the bottom of

fire is lighted at the

foot,

made

as follows:

is

when the work

w'ater level,

of days

depth of about one

a

to

the

to

thL^

richness in gold. In those

exploration of the

the

number

a ceilain

pit

has thawed

their

sunk into the frozen ground. The method adopted

pits

laid

open for

pits left

unfrozen,

of

and that of

peat

beds, exploratory workings are

beds and

of these

thickness

followed for extracting the gold.

Before entering upon the actual exploitation of the auriferous

conducted for determining the

The

of the

removed with

easily

is

a pick and shovel. Notwithstanding the severe frosts, the freezing of the pits cau only be carrieii

on

to

pits

depth of four

a

sagenes. In those

do not present such

The specimens

of water.

warm

in buddies in

each half

where the

localities

made

they are

difficulties, as

in hard

soil

is

frozen the exploratory

ground and without the inflow

of the ground taken for assay from the bottom of the pit are

The assays

quarters erected upon the workings.

winter

washed

are taken at about

foot through the thickness of the deposit.

In the Yeniseisk region the winter exploring parties consist of five men with one overseer, and

Such a party

cost about three thousand roubles.

The removal

.of

the peat

the extraction of the sand, or else

autumn or winter a

seveie

the influence* of the

advantage

is

rare instances

taken of

tlie

the

left

over the

and then

frosts,

spring

is

it

carried

floods, to

possible

of dynamite

consumption

The

abdut a thousand pouds.

of

the peat be removed in

If

it.

alluvium to protect

removed

this layer is

in the spring.

wash away a portion of the amount of

aside.

of the gold regions the rare application

at

auriferous sand

transport

of

the is

in the

gold

mining works

workings

is

mechanical motors and appliances

j-eproach to the Siberian gold workers, but

its

whole

yearly increasing,

is

region amounts to

of this

transported to the

certain workings

at

in a few,

extraction of the auriferous sand

washing machines

wheeled carts diawn by horses, along a natural road or along a road made of

The

Xlni

against

Sometimes

washed throughout

gold,

The

Only

peat.

it

by means of picks crowbars and shovels. How-

Olekminsk region the use of explosives

and the annual

or winter, or else simultaneously with

gold bearing

away and thrown

manner

conducted in the simplest

ever, in

is

able to sink about 150 pits three sagenes deep.

advance

slightly in

the peat, containing a very small

is

<'xtent; as a rule is

layer

thin

is

autumn

carried on during the

is

it

is

dune is

in

trucks

frequently

in

logs. In

along

a

made a

tram

two-

some line.

subject of

necessary to remember not only the situation

of the workings in the most remote localities, void of any road capable of transporting heavy weights, but also the entire absence of any mechanical machine

Siberia which cduid or appliances.

the gold

I'urnisli

The cairiage

of such articles

times doubles and tiiples iheir cost. region and

Amour

pliances in

ilie

pioviiice.

place

id

workings with the requisite

tlieie

hand

from the Urals

is

a

labour.

tools,

mechanism, machines

exceedingly expensive and some-

Nevertheless, at some (d the is

or other industrial works in

workings

comparatively large application This

is

particularly

observable

the Olekminsk

in

oi nu'chaiucal in

ap-

the workings of

GOLD.

Amour

the

is

be observed that

met with

means

raised and transported by if

these

in

tram

regions,

owing

chiefly

is

it

1

steel

the

to

ropes,

the sand, gravel

region

gear along a tram

of chain

transport by endless

lines,

G

gold mining companies with sufficient capital at

are large

Moreover, at many of the workings in the Olekminsk

their disposal.

and peat

where there

system,

1

line.

But

should

it

and even Lartig roads are

extreme

dearness

of

and

horses

their feed.

The extraction in underground

on

the

there ings,

ders

application

owing

to the

1

used in the

successful,

in the Siberian gold

distribution of the gold bearing properties,

k

a.

is

extraction

and

work-

which ren-

of

The motive power required

impracticable.

is

the gold

is

furnished by

generally

is

the streams, and

40 and 50

there

feet

and

is

mines

engines are used

At

when

of

the

there

is

sup-

constructed with especial -lightness is

generally done by partially

no need of accumulating the water in reservoir ponds, as

is

an abundance of running water

used at the gold

timber which

generally very well constructed and the

is

and strength. The supply of water to the canals and conduits

damming

for

water

overshot

washing machines either by canals or wooden conduits called

led to the

The water supply

ports the conduits, in places attains

there

Experiments made

in the ^^1nter.

method being ultimately adopted

of this

irregularity of the

The water

wheels. 1

washing

for

method of exploitation have not been

hydraulic

which the hydraulic process

water, Avithout

p

carried on simultaneously with the washing; but

is

prepared

is

impossible to erect large water reservoirs and hence of having a sufficient pressure of

it

the machines

s

sand

the

of

much chance

not

is

of the auriferous sand

mines the

almost everywhere.

Portable

engines are frequently

Olekminsk region and of the system of the Amour.

These

not sufficient water for the hydraulic motors.

the present time in Siberia, the washing of the auriferous sand on a large scale

chiefly done in barrels,

and only very clayey sand

particularly favourable conditions,

sand easily washed, This method,

it

known

process.

Mr

washing

in the Urals,

is

when the

is

profile of the soil is sufficiently inclined

excavated by hand and cast into a trough

as

the

Pakoulevsk

process,

is

which

in

and he has modified Wooldear's system

to suit

the

the

Siberia, a system originally projected for the hydraulic process. This class of

are coming into

The

first

use

in

Siberia

machines used

and wooden barrels with iron

where they are known

fixings inside.

when

is

and the washed.

sluice

sluice

method of

local conditions of

washing appliances

as koulibinki

washing the auriferous sands, consisted of pans

in Siberia for

5,000 pouds of sand per day; but

it

a modification of the American

mining engineer, has recently introduced

K. Koulibin,

The

first

pans and barrels washed from 3,000 to

the gold industry developed they proved insufficient and

therefore their dimensions were enlarged and their construction perfected. All the barrels

used in Siberia belong to one type and only

differ in their dimensions.

Each

conical seive with one-half inch meshes. These orifices are of equal size of the barrel and are distributed in a chess board fashion. iron about one-fourth inch thick.

placed edgewise.

The

The

The

The dimensions

The smaller diameters vary from

'd^ji

baiTel

down

is

now

ban-el consists of a

the whole length

made

of boiler plate

inside fitting of the barrels generally consists of iron bands

ban-els are revolved, by a special gear

motors or portable engines.

is

treated in pans. In rare instances under

to

4^2

put

into

motion by hydraulic

of the barrels vary from 10 to 17 feet in length.

feet

and the larger, from 4 to 7

feet.

Below the

barrels 11

SIBEKIA.

152 there

an inclined plane, whoso upper portion

is

divided

is

hy longitudinal beams into several

parts on which there are transversal riffles for retaining the gold.

Besides

this,

other aiTangements such as hrushwood or cloth are placed upon the inclined

from 30

40

to

the sand

and

feet

it

made with a

generally

is

length of this inclined plane or sluice

The

plane, for retaining the finer particles of gold.

rather steep incline.

The water

is

washing

for

introduced into the barrel hy means of several hoses, sometimes fourteen in number,

is

The water and

into various parts of the barrel.

whioh direct the water

the

of

inside fitting

barrel grind the sand together in the barrel, the gravel passes only through the wide end, and

the slime, through the orifices of the barrel into the sluice. gravel, the so-called tailings fall through

The washed sand and

At

single or double.

ponds day.

The gold

from

free

twenty-five

or

can

one barrel

The

mounds.

waste

special

wash from

forty

made

are

fifty

thousand

clayey

sand per

to

pasty,

of

trapdoors into

machines

ban-el

thousand pouds

to thirty

goes

«Americans;>> or else

straight

buddies

the

to

The more pasty sands cannot be

matter.

foreign

all

the

from the sluices twice a day, and either undergoes a preliminary

collected

is

on so-called

concentration

washed

the present time,

sand

light

of

dumped on

and are

trucks

or

carts

where

is

it

washed

satisfactorily

and therefore other arrangements are employed in their treatment, the most common

in barrels,

being a pan from 8'/2 to 16 feet in diameter having an edge one foot high and covered with a sieve with holes from

V'2

to ^/4 inch in diameter.

The sand thrown on

revolving rows of iron shoes, and washed with water.

stream of water, the sand

upon a

is

is

rubbed by several

action of the shoes and

rubbed together and the finer particles pass through the seive and

same manner

sluice in the

the sieve

Under the combined

as with the

gravel left upon the seive

The

barrels.

through a special orifice from time to time. About fifteen

is

fall

let

twenty thousand pouds of sand

to

small quantity can be washed on these pans per day. In both the barrel and pan machines a of

mercury

is

near

supplied

always

the

head

of the

in

sluice

order

small

collect the

to

particles of gold.

koulibi uka

The washed by together.

and the

its

of

consists

a

system of two parallel

of this sluice varies

The width extent

the

of

bottom of the sluice

is

washing;

it

from 2

has an

to

3

feet,

inclination

amalgam and

on

which the

enter

the

sand

is

chief sluice

according to the amount of water 5

of

entirely covered with an iron grating,

the sand and arrests the gold,

sluices,

The sand and waters

motion in a current of water.

to

7 inches per sageue.

which

schlich. Transversal

assists

The

washing of

the

cuts five inches wide and

the bars, are made along the covered with an iron sieve with interstices of one inch between and water fall through of the sluice at distances of 12 to 14 feet. The fine gravel lengtii

these to the

sieves lirst

and pass along a small inclined conduit into the second but at a lower

the gold and amalgam.

form inclination of

At

This sluice

is

head, this sluice

is

level.

its

3'/2 inches per sagene.

amount

tlic

first sluice

on ihf nmtrary if

sluice terminates in

a

which

is

parallel

from Vli

to 2 feet wide,

and

it

has a uni-

This second sluice widens out somewhat towards the

of sand falling through the cross cuts in the first sluice increases.

bottom, as

water can be added

sluice,

covered with a wooden grating for retaining

is

made wider towards

required

according to the state of the division of the sand.

sieve inclined at

The

the head. In both sluices, a fresh supply of

45 degrees over which the coarse gravel

The

first

rolls into

a

GOLD.

hopper, whoiice fall

is

it

The second

second sluice which

terminates in a kind of rake

sluice

The

gravel.

or carts and carried to

cast into trucks

through this sieve on the

chief

1 (J

condition

required

in

this

tlie

bends

here

dump.

3

Tiic sinallcr particles

underneath

the

first

sluice.

arrangement for collecting the fine-washed

washing

of

inijde

a

is

supply of

sufficient

water.

With

respect

to veinous or ipiartz gold

in Siberia, it is only extracted

Yeni-

in the

seisk region, in very small quantities; in the Altai in the exploitation of the silver ores the Zyrianovsk

now worked,

andRiddersk mines, and

giving

a yearly yield

from these deposits are crushed

in

of

in the

12

copper sheets; the extraction of the gold

As a

portion of the gold

in 1«85 to apply

to

stamps

17

pouds. p e r

ye a r

Mounk tells

.

The gold

ores extracted

and washed in sluices covered with amalgamated extremely

is

i

mperfe ct and a large amount

in a state of chemical combination,

is

from

Transbaikal province, where three deposits are

is

lost.

some experiments were made

process for the treatment of the gold ores at one of the deposits

in the Transbaikal province; but they

were not su cce ssful.

In general, one of the chief hinderances to the development of the exploitation of veinous

gold

ores

in Siberia, is the absence of

mechanical works where the necessary machines

could be constructed and repaired, as at present such machines have to be brought from the

Urals at a great cost. Siberia,

is

An

extended application of the

wet chlorine methods of treatment

hindered by the cost of the materials requsite for the production of chlorine

in

from

bleaching puvvder. Apparently the extraction of gold by means of electrolysis would be more profitable in Siberia, as

would give the

treating a sufficient

The

having

amount of ore

which

already

is

the

private

beginning

to bring in a profit. is

carried ou upon the basis of the

gold industry, published in 1870. According to this statute, the gold

miners working upon proprietary lands pay a tax upon the yield of gold while

working upon State lauds or lauds belonging

those

to

the Government,

to

His Majesty's Cabinet, pay an

extra royalty to the Government or the Cabinet for the land covered by their workings. The

uiion in

the

yield

of gold

unrefined metal.

is

levied on the

The gold miners

amount in

and

of pure gold

silver

kings; in the province of the

Amour

there

is

in all the remaining parts of Siberia and in 1

separately

The tax present

the Olekminsk region, as the richest, pay a 10

per cent tax and 10 roubles royalty per dessiatine of government land

a rental of

mines

at the gold

a mechanical motor during the whole year and of thus

exploitation of gold over the whole of Russia

of

statute

the use of turbines

possibility of

occupied by the wor-

a 5 per cent tax and 5 roubles

European Russia, there

is

per dessiatine;

a 3 per cent tax and

rouble per dessiatine per year.

V The gold

workings

on

the

lands

into three classes according to their yield,

belonging

His Majesty's Cabinet

to

and they pay a royalty from 5

are

divided

to 15 per

cent to

the Cabinet and a rental of 15 kopecks per sagene length of the workings.

All the schlich gold obtained by private individuals in Siberia has to to the

Government smelting houses, of which there are two, one

and one for Eastern Siberia jurisdiction are the Altai

precious metals.

The gold

at Irkutsk.

Besides

this.

and Xerchinsk works, has is

for

His Majesty's

its

own

be sent by them

Western Siberia Cabinet,

at

Tomsk,

under whose

laboratory for the treatment of

smelted at the smelting house and

its

degree of purity determined 11*

SIBERL^

164 by assay. The metal given

bills

forwarded

is

to the

Petersburg Mint, and the

St.

by which they obtain gold or

and copper.

Silver, lead Siberia was once inhabited by a people,

Ch

u d (wondei- men). It

known when

not

is

merchants are

gold

silver coin or gold ingots.

who according

to the

Russian legends, were called

this people lived, but the chief

monuments

of their

former existence are ancient mines, chiefly with open diggings, only in rare instances, under-

ground workings. The antiquity of these works

them are made

wliich have been found in

supposition that this

ancient workings

and at

deposits,

was

people

are

formerly extracted their

name

silver, lead or

als.

The

XVIII

first efforts

the instruments

The Chud mines,

iron.

to the

as these

search for metalliferous

pioneers in their

where the Chud had

in those localities

remains

made by the Russians

of

Chud mines found on the Altai and

mountains»

«gold

indicate

its

richness in met-

their

to exploit these riches belong to the close of the

century but, strictly speaking, the mining industry of the Altai was placed upon a firm

footing

at

the

beginning

XYIII century by

of the

blacksmith Nikita Demiilov (Antoufiev).

and mentioned

proved

to

be

this

particularly

rich

copper

in

works.

1739

In

became the town

Altai region. In 1744

He

works,

discovered

Tula

a third work

founded

in

the

in

the

Biisk

locality

this

copper

first

works the Kolyvano Yoskresubsequently,

wliich

became the administrative

Demidov erected

Kolyvan

near lake deposits

called these

Baruaoulsk

he erected the

of Barnaoul and

ore

and hence Demidov

smelting works in the Altai, as early as 1726.

of the

Russian hunters found the remains of

workings,

The

fact to Demidov.

Demidov the son

Akinfia

In 1723 some

heaps of Chud

ancient scoria in the old waste region,

sensk

all

which leads

copper.

means the

which

of «altai»

Russian

workings w'ere begun

the

In "Western Siberia the numerous very

unacquainted with

entirely

guided the

called, all

first,

seen from the fact that

is

either of copper or hard stone,

centre of

in

1771,

the works of the

all

present Semipalatinsk province

in the

on the borders of the Altai region. In 1735 Demidov discovered the Zmeinogorodsk mine,

amount of copper

in

it

proved

rich argentiferous lead ores

inconsiderable.

were found

in

Soon

Zmein

the

1744 and 1745 obtained 2 pouds 25^/4 pounds of the

15th May,

1747,

the

all

silver.

works

and

mines

but

it

was

mountains,

unnoticed as the

left

afterwards however,

from

namely

in

1742,

which Demidov

in

Subsequently, by an Imperial ukaz of

of the Altai

passed into the hands of His

Majesty's Cabinet.

From

that time the mining industry

and laying out of new

mines

continued

of the

to

the

Altai close

made

of the

rapid progress.

XVIII

were the chief of these mines: the Cherepanovsk in 1781, the Salairsk in 1784,

and the

extremely

erected by the Cabinet the Loktevsk

:

Zyiianovsk

the Pavlovsk

in 1771, the

rilovsk, in 1793. Tw'j

rich

nmre

in

1763,

mine

in

1791.

century.

The discovery The following

in 1781, the

The following

the Souzounsk in 1764, the

Riddersk

works

Tomsk

were

in 1770,

Aleisk in 1774, and the Ekaterininsk, afterwards called the Gav-

works were erected

in the present century, the

Zmeevsk

in 1304,

165

SILVEK, LEAD AND COPPER.

Nearly

and the Gourevsk in 1S16.

smelt copper as well as

the works in the Altai are silver smelling works, the

all

Tomsk and Gourevsk

only exceptions being the

According

silver.

of the Altai mining region

may

iron

he divided into two

the so-called Zmeinogorsk region, lies in the

groups,

two groups

of these

conditions

the

in

difference

region exclusively employ charcoal fuel, while

those

first of

the

Altai

river

region

Salairsk

near neighbourhood of the Kouznetsk coal basin, work with mineral

being

region

of rounded

They generally have the appearance

mountains

in these

At

ore deposits.

more rarely

clay slate, and are

is

likely

without

to 4,500 feel.

crystallne schists,

played an important part in the formation

the foot of the ore bearing mountains

there are

consisting of slates, limestones and

mations of different periods

branches

to the

volcanoes,

any rocky peaks. As a rule the height of these mountains does not exceed 4,000

upheaved by porphyries, which most

in the

fuel.

the ore deposits in the Zmeinogorsk region belong to the

The mountains which contain

The predominating rock

at the

lies

Toma. The most im-

branches of the Say ansk mountains; while those in the Salairsk region belong of the Altai mountains.

these

region,

that the works of Zmeinogorsk

is

the

of

of

The

or Salairsk

of the

the ore deposits

all

groups.

southern portion

north-eastern extremity of the Altai region in the system

portant

position

independent

and the second

and Irtysh;

in the systems of the rivers Obi

works and the Soiizounsk works which

geographical

to their

of the

strata of sedimentary

The

sandstones.

for-

ore deposits

belong to two classes, veins and stock works. All the vein deposits bear the general charac-

and thick

inclined, short

ter of steeply

veins.

They generally occur on

junction of the clay slates with felsite porphyries.

known

As a

cavities.

As many

amount

however only about

of various

five

only

the Altai

in

now worked. The

compounds of copper,

The copper

lead or copper are poor in silver.

found in only two of the silver

mining

hundred mines have been exploited, out of which

lead, zinc

and

silver ores contain a smaller or iron,

which modify the external

properties and richness of the ores; thus as a rule, those ores which are

appearance,

is

in their zone rise to the for-

rare in the Altai, and are

works are

hundred deposits of metallic ores are known

as eight

only eight silver and two copper mines are larger

stock

borders of the

and then they are not of great extent.

for the copper deposits

region. Altogether

rule,

the

deposits of the Salairsk mountains

which

felspar porphyries

are accompanied by veins of quartose

mation of ore bearing

The vein

ores have the most uniform

mines, the Zyrianovsk and the Ridersk,

in a very variable extent throughout the deposit.

Generally

it

rich iu

Gold

composition.

and

is

distributed

appears in dependence upon a

decrease in the amount of silver and other metals and occurs sparingly in ore bearing quartz in poor feiTuginous

ochre ores exploitation.

ores. All the

of transition its

and

silver

ores.

As they descend Altai of

composition

mines,

ochre

the

metalliferous ores are either ochre or pyritic

the

chief

The

ores.

objects of

a greater depth, the ochre ores gradually change into pyritic their

into

greatest depth

pyritic

in metal.

most evident

into pyritic ores generally has

and lead;

to

at

and richness

this distinction is

in silver

The

occur in the upper level of the deposits and were formerly

in

ores,

and

The ochre

of

70

hence

100 sagenes, pass is

ores are generally

the case of silver ores; the

an extremely unfavourable

besides which

to

the ore

effect

into^

a zone

exceedingly variable in richer

than the

transition

of the

pyr-itic

ochre

upon the richness of the ore

the smelting of the ores becomes

much more

difficult.

For

166

SIBERIA.

reason the existing

this

mines are not

in a position to

same amonnt

yield the

of metal

as

formerly.

The amount ores the

amount

of silver and lead in the ores

of silver varies

from

to

'/s

is

subject to great Huctuations. In the ochre

10 zolotniks per poud of

lead from 6 to 12 pounds per poud of ore, or 15 to 30 per

much

The amount

poorer.

5 to 10 per

of copper in the ores, smelted at the

Very many of the

cent.

fore their exploitation has

pyritic ores

Souzounsk

are

very

is

from

works,

mines are accounted quite exhausted and

silver

Among

been entirely stopped.

mentioning the Zmeinogorsk mine, which for a 50,000 pouds of

and the amoimt of

ore,

The

cent.

period

these

Impossible

is

it

thei-e-

avoid

to

some seventy years yielded over

of

Other mines were worked for a much shorted period and after giving

silvei-.

several thousand pouds of silver were found to be exhausted.

At

the present time the most productive mines are the Zyrianovsk in the Zmeinogorsk

region and the Salairsk mines in another portion of the Altai region. yields about 500,000 pouds of ore, to one million

pouds of

and the latter which, during the

all

the deposits of the Altai.

portion of the region on the river Maslianka, 12 versts

Boukhtarma

versts

and 70 versts from the river Irtysh.

from the nearest

named now from 700,000

The

1891 gave only 395,400 pouds. The Zyrianovsk deposit

ore, in

considered the most productive of

river

first

eighties, yielded

silver smelting works, the

It

in

lies

from the

distant

The Zyrianovsk

now

south-eastern

left

bank of the

deposit

about 340

is

The Zyrianovsk

Zmeievsk works.

is

the

deposit

has yielded more than 45 million pouds of assorted ore containing over 45,000 pouds of silver

and over 2,500,000 pouds of

The Salairsk

Salairsk

2nd,

lead.

which

deposits,

are

a very long time, but the ores of these are

now

now

are very thick and extensive

in work, the

exploited by two mines, the Salairsk 1st and

and guarantee a supply of ore for smelting for

deposits

are

poor

in silver.

portion of the region, not far from the Irtysh; but

at a distance of

zounsk copper smelting works. At the Sougatovsk mine, besides

The

from the mine waters. the are

Barnaoulsk,

now

closed.

The

ores of

Pavlovsk,

the

The

the

Zmeinogorsk region

400 versts from the Soucement copper

were smelted

the Loktevsk and the Zmeievsk, but the

statistics respecting the

many

ore, a

at

first

is

obtained

four works,

three of these

region contains the Gavrilovsk silver smelting works.

Salairsk

amount of

silver smelted at the Altai works,

beginning of the present century over a thousand pouds during a period of

Only two copper mines

and the Chudak. These mines are situated in the southern

Sougatovsk

Such was the

years.

of this metal

position of the

works

show that

at the

were annually smelted

at the time of the liberation of

the serfs, an event which in 1862 produced a complete revolution in

the

economic

order

of

the country, and changed the conditions of the mining industry in this poorly populated region.

During the

first

years following the liberation of the serfs, the production of the Altai works

remained almost

as before,

thanks

to the energetic production of rich ores

from previously

prepared workings in the Zyrianovsk and Talovsk deposits. The increased price of labour led to

a considerable

reduction

in

the

amount

of preparatory and

had the necessary censequence of gradually decreasing the reducing

its

actual production.

at the mines, but also

The

considerably

exploratory diggings,

stores of ore

abolition of obligatory labour not only raised

increased

the

cost

of

transporting

which

and of subsequently

the

the

ore,

wages

and

this

167

SILVER, LEAD AND COPPER. clearly proved the disadvantages of the great distances between the mines and the works. over, the rise in the price of fuel,

owing

More-

to the exhaustion of the forests in the neighbourhood

inBueuced of the mines and the feeble development of the mechanical parts of the works, also the position of the metallurgical and mining

industries

of the Altai.

And

yet at the end of

was the last and beginning of the present century, the mechanical portion of the Altai 'works placed upon another footing. It

Polzounov, erected works.

Polzounov

is

worthy of remark that

the first steam

may

experiment of laying

justly

be

acting

line

was made

to the

above mentioned

causes, the

at the

Barnaoul the first

in 1817, for transporting the ore

from the

Zmeinogorsk mine and the Zmeevsk works, along a distance of

Owing

1766 a mining engineer

of Watt. In the Altai also

called the forerunner

down a tram

so early as

blowing engine for blast furnaces

2'/? versts.

production of silver at the

Altai began to

decrease considerably, especially since 1868; so also the amount of copper smelted, which

1872 amounted to

nearly

40,0C0 pouds,

subsequently

gradually

fell.

The

gives the production of the Altai mining region during the last ten years.

following

in

table

.IBEKIA.

I6S the upper courses of the rivers the Yenisei at the village

They

In 1874

Abacan, and from the Mainsk mine on the Spassk copper smelting works were

These works smelted ore from the Mainsk and several other

erected on the river Pechits.

mines.

falliug into the river

of Oznachennyi.

known, only worked between 1879 and 1881 and altogether smelted

as far as is

about 1,250 ponds of copper. Deposits of

galena are known in the government of Yakutsk at several

argentiferous

was explored, but

posit

it

was found unsuitable

for

populated localities and to the scarcity of forests. In the exploitation of the Undybalsk mine, which

wards stopped. There

at

was

also the reason w^hy

was

carried on from 1765 to 1775,

after-

another deposit in the Yakutsk province, on the river Batoma. a right

is

ributary of the Lena, where

Rumours

exploitation owing to its distance from

all probability this

was

latter de-

Yana. In 1850 the

points along the Yilua and Undybala, the tributary of the river

it

is

Yakuts smelt lead and

said the native

of the occurrence of silver ores in

Amour

the present

silver.

Govenor-Generalship, of

Daouria on the banks of the Shilka and Argouna, reached Moscow during the reign

Peter the Great, and induced this monarch to dispatch a party of Greek

miners

Siberia

to

under the direction of one Levandian, who in 1698, guided by the discovery of remains

Chud

on

workings

Koultouchnaya mountain 16 versts distance

the

covered a deposit of ai-geutiferous lead ore in this locality and began to exploit silver

smelting

works,

Nerchinsk,

the

called

was erected by order

of

from Argouna,

of

In 1704

it.

Peter

dis-

At

I.

that

time the whole of this portion of the Transbaikalia, which subsequently comprised the Xerchinsk

mining region, was a perfectly wild country only inhabited by nomad natives. To introduce a regular mining industry into this region, of Russian settlers

ing

and

to

industry in the Nerchinsk

began

it

was necessary

overcome immense

to increase considerably

region

to take

why

new mines and with

min-

at first the

But the production

developed very slowly.

with the opening out of

measures for the emigration

This explains

difficulties.

silver

of

the growth of the

population in the region.

The

maximum

introduction of smelting

production of silver

ponds.

In 1790 the

and

1847

in

it

even

by private Siberians

yield of silver fell to fell

also

had a

was, during the period 1763 to 1786,

below 200 pouds.

219 ponds,

From

it

beneficial

when

and then

it

effect.

The

attained 629V2

subsequently periodically fluctuated,

that time the production

Nerchinsk region declined completely, and from 64V2 pouds smelted in 1850 in 1863,

it

temporarily ceased altogether. The reasons of this

of

silver

it fell

the

in

to 7'/2

pouds

fall in the silver

duction of the Nerchinsk region were the flooding of the mines, the economic revolution

propro-

duced by the abolition of the serfs and of the obligatory labour at the works, and chiefly the revolution which took place in the

new and

richer gold workings,

the extraction of gold, which lead.

in the

Thus there

is

management

when

all

of the Nerchinsk works, with the opening

the force and

became the chief

object

means of

of the region were

production

instead

of

directed silver

of to

and

no foundation for speaking of the exhaustion of the deposits of silver ore

Nerchinsk region, and there

revive with fresh energy, the deposits of silver ores,

if it

is

reason for supposing that the production of silver might

the economic conditions of the region were improved.

can only be said that as

opened out in the Nerchinsk region, that vein

many

deposits

as

90

different

predominate in

As

regards

mines have

been

the south-western,

169

SILVER, LEAD AND COrrEK.

known, hut although

also

Besides silver and lead, deposits of copper

in the north-eastern portion.

and pocket deposits ores

are

sults

were not favourahle.

At

were made

trials

and smelt them, the

to exploit

the present time altogether 10

worked

mines are

annual yield amounts to 100,CKX) pouds. The only existing silver smelting works

re-

and their

Ner-

in the

chinsk mining region, the Kroutomarsk works, smelt ahout 50 pouds of silver a year.

A

extremity

deposit of argentiferous lead ores has been discovered in the far eastern

of Siheria, in the valley of the river Vantsin at ahout 120 versts distance from the

Olga, and 37 versts from the gulf of Preohrazheask. Explorations of this deposit,

St.

gulf

of

made

in

1872, showed the presence of rather vast, ancient workings, and in recent times the exploitation of the ores

was carried on by the Chinese.

Traces

mines are found

Chud

of

about

scattered

various

of the Kirghiz steppes, and In 1815 and 1820, these workings were the

A

ery of rich deposits of argentiferous lead ores. the indications of the natives,

made

the

first

parts

for

deposits

of the discov-

Popov, guided by

mining proprietor, Mr.

claim

lead

argentiferous

of

region

the

of

means

and

copper ores in the Kirghiz steppes and obtained a concession for the acquirement of what lands

and forests he

might need for the exploitation of the mineral wealth

for the erection of metallurgical works.

tiferous lead

Already

in 1857,

of

the

region

and

106 copper workings and 44 argen-

and copper ore mines were declared; and at the close of 1888, the Karkaralinsk

district of the

Semipalatinsk province, comprised 121 claims of ore deposits, both copper and

argentiferous lead; while in the whole of the Kirghiz steppes up to 400 ore bearing deposits are known.

The following

are the most important.

richest argentiferous lead ore deposits

The

are situated in the southern portion of the Karkaralinsk district between the

town of Kar-

karalinsk and lake Balkhash, at a distance of 200 to 250 versts from the above

This locality is

is

the only convenient

There

is

means

of

communication

in this region.

another tract of argentiferous lead and partly argentiferous lead

ore deposits, to the north of the above region at a distance of

town

of Karkaralinsk to the south and south-west

posits of this district

larly distinguished. to

which have been opened

The Bogoslovsk mine

a depth of 18 sagenes.

were smelted

at

named town.

desert and void of forest and at a great distance from the river Irtysh which

of this town.

75

to

Among

out, the vast deposit of

w^as laid out on this deposit

and copper

from the

100 versts the

many

Ber-Kara

is

vein departicu-

by Popov and worked

This mine yielded both argentiferous lead and copper ores, which

two works erected by Popov, and also at the Altai

works

to

which they

were temporarily transported. Deposits of copper ores are particularly abundant on the borders of the Karkaralinsk

and Pavlodarsk

Many

districts.

veins of greater or less thickness, and in some

native copper have been found.

The copper

of these deposits occur in

instances

the

form of

somewhat considerable masses

of

ores extracted from this region were smelted at

copper smelting works erected in the neighbourhood.

Oxidized copper ores are found in

the

sandstone strata occurring to the south of the town of Semipalatinsk in the basin of the river

Aschi-Sou, and in the north-western corner of the Karkaralinsk the

Akmolinsk province

district,

near the borders of

in the lower courses of the river Chiderta,

Copper smelting was

first started in

the Kirghiz

steppes,

at the Blagodato-Stefanovsk

works, erected by Popov at about 80 versts distance to the north-east of the

to^\^^

of

Karka-

SIBERIA.

170 These works continued

raliiisk.

of

Popov

fuel.

in action until

the

erected

also

station;

Bogoslovsk

the

deposits of argentiferous lead and copper ores, on

of Karkaralinsk

;

works:

Alexandrovsk

at

which

of 35 versts to

at a distance

works, in the

mount Berkara

want

finally closed for

the

centre of the richest

80 versts distance to the south

and the loanno-Predtechensk works near the Kyziltavsk coal mines. All these

works, as well as those erected by Mr.

hank of the

when they were

1861,

metallurgical

lead ores, and were situated

exclusively smelted argentiferous

the north of the Bayan-Aoulsk

following

Irtysh,

had no guarantee

Kouznetsov near the Grachevsk station, on the

for their supply of fuel,

left

aud only worked intermittently,

and their annual yield of copper did not exceed 8,000 pouds. the heirs of Mr.

The Spassk copper smelting works were erected by beginning of the district,

and

in

sixties,

in the

district

of

Akmolinsk near the

Ryazanov

in the

borders of the Karkaralinsk

and from that time the copper production of the Kirghiz steppes considerably increased,

1870 reached

its

highest

existence of the Spassk works,

between

Kirghiz mines varied

normal

period of the

the entire

closed in 1885, the production of copper, at the

18,500 and 34,000

Spassk works however, the Kirgliiz steppes

During

pouds.

38,800

of

which were

lost

pouds per

closing of the

year. After the

importance among the

every

copper produc-

ing regions of Russia.

The production and

in

district, at

In

until 1883.

galena and oxidized lead and copper ores chetavsk

1882

a rich

was explored

and also at the Kozmo-Demyanovsk

from the Kyzyl-Espe mine proved

poud of ore and about 50

works

situated

to

exceedingly

70 per cent of

at

rich,

experimental

18 versts to

The

with

galena about

12

erected the

at

An

the mine,

south-east of the

and lead ores extracted zolotniks

of silver

per

lead.

In recent years the production of silver and erected by Popov, but

smeltings

lead has not only increased at the works

have been

carried on at several other mines

to other persons.

The following steppes since 1883.

1^

and already known deposit of Kyzyl-Espe, situated in the Ak-

1883, at the works

town of Karkaralinsk, and 280 versts from the mine.

c5

at

a distance of about 80 versts to the north-north-west of lake Balkhash.

experimental smelting of these ores was begun in

belonging

works was carried on very irregularly,

of silver aud lead at the Kirghiz

very limited quantities

table shows the position of the silver and lead production in the Kirghiz

171

Iron. At

time there

the present

works

are only four iron

whole of Siberia.

the

in

It is

true that, thanks to the vast river system offered by the Toura, Tobol, Irtysh, Obi and Tomi,

up

town of Tomsk nearly the whole of Western Siberia

to the

with the very foot of the

and can

Urals,

centre of the Russian mining and of

deposits

rich

the

Amour

into

the

iron

of Siberia.

interior

It

cultural

purposes

demand

for metals

but

for

also

and metallic goods.

very feebly developed

Siberia,

in

it

only for domestic and agri-

not

present

the

to

more and more urgent

time the iron industry

not for want of ore deposits but for purely

is

be mentioned however that

and commercial reasons.

It should

were worked by

Yeniseisk

these metals,

of

up

If

the town

of

must greatly increase the price of goods

vast gold industry which offers a

the

system of

the

to penetrate over 3,000 versts

the population of Siberia are in need of pig-

time

made

iron and iron as well as of articles

hand,

other

the

however that notwithstanding the cheapness Of

traversed

same

the

On

from Nikolaevsk

certain

is

distances

At

manner.

this

in

the vast

with metals from this

itself

where there are most vast and

industries

iron works.

enables goods transported by sea

transport by water,

carried

metallurgical

and numerous

ore,

communication

direct water

is in

supply

conveniently

is still

economic

the deposits of iron ores near

the native Ostiaks and Toungouze

previous to the

Russian dominion of Siberia, and afterwards by the neighbouring peasants. The manufacture

was

of iron direct from the ore, which

such

an

extent

which

smithies

produced about 30,000

yearly

industry however absorbed

The

requirements

of

all

of iron

erection

the

Tomsk, were erected

local

in

on here

carried

from

ancient

times, flourished to

the beginning of the present century there were as

that at

the

pouds

of iiou.

many

The development

as forty

of the gold

the local labour and put an end to this branch of industry.

works

within

mining

and

the Altai

mining region was called forth by the

metallurgical

The

industries.

first iron

certain period under the jurisdiction of the Altai mining

management but

works, the

which were

to replace the Irbinsk works,

Altai in 1771,

for a

situated at a consid-

erable distance in the government of Yeniseisk. After the erection of the Gourievsk works in

the Kouznetsk region of silver ores

of

the

the government

Salairsk

mines,

som(>

neighbourhood of the works, and a small

1846

iron works

were erected on

facture of iron coal fuel,

was replaced by one

furnace

this

this spot.

to

the

Tomsk on

blast furnace of

exhaustion

at

of

the river

greater

was erected

the increasing

demand

machine

works.

neighbouring

partment

is

in the region fur machines

works, adjoining the

increasing every year.

The

Gourievsk

for smelting the ore. In

works were closed

1873, to introduce coal and to replace the bloomery process

special

for smelting the

dimensions and in 1747 the Gourievsk

the Gourievsk the

Bachata,

of iron ores were discovered in the near

deposits

The Tomsk

was then concentrated

owing

of

forests,

for

in

induced

puddling.

and steam engines works,

and

1864 and the manu-

The increased

the

At

cost of char-

the

works, in

the

same time

led to the

production

oie smelted at the Gourievsk works

is

erection of of

a

this

de-

brown hem-

172 atite,

SIBEKIA.

extracted from the deposits,

pichevo;

both

these

per cent of iron.

The

at a small distance

stone

flux,

works, are

works are

fire

deposits

coal

consumed

building

exploited

local inhabitants.

j

a

stone

made from

is

and

other

The following

of

villages

at the Gourievsk

in the near neighbourhood.

last six years in puuds.

1

the

considered very rich.

from the works. Coke

clay,

near

lying

are

The

works

Salairsk

Roudnik and Ari-

ores contain is

from

from 38.5 to 44.3

different

pits situated

coal from the Bachatsk deposit.

indispensible

Nearly

all

the

materials

workmen

for

Lime-

carrying

employed

at

on the

table gives the production of the works during the

173 The Abakansk works smelt with of forest

dessiatines

neighbourhood, the

people

attached.

The

cliarcoal

erector

which

Tuel,

these

of

which he populated with workmen from the

regularly

employed

the

there

natives are attracted by the auxiliary

workmen, who not having manner, only keep

it

of

the

a

village

in

works.

Ural

neighbouring

now

exploited by an artel or

sufficient capital or labour for carrying

going in a very small way.

And

their

Besides

villages

and other labour, offered by the works. Owing

proprietor these works are

bankruptcy of the

inhabitants

various

the 117,000

from

procures

it

works founded

company

to

profitable

way cede

to

the

of local

on the business in a proi)er

yet the technical conditions offered by

the rich stores of excellent ore, the possibility of applying water power, the good quality

the articles turned out, which in no

and

those

of

the

Ural works, and also

of

the

economic conditions presented by a contingent of experienced workmen and a vast

region for sale opened to the works by means of water possibility of reviving the activity of the

The following taWe

a

>-*

communication,

Abakansk works on a

perfectly

all

this

new

proves

the

footing.

gives the production of these works in ponds, during the last 6 years.

174 Their yield during the last

Nikolaevsk works manufacture

.six

steel,

years was as follows, in pouds.

only in very limited quantities.

In

addition to this Ihe

MERCURY AXD

TIN,

Lastly

XVIII

the Yakuts as a village

from the right

falls

iron

side,

including red

The

a hrown

ore,

and spathic iron

and brown hematite

Anga. At

only carried on by

Batoma,

river

lies in

hematite, here

ore, are

in this province but have not been subject to any detailed

Yakuts

on the river is

on

carried

Avas

occur on the

deposits

end of

until the

ore

conversion into iron

the Lena.

into

work

in

the

oi

parts

distance; iroin

and has been under exploitation since 1750. Other deposits of

to three feet thick

ore,

its

The most important

industry.

many

in

30 versts

the

and there was also an iron works near lake Baikal

day the exploitation of the ore and

the present

a bed up

at

preparation of iron direct from

the

Besides,

century.

at other places,

which

works were erected

the Tanginsk iron

Yakutsk as early as the XVII century, and continued

the town of the

known

that ir.m ore deposits are

should be iiKMitioned

it

Yakutsk province, and that

175

SULl'HUR.

also

worked by the

The

exploration.

spathic

iron ore deposits occur on the river Vilua.

Apparently a rather rich deposit of iron ores occurs in the province at 20 versts

Littoral

Avvakoumovka which

river

falls into

Tin, The presence

in the year 1811.

riata.

These

Mercury and Sulphur. in the Transbaikal province along the

gave

rise to

a search for tin ores in other localities along a

distance of 100 versts, along both banks of the Onona.

was exploited from time

to time

about thirty years. In 1843

this

is unfit

explored

would be possible

The Ildikansk the

right

vein It

was

may

which

side

of

the

started in

also falls

thickness

in

the Xerchinsk region

The

exceeds

cinnabar

two

if it

were more thoroughly

of the ore. lie

occurs

inches.

The

in the in

on

mountains

a

passing

vein

exploitation of this

times, but without

success.

be mentioned that the Yakuts living along the upper courses of the river Amga found into the river Aldan, a right tributary of the Lena, employ cinnabar this river, as

a medicine.

deposit of native sulphur occurs in a limestone mountain at a distance of IV^ versts

from the above mentioned Ildikansk mercury

deposit.

Between 1789 and 1797, 425 pouds

sulphur weie extracted from this deposit. Sulphur in the form of sulphur pyrites

common

ore

closed, but this does not argue that

Ildekan. rarely

tin

ultimately

reason for thinking that

1759 and was subsequently renewed several

by them in the system of

A

Sernyi

mine was started, the

on a small scale during a period of

to reestablish the exploitation

river its

is

A

smelted

ore

was

mine

or cinnabar deposits

limestone, but

through

and the

and there

for working,

the deposit it

river

These ores had long been exploited and smelted by the native Bou-

discoveries

first

portion of the

southern

Olga along the system of the

St.

this gulf.

was discovered

ores

of tin

Onona

from the gulf of

distance

in

the metamorphic schists, covering vast

areas

in

Eastern

Siberia.

is

of

extremely

The

pyrites

also form are disseminated in the schists, or occur in quartz veins intersecting the schists, or

found in the cross veins. Besides this, spheroidal concretions of sulphur pyrites are frequently

brown coal

deposits

along

the

river

Kempendzyai, a right tributary of the Viluya.

In exploitation of pyrites has not yet been carried on in any part of Eastern Siberia.

The

Western

SIBERIA.

176 Siberia from 150,030

mine

pouds of pyrites are auuually raised from the Sougatovsk

200,000

to

mining region.

in the Altai

Coal. known throughout

Deposits of coal are

government of Orenburg

of the

the whole extent of Siberia, from the

At the present time

and the frontier of Corea.

coal

discovered and explored deposits of coal in

mean time

Railway

rian

southern portion

the

of mineral fuel, especially in those localities

where

The following data Siberia there

southern

limit

Kouznetsk;

of

mountains;

its

this

basin

in

Toma

Siberia, before

eastern

its

boundary extends

it

which the coal seams

distance

the

into

two

up to the very town of Tomsk,

that the coal basin extends to this town.

the

of

declivity

which

parts,

The

Alatau

Hence the

may

The

versts.

similar to those

strata,

are

found

also

along

the

in all likelihood be supposed

400 versts long and

entire basin should be

100 versts wide, which equals an area of 40,000 square thick seams of coal of excellent quality are found.

it

The

into the Obi.

falls

and as

neighbourhood of Kouznetsk,

the

region

the south of the town

to

western

and approaches the river Ina

lie in

Toma

Western

mining

Altai

so-called Kouznetsk coal basin.

versts

along

the

of

along the eastern foot of the Salairsk mountains,

divides the basin along its length

banks of the river

it

be in need

itself will

in different parts of Siberia. In

portion

the

is

60

about

at

lies

This

province.

passes through forestless steppe regions.

eastern

the

western boundary stretches

but in places recedes from river

seams in

and Alatau mountains. of

it

and the railway

upon the coal deposits

treat

coal

rich

are

Salairsk

the

Littoral

the

of

obliges one to think that the Sibe-

will give rise to the exploitation of coal in various parts of

industry;

on

also proposed to exploit the recently

is

the varied application of mineral fuel

materially effects other branches of mining

in

only worked in Kouznetsk basin,

is

the island of Sakhalin and on the Khirgiz steppes. It

In the

borders

mouths of the Lena, Kamchatka, island of Sakhalin

to the

many

In

parts of this basin,

coal formations belong to the Jurassic

system.

The Telbessk

iron

mine

on the river Telbes which

is

situated on the south-eastern border of the Kouznetsk basin,

falls into the

Kandoma. This mine

of 75 million pouds of magnetic iron ore; and close to

Such

Soukharinsk.

abundance

an

of

iron

it

capable

ore,

is

there of

estimated to contain a store is

another

iron

guaranteeing

a large iron works for a long period, induced the local mining management to

survey of this south-eastern corner of the Kouznetsk basin, with a view to coal

veins

in the

fect success left

and gave the following

seam was followed along

The

falls into

of

the

first

its

at a

results.

distance of

strike for

Kinerkinsk seam

Kandoma, above

163 sagenes,

mine,

make a

the

the

supply

to

careful

discovery of

neighbourhood of these iron mines. These surveys were crowned with per-

bank of the Kandoma

of coal.

a

is

4

sagenes

the

A

seam

5

380 sagenes, and is

of coal one sagene thick

from the village

versts it

was estimated

thick

been estimated at 16,400,000 pouds.

and dips

at

It

is

river

pouds

Kinerka which

has been followed for a distance

an angle of

The second seam

This

to contain 8,300,000

situated on the left side of the

village of Kaltansk.

was found on the

of Kaltansk.

22".

The

store of coal

on the hanging wall of the

first

has at

COAL.

35 sagenes distance from 75 sagenes. is

it.

one sagene thick and has been followed for

It is

a distance of

estimated to contain 2,250,000 ponds of coal. The third seam, 9 feet thick,

It is

50 sagenes from the hanging wall of the second.

The

Yarlamovsk seam

first

one sagene, and

sagenes; and wall of the

sagenes;

situated on the southern declivity of theJvirchiaksk mountains, village of Kirchiaksk.

first.

Its thickness is 4^/2 feet,

and

it

been

has

On

by the name

followed

seam 210

up

a distance of 100

for

estimated to contain 2,115,000 pouds. The Kirchiaksk seam

the northern declivity of the

of the

for a distance of

The second seam .lies on the hanging

side of the western end of the Kirchiaksk mountain. It is

of 29°.

The thickness

The seam has been followed

dips at an angle of 18°.

it

estimated to contain 5,515,000 pouds of coal.

is

it is

is

Kandoma, near the

lying on the left bank of the is

177

on the noHhorn

lies

and has a dip

to 7 sagenes thick

same mountain there are seven seams

known

of coal,

of the «Ozernyi)> or lake seams, owing to their situation on lake Kirchiak. All

They Include one seam 4^2

these seams form one series, lying in a schistose clay.

two, one sagene thick; and three, 2 sagenes thick. They have not been followed

estimated to contain over 12"2 million pouds of coal.

than 100 sagenes, and have

been

Araldinsk seam outcrops

the bank of the river Aralda, which falls into the

at

the right, opposite the village of Kirchiaksk. This

seam

It is

calculated that

all

The

Kandoma on

over 6 sagenes thick and has a dip

is

of 18°. It has been explored for 120 sagenes along the strike,

18 million pouds of coal.

feet thick;

up for more

the seams

and

it

estimated to contain

is

situated

the

in

neighbourhood

of the village of Kaltansk contain a store of over 65 million pouds of coal.

Further in the eastern portion of the basin,

seams have been discovered in the

coal

neighbourhood of the town of Kouznetsk, on the banks of the river Toma,

Artamonov above the town, and b^low the

of

Exploratory workings have near

basin

of Berezova

the

villages of

thick.

on in

carried

showed that there the coal seams appear

The

The second

is

composed of two

seams

south-western extremity of the

the

SV'a

the village

form of four separate

in the

series, at

of four seams, from 2^'2 to 11

consists

series

first

near the village

and Shorokhova.

The workings made near

Berezova and Kostenkova.

short distances from one another. feet

been

villages of Ilinsk

and 7 feet

thick.

The

','2

third series

includes eight seams from 2V'2 to 8''2 feet thick, and lastly the fourth series consists of four

seams from follow^ed

2'

,'2

to 5 sagenes thick. In exploring these

up for a distance

to the level of the river

Three seams of

of

which

east of the village of Berezova,

distance

series

consists

the

to

nine

of

sagenes

seams four of the thickest beds were along

the strike,

north

is

sagenes thick,

2'/2

have

been

on the banks of the river Kandalena.

seams closely resembling the four versts

2,000

and

along

the

dip

Berezovka only, and over 210 million pouds of coal were determined.

one

coal,

70, to

of

of

series of the

the

village

seams from 3 feet

of

to

Kostenkova

on the

are

the

to

whole series

Berezovsk veins, has been found

4V2 sagenes thicks.

explored for a distance of about 400 sagens and

discovered

A

at

river Kozlovka.

of

two This

Four seams have been

estimated to contain a

store

of 40' /a

million pouds of coal. In general the coal fields of the south-western extremity of the basin,

near

-the villages of

coal.

The Magansk

Berezovka and Kostenkova, contain a store of over 250 million pouds of coal

village of Prokopievsk,

field

to the

has been north

of

found

at

Berezova,

five

on the

versts

distance to the east of the

left side

of

the river

Maganak

178 three sagenes thick.

This deposit consists of one vein colve,

which has been successfully used

As

the above

estimate

outcrop

refers to

the

of those

veins

were

not

be

many

included

in

the

that

the

in the

the calculation, and as for

may

in

only levels

moreover, in the majority of

proximity with the

close

and the lower

an inconsiderable distance,

so there

portion of the basin must

times greater than the above cited figures, and this portion lying

seams

different

level of the river,

stores of coal in this southern

actual

inexhaustible stores of fuel iron ore,

above

seams was only followed up

cases, the strike of the

can be no doubt

lying

seam gives a good

coal from this

contained

the stores of coal

of

those

of

The

in metallurgical operations.

of the

basin

with

its

deposits of magnetic

richest

surely have a great industrial future.

The Afoninsk

coal field lies near the village of Afonin

and

at a distance of

60 versts

from the Tomsk works, on the one hand, and from the Gourievsk and Gavrilovsk on the other.

Three coal seams have been found, one of which has been destroyed by an underground and

that remains

all

hanging wall of the

Vh Vh

a bed of ash

is

about

is

first,

The second seam,

sagene thick. sagenes

of a bitumenous coal

consists

thick,

fire,

on the

situated

good quality and was explored to a small depth in 1851. The third seam

is

of

thin and has not

therefore been explored.

The Bachatsk

coal

north-east of the village of Bachatsk

situated to the

field is

27 versts distance from the Gourievsk works. This seam out,

but

narrows in some

and

parts

25 sagenes thick. In some places it

it

is

separate

several

into

vertical.

The

coal varies

is

it

seams.

It

widens in others,

has

a

of

dip

and in some places

by bands of

intersected

65°

greatly in quality in different

to

75"

and

much

as

which divide almost

sometimes

is

portions of the

as

is

schistose clay,

seam; in the centre

a dry, non-caking, dense, dull coal, which burns almost without any flame; while towards

the roof and floor

it

is

a semi-bitumenous, friable, bright, caking coal, burning with a flame.

on the river

Five coal seams have been discovered to the north of the Bachatsk coal mine, Cherta. These ings

at

not of uniform thickness through-

is

for

three

seam vary from versts

^'2

distance.

to 1 sagene in thickness

and have been explored by work-

The same seams which appear

abundance

in such

in the

southern portion of the basin, outcrop in the north along the Great and Little Bachat rivers. Deposits of coal were discovered deposits

was found

consist of one

seam

portions of trees,

to contain 1

the river Ina as

along

two beds V^ and

sagene thick.

and even entire

In the fossil

1

latter,

trees,

early as

sagene thick, the

1796.

The

and the

surrounding

first

coke and consumed at

The following

table

the

Salairsk

gives

the

The Bachatsk and

Year.

is

converted

works.

yield

these

sandstone rock contains

1 to 2 feet in diameter.

Kalchouginsk deposits are the only ones which are now under exploitation. The coal into

of

second deposit to

of these mines during the last five years.

179 During the

three years the following amounts of coke were produced.

last

At

At

the

Bachatsk

Year.

the

Kolchouginsk

;

mine.

1889

273,254

37,456

1890

340,900

71,750

1891

328,766

91,000

In Eastern Siheria, coal fields occur in the government of Yeniseisk, between Krasno-

Krasnoyarsk, through Kansk

yarsk and Achinsk, on the one hand; and from

Krasnoyarsk vast

the

along

Alatau

the

of

foot

by

areas comprised

these

Sayansk mountains. The

and uplands of the

belong

deposits

to

water formations of the Jurassic

fresh

vast tracts of these deposits have only been more or less explored along the Siberian

The

system.

postal route and along certain rivers, but even these explorations have already of a rather considerable five feet

number

of spots with outcrops of

middle

and lower

river

Yenisei.

crop

schist

Choulym, and were discovered

Two

shown the presence

seam

of coal about

at

out

at

20 versts

has

of these, the seams of

first

the surface in several localities

along the

distance from the village of Kourbatovsk.

second, the coal veins crop out directly on the banks of the rivers Serega and

In the

A

seam

of

brown coal 2 sagenes

been discovered at the village of Xazarovsk on the river Adadyma, and a seam

5 feet thick near

the

as belonging to the

Jurassic

A

coal fields have been recently explored

Ourup, and of several springs near the village of Antropova. thick

coal.

courses of the river Choulym. In the

brown coal and combustible river

brown

thick has been found near the village of Koubekova at about 20 versts distance from the

town of Krasnoyarsk along the on the

to the borders

Irkutsk on the other hand, and lastly, to the south-west and south of

of the government of

system, by the

tion of all

its

rises in the

distance from

its

density.

of the

the character of its seams, and

Mount Izykh

and the coal in them

system

greater

coal fields

Kadat. The formations of this basin have been recognized

of

village

tertiary

by

distingiushed from that of the

is

This tertiary coal basin deserves the greatest atten-

government of Yenisei, both from the quality of

its

its

coal

distribution on the navigable portion of the river Choulym.

Miuousinsk region on the right bank of the river Abakan at about 55 versts

junction with the Yenesei and the thick beds of sandstone forming this mountain

contain seams of coal half a sagene thick and more. Another locality in the Yeniseisk government,

which

is

known

to contain beds of coal, lies

much

farther north,

namely on the banks

Nizhnaya Toungouzka. The presence of coal here was known in the

last century.

At

of the

the begin-

ning of the sixties of the present century, Sidorov during his expedition for making a detailed exploration visited the

several first

wise

of

the

deposits

localities, at

of these beds

known

of

gi-aphite previously discovered

Nizhnaya Toungouzka, where he succeeded

as the

a distance of 240

was discovered

to

400 versts

opposite the

mouth

Abramova Scherbachikba, which

by him in this

In discovering

about of the

falls

the

vast

mouth

locality,

beds

of this

river.

Malaya Scherbachikba

Into

the

Nizhnaya

also

of coal in

The

other-

Toungouzhka 12*

SIBERIA.

130 from the right side is

3 feet and

The second

240 versts from

at ahout

of good

it is

was discovered

deposit

the Nizhnaya

from

mouth. The coal seam

coal

the

two seams, the lower of which

at a distance of 40

versts

Nizhnaya Toungouzka. This deposit

sagene

one

400 versts

extends for a distance of one verst;

falls into the is

Troubkiua which

of the river

was found

third deposit of coal

from the mouth of the river Taimour, which consists of

seam

coal

the

of

side at a distance of about

right

872 feet thick and

is

The

of good quality.

is

mouth

opposite the

Touugouzka from the

falls into its

The thickness

mouth.

its

quality.

was found on the right hank of the Nizhnaya Toungouzka

A

thick.

deposit

fourth

from

at 185 versts

of

coal

mouth and

its

about 5 versts above the mouth of the river Koupalnaya. The coal of these seams frequently

and

its quality,

approaches anthracite in

many

in

places the stratification

greatly distorted

is

by trap rocks and the coal transformed into graphite. In the government of Irkutsk, coal which in

many

the Jurassic system occur.

among

lie

to

more thick

calcareous sandstone.

clay and yellow

75 outcrops of coal are known

at the outcrop,

the present time up

At

half of the government of Irkutsk.

in the southern

Many

thickness or for the quality of their coal.

for their

either

of these seams deserve attention,

known

coal, is

where fresh water formations of

coal seams which are two feet and

The

strata of schistose

brown

for the greater part

is

of the government,

portion

places in the southern

Prospectings for coal have frequently been carried on in the neighbourhood of the village of the Irkutsk

Ousolie, with a view to furnishing

works with

salt

coal seams up to 3^2 feet thick were, amongst others,

where

village of Ziminsk

crop on the high of

a store of 200

right

whole series of coal seams from

a

bank

million

the

of

pouds

percentage of volatile matter, and it,

the

for

Moscow

greater

basin in

part,

in

into

disintegrates

Lena and

its tributaries

and beyond,

loun,

which

of the Lena, on the it,

about

a distance of

distance of 1,800 versts

into

down

It is

works showed the presence a brown coal, with a

peices,

and

to the

large

atmosphere

resembles the coal of the

100

versts

course of

occur along the whole middle

deposits

up to the lowlands of the Lena.

Various modifica-

Bolshaya Botama to the village

from the mouth

of the

Lena

;

of

Bou-

or for a

that river. These formations are also observable on the one side

banks of the river Viluya, beyond the mouth of the Markha which falls 600 versts; and on the other side of the Lena, on the banks of

for a distance of

the river Aldan, beyond the

town of Yakutsk

mouth of the Maya,

to the north-east within

which also forms over

400

With

versts.

they, like those of the

government

system. Coal has been

found

in

Gizhiginsk and Penzhinsk bays, sula of

small

from the river

out

tions of this formation stretch is at

places.

Oka; above the

foot to 1 sagene thick out-

its qualities.

In the Yakutsk region, coal-bearing the

two

in all probability the

powdery coke. After exposure

gives a

it

1

exploratory

Small

river.

of coal

But

of coal along the river

to the deposits

greatest importance will be ascribed

In these explorations

fuel.

discovered.

Kamchatka.

for a distance

100 versts respect

of Irkutsk,

and

in several

to the

are

the far eastern

of the

of

400

versts,

Verkhoyansk

and from the

mountain chain,

geological period of these deposits,

considered

as belonging to the Jurassic

extremity of Siberia, on the shores of the

localities on the

western shore of the penin-

COAL.

In

Amour

the

Littoral

Here

which

the stems and roots

on

upper,

a

Vh

is

sagenes

with the

level

worked for supplying

water,

on

ginsk

strata

in 1858, on the river

Onon. This

a

is

160 versts from of

these

known

is

very bank

might

it

of the river Argouna,

The

coal of this

Baikal,

places

of

A

station.

seam

a great importance,

acquire

which the coal could

along

of the

quality

as

it

1742.

Both

has

been

Argouna, 15

3^2

coal

feet

seam has a con-

coal

this

in

neither

of

bank

good

of

show that

explorings

a tree structure. The

discovered

on the

situated

is

of coal

Aksha, a tributary of the

extent

the

but

and Selen-

are situated at a distance of

was

deposit

of the river

The occurence

clay.

exhibits

still

is

limited.

having been burnt are

their

Argouna

mouth

at the

deposit

very

is

Verkhneoudinsk

falls into the

explored,

deposit

here. Should subsequent

coal.

between

river

Chalbouchinsk

The Douroisk

siderable extension, then

the

frequently

below the Koulassatouev frontier

versts

thick

been

have

determined.

accurately

The

one another.

deposits

two sagenes below the

and schistose

some

in

on

deposits

lies

traces

which

Ourya,

which

coal,

lignite

the

sandstone

of

was discovered

Douroisk and Chalbouchinsk

near the

and

seams and contains

thin

into

but the production

fuel,

known

also

is

Gousinyi;

lake

of

superincumbent

in the

still

banks

the

directly on

which

of a denser

discovered

seams

up

broken

is

lower coal seam,

consists

been

of coal

1

from the Posolsk

at eight versts distance

steamboats with

the Baikal

Besides this deposit, coal has

Mourin. The presence

thick,

The

of fossil trees.

S

between the rivers Kourkoushevka and Pereemna. The

monastery there are two coal seams, seam,

occur beyond the Baikal,

coal deposits

region,

the south-eastern shore of this vast reservoir.

upper

1

situated

is

on

the

easily be transported to the

Amour.

Numerous exploratory workings, carried on the

amount

of these seams and large

since the middle of the last century, have

seams in the Chalbouchinsk

presence of several coal

of ash

and sulphur

but

deposit;

the

shown

small thickness

pyrites in the coal, deprive

it

of

any

great importance.

Besides these deposits, seams of brown coal of recent formation occur in the Trausbaikal

The occurrence

of coal

Belyi hills opposite the

Each

stratification.

The

coal

distinct prints

system.

The

known

mouth

These

the river Boureya.

quality.

is

up

seams

Among remarkable wiiere

seams

is

of

conifer

vegetation,

strata

of sandstone

mouth

the very that

many

discovered

from one

showing

three

two

to

coal

works.

the

four coal seams crop out on

thick,

feet

and clay

that

to

slate,

and

the coal

formation belongs

mentioned

from the above

is

of good

the latter of which bears

with interlayers

to the

Jurassic

of coal up to 1 foot

outcrops, in several

Xuman.

coal

deposits on

the

middle

at a distance of 9 versts

can

be

followed

courses of the

consists

of the

remains

Amour,

the most

above the station of Innokentievsk,

up for a

between beds of sandstone and hard, yellowish gray

3 to 5 feet thick. This

Shilkin

extreme distortion of the entire

to the

and clay slate

150 versts

of

of the

two seams of brown coal lie

is

with sandstone

same

to the

owing

are vertical

is interstratifled

thick, are found at a distance localities

From

of the Silindzha.

the

on the parallels of Albaziua and on the

on the river Zea

seams

of these

on the Shilka below

Onon, and also

on the upper courses of the river

distance of two versts. These clay.

The

coal seams are from

of conifer trees, and the superincum-

182

SIBERIA.

bent clay contains

numerous

often are very like the

now

very recent formation and

remains

belongs

A

The

thickest

to 1 foot thick,

also

deposit

occur at

and

region

gulf,

was made

near

in the

he concluded that

Seams

exactly

of coal

5^2

is

many

similar

is

it

of

coal also occur

from

mouth.

its

to those in the

Xovo-Mikhailovsk,

Seams

feet.

the lower

in

brown

discovered at a distance of

of

village

along

of

at a short distance

coal has been

the

points

may

it

slate,

this deposit

in

several

course

of

of the

The

places.

brown

first

up

the

coal,

up

Amour. The discovery

of

at the time of its occupation by the Russians, at the Possietsk's

where there are three seams of

from these deposits

clay

brown

South-Oussouryisk region also contains beds coal in this

which

Amour

of the

of

seams

the

of

course

Nikolaevsk,

of

and other portions of plants, which

fruits

from

tertiary system.

of sandstone

upper course of the Amour.

Amour.

leaves,

plants; to the

lower

at several points along the

These seams occur in strata

160 versts from the town

of

existing

the thickest of which

coal,

to supply

sixties

Siberian

the

4

is

feet.

Coal was extracted

The following

flotilla.

coal beds

occur to the east of Possietsk's gulf.

Beds of coal have been discovered in the basin of the Amour along the rivers Sedima,

Mangougai and Ambabira are also

known up

bourhood of

and

mouth

the

at

on

the river Souifouna,

The

mouth, Souifouna, was begun in the

exploitation

and

sixties

courses of the river near the stations

being

is

Kangoouza and

on the

island of Poutiatin and on the north-eastern

been discovered 40 versts

up

showed the presence of three coal

derable extension. anthracite

From

trials

resembling Cardiff

expedition, and

it is

coal

proposed

seams from

made by in

the its

\'2

There are rich coal

(Done) and cape Khoindzhe. of

Done have been worked

of a private in a

From

equals the best sorts of

Welsh

small amount of ash and

by the Russian

vessels

it

two

coal.

it

to

is

a

private

semi-

by the

there

enterprise.

The

coal

became known

to the

bay between cape Zhonkier

in the

It

contains

the

shores

from 74

of

Pacific. station,

the mouths of the rivers Sertounai and Xayassi,

to

cent of coke.

Done

the

to

mines have been in the hands a million pouds. The coal

Siberia,

A

number

but only

84

per cent of carbon, a veiy

The but

lies

and quite

to five feet thick; it is of excellent quality

coming to the Russian ports of the of

laid out

Olga on cape Xizmen.

1875 these

Since

up to 60 per

gives

navigating

ered to the north and south

mine

of this St.

Saghaliu.

working

that this coal

was

mine

that time the coal beds in the neighbourhood of the station

uninterruptedly.

from

of beds

found

A

company, who has now increased their output

whole series

vessels

began

they

sagene thick and having a consi-

was

properties.

on the island of

fields

when

mouth on the

the gulf of America. lu

falls into

to 1

fleet it

Lastly a deposit of coal has been found in the gulf of

Russian sailors in 1859,

to occur

the exploratory workings conducted by

the exploitation

to offer

known

also

is

shore of Strelok bay. Vast deposits of coal have

1886 a special mining expedition was sent there and it

the river Tsimou-khe, at the

Souchan, which

the river

continued to the present day. In

Coal

Shite-khe.

river

in various localities on the

the coal

of

the Oussouryisk gulf, coal beds have been discovered on of the river

Moreover coal seams

right tributary, the Chingoouza, in the neigh-

and in the upper

of Nikolsk

the village

of Konstantinovsk and Fadeevsk.

of the river Souifouna.

its

it

coal is

is

also

consumed

chiefly

used

by foreign

of coal beds have been discov-

one of these, situated

has been worked.

The

between

quality of this coal

183

COAL.

and

mode

its

are also

its

Douo

of occurrence are exactly similar to those of the

known

coal. Several coal depos-

in the interior of the island.

In the region of the Kirghiz steppes, the search for coal formed

Government

the

The prospectings were

for a very long time.

and the chief inducement for

gion, adjacent to the Kirghiz steppes;

the

carried on

wealth for want of

fuel.

the only fuel

is

dried dung.

is

of the Obschyi Syrt, \vhich

The vast area

now transformed

Obschyi Syrt only

Cheliabinsk ently

more than half

have

and where

The to

deposits of

brown

now been

considered

been

discovered

recently

medium

quality,

be-

the

Troitsk

and

schist of

discovered

coal

for coal in different

success. Prospectings conducted

showed the presence of combustible

have up

deposits

entire

mineral

80 or 100 years ago was

The search

felled.

was not however crowned with

Jurassic system.

districts

other

its

re-

vast Bashkir forests, which according to the general survey, com-

The

parts of the Orenburg steppes

longing to the

was the all

into a bare steppe without a single twig,

prised four million dessiatines, have been

in the

of

Orenburg

this search

impoverishment of the forests in this region, necessitating the abandonment of

covered with forest,

care

special

in the

unworthy

which

of

in

but appar-

attention,

might

practical

a

receive

application.

Two

vast coal fields have been discovered further in the Kirghiz steppes, in its western

The

portion in the Tourgai province.

of the river Dzhilanchik, near there.

The thickness

1 foot thick;

seams

is

of

these

formerly

Maidam

of the upper

of

first

the south-east of the town of Tourgai,

Two

Tal,

seam

is

an

is

situated at a 170

Orenburg

horizontal seams of

versts distance

brown coal are known

from one to S'/sfeet, and the lower seam

they are separated by seam of

soft,

The

blue clay 1 foot thick.

is

about

coal of

these

two kinds, one a dense bitumenous coal with a bright conchoidal fracture and

the other a slate coal. This deposit has been followed up by exploratory workings for a

tance of sagenes.

to

on the upper courses

fortress,

five versts in

up

length

the

river

Dzhilanchik

of the upper

Taking the mean thickness

and

seam only

cubic sagene of the coal as 340 pouds the explored

width

for a

and the weight of a

as 2 feet

upper seam would

portion of the

dis-

100 to 200

of

con-

tain about 40 million pouds.

The second the it

town

deposit of

of Tourgai, at the

brown coal

Yar-Koue

is

situated at 100

versts

to

the

wells, on the declivity of a height

were, the mountain shore of the valley of the river Tourgai,

Some

east-north-east

of

which forms,

as

ancient wells were found

on the declivity of this height at 5 versts distance from the above mentioned wells, clearing

them

out, traces of coal

of coal about one sagene thick

and in

were found in them. They were then deepened and a seam

was encountered. This discovery was followed up by extensive

exploratory workings, which embraced an area of SV^ square

average thickness of the coal seam

is

versts

of

coal

field.

As

the

one sagene, and a cubic sagene of coal was found by

experiment to weigh nearly 340 pouds, the area explored contains over 275 million pouds of coal.

The

coal of this deposit

fracture. It burns

with

contain sulphur pyrites.

is

dark

brown, has

a

laminar

structure

and

a

conchoidal

a bright flame and gives from 4 to 7 per cent of ash; some portions It

has been proved by experiment that this

coal

is

quite suitable

both for ordinary heating and for steam purposes, as on the steamers of the Syr-Daria, and also for treating metals in reverberatory

furnaces.

IS 4:

SIBERIA.

Several coal seams are

to

known

in the

Sokour and others, which

rivers Ishim,

Messrs. Riazanov,

is

Akmolinsk province on the upper courses of the

situated at 2<X)

The Karagandinsk

the Xoura,

fall into

north-west

to the

versts

Two

borders of the Akmolinsk and Semipalatinsk provinces.

of

belonging

pit,

Karkaraliusk near the

coal seams are know, 1 and 2^/i

sagenes thick. Both are worked, and have been shown by exploratory workings to extend on

both sides to the east and west for a distance of 11 and 9 versts.

The

vast.

coal

Thus

this deposit is

a true coal with 8 to 12 per cent of ash and semi-caking coke.

is

times the Spassk works, situated at 30 versts distance to the south of the

very

In former

smelted their

pits,

copper to the amount of 30,000 pouds annually, with this coal. The yield of the Karagandinsk

mine has been somewhat

Semipalatinsk

districts,

considerable

Many

1,500,000 pouds of coal.

during

the

In the Pavlodar and Karkaralinsk

of the Alexandrovsk works and at about

districts, the

200

to 3' 1 2 feet thick.

Taldykoulsk mine

versts

deposit between 1838 and 1860.

is

on the

As many

as eight coal

seams were discovered

and partly in smelting the lead

Altogether 337,000 pouds of coal were extracted from this

The Sarykoulsk

coal deposit

is

situated at 12 versts distance

south-west of the Taldykoulsk pits and 50 versts to the north

beusk coal mine

situated at a distance of 5 versts

is

versts to the north-west of the

table coal seams versts.

The

is

The

5 feet.

from the

Alexandrovsk works. The

The

Bayan-Aoula.

of

The Maoukoand

Sarykoulsk deposit

at

work-

total thickness of the three

coal seams have been determined over an area of six square

was found by chemical analyses

coal

coal

north-east

from Pavlodar. Exploratory workings were

coal here occurs in a bed 4 feet thick at a depth of 16 feet under the surface.

20

first

25 versts to the

It is situated at

This coal was used in the smithies

ores at the Alexandrovsk works.

to the

and

which showed that the deposit extended for a length

at the beginning of the forties

of one verst and for a width of half a verst.

from 1

exceeded

it

Karkaralinsk

in the Pavlodarsk,

and also in the neighbourhood of the town of Sergiopole.

bed discovered in the Kirghiz steppes, in 1838.

carried out

1884

15 years, and in

last

known

coal seams are

a long flame but does not coke.

was used

It

42.10 per

to contain 50.5 per cent of carbon,

The

cent of volatile matter and 1.4 per cent of ash.

coal

for copper

black, bitumenous,

is

with

mine was worked

This

smelting.

burns

during 1869 and 1870.

The Xikolsk mine

is

at a distance

situated

of

2.25 and 6 sagenes thick.

They

between clay

lie

found by analyses to contain 74 per per

cent of ash.

It

was found by

gives a very powerful heat.

90

slates

made

thick.

This

is

and 12

known.

coal

copper

It includes five

and

lead

seams from 2

to

smelting

4

feet

are erected immediately over the mine.

coal gives a fairly good coke. In 1873 this mine yielded altogether 2V2 mil-

pouds of coal.

beds yet found

This anthracite was

situated at a distance of about 70 versts

is

The loanna-Predtechensk copper smelting works

The Kysyltavsk lion

fields

north-

at the copper smelting works, that this

The Kysyltavsk mine

one of the best coal

to the

two seams of anthracite

cent of volatile matter

from the Alexandrovsk works and 90 versts from the Bogoslovsk works.

a 100 versts

are

and limestone.

cent of carbon, 14 per trials

to

There

west of the Alexandrovsk works, near lake Alka-Sor.

in

The Dzhemantouzsk mine the Kirghiz steppes.

south of the Alexandrovsk works.

It

is

also

upon one of the thickest and best coal

was discovered

This mine comprises

five

in

1864,

at

90 versts

coal seams from

V'a

to

to

the

3

feet

COAL.

which

thick,

unite

a depth of 13

at

The Dzhemantouzsk

32° to 42'^

coal

1S5 which

bed

sagenes iuto ouo

an anthracite of a gray colour.

is

from the river Irtysh.

situated

was

In the Semipalatinsk district coal

Mr. Permikin a gold mine owner,

is

dense and bright

60 versts distance in

from the Grachevsk station

at 7 versts distance

of

a very

It contains

at

discovered

first

angle

at

It is

with a roughly conchoidai fracture and gives a great heat, but no coke. small amount of sulphur, pyrites and gypsum. This deposit

an

dips

1869,

by

and

120

from the town of Semipalatinsk.

versts

A

whole group of coal

occurs in the north-eastern portion of the Kirghiz steppes

bank

left

was known

at

and

of the river Irtish

The presence

town of Semipalatinsk.

the west of the

Irtysh

fields

from the

at 18 to 2(J versts distance

an earlier period, as in the

of coal

sixties

120

about

versts

to

neighbourhood of the

the

in

Mn

a gold mine owner,

Kouznetsov,

erected a copper smelting works on the left bank of the Irtish, which consumed coal from a

mine situated near lake Dongoulek-Sor. This deposit contains two seams of thickness

The

from

coal

This

quality.

deposit

about

is

one

this

coal

sagene.

mine

They

black and very bright, rather dense and gives a

is

must be regarded as the best

The Oinak-Sor

distance to the south-east of the latter.

from two

in the Kirghiz

situated 8 versts to the south of the above mine, and

Is

whose total

coal,

are separated by a layer or clay slate two

to fifteen feet thick, but the

seams are

very

Oinak-Sor

The

distorted.

at

6

versts

several coal seams,

includes

deposit

of good

The Ouzoun-Sor

steppes.

the

thick.

feet

coke

three

these

of

coal

and other adjacent out-cropping seams, can not only furnish the inhabitants of the steppes with

fuel,

but could also have an important significance for the steam navigation of the Irtish

and for the Siberian Railway, as well as for the metallurgical works of the Altai and Kirghiz steppes.

Deposits of coal have been found in several places in the neighbourhood over a distance of 20 versts along the river Ayagouz and are

among

these deposits:

1.

river Baiboulak. Several thin

the thickest of it is

them being over

4

feet.

The Krestovsk mine, on

2.

sources of the Kyzyl-Chilik,

This

coal

is

at

the right

versts distance

is

not

of

fine

bank of the

river

It

the here,

good quality;

particularly

powder.

above

discovered

only

is

used

3.

The Troitsk

of

good quality and

or Chekartinsk

its

from the Spassk

The seam

mine

lies

of

was eight

at

and copper

is

as 1 sagene thick in

The

pit,

on

the

left

side

inconsiderable exploratory workings

4.

of

the

made

river

in this

of the coal deposits of the Kirghiz steppes,

so in w^ant of fuel for the exploitation of its mineral

ores,

some places;

The Yoskresensk

de-

Ayagouz, deposit

do

extent or quality.

The above concise enumeration which

much

used in smithies and for house heating.

is

above the river Chekarta. not give any idea of

this region,

as

Ayagouz, in the upper

from the Spassk mine, near the river Chekarta. The coal seams are here con-

posit is situated at 10 versts

lead,

were

two versts distance from the Spassk mine.

siderably thicker than in the Spassk pit and are as is

bank of the Ayagouz,

to 3 feet thick

which was found at an inconsiderable depth, proved exceedingly thin and the coal

found to contain a large amount of ash.

it

the left

seams of coal from IV2

black, finely laminar, disintegrates in the air into a

smithy coal.

coal,

The Spassk mine on

Sergiopol

of

The following four

its tributaries.

may

wealth

show in

that

silver,

apparently be considered as fully guaranteed in this respect. But

186

SIBERIA.

made no progress hut has even

at the present time the production of coal has not only

Although the production from 1880

en.

a year,

fall-

1885 equalled from one million to 1,635,000 pouds

to

has considerably fallen in recent years, and in 1891 was only 86,800 pouds.

it

Graphite. known

Deposits of graphite are

ments of Yeniseisk three

discovered,

and Irkutsk. which,

of

been exploited and

the

situated

graphite

government of Yeniseisk

Sidorov, in the Tourankhansk

Koupeika, the right

is

sometimes

thick,

from

may

it

At a

In

other

deposit

recognized

in

along

1861,

town

have

likened

proved

graphite

of

praise

was

it

of Touroukhansk. 1.

Out of five

then

by

the

Pechora;

3.

from

the

It is

excellent

in

America a

Ceylon graphite in Sidorov

on

purity.

Nizhnaya

the

extracted and sent abroad. Seventy deposits

discovered

by

Sidorov

Yenisei at a 100 versts from the

amount the following parcels were dispatched during the

this

thousand pouds also by the northern

2. five

the

Taz and Obi Bay

seven thousand pouds by Yeniseisk,

Hamburg and Wurzburg. on the river

deposit

The

hundred pouds direct along the river Pechora, over the northern

and one thousand pouds by the same route Petersburg to

of Jurassic

and foreign exhibitions. The

by

falls into the

Taz by reindeer and thence by

river

two sageues

to 6 per cent of clay.

the

excels

were

marshes by reindeer and thence by sea to London; route to the

up

various scientific and practical

from

discovered

picked graphite

of

and

versts

found. This graphite

Cumberland graphite, and

to

it

that

Koureika, which

the river

winter 1863 to 1864:

is

beds from one to

Russian

both

at

graphite have been extracted from the

of

Bakhta

500

to

of 10 million pouds of graphite.

a store

experiments

Toungouzka, and 2,000 pouds thousand pouds

in

The graphite contains from 4

contains

authorities

comparative

1877 an

200

of

be supposed that this graphite has proceeded from the beds

deposit

men; several foreign

and gun works. In the

which have been metamorphosed by the action of eruptive

Touroukhansk mineral has met with particular

of

distance

are four localities where graphite

slate

mineral has been

quality of this

been

have

Toungouzka,

Nizhnaya

along the rivers

region

in this locality.

estimated that this

steel

have

districts,

deposits

Sergiopolsk

Perm

there to the

and in the govern-

steppes,

several

and

laminar and sometimes columnar, and occurs

which abound

series

steppes

Kokpektinsk

in the

tributaries of the Yenisei.

between layers of clay

rocks; so that coal

Kirghiz

the

graphite were discovered in 1859 and 1863, by a Mr.

of

Toungouzka there

Nizhnaya

the

sent

deposits

in the Kirghiz

in Siberia

In

to St.

Petersburg;

4.

to

and

Obdorsk,

Tomsk and Tumen

to

Perm,

from

two hundred pouds

St.

In 189J, ten thousand pouds of graphite were extracted

Nizhnaya Toungouzka

for

the

formed

recently

Siberian

Graphite Company. In the government

Aliber

in

Irkout, Kitoi, Belaya

reniform

of Irkutsk

Boutogolsk Golts

masses,

in

and druses

a deposit

Oka take and

laminar granite with quartz veins.

of graphite

Tounkinsk mountains

in the

in

their source.

veins

in

the

spot

in

where

1842 by Mr. the

rivers

Here the graphite apparently occurs

alternate

In 1856 Aliber

was discovered on

laid

beds out the

of

crystalline limestone

in

and

Mariinsk graphite mine on

187

GRAPHITE, NAPTHA AND SALT.

and obtained a graphite of excellent

this spot

1862 proved

of

Exhibition

with the

entered into relations

be

to

it

known

well

better than

respects

pencil

at the

London

the English.

Aliber

and samples exhibited

(juality,

many

in

and began

maker Faber

with considerable amounts of graphite. At the present day however this mine

making crucibles

to supply graphite for

to supply

him

only worked

is

at the Irkutsk gold melting house.

Naphtha.

of Saghalin, and to the largest

it

now

has

ocean

vessels.

the northern extremity of the island

known on

of naphtha has long been

The occurrence

been found near the gulf of Nabilsk, which

also

According

accessible

is

A. Batsevich, mining engi-

of Mr.

to the researches

Sea of the naphtha deposits of this island extend in a meridional direction, towards the

neer,

where

Okhotsk,

occur at a distance

they

of 5 to

25

from the

versts

The

shore.

specific

areas, varies gravity of the naphtha extracted from wells up to 3 sagenes deep over various

from 0.890 and

and the daily yield

to 0.895,

by

obtained

results

the

of

bined with

thickness

the

superficial

of the

naphtha

Saghalin

the

the

gravity

specific

Caucasian.

resembles the

com-

abundance,

considerable area, and their

and subterranean deposits of bitumen (asphalt

the daily flow of naphtha in the

and

of recent formation)

several pouds. Judging from

over a

naphtha springs

The occurrence

is

distillation,

that there must be more or less considerable stores of

wells,

naphtha

made Batsevich conclude

at a certain depth

below the

surface.

Salt.

In Western Siberia salt

occur

southern regions of the

ment

of

Tomsk, and

is

numbers

considerable

in

the

in

southern

government of Tobolsk,

in the

portion

in the

salt basin,

contain

a more

or

being sulphate of sodium.

region,

Akmolinsk and Semipalatinsk provinces. This

was once the bottom

73"^

considerable

There

is

namely

in

the

area,

which

is

eastern longitude (from Paris)

inis

of a sea basin. In the northern portion of this

which embraces the Barabinsk and Koulouudinsk less

the

of

south-western portion of the govern-

cluded between 47° and 55" north latitude and 63° and a low lying plane, which

which

self-depositing lakes,

exclusively extracted from the

amount of other

steppes,

salts

than

salt lakes

the

common

salt,

always

the chief

no lake in the region of these steppes, which gives pure many which contain nch layers of glauber

chloride of sodium, and on the contrary, there are salt only.

But

in the southern

and south-western portion of

the arid steppes of the Akmolinsk

majority of cases distinguished for purity of chief sources of

The

its

1.

salt basin

which embraces

its

of

chloride

salt is in the

sodium, and these lakes are the

production.

salt lakes of

characteristics:

this

and Semipalatinsk provinces the deposited

Western Siberia may be divided

The lakes which contain more

or

into four groups according to their

less considerable

beds of chlonde of

SIBEKIA.

18S sotlium covered with a brine

the others

these

lakes

chief

the

Karyakovsk lake

the

is

every year. Compared with

salt

and are the most important hy reason of the vast

richest

Among

stores of salt they contain.

the

which deposits fresh layers of the

are

many

category belonging

to

the State

Semipalatinsk at 20 versts

from the

lakes of this

in the province of

town of Pavlodar and 28 versts from the Chernoyarsk landing stage on the which

this lake,

covers an area of about 20 square versts, the surface

of salt for a space of about 9 square versts,

much

as

The

pouds.

salt

amounts

varying from

amounts

this lake

to

and

distinguished for its high quality

to

one million is

consi-

includes those lakes which contain conside-

which annually deposit a layer of pure chloride of sodium,

of strong brine, to

1

is

The second category

2.

covered by layers

and the thickness of these deposits reaches

yield of salt from

from the Koryakovsk lake

dered the best in Siberia. rable

The annual

as half a sagene.

is

river Irtysli. In

4 inches in thickness. Although these lakes, compared with the preceding,

have only a secondary importance, nevertheless they are capable of yielding immense quanti-

To

ties of salt.

this category

belong the lakes exploited in the government of Tomsk, the most im-

portant of which are the Borovya and Bourlinsk lakes.

The Borovya lakes include kovatoe;

3.

four lakes:

Lomovoe;

the Bolshoe

4.

the Pechatochnoe or

1.

They are

the Malinovoe lakes.

Maloe Lomovoe;

2.

the Koch-

what

is

called the

situated on

The Bourlinsk

Salt steppes. In recent years these lakes have yielded up to 600,000 pouds of salt.

lake the

is

one of most important sources of salt in Western Siberia. It resembles the Borovya lakes in

mode

of occurrence of its salt

and

is

only distinguished for

its size, it

being over 30 versts in

circumferance. The Bourlinsk lake belongs to the number of those which dry up periodically.

There are many such lakes

in Siberia. It has a great industrial importance,

owing

to its situation in

proximity with the chief trading routes of the steppes, by which the peasants of the grain bearing regions of the government of Tomsk carry their grain to Pavlodar for sale to the Kirghiz.

from the Bourlinsk further distance.

forms

lake

Besides

a return

which, this salt

freight

further to Achinsk and to Eastern Siberia. I'/i million pouds.

less

The

3.

amount of other

lakes.

Owing

The annual

the

obtained

They form a

than chloride of sodium.

salts,

of large dimensions,

is

now

could only give a pure

river Obi to

The

salt

to

it

a

Tomsk ami

yield of the Bourlinsk lake

little

is

about

naturally of a poor quality.

link

towards bitter

atmospheric

conditions,

for consumption, if they

fit

and

These lakes, which are numerous and

scarcely have any importance as a source of national provision.

salt,

salt

lakes of this category do

strength of the brine, the

not as a rule give a deposit every year but only under suitable the salt then

transport

lakes of the third group are full of brine containing a greater or

comparatively

to the

along

transported

is

who

peasants

for these

were exploited by the

artificial

They basin

system, which owing to the number of excellent self-depositing lakes caimot as yet thrive in Siberia,

To

ted in the

this category

Barabinsk

the fourth group salt

which

are

layers from the

and

is

belong

steppe

comprises the constantly brine.

lakes in the government of Tomsk, and

bitter

salt

lakes,

increasing in thickness

number

containing

owing

The Bolshoe Marmyshansk lake

the only one of this class

salt a year.

many

besides a considerable

now under

is

of

lakes

glauber

annual deposition of fresh

a representative of

are

those situa-

considerable layers of

to the

exploitation. It yields

The Bolshoe and Maloe Marmyshansk

all

the Kirghiz lakes. 4. Lastly

about

situated

in

this category^

100,000 pouds of the Koulouudinsk

189

SALT.

along the road to the Borovya

Steppe at 200 versts distance to the south-west of Barnaoul,

100 sagenes from the shore Bolshoe Marmyshansk lake

already two

is is

over 4 and of the Maloe over 2 square versts, the most moder-

estimate gives a supply of not less than 50 million pouds in the former and

ate

pouds in the

The Marmyshansk

lake.

latter

to

60

into account that the surface of the

Taking

feet.

at a distance of

whose thickness

of glauber salt,

and present immense deposits

lakes,

consumed

salt is partly

Barnaoul, partly at the Altai works, which use

million

25

soda works at

at the

as a flux in smelting the argentiferous lead

it

and partly at the glass works.

ores,

Eastern

abounds in

Siberia

owing render

very

it

when

time

the

want

to the

many

economical

region

the

of

markets

difficulties

exploited

not

are

sources

of the

conditions

hampered by great

is

and the best

salt

transport to the

localities, so that its

communication

Therefore

expensive.

the

of

richest deposits of rock

tlie

inhabited

means

of proper

but

salt,

salt springs, are situated in poorly

which await of

possibility

the

give

will

and

working them. In the Yeniseisk and Irkutsk governments, salt

government of Yeniseisk, at the Toumanshetsk works of

river

the

Baume, and on

district,

salt in

Birusa,

the

depth

in 1891, 17,500

river

the

the well

of

pouds of

Ousolka,

a

salt

extracted from saline springs. In the

Kansk

in the

of the

and in the system

works in the same

at the Troitsk

were produced;

Taseev,

river

of

production

the

1891 amounted to 514,000 pouds. Both deposits belong to the Devonian system and the

when

flows from red salt-bearing marls and slags. In former days

brine

district

the strength of the brine i'h°

2'/2 sagenes,

is

tributary

left

is

amount of

the

salt

mines and works in the Yeniseisk and Minousinsk regions was very limited, the Troitsk works played an important part in supplying the local inhabitants with In the government of Irkutsk there

hand tributary

an abundance of

salt.

springs

salt

of the

The

the

valley of

Nizhnaya Toungouzka, where brine springs from red-

dish coloured sandstone, mari and clay formations, apparently of the

exploitation of the salt

in

also in the valley of the

Kachougsk and Vitimsk: and

the river Lena, between the stations of river Nepa, a left

is

Lower Devonian

system.

carried on at the Oust-Koutsk salt works, on the river

is

Kouta

the strength of 4 versts distance from the Lena. The depth of the well is 3 sagenes and works Oustkoutsk The produced. salt were of pouds 14—15° 30,100 in 1891, Lamb; the brine at

might considerably increase their yield but the market sparsely

populated

localities

of

is

very

the Yakutsk province and

to

limited

being

small,

to the

Olekminsk

the

gold workings.

works in Apparently the same Devonian formations supply the brine which feeds the Irkutsk Angara. The depth of the the village of Ousola at 70 versts distance from Irkutsk, down the wells

are

2—5

6-7° Baume,

sagenes;

and

in

was 265,500 pouds. The

and of the

borings,

wells

salt

produced at the Irkutsk works

it

is

where

is

ment and

Transhaikal

with which

the rivers falling into Baikal abound.

territory,

it

The

89 sagenes.

7^2-9^^ Lamb.

the

in

In is

demand

strength

1891 sold

the at

of

the

brine

production the Irkutsk

for salting the local fish

of

is

salt

govern-

omul

works,

near the settlement

Angara, the of Shestakovsk on the river Ilim, the right tributary of the

depth of the shafts

is

one to

At

the Ilimsk

one and a half sagenes, the strength of the brine

pouds of salt were evaporated.

8.73°

Lamb. In 1891, 85,100

SIBERIA

190 The

salt deposits, representing the

government, at the following works:

Abakansk

1.

9—13" Bome;

of the brine

Erba and white 3.

lus,

2.

Altaisk, on the

now abandoned,

the Minousinsk district, 25 versts from

in

left

bank

the lake having concentrated

Bome. The

feet, the strength

9

is

between

Yenisei

of the

feet, strength of brine 5°

Manzinsk, depth of wells 12

is

lakes, occur in the Yeniseisk

the bottom of the lake

the Bidzha ulus, the depth of the wells upon

where the brine

lacustrine deposit,

transition to

extracted from excavations or wells dug in the bottom of salt

much

too

the

rivers

bitter salts:

total production of these

mines in 1891 did not exceed 93,800 ponds. the cooperation

Besides the lakes mentioned, in which

which that of Minusinsk from in

it

intermission, and with

no

salt is

with bitter

it

now

estab-

among

salts,

extent, 2V'4 square versts, and the quantity of salt contained

its

belongs to the most considerable bitter lakes of Eastern Siberia. Formerly,

was deposited by natural evaporation

salt

common

of

Yeniseisk government also contains a number of lakes

lished, the

the

in

up

to 1877,

Minousinsk lake, although with a certain

almost the whole region of that

name was

supplied, there being then

works.

salt

In the Yakutsk borderland, rock salt occurs in three spots of the Yiluisk district of the

Yakutsk river

along

territory,

the

right

in thickness.

The

of the river Vilui.

tributaries

On

the right bank of the

of rock salt forms a bed about 150 sagenes

Kempendzai the deposit

salt is contained in

clay and

red

is

in length

and 50

everywhere accompanied by plaster

of

Paris partly in crystals, partly in plates of white or gi-eenish hue. In some places the projecting

rocks of salt attain a height colour occur. salt

On

forms two masses in

the right

of

25 sagenes;

bank

the right

it

of the river

a mountain

also

is

ordinarily white,

although pieces of a rose

Kiundai not far from the lake Sikai-Sian, rock

consisting

of red clay and gj-psum. Finally, upon

bank of the small stream Tabasyngda, a tributary of the

clay, at a depth of 3^'2 feet, this salt is

lies

rock

washed out of the banks

salt of

river Tongo, also in red

a dirty colour. During the spring inundations

in such quantities that the

water in the stream acquires

a brackish taste, as in the river Kempendzai. All three deposits apparently belong to the tertiary system. In the Yiluisk district of the Yakutsk territory, salt

is

obtained in winter by freezing

the brine got from the salt springs of Baginsk on the river Pusty

Iri,

a

left tributary of

Kempendzai, and Kempendzaisk on the river of that name a right tributary of the river

The

strength

of

the

probably containing

reaches 20

brine

beds

of

rock

to

of

salt

25 per

cent.

The

springs flow from a

the

Yilui.

mountain

tertiary age, judging from the propinquity of the

above described deposits of the mineral. In 1891, 2,800 ponds of

salt

were won from the Ba-

ginsk spring and 16,000 from the Kempendzaisk. In the

Amour

Governor-Generalship, salt

is

evaporated in the Transbaikal territory at

the works of Selenginsk in the district of that name, and Kiransk in the Troitskosavsk distri(M

on the frontier of Mongolia. There the brine in the

of

bottom of

salt

were

Transbaikal

salt lakes.

got

at

territory

the

The

Selenginsk

occurs

is

derived from shafts, 2 to 3 sagenes deep, dug

strength of the brine

also

works and

lake

Borzinsk

is

11 to

12*^

Bome. In 1891, 4,100 ponds

23,300 ponds at those of Kiransk. In the

where natural deposits of

salt take place

although not every year; in 1891, 19,800 ponds were extracted. Here must also be mentioned the Doroninsk lakes of the Bargouzinsk district of the Transbaikal territory, in which Glauber's

101

SALT.

obtained for the glass works. In 1891, 20,000 pouds

salt is

glauber's salt

was

also extracted

m a,

Olkhonsk steppe d u

The

total yield

or seat of the local

of salt

of

it

were

obtained.

Formerly,

from the Torzbiransk lake in the Baikal mountains, near the

in Siberia

Tunguz

both

administration.

by natural evaporation and from

salt

works

does not exceed, even under the best circumstances, two to three million pouds per annum, a quantity which as

it

it

does

is

obvious

a

The production

Year.

cannot

considerable

meet the wants of the whole population of Siberia posquantity

of cattle.

of salt for the last ten years

from the

different

governments was as follows.

192

SIBERIA.

from the Crown of 1,000 roubles per

amounts annually

annum.

The

Siberian ports of the Eastern Ocean.

Foreign

salt

is

imported

total expenditure of the

duty free into the

Crown upon

this

operation

to about 100,000 roubles.

Precious minerals and building materials. The

known

best

baikal territory. Here

place in

Siberia where precious

all

between the rivers Onon

tain Adun-Chilon, celebrated for the

frequent

minerals are found

Onon-Borza

and

discovery

there

On

such as topaz, beryl, aquamarine, Siberian topaz and others.

from Nerchinsk are found garnets

Lapis lazuli

occurs

dolomitic limestone,

near

along

which served

lazuli

for the execution of a

laces. In the

same

met with

are

amazon

in crystals

mica was formerly worked

fifty versts

below

Irkutsk,

was obtained the

placed in the Imperial pa-

quartz,

black

found

are

mica

in plates

two feet

along

the

much

forwarded

from

the

Korgon

ridge,

turned out, which

now

are

despatched

embellish

feet.

many

At

the

of the

present

in the Altai, producing porphyry, blue

breccia,

smoky

over

At these works a mass

vase placed in the Imperial Hermitage in St.

diameter of twenty

and

in diameter. This kind

four

of

remarkable

Imperial

palaces.

Petersburg,

time not less than

Here

for their

porphyry

from the banks of the

Kolyvan polishing works,

to the

thousand

articles

Petersburg.

c a-

as 30 pouds.

whence

St.

1

Bielaya falling into the Angara

river

Charysh and Alei and from the vicinity of the Ridder mine

Court at

t s

along the

the Iret and Onon, tributaries of the Bielaya,

and along

of various colours,

manufactured

found;

asphanite

garnet,

The Altai mountains on the other hand, have become celebrated

jasper

game

Bolshaya Bystraya

along the

a crimson colour are

of

lapis

in St.-Pe-

other minerals; along the Sliudianka, blue c a

pebbles of this mineral used to be found weighing as

and

Cathedral

here.

nephrite

Pebbles of

a tributary, of the

of lapis lazuli, dark red

diameter,

in

rose coloured

in the valley of the Uluntui,

others;

deposits

in the St. Isaac

deposits

two inches

attaining

marble,

white

versts

granite. In the sixties pieces of la-

artistic productions

stone, sphene and feldspar

reous spar,

stones,

forms pockets in the large crystalled

these

columns

the

mica, serpentine, talc and

Talaya,

From

mass of

where occur

locality

moun-

coloured

Onon, eighty-five

Malaya Bystraya,

the syenitic

for the veneering of the

tersburg, and

of

with

were worked here three pouds in weight.

pis

the

the Trans-

mountains along the rivers Talaya aud Sliu-

stream

the

of good quality

lazuli

junction

its

Baikal

in the

Irkut. In the last locality lapis

of precious

is

granitic

in small crystals.

and

dianka, flowing into Baikal,

the

rises

versts to the Imperial

works of

art

Among them

is

have been the jasper

the oval cup of which has a long

eight quarries are being

worked

and green jasper, granite, white and coloured marbles

topaz, red, rose-coloured and blue quartz, agate and chalcedony.

Besides lime, building stone of various kinds, mill stones and parts of Siberia,

it

common

should be mentioned that in the neighbourhood of the

clays, got in

many

Nicholas cast-iron

—

PRECIOUS MINERALS AND BUILDING MATERIALS.

works

in tbe Irkutsk government,

fire-clay

and

vernment

near

the

village

Parilovaya in the Achinsk

Kaolin

and also for the needs of several works

fire-resisting sandstone are worked.

of

Kantat in

district,

The former

the

is

193

in the

Kirghiz steppes,

also obtained in the Yeniseisk go-

Krasnoyarsk

district,

near

the

village of

as also in the Irkutsk government along the river Bielaya.

and white clay for the porcelain works are worked in the Irkutsk government

in se-

veral places. Feldspar and quartz for glass factories are obtained from several deposits in the

Baikal mountains of the Irkutsk government.

—

^<5--

SIBERIA.

194

CHAPTER

XII.

Manufacturing industry and the home trade. Excisable industries, spirit, vodlca, beer aud mead; beet sugar, tobacco and matches: uon-excisable productions; distribution of trade dues aud statement of the turnover and profits of commercial and industrial undertakings; the exchange of wares between European Russia and Siberia; trade in the towns; fairs aud their importance to Siberia.

NOTWITHSTAXDIXG

the wealth of Siberia in the productions of the three natural king-

doms, manufacturing industry has not been able here to develop extent on the oue

on the

other,

hand, in consequence

on account

a corresponding

of the lack of convenient

and cheap communications. In view of

the repeated attempts of the Governmeut and of private persons to establish

this, in spite of

industry on a large scale in Siberia, manufactories

with great

itself to

of the scanty population of this vast territory, and

difficulty,

local wants of a

and only

small

those

population,

of

and

works have been started there only

them- have had success which served to satisfy the

or produced an article of such value that

the cost of carriage to a great distance with profit.

The

state of spirit distilling in Siberia appears

from the following

table.

it

might bear

195

MANUFACTURING AND THE HOME TRADE. Of 21

Tomsk and used led

for

in

distilling

to excellent

the

territory of Semipalatinsk.

are

rye

and wheat

On

results.

raw

whose introduction has

potatoes

as

material yields 41

with the above quoted data at approximately four and a half million souls,

consumption of

satisfied

40°

vodka,

of

accordance

in

results that the

per head in this part of Siberia does not exceed 13 degrees per

spirit

one-third vedro

it

44 degrees of

•

Western Siberia and the Kirghiz steppes

of

material

as in Eastern Siberia the

Here well

as

flour

whole a pom! of

the

Assuming the population

spirit.

9 are in the Tobolsk government, 11 in that of

Western Siberia

distilleries in 1

proof. It

is

with such an insignificant quantity of

annum

or

that the population of Siberia cannot be

evident

and accordingly

spirit,

this defect is

made good

by the importation of spirit from the eastern governments of European Russia. In Eastern Siberia the consumption per head of spirit

is

many

the isolation of

only in rare cases,

it

approximately the same as in Western Siberia the deficiency

points of the is

Yet

Odessa by sea.

from

being here supplied by importation

Yakutsk and Littoral

if

due

territories

account

whither

o

penetrates

impossible not to allow that the consumption of spirit here per head

extremely unevenly, the greater part of the vodka

must be distributed

be taken

spirit

being

consumed by

the town population. in Siberia is very

The, vodka industry

developed and

feebly

is

almost confined

the

to

production of refined spirit, the manufacture of various vodkas or liquors occupying a second-

ary place. In the 22 vodka distilleries in 1891 for the

whole of Siberia only 41,370 vedros

of various liquors were made.

Beer and mead brewing 51 breweries in

all

are

but

also

feebly developed in Siberia. In 1891,

were going, among which 19 also produced mead. These breweries

distributed

as

and Amour

territories, 14.

follows:

Irkutsk

The

total

.....

Yeniseisk

...

Transbaikal

Tobolsk

brew

in

them was

:

26,600 vedros beer;

»

:

27,000

»

4

»

:

8,500

»

5

;>

)

''

2

»

I

....

6

»

f

; .

as follows:

6

^^

Semipalatinsk

1040, mead.

»

200,000 vedros beer: 41,100, mead.

Thus, the local production of drinks subject to excise cannot satisfy

mand of the

for them,

and accordingly they,

Empire by land

or by

way

The excise from various

like spirit

Littoral and

Amour

existing

de-

of Odessa and Vladivostock.

liquors

territories

the

and vodkas, are imported from various parts

amounted

1891

in

Eastern Siberia produced 4,654,206 roubles worth, the

were

Siberia, 24; and in the Littoral

3 breweries

.

^'^'^^^

Akmolinsk

Western

Eastern Siberia, 13; in

in

to

10,841,960 roubles,

and Western

Siberia

4,302,668

of

which

roubles,

680,090 roubles, and the territories of Akmolinsk, Semi-

palatinsk, and Semirechensk, 1,204,996 roubles worth.

Tobacco culture,

although universally introduced

wherever climatic conditions

permit, possesses no commercial importance, serving only for the satisfaction of the uuexacting 13*

SIBEKIA.

196

Only the inferior sorts of tobacco

taste of local consumers.

together with vegetables. During the last few years the

was

similar qualities

are groAvn

crop

gardens

kitchen

in

makhorka,

of

bakun and

as follows:

1887

1888

1889

1890

Eastern Siberia

.

26,308

31,510

28,736

26,713

28,410

32,758 pouds.

Western Siberia

.

33,967

33,895

33,121

37,902

35,498

40,872

.

60,275

65,405

61,857

64,615

63,908

73,630 pouds.

1886

Total

In

.

Siberia there

all

1891

makhorka,

but one tobacco manufactory with a section for

is

»

in

which, in 1891, 3,400 pouds of tobacco were manufactured and banderoles issued to the amount

The

of 44,592 roubles.

demand

considerable

by the

for tobacco goods is supplied

import

of

the latter from other parts of the Empire.

The

sugar

industry

is

a perfectly

new

recognized

pioneers in this industry in Siberia certain privileges, as

With

Caucasus.

the

May, 1884.

1.

object

this

the

Siberia.

enterprise in

here independently, and accordingly the Government

following

was

also

the

and

was promulgated on the

order

first

each region enjoy in the course of nine consecutive sugar-baking seasons,

its

These privileges are offered

opening upon the following bases:

payment

altogether from the

periods

three following

to

during the

of excise on the

existing

the

a.

excise

first

four seasons the sugar bakery

exacted

the

in. it;

extent

to

the

is

collected

excise

one-half. 2. In the course of the seasons of sugar baking,

the

in

of

1884 to 1885 and 1886

freed

the

c.

in

proportion

of

one-fifth;

the

in

is

during

b.

to 1887, author-

sugar, syrup and molasses from sorghum and other sacchariferous

payment

plants besides, but without the

may

three such in

privileges

each of the said bakeries from the date of

whole of the sugar made is

the course of the two last privileged periods

ization is given to extract

of

first

shall be founded in Turkestan, in Siberia, or in

Of the beet-sugar bakeries which

excise.

arise

done in Turkestan

of

utility

Transcaucasus and shall begin operations before the 1st August, 1889, the

payment of

never

could

It

offering

the

and license dues.

of excise

The

said

manufacture

be conducted both in private sugar bakeries specially arranged for the purpose

and in

beet-sugar manufactories observing the rules established by the Ministry of Finance.

Thanks

to this

measure

1890 the

in

sinsk district of the Yeniseisk government.

first

beetsugar bakery was opened

In 1890 only 8,450 pouds of beet

in the

Minou-

were treated,

but in 1891, 92,000 pouds from which 5,850 pouds of white sugar were obtained.

The expe-

rience of two years completely convinced the initiators that the conditions of soil and climate of the

Minousinsk

district

were

perfectly

adapted to the cultivation of the sugar beet, and

accordingly the extension of the undertaking appears to be extremely advantageous.

Match ries,

manufacture

is little

There are here but 8 manufacto-

developed in Siberia.

2 in Eastern Siberia and 6 in Western. The output in 1891 was:

Eastern Siberia, with phosphorus: 230,287,500 matches; without phosphorus 82,336,500 matches.

Western Siberia

»

^

3,614,159,250

Of the 6 manufactories of

»

Western Siberia 2 are

»

37,383,750

^

in Tobolsk,

the Bisk district, and of the 2 manufactories in Eastern Siberia, one

3

in is

in

Tomsk and Irkutsk and

»

1

in

the

[ANUFACTURING AND THE HOME TRADE. other in the village of Ousolie. only simple lucifers. pitsyn's

works

In

The

first

Swedish matches, the

prepares exclusively

All the Siberian match

manufactories

named, about 3,000 workmen

origin.

are employed annually, namely, in

yeast manufactories, 14; vodka distilleries, 120; beer

distilleries, 1,936;

second

get their phosphorus from Tou-

Perm, the other raw materials heing of local

in

all the industries

197

and mead breweries

254; the sugar bakery, 78; the tobacco manufactory, 78, and match manufactories, 330.

The

total receipts of the treasury

from

all

taxes

on

excisable

industries,

including

therein excise, licenses and fines reaches 11,177,423 roubles, distributed according to different localities

and manufactures

Eastern Siberia

Western

»

Littoral and

in the following

.... .

.

.

,

Amouria.

.

Akmolinsk, Semiretcheusk, Semipalatinsk

....

manner.

198

INDUSTRIES.

SIBERIA.

199

MANUFACTURING AND THE HOME TRADE. All the trade dues of Siberia scarcely amount to one the receipts on

first

and second guild

certificates,

retail

million

trade

and

roubles,

other

which includes licenses,

market

lodgings, and the supplementary carrier dues, additional taxes to the services connected with guild and non-guild concerns. dues, three per cent on share undertakings and assessed tax on

The incidence shown

in 1889 of these taxes according to different articles and governments

in the following table.

Taxes:

is

200

SIBERIA.

[ANUFACTUKING AND THE HOME TRADE.

201

202

SIBERIA.

The above

what goods form the subject

table shows at a glance

of

home

trade. In the

forefront -appear woollen and cotton goods swallowing up 36 per cent of the annual turnover;

next follow groceries 15 per cent, liquors 11 per cent, and others. Thus the chief strength of Siberian trade

is

concentrated in provisions, clothing and shoes. Part of these goods

on the spot, but a considerable proportion

To is

stations,

the

to

returns

going in

the

of

the

Ural Railway,

line, it is

and

direction

is

it

it

two of

its

going.

On

not difficult to see that the principal mass,

of the Volga,

basin

manufactured productions of agriculture

or rather to those of

escapes in whichever

freight

over the said

traffic

direction

the

of

Tiumen and Tura, which no

examining the goods

prepared

character of the exchange between Siberia and European Russia,

elucidate the

necessary to turn

is

imported ready made from European Russia.

is

is

composed of raw materials and half

cattle rearing, while in the

opposite

direction

to the basin of the Obi go principally the productions of manufacturing industry. In the first

case the

chief articles

are

grain,

and

flour, flax

linseed,

tow,

nuts,

tallow,

butter,

hair,

wool, hides, skins, furs; in the second, cloth, haberdashery, gi-oceries, dry goods, metals, porcelain, glass, spirit, sugar,

mineral

tobacco,

The goods

oils.

Tiumen and Tura amounted

Siberia trough

of the latter kind forwarded to

in 1668 to 2,209,000 pouds, in 1889 to 2,299,000

pouds, in 1890 to 2,587,000 pouds. In the contrary direction, that these stations forwarded

4,787,000 pouds.

given further

in

1888,

The returns

on

ior

under the

system of conveyance

is

4,799,000

1891

pouds,

well as certain

as

Omsk

34,000,

the

the

to

Tierny 25,000,

home trade

in the barter of the

and

is

mainly

concentrated in the towns

raw materials produced by

It

in

by virtue

of

large centres

counting

more than

several

thought

liquor

good

to

consequence

to return

What

to the

of

woollens and cottons.

merchants, and despatch

a

named and

consists partly

availing themselves of the difficulty of com-

in

this,

not seldom raise the

Some years ago a corner

the prices of alcohol rose so high, that

considerable

Vladivostok, for sale there in the Government warehouses the ring

must be observed that

this country

the natives, partly in the sale for cash. It is

who

absence of competition

the

was arranged among

possible time.

it

of

Tobolsk 20,000, and Semipalatinsk 18,000.

prices exorbitantly upon all goods, especially

the Government

expanse

day there are but 28 towns

present

everywhere in the hands of a few persons, munications

trade centres,

boundless

Of these the most largely populated are Irkutsk 44,000, Tomsk 40,000,

inhabitants.

The

over

more geographical conditions could not be concentrated

still

and therefore in Siberia 5,000

details on the goods traffic are

almost the sole existing.

population scattered

and

historical

towards European Russia,

of the water ways, as up to the present time this

description

Passing to a review of the most important the scanty

is,

1889, 3,676,000 pouds, and in 1890,

in

normal course of business,

at

party of

spirit

from Odessa

to

a fixed price and thus compel

a result which ensued iu the shortest

kind of goods are for sale appears from the trade returns quoted above.

must be observed that trade has not always a constant character but often becomes more

lively at certain times

and places during

Fairs in Siberia possess their business is not gi-eat.

a

great

The existence

quacy of communications, the

fairs.

importance of these

and they

are there very numerous, but

institutions is dependent

difficulty of transport, the

upon the inade-

inconveniences of frequent travelling

-MANUFACTURING AND THE HOME TRADE, compel

which

circumstances

aud other such

203

traders to assemble at a determined time

the

and place, whither merchants come together from every part with their goods.

forming

the government of Perm, that

part of

raphically an integral part

The little

of Siberian

European Russia, but geog-

of

forms the half-way house for a number of routes.

open from the 1st of February to the 1st of March, and for this month the

fair there is

town wakes up and welcomes 12,000 each

roubles

50,000,000

is,

Situated at the confluence of the Irbit and

territory.

Tura, Irbit

the

the Nitsa, tributaries of

founded in 1643, admin-

fair is that of Irbit,

The most ancient and important Siberian istratively

amount of 37,311,000

15,000 strangers, doing a business of 40,000,000 to

to

1868

In

time.

goods

various

brought to this town to the

were

roubles, of which 34,359,000 roubles worth were sold; in ^1876, the fig-

ures were 49,029,000 and 45,987,000 roubles respectively; in 1891, 45,896,200 and 39,302,700

The

roubles.

ence

turnover of the

decline in the

Great Siberian Railway will undoubtedly

The

and

woollens

although

are

peltry,

The wares

for

sale

corresponding

Asiatic

of

are

Asia

which

of

34,058,000

were

of

Russian

unknown.

not

including

roubles,

fair.

and

origin,

In

1891

in this

sum

were

worth

roubles

of the

this

of

hardware

nuts,

mostly

are

amount of 39,274,000

wares,

wax,

honey,

here

and

Europe

both

to the

foreign productions

for

figures

after

from

were imported

roubles

6,062,000

cottons.

productions

foreign

goods

Russian

The opening

importance

further diminish the

tea,

chief articles of trade there,

cutlery,

still

depend-

fair here perceptible is in direct

Irbit

of the Ural and Samara-Zlatoust railways.

completion

upon the

The

sold.

roubles and 5,245,000 roubles

6,622,000

respectively.

The far

as

commerce

chief article of

regards fur goods,

observed

that

now with

already

As

discussed further on.

in the Irbit fair, tea, will be

may be

it

the approach of the

general railway system to the water systems of Siberia the most valuable goods of this kind are

forwarded direct

Moscow, without passing through

to

Irbit,

Thus, in January of the

current year, 1893, a party of sable of 1,700 skins was forwarded to for 100,000 roubles.

with

be confidently expected that rian

Railway

direct to fair,

the

building

the

of the w-estern

whole of the fur goods from the basin of

Moscow. In the current year there were 5,450,000

and 1,500,000 hare

Light sable was offered arctic fox, 25,000 skins,

bears,

The

skins. to the

sale of

number

sable

of 30,000 skins.

is

tails,

brought

skins

60

to

may

to the

75 roubles apiece.

There was further a large show of and other

acquired for foreign export, namely,

marmot, hares, squirrel

at

it

forwarded

be

the Obi will

there

sold

Great Sibe-

of the

section

squirrel

was 3,600 skins

krestovatik, nekliui,

of the furs at the Irbit fair

krestovatiks,

Moscow and

Judging by the course taken by fur goods for some years past,

furs, all

A

considerable portion

the ermine, k o

1

o

n

o

k

s,

black and striped cat for Leipzig, sable for

Leipzig, Paris and London, squirrel, wolf and fox, for Leipzig.

Combining the above

data

with

the

returns

on the seal trade,

the trade in Russian furs, and particularly in the more valuable kinds, trated in

it

is

may

London and Leipzig. Both these markets receive from Russia the goods

and often return them

Another Ivanovskaya,

finished,

fair in the

By

be seen that

principally concenin the

raw

state

although they most frequently are disposed of in other countries.

same government

the business done there

it

of Perm, but on Siberian territory,

occupies the next place to that of

is

Krestovsko

Irbit,

It

opens

204

SIBERIA.

on the 20th

of

August and continues 15 days, that

the value of 4,397,000

were

sold;

6,552,000

1876

in

roubles;

the business

in

5,756,000 roubles;

were brought

roubles

the

1891,

doubled, business

the

which 3,794,000 roubles worth

being

figures

respectively

amounting to

which only 3,783,000

to 4,942,000, of

fall,

and

8,650,000

the goods brought

again declined,

was a further

there

in 1892,

the 5th of Septemher. In 1868 goods to

is to

to this fair, of

roubles worth were sold.

The

amounts from.four and

for tallow

many

The

other fairs.

tallow,

annum.

England. During

in the

forwarded

is

recent

winter

total business of the fair

The Nikolsk

fair determines the prices

hides.

much

as

is

to the port

however,

years,

on the trade in the

carried

is

The

and

butter

trade in this article, although the latter

of the

total offer

Here

object.

to five million roubles per

the character

the greater part of which to

a special

breeding, mainly

produce of stock

takes place in Ishim in December,

Siberian fair, the Nikolsk,

third considerable

from the 1st to the 25th, and has

of

Petersburg

St.

consequence

in

for sale in

is

as one million pouds of tallow,

of

export, chiefly

for

enlivenment

the

Tallow

altered.

not only obtained from the local cattle, but most of

is

from the Kirghiz steppes this

about

fair

are

cattle

half

to the

a

fair

of small

Fully half a million roubles

worth of butter St.

about

summer per

Moscow

brought to the Ishim

Here

is

others

several

Siberia,

for

may

and goods destined for

in Siberian produce

there are reckoned

territory of

Akmolinsk

more than 160

be

government

30, in the

of

9, et cetera.

They

In the small Aniuisk

and

the

payment

of

Among them

y a

fort in the

s

where

it

is

taken from

pointed out, in

At

winter

it

goes

possessing im-

Perm and

in the

these fairs the chief

in the

Tomsk

government of Tobolsk 95,

19,

of Yeniseisk

in the

territory of Semipala-

in the

8,

in

that

of Irkutsk

than three days.

last not less

Kolymsk

district of the

Yakutsk

Chukche Fair which brings together

nually assembles the so-called

is

Siberia. Independently of this in Siberia

which

fairs, of

tinsk 13, in that of Transbaikal 11, in the government

tribes.

of large

melted, clarifled and forwarded

it is

neighbouring government of Orenburg, in the district of Cheliabinsk.

itself

fair,

Kama to St, Petersburgh and Rostov, and in kolobovoe. Besides the three fairs considered,

form of

in the

is

by the

raft

portance exclusively

trade

head

100,000

Petersburgh and Rostov-on-Don. The butter

the fair to Ekaterinburg, the centre of this trade.

to

and

cattle

sold.

bought up principally for Moscow,

in the

from cattle driven

near lake Toinchi-Kul in the territory of Akmolinsk. At

head

million

all

man-

of

somewhat

ufactures based upon tallow within the Empire, the destination of this article has

a k,

or

are the three

the

tax in

divisions

furs, natives

territory there an-

for the purposes of trade

belonging to the

of the Chukches,

Olenny,

most various

Nosovy and Anadyr,

and represetantives of the Toungouz, Lashuts, Yakutsk, and Chuvans. The Chukche Fair however has latterly been their

productions

whalers. This

less frequented, the inhabitants

for

illicit

American

trade

is

goods

brought

accompanied

by

of the Coast finding

them

in

the

it

possible to exchange

shape of contraband in the

frightful exploitation

of the native population

and their depravement by drink. Various measures have been taken by the authorities to

combat

local

government

this evil.

In the territory of Semipalatinsk the trade

is

mainly carried on between the Cossacks

.

MANUFACTUKING AND THE HOME TRADE. and peasants on the one hand, and the Kirghiz on the

205

other. In the first case

it

is

on a cash

basis, in the second on that of barter.

In the Akmolinsk

the chief

territory

subject of trade

cattle

is

and their produce. In

30 local fairs in 1889 business was done in these articles to an amount of 8,000,000 roubles.

Trade with Almost

the

the natives

all

natives are

and Oroches have fallen

under

on credit, but secure themselves

same

for a

trifle.

The Tunguses

the shore tract and

the

in

here

in

Littoral

the influence

are in the it

is

of the

to

Chinese,

The

latter supply

them goods

take of furs, getting the

future

native's

situated.

of different nationalities. Golds

traders.

As

regards

the Russian element that predominates. at the confluence

of the large tributaries

fairs with barter take place.

transactions

is

the

Kiman

into the

The

and other furs

Amour

Zeya

known on account

to the

territory of

2,500,000 roubles; and foreign, 1,000,000 roubles, or in

-_^<$_-

best

gathering on the Bureya.

native

sold annually fetching 60,000 roubles,

10,000 roubles. In the total for 1889 the imports

amounted

somewhat peculiarly

is

traders

same dependence on the Yakut

In the territory of the Amour, chiefly

and Bureya with the Amour, native

Here 3,000 sables are

on

the whole of the

Kamchatka, here

of the extent of its commercial

territory

dependence

all,

amount of

Russian goods

3,500,000 roubles.

SIBERIA.

206

CHAPTER

XIU.

The Foreign trade of

Siberia.

iu reference to customs; the import and export of Russian and foreign goods; and Nikolaevsk; trade with China across the land frontier; ports of the Arctic Ocean; the Commander Islands; tea trade over the European and Asiatic frontiers; Bohea and brick teas; freights; tea traffic by rail; western China and Turkestan.

The Far East Vladivostock

THE

vast territory

of Siberia

is

for navigation,

many

on the north along an immense extent by the

washed

Arctic Ocean, and therefore on this side

and even during the season

during the greater part of the year of

navigation

navigation

inconveniences to the establishment of regular

the appearance of steamers on the

is

it

closed

nature in the polar zone offers so

northern coast of Siberia

is

that up to the present time

more or

less

accidental, not

yet possessing any industrial importance.

The eastern

zone, bathed

by the waters

of the Pacific

Ocean and possessing

for the greater

Here indeed, during

part a more moderate climate, has many advantages over the northern.

the brief period since the establishment of the Russian dominion, an increased the shipping has been observed, accompanied by a

conterminous with Manchuria, Mongolia and China,

more

lively trade.

On

movement

in

the south, Siberia

Here there are several land

by

The

de-

which the exchange of goods takes place between Russia and the countries named. velopment of trade relations with the Chinese Empire always formed the

subject

is

routes,

of

special

anxiety to the Russian Government, striving to negotiate various privileges for this trade and to

open to

it

new markets

within the limits of the Chinese dominions.

In the middle of the

present century, besides the commercial relations taking place on the basis of the Treaty

of

Kiakhta (1727) through Kiakhta and Urga, trade was opened by the Kuldzha Convention authorized (1851) on the side of Ilya aud Tarbagatai. Subsequently the Aikhun Treaty (1858) mutual trade

to the subjects of both countries,

living

along

the

rivers

Amour,

Ussuri,

and

only Sunguri, while that of Thian-Tzin (1858) granted Russia the right to carry on trade not

by land but

also

by sea

in the ports

opened

to foreigners.

Finally by the treaty of St. Peteisburg

were opened (1881) the districts lying on both slopes of the Thian-Shan, as well as Su-Chow, free. to Russia. Both in these districts and in Mongolia, Russian subjects may trade duty

Upon goods forwarded

to the provinces of the interior

authorities impose import and export customs dues.

and exported

therefrom,

the

Chinese

FOREIGN TRADE.

207

In consequeuce of the sparse population of Eastern Siberia and

communications, on the one hand, and

witli the object,

inadequacy of

ttie

certain privileges for getting necessary provisions and implements of labour, best from the very beginning of the annexation of the

eign

Kamchatka

trade in the

Island of Saghaliu (1857).

at the

hand were not permitted

Amour

Amour

Post, even under the Russian flag. It

was soon thought advisable

Amour

•

On

which was done

it

was

defined that

Amour

of the Littoral and

the payment of customs

From

was thought

and

region

the

region to

Foreign

restriction.

higher than the Mariinsk

to

extend the right

to free

tenltory

the ports of the Littoral

all

in 1860.

the review in 1862 of the

Eastern Siberia

Amour

any

without

to navigate the

trade in foreign goods granted to the of Eastern Siberia,

it

territory to authorize free for-

same time declared that foreign goods might enter

and ascend the

free of duty in Russian vessels,

vessels on the other

Amour

region (1855), and in the ports of the

was

It

its

on the other, of affording new settlers

on

statute

organization

the

customs

the

of

in

office

European and Colonial goods forwarded through the ports arriving at the Irkutsk customshouse are subject to

territories on

duties on the basis of the general customs

tariff

on European trade.

goods however despatched by the route mentioned, and intended for consumption within

the limits of the said territories, customs

duties

exacted. Subsequently

were not

before

as

certain exceptions were admitted in this respect, and from 1867 the import of intoxicants was

made

dutiable,

and from 1887 tobacco goods were also brought under

this

exception.

on nearer acquaintance with the position of the home trade of Eastern Siberia interests of the

normal development of the national industry,

customs duties upon

all

it

and

was found necessary

to

Next, the

in

impose

imported foreign goods which are subject to excise within the country.

This measure was called into existence among other things by the abnormal direction taken

by our export trade. Goods subject

to excise

and destined for export from European Russia

into Eastern Siberia

were declared as exported abroad, the exporter receiving in the shape

drawback the whole

of the excise paid

by him and

in

These goods were then imported as foreign into the ports of the obtain the premium on sugar

was necessary

it

example Port Said, and then import kind took place in the tobacco trade.

it

forward

to

it first

Littoral.

to

Thus

in order

some foreign

to

point, for

Something of the same

as foreign into Vladivostok.

Hamburg

of

some cases a premium on the export.

traders taking advantage of the circumstance

that Russian tobacco goods on shipment abroad do not bear any internal excise began to order

them

in St.

Petersburg and despatch them

were forwarded direct from the

interior

to

Vladivostok as German productions. If these goods

governments of the Empire

to

Vladivostok

without

banderole they had to pay export in that port. Approximately the same thing took place in reference to other goods, such as petroleum illuminants, matches, et cetera.

Thus Russian

pro-

ductions in the Russian ports of the Pacific Ocean were in a depressed state, which of course

could not be regarded as normal or desirable. preserve to Eastern Siberia

eign

productions,

from

its

1888

the duty free importation of

To

regulate the trade, and at

the

same time

privileged position, as regards the duty free enjoyment of for-

the ports

all

of the

Eastern

strip

of

Siberia

were

opened for

goods with the exception of the following: sugar, molasses,

confectionery, jam, fruit in syrup, in liqueurs et cetera, aiTack, rum, French brandy, spirituous liquors imported in bottles,

gin,

whiskey, wines

made from

grapes,

mead,

porter,

mineral

208

SIBERIA.

illuminating

paraffin lubricating

oils,

named, when imported the European frontier

into the is

pons

oil.

and

spirit

Tobacco goods

extended.

polishes and matches.

oil

of the Littoral territory, the of

actual

articles-

Vladivostok and Nikolaevsk, as well as Russian, not bearing the legal banderoles, are to

pay duty on the basis of the general

tariff at the

European

frontier.

The

on

tariff

by sea into

imported

origin

foreign

To the

customs

made

collection of the

duties upon goods imported into the ports of the Littoral territory, on account of the absence

there of customs institutions,

imposed upon the

is

On th&

officials of the local excise control.

publication of the law quoted, imposing import duties on certain goods, the question arose as to

whether duties should be taken from the foreign goods enumerated above when imported

Commander

into the

territory, for

erty

1889

and into Petropavlovsk, and other northern ports of the Littoral

the population of the northern zone of the said territory and of the

of

Pacific

Islands,

which no special exceptions are established. Taking into consideration the pov-

Ocean and

also the total absence there of excise officials,

it

customs duties from certain foreign goods

to limit the exaction of

ports of the territory of the Littoral to the ports of Vladivostok

may

be imported into the said

ports

from

imported into

in-

the

and Nikolaevsk, with the

condition that the exaction of such duties should be effected on the the goods also that

of the

islands

was thought advisable

same general

other

of

ports

basis

the

from

Littoral

territory.

Thus up remain offer

to the present

time

the

immense

in the position of a free port for the

territory of Eastern

Siberia continues to

mass of foreign goods, which however does not

any danger for the importation of duty free merchandise through Eastern into Western

Siberia and further into the interior of the Empire.

Xotwithstanding the natural wealth of Siberia and the favourable climatic conditions existing in

many

localities, its productivity in

of

communications

of

many such

upon the

is

consequence of

extremely insignificant, and

it

is

essential articles, as under other circumstances

spot. Siberia is

mainly

with

furnished

its

scant population and absence

in need of the importation

productions by

necessary

the

from without

might be successfully produced importation

from the following countries.

from European Russia

it

receives cheap

cottons

and woollens, tobacco,

spirit, sugar,

illuminants, articles of leather and iron, writing paper and a small quantity of haberdashery

and

articles of fashion.

and fabrics,

iron,

From Great

Britain, Siberia receives chiefly cotton and woollen

tin-plate et cetera.

From Belgium,

glass

and yarn, are imported;

yarn

from

France, articles of fashion, preserves, wine et cetera.

The United

States of

America caiTy on a pretty brisk trade with Siberia through

San Francisco, furnishing that country with

flour

and other articles of food, machinery and

agricultural implements, leather goods and guns.

Germany, thanks

to the activity of

many German

firms in Nikolaevsk and Vladivostok,,

has a predominating influence in the import trade of Siberia. goods, although of a very inferior quality,

such

as

furniture,

It furnishes the

most various

sugar, wine, kitchen utensils,

cottons and woollens.

Korea sends

to

vegetables and cattle.

Siberia

the

produce of

its

Japan imports mainly wheat,

agriculture

and

rice, salt, fruits,

cattle

and

to

rearing,

grain,

a very limited

.

209

FOEEIGN TRADE. extent, articles of luxury. China

trade

carries on a large

wiih

Siberia in tea; the

more or

scale hearing a

ation of other goods takes place on a small

casual

less

import-

character.

chief articles of Siberian export through the Pacific ports are the produce of the

The

whale and morse

industries, furs, sea

cabbage and

fish.

The remaining

articles,

namely timber, coal

from Saghaliu, trepang or sea slugs and ginseng, have as yet hardly any industrial importance. goods

Foreign

Eastern Siberia mainly through Vladivostok, Nikolaevsk on the

enter

Amour, Blagoveschensk and Ayan can duty

free

penetrate

goods

Yakutsk

in the

into

By

territory.

not one of these four routes

Siberia while avoiding the Irkutsk Customs-

Western

house. Merchandise from Nikolaevsk proceeds to Sretensk almost 3,000 versts by the

only from ]\Iay to September; in winter about four months

route

this

over ice, while in the remaining spring and autumn seasons of the cut

off

from the country, with which accordingly

Amour

than the

there

Lake Baikal where

is

forwarded

second, the goods go to China, Korea,

again

fall

into the basin of

Sea of Okhotsk,

to the ports of the

De

quite

of the

go by sea and to

Kamchatka,

Castri bay and others. In the

Khabarovka and various settlements along the Ussuri and

Amour. As

the

direction

From Vladivostok goods

the Island of Saghalin, the harbours of Possiet and St. Olga,

is

time cease. Other route

Goods from Sretensk inevitably take the

none.

Amour

by the Amour

year Nikolaevsk

all relations for the

are situated customshouse posts.

land. In the first case, they are

is still

for the route through

Ayan, on account of the

entire absence of population in this locality, the importation of foreign goods through the territory

of

Yakutsk

The

come

for a long time to

will be

unable to assume

paying -excise to a customs

subjection of articles

any appreciable

tariff

has not so

character as the object of regulating the relations of importation of foreign and

The imports

of

goods

foreign

paying duty into the

expressed by the figures, 8,000 pouds, valued at

1

home

Littoral territory

Goods imported:

Raw

in the

1890.

_

form of cigars and cigarette^

and refined sugar

Confectionery, jams, syrups

Arrack, rum, grain

spirit

.

Arrack, rum, French brandy "Wines

»

»

»

»

»

Mead, »

made from grapes and

»

» ;>

berries

»

»

»

»

still

.

.

.

effervescing

porter, beer, cider ;>

;>

>

Liquid products of the distillation of naphtha Spirit, tuipentine

Matches

and

oil

polishes

a fiscal

productions.

in

1891 were

17,689 roubles, the articles being as in the

following table.

Tobacco

dimensions.

much

.

1891.

210

SIBERIA.

Only the goods named paying duty are capable of a more or

As

for other goods, they are accounted for only in Vladivostok

ports of the Littoral they escape

notice,

so that the

import

less accurate estimation.

and Xikolaevsk; returns

in the other

into this territory are

restricted to dutiable goods.

Of the merchandise imported

to

Yladivostok,about 25 per cent are cottons and woollens;

15 per cent, grain and flour, and 10 per cent, other provisions. Xext in order follow, articles

made first

of metal, sugar, spirit, metals, et cetera. In the supply of these goods, part, providing about

30 per cent of the whole imports.

25 per cent; from England, 13 per cent; from China so on.

After

the

12,

Germany

plays the

From European Russia come

Japan

13,

America 5 per

imposition of duty upon certain foreign goods, Russian

cent,

productions

and

began

to be imported in greater quantities, although foreign production still predominate, as appears

from the trade returns of Vladivostok for the three years given below.

Year.

211

FOREIGN TRADE. occupy an extremely important position a

considerable

increase

has

been

in a

commercial sense. Already during the

observed

the

in

annual

last decade;

arrivals of shipping,

while the

quantity of freights has grown by 200 per cent. Simultaneously with the construction of the line a

port will be built there, with whose

commercial

movement

The trade

of Nikolaevsk

bears

a

fully 3,000 versts there is a magnificent to

which Nikolaevsk has greater reason

Of the

completion

there

will be a brisker

in the shipping.

total imports of

cent various machinery

The population

somewhat

different character;

this

point for

of tea, 11 per cent sugar,

locomotives, 9 per cent manufactured

of Nikolaevsk being Inconsiderable, the whole

goods

thanks

than Vladivostok.

to be considered a point of transit

Nikolaevsk 35 per cent consist

and

from

water way into the interior of the country,

and

mass of goods

is

IOV'2 per

8 groceries. not consumed

on the spot but forwarded thence up the Amour. In supplement to the data on the importation of goods into Nikolaevsk and Vladivostok,

may be quoted

further the returns on the

of the Eastern Ocean.

V

1873

1877

1880

1

a d

number

of ships that visited these

two ports

SIBERIA

212 Passing

to the

review of the foreign trade of Siberia

China, Mongolia and Mantchuria, it

has 'been carried on from the earliest times hut

within the limits of Siberia and in the

same bounds, and with

and

in the

the

in

the land frontier with

across

must he observed that the trade

it

in this direction, although

consequence of the absence of roads alike

the conterminous states, has for a long time kept within

is

Amour

of trade in the navigations of the

increase

Great Ocean the land trade

apparently diminishing.

in this direction is the natural road connecting the industrial centres of the Celestial

through Urga and Maimachin Siberian tract. territory

of

Other

less

with Kiakhta

and Irkutsk,

and

Semipalatinsk,

consequently with the great

ways the export

Along these principal

fourteen to fifteen millions. But

if

from the

merely in transit as far as Siberia

is

The

latter figure be

imported through Kiakhta into European Russia,

of goods

The

excluded

the

the

Semipalatinsk

of the territory of the

country. In consequence

1891.

Exported.

value

of the

tea

as this article to a considerable extent

concerned, the total value of the imported goods is

the

is

will

produce of

is tea.

table below gives the total values of imports and exports, while

mind that

boundaries

and that of import,

from Siberia

import, on the other hand, reaches

be found to correspond to that of the exports. The chief subject of export

in

route

Empire

important roads, two in number, connect Western China with the

does not exceed two to three million roubles a year.

cattle rearing,

basin

The most important

Customs

district

not

does

same name, including

as

it

exactly does

of this the corresponding figures will differ

it

must be borne

correspond

part

of

the

with

the

Turkestan

somewhat from the

fact.

21B

FOREIGN TRADE. Almost to export all

the

all this first

bailer trade takes place between Siberia and China,

place

is

the goods exported pass.

occupied by Semipalatinsk

The imports on the

through

while

iu respect

which about 60 per cent of

other hand took place mainly through Irkutsk

and Kiakhta. The export of Russian goods through Kiakhta during the last six years appears from the following table:

Goods exported.

SIBEEIA.

214 The imports Kiakhta, consist

to

Russia from China through the Irkutsk Customhouse, corresponding to

to the extent

view of the imports across

1

Imports:

almost of 98 per cent of tea.

this frontier for the

same years.

The follomng

gives

a general

FOREIGN TEADE. with

four hundred million population

its

suffers

215

from a deficiency of timber, which

might

it

obtain with the greatest advantage for itself from Siberia.

In the interior provinces of China, almost entirely bereft of is

by weight and extremely dear, seeing that

sold

places, not seldom a thousand versts

forest

supplied

away, on the backs of camels.

might be furnished to China from Mantchuria, with virgin forest, but

be

has to

it

Jt

vegetation,

timber

from

remote

very

true that timber

is

the northern portion of which

yet

is

On some

export and carriage to the chief markets of consumption will be very expensive. the Japanese islands there

demand

unfailing

is

Japan

of

always exists

an

Under such circumstances advantage should be taken

of

but

also still forest,

for that article.

Amour and

the forest wealth of the

covered

has been preserved there in such an inacessible situation, that the

it

in

there

itself

Littoral territories, and yet, although

1863 there

since

have been not a few attempts of the kind, the enterprise has not been attended with success.

The timber

w^as exported in the green state, simply

came very

of which its transport

by China from California

in a perfectly

Thanks

various purposes.

to

On

expensive.

dry and

hewn without any

the other hand the

seasoned

shaping, in consequence

same

article

was received

sawn and cut up

condition,

such foresight on the part of the American traders, they

for

have

a predominating influence in the whole timber trade of China. In 1863 the

from the Littoral

attempt was made to facilitate

first

territory, but

it

ended in

and regulate the export of timber

In consequence of the placing of a duty

failure.

upon the goods destined for export the trade was unable Passing foreign trade,

it

to

take root.

review of the participation of the separate territories of Siberia in the

to the

may be

noted that the most important part In this respect, as far as imports

are concerned, falls to the Transbaikal territory, thanks

to its direct relations

with China via

Irkutsk and Kiakhta. Besides the last point the foreign trade of the Transbaikal territory carried on further via the following station of

Verkhneulkhunsk, through which in 1889 there were

mals, animal produce, manufactured goods et cetera, to the in

1890 the export

fell

1890

The Siberian

to that of

tea, in

1889

to

ports of the Arctic

Ocean

European duty

by foreigners.

The

the Yenisei, whither in 1890

came

ers

not

unfrequently

authorized by a special Imperial order.

rarely visited

were loaded with

amount of 93,403

in reference to the importation of foreign goods

the special peculiar local circumstances is

the

90,112 roubles.

are on the whole brought under the Customs tariff for the

goods

ani-

roubles, while

Through the same centres there were imported

to 69,851 roubles.

from Mongolia various animal produce, animals and roubles, and in

exported into Mongolia

amount of 112,849

is

and the

centres: Tsurukhaitui, Abagaitui, Tsagan-Olui,

most

And

important

yet the

free

frontier.

But

importation

northern

in

view of

of

foreign

shores of Siberia are

place of importation

is

the

mouth

of

the steamers of the Anglo-Siberian Company. These steam-

24,108 roubles worth of provisions, 130,076 roubles worth of raw and

half-manufactured materials, and 214,000 roubles worth of manufactured

goods.

The

flotilla

ascended the Yenisei, and their freights reached the towns of Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk and Tomsk.

Although these goods were freed from Customs to the navigation season of

tation by this route.

1894

duties,

and the same privilege was even extended

inclusive, neither in 1891 nor in

The English steamers on

1892 was there any impor-

their return cruise took on board grain

and meat.

216

SIBERIA.

The Commander Islands forming

part of Siberia from an administrative

view

point of

do not present great commercial interest. The exports thence are confined to skins, of which, in 1891, 319,000 roubles

worth were despatched,

in 1892,

365,000 roubles worth in gold. The

imports on the other hand do not exceed 50,000 roubles worth, more than half of the goods

coming from America. The

figures given here for the value of the skins are calculated

only

on the Crown tax accruing from them.

The tea trade: From appears that of transit,

cent

tea

all

deserves

the

of all the imports.

the Empire via Siberia

even now to occupy the

somewhat more

the sketch just presented of

the foreign goods imported by land

greatest

And is

attention,

it

passing

in

forming as

it

does by

or its

value

through fully

98 per

although, as will appear further on, the importation of tea into

declining with every year, yet by

first

the foreign trade of Siberia,

into Siberia

place in consequence of which

in detail the routes

its it

value this

is

article

continues

not out of place to examine

by which tea travels from China through Siberia, and

elucidate the causes of the decline in

its

to

transport through Siberia,

The tea trade with China has existed

in

Russia

two centuries.

fully

1802

In

only

45,000 pouds were imported of Bohea and brick tea. In 1820 the amount was about 100,000 pouds.

In the middle of the present century this figure was trebled,

the seventies the trade grew particularly ished by the

fast,

thanks

to

the

direct

and

from

end

the

communication

of

estab-

Volunteer Fleet between Odessa and the Siberian ports of the Pacific Ocean.

In the last decade however a certain the imports has fluctuated about two

changing, that

is,

overland or by sea.

Year.

steadiness has

been

observable,

the

figure

of

million pouds a year, the direction of importation only

FOREIGN TRADE. explanation

In

house in to

IS-:^?,

operate

it

may

of

unsuccessfully

which naturally did not upon the normal trade the Irkutsk this question.

the

considerable

imporlation

be observed that this year was

at

with

They show

noticeable

via the Irkutsk Custom-

exceptional, a certain firm

brick tea. It imported an enormous

beginning

quantity of this article,

once find a buyer and which for three years produced a

in brick tea.

Customhouse

17

may

be

A

more

formed

just idea of the

by the

comparison of the following figures upon

the quantities of tea cleared

the period under consideration.

Years.

pressure

course of the tea trade through

by the Irkutsk

Customhouse

during

SIBERIA,

218 lished

now

for

this

customhouses.

of tea in the different

sort

in operation, the duty on brick tea is levied at the

roubles gold per poud, that

through the import

it

is,

at the

Irkutsk Customhouse

into

Odessa

same rate

pays

and thence

only

forward

it

50

to

to the

customs

dues

frontier at the rate of 21

from Bohea, while the same tea passing

as

2.

According

European

roubles.

Thus

Eastern Russia

it

is

evident

that

to

does not present any ad-

vantages.

Brick

tea,

to

resume,

is

Excluding this quantity from the

Bohea tea

by

sea, evident at a glance

is

paying duty.

,

annually to the amount

total importation,

it

will

of about

Years.

750,000 pouds.

appear that the most

despatched principally by sea, there being a strong tendency

or

tea,

imported

to

expensive

conveyance

from the following comparison as regards the importation of Bohea

FOREIGN TKADE. drawing

draught vessels the

navigation

Finally there

is

less

than fourteen feet of water. Next come the inconveniences

stormy

the

in

21 9

Tartar

and

straits

mouth

in the

of the

of the

firth

of

Amour.

the roadlessness of Transbaikalia.

The carriage per poud

through Irkutsk to Nizhni-Novgorod, the

Han-Kow

of tea from

chief centre of the trade in the tea imported by this route, costs about 18 to 20 roubles.

Kiakhta

7.

28 roubles

Expenditure at Kiakhta and carriage to Irkutsk

3.

00

From

6.

00

»

0.

90

;>

1.

43

»

Han-Kow via Tbian-Tsin, Pekin and Urga

Carriage from

to

Irkutsk to Nizhni

Insurance from Thiau-Tsin to Nizhni

(2'/*

per cent)

Percentage on capital invested

T The goods sometimes

a

t

1

18.

.

;>

61 roubles

a year on the road; they require extremely careful packing,

are

the sewing of the tea boxes into leather cases, and watchful supervision in transit; all these

circumstances

make

the tea traders

somewhat exceed the

The

sea route, even although the freight should

the

prefer

difference in the duties.

Sretensk, Irkutsk and Nizhni,

of tea via Nikolaevsk,

cost of the conveyance

composed of the following elements: from Han-Kow

is

with packing, insurance,

Nikolaevsk

to

commissions and other expenses, 2.65 roubles; from Nikolaevsk to Sretensk, including tranship-

ment and various

expenses,

general

Sretensk by road to Irkutsk, 5.55

from

2.30 roubles;

roubles, thence to Nizhni 6 roubles; the total, 16.50 roubles.

The sea route

considerably cheaper,

is

insurance, freight,

commissions,

by

amounts

Nizhni,

rail to

brought

difference of

in all to

Han-Kow

thither from

via Kiakhta, and

customs

as

8 roubles

The customary

of

route, along

which from

times

old

precious

freight

dearness

the

freezing of the Ket, or

standing

this

all

they

tea caravans

Chulym even

Bisk by the Chuisk road

character.

Irkutsk

is

Formerly conveyed

Makovsk on

of

tea

by

tea

took

water

this

on

to

the

transit

made

the

to

Tiumen. However

tea traders forward their in the cost of

hope of a small reduction

the

great

to Uliasutai

through

in consequence

Siberian

to the

of the early

Yenisei. But notwithtract,

passing through

upper waters of the Yenisei

Minousinsk. Even when following the great Siberian

same view

route the

in the

avoid

Kalgan

with

seldom

in

exactly at Irkutsk and coincides

damaged on the Angara and

seldom

not

or from

tea has passed

more

were arrested en route

were

or

and thence are floated down on rafts tract the conveyance

not

route

this

more dangerous roads

by

carriage. Frequently

of

or

from Irkutsk through Tomsk

with the great Siberian tract, which runs

comparative

corresponds to the customs

almost

fact

gold.

Siberia into European Russia, begins at Kiakhta

the

cheaper than that imported

costs 12.60 roubles

matter

a

to Odessa, including packing,

Insurance and carriage further

Odessa,

in

6 roubles. Accordingly, a poud of tea in Nizhni

about

via Odessa

difference

this

Han-Kow

from

duties

entirely

Angara

to

economy

overland, but

to Yeniseisk,

is

has somewhat changed

now a

portion of

it

its

from

thence carried in carts to

the river Ket, Meletsk or Berliuz on the Chulym, and then by water to Tiumen.

220

SIBERIA.

Heuce,

from

more often

or

terminus

the

Railway,

Ural

of the

Tura, the tea

480,941 to Perm, 7,532

to

Ekaterinburg,

at cetera.

The

Tinmen transmited

station of

mentioned of a considerable

were

but by

not by local consumption

transmitted to Perm, namely 5,967 pouds, while part still

Samara

From Perm

Zlatooust railway, 19,709 pouds. the

in

merchandise by

Moscow

rail, is

main

which

Xizhni,

to

is

the greater part of which

in

the tea

1891

Ekaterinburg

among

is

forwarded

sent by the

despatched to

the

Russian Empire.

routes; the first two have already been

and

by

also

comes by sea over the

the

i-s

is

also

stations

[Moscow by the

to

Kama, and then

153,032

pouds of this

Moscow. tea being

The

conveyed

namely, the

mentioned,

other

the

is

was naturally sent

through Siberia and the Russian dominions in Central Asia

railways,

explained, of course,

the most important centre of the Russian tea-trade, the

there and then distributed thence throughout

oust

be

from

distributed

larger quantity

of the Ural Railway, 6,598 pouds, and a

by the Volga,

may

of the tea

that part

the fact

a total of

Perm. The forwarding just

lo

of tea to Ekaterinburg

quantity

mainly

Nizhni Tagil in

165.926 ponds, including 117,423 to Perm, 42,527 to Ekaterinburg, et cetera. the same year despatched 46,798 ponds, of which 46,273

is

among which,

transmited to Perm. In 1891 the station Tura despatched 492,261 ponds of tea;

tea

Moscow by

to

The tea

Orenburg and Transcaucasian railways.

four

Samaro-Zlato-

and

Uralsk

brought

which passes

which

and Atlantic oceans reaches Moscow principally through

Pacific, Indian

Odessa and Graevo, the transit from London through Konigsberg, and partly through the Baltic The total amount conveyed to Moscow in 1890 by all these routes was 1,109,700 pouds

ports.

or 54 per cent of the whole import. Out of this quantity 969,662 pouds were despatched thence

by

during the same year and the rest was used for local consumption

rail

or

distributed

by

carts in the immediate neighbourhood.

^\'hen the Siberian

cheaper. is

It will

Railway

is

laid the overiand transport will naturally

be very

completed, to place Eastern Siberia under the same conditions as the Empire

customhouse duties,

which

standings

much

then also be possible, and indeed when even the Eastern portion of the line

and

arise

Siberia. Until 1888

to stop the free

from the

some parts

of

absence

import of tea and put an end to of

customhouses

within

the

Western Siberia and Turkestan were

those

borders

as

regards

misunderof

Eastern

also in this privileged

from political and partly from commercial reasons. Between 1860 and 1870 during the Dungan insurrection which sprang up

position, partly

China, gradually

and

spread

finally

completely

cut

oft

the

in

western

Chinese tea plantations from

circumstance the markets of Central Asia, the Russians conceived the idea of profiting by this in order to take possession of these markets

and thrust out the foreign tea dealers from them,

as the importation of Chinese tea into Central Asia

had

at that time

Kiakhta to

to Irkutsk.

Under these

compete with Indian

customhouse

frontier of

former route

through Ivashgar

cordon

tea,

which

which point

it

Western Siberia

imported stretched

from India through Afganistan.

For

from

as

this reason the

from the Caspian Sea from south to north

Orenburg

to the

barrier

turned directly to the east and passed along the as far

Siberia,

conditions the Russian tea trade in Central Asia had only

Urals and the eastern frontier of the government of lovsk, from

by the

become impossible and the only available one was through

Semipalatinsk

and the

post

of

of

along

the

Zverinogo-

former southern

Boukhtarminsk, was

FOKEIGN TRADE.

221

abolished in 1868; and besides this, a free import of Kiakhta

Turkestan was .uranted with the unconditional prohibition thence

tea

of into

Russian Empire,

the

into

duty

a

and

route

order

in

import

On

intercourse

with

also

in

by this

Khanates of Central

the

kinds of goods from there was allowed free of duty.

all

imported

Russia

into

of

kind

any

of

same grounds, and

the

merchandise penetrating

commercial

facilitate

to

Asia, the importation of

government

the

into

the

being also levied upon any tea

Turkestan from any of the neighbouring Khanates.

consequence of the impossibility of European

teas

against

Experience

however, soon proved that the free import of Kiakhta teas into the region of Turkestan

did

not justify the hopes which had been originally entertained as the inhabitants of Central Asia

and cheap

acquired the habit of using Indian teas

and

harmless

native

which

substitutes

found a ready sale among the inexacting consumers. The teas of Kiakhta, on account of there comparatively high

were beyond the reach of inhabitants, the majority of which were

price

At

extremely poor.

same time

the

this, in

region

course of time, the

changed;

occasioning

thus

Russia,

from there into

was discovered that a large amount

it

was not consumed

imported duty free Into Turkestan,

to

considerable loss

and

treaty

and

of

western

traces

of

lished itself

etrated this

taisk

into

are

it

and

in

points

the

also

The

beginning

into

for

disappear

and

the

admission

the In

even

the

underwent

of Russia also

land

determined

insurrection

to

have

fcut

border

this

accurately

1881

western

China

goods and

regular and

a

by

little

busy

and the

between

frontier

of

in order

China

to

Russia

regulated

has

trade

the

subsided;

little

estab-

Russian manufactured goods have not only pen-

between Russia and China. Kashgar,

of

Dungans and Taranchins was receded

in

merchandise.

way obtained

of England.

and

China,

Interchange of the

Petersburg

St.

was incorporated

Kuldzha which was occupied by the Russian forces the

of

revolt

which

to

Amou-Darya

department of the

the steppes.

of

aspects

political

essential alterations;

terminate the

and the

and the province of Semirechinsk

annexed,

subsequently

The economic

to

conveyed

Apart from

fair-trade.

which the free import of tea had been granted became

domains of the new Governor-General

certain

to the

had originally consisted of the provinces of Syr-Darya and Semirechinsk

it

the province of Ferghana, the Zaravshansk district

were

Kiakhta tea

of

in that country but secretly

supplanted the English

a fairly lucrative distant market.

In

wares,

Kuldzha, in

and Russia has in

the district of Tarbaga-

western ^Mongolia Russian goods have competed with equal success against those

On

account of the considerations already mentioned, and also in consequence of

the impossibility of

to

customhouse

a

establishing

Empire, and also in order

cordon between Turkestan and the Russian

put an end to the abuses in the free tea

was simultaneously

view a customhouse inspection

trade,

it

was found

In order to attain the object in

expedient to cancel the above mentioned privelege in 1888.

instituted on the frontier

between Semi-

rechinsk and China, as China teas might otherwise be imported from Kuldzha into that province free of duty or hindrance.

The

high

duty

on

tea

places so that tea upon which no the

provinces

netrate

into

of

the

Semirechinsk interior

of

renders

duty

and

it

profitable

had been

to

levied

Semipalatinsk,

convey

could

and thence

European Russia and thus

it

easily to

cover a

from

make

Tomsk very

very its

distant

way

into

and even pe-

extensive

region.

SIBERIA.

222 For

this

reason

in

1890

a

provinces of Semirechinsk and Semipalatinsk.

due

to the desire of

was established on the

customhouse inspection

ween Russia and western China within the

limits

of

This extension of

supervision.

It

customhouse

the

from the

preventing the diversion of tea freights

direction less subjected to customhouse

frontier

government of Tomsk

the

was

line

Kiakhta route that

discovered

also

bet-

and the

the

was to

a

most

advantageous route for transporting tea was not through Urga and Kiakhta but through Uliassutai

and Kobdo. This route

much

is

shorter than that of

Kiakhta and

at one

end of

it

the

goods

are delivered at Semipalatinsk and at the other at Biisk, from both of which towns there

regular steamer service to

25 kopecks,

Tumen,

the freight by steamer

finally, transporting tea

by

this route obviates

process of sewing up the tea in skins, as the in blankets,

or barge

Chinese

carry

to

Tumen

the necessity

the packets

being

expensive

of

the

in

horsecloths

which they take back afterwards, and on the steamers or barges

it

is

is

about

or

not neces-

sary to take precautionary measures for preserving the tea.

This

is

a brief account of the part played by Siberia in the

a very important, it

will

and when the Great Railway Line

assume far greater proportions.

—^<3^—

is

Russian tea trade;

opened even

as

far

it

is

as Irkutsk,

WATER AND OVERLAND COMMUNICATION.

CHAPTER

223

XIV.

Water and overland communication. The

transport of goods between European Russia and Siberia by the Volga and Obi; the Obi- Yenisei canal; navigation in Western Siberia; navigation on the Yenisei and Angara; steam navigation on the Baikal; navigation on the Lena and the Amour basin; steamer communication with the Siberian ports of the Northern and Eastern oceans; the Volunteer Fleet; a cursory view of the overland communications.

THE

wide e-xpanse and sparse population of Siberia combined with that historical destiny

which has been described Its

being enriched with regular

in the

commencement

overlaml

means

of

accomplished at the expense of a vast amount of labour

and

by the waters of the Arctic and Pacific oceans,

it

is

which

capital.

other hand, richly endowed this country with water communication east

have

present work,

the

of

communication

at the

prevented

have

could

Nature has,

been

on

the

washed on the north and

;

same time intersected

for

thousands of versts by large rivers connecting these oceans with western China, and in general

with Central Asia. in

summer time

it

Thanks is

to these rivers,

possible to

whose basins cover several million square

communicate with far distant

regions.

This was

taken by the conquerors of Siberia and the settlers who followed them.

Chusovaya, Serebrianka, Tagil, Tura, Tobol, short forest tracts this

This

is

is

Irtish, Obi,

the route followed by

however from the west, but of

Volga,

and other rivers and

Ermak and by

late years

The

the

versts,

route

Kama

comparatively

the traveller of the present day.

communication has

been kept up with

Si-

beria by sea from the north and from the east.

The hydrographic sketch country

is

of

supplied with water, but

Siberia

already

given

has

shown how abundantly the

unfortunately the insufficiency of the

on the one hand, and the severe climate of the arctic zone on the

other

coast

development

hand,

prevent

the

sea navigation from reaching that degree of development which would be possible under more favourable conditions.

This same severity of climate and the

the rivers are in consequence frozen over, considerably hinders

Siberian rivers which

fall into the

Arctic Ocean.

prolonged period during which

on

the

Other circumstances, which

will

navigation

principal

be

men-

tionei hereafter also interfere with the progress of iiavigatiou on those rivers which flow into the Pacific.

SIBERIA.

224 The most important

only

navij-^able;

Sungara,

witli the

junction

the

flows to the east, and, at

and Lena, flow from

rivers of Siberia, the Obi, Yenisei

and are for the greater part of their course

north,

one

and

northwards

turns

south

to

Amour,

the

liver,

into

falls

the Pacific Ocean.

The great Siberian Ocean

the Arctic

which

rivers

With a gation

and

and

fertilize

total length of 5,300

versts

more

of

composing

exchange of merchandise,

communication

of

Europe with the raw

and

between

products

two

of the soil,

rivers of the

then carried by

The road

Obi system.

now

is

rivers; hut the

form the cheapest

world.

Asia only supplies

the produce of the fishing

her in a finished state. Before the opening

summer

in

by the

replaced

Kama

principally along the

Samaro-Zlatooust

and

Ural

Obi system through the Tura, Mias and other

to the

of the Cheliabinsk

most important route before the opening

Tumen

and

point where this

are conveyed further latter

both from

on the rivers Tura and Tobol up to the

into Siberia

the

into

falls

A

Irtish.

was the

section

Ural line which delivers goods partly at Irbit and partly at Tumen. These goods, Irbit

and

and then again by water on the

Ural chain

road across the

which deliver European goods

railways,

to

Railway these goods were conveyed

of the Ural

tributaries

the

of

animal kingdom,

the

and hunting trades which Europe then returns

its tributaries,

from far distant regions. Being

its

continents

vast

and small

square versts.

always a lively transport trade on

is

Obi and

the

Asia,

of large

S^'a million

transit character, as there is but little

a

freights being transported

all

almost on the borders of Europe

have

it

than

extensive basin on which regular navi-

a most

kept up over an extent of 15,000 versts. There

is

means

expanse has

it

course a multitude

extensive

its

an

animate

the Obi system and the rivers local

along

vast masses of water into

Mongolia, carries

river, the Obi, rises in

gathers

quantity

considerable

of goods from the

Krestovsky fair follow the route. Before reaching the mouth of the Tobol, part of the freight

down

separates and goes of

tion

the

Tavda and

along these

the settlements

southern Sosva to supply the wants as

rivers

of

the popula-

well as the Sosvinsk works and those of the

BogoS'lovsk mining district.

From

the

about

tions:

mouth

the

of

Tobol

that of the Obi.

The goods

are conveyed

the Obi are in a small part destined

on the lower parts

of

river,

the

greater

Obdorsk, whilst by far the whole

of Eastern

Narym, Barnaoul and

part

is

The

Siberia.

Biisk, but the

The Siberian goods lower parts

Siberia rope.

of

the

joining

In

the

Obi

of all

same

basin

over the

pass

the

Tura

the

streams

way

and then

and Tobol

the

the

and fishmongers of Berezov and

which Irtish

middlle

same route

and

its

course

points of destination are Surgut,

in the

l)ut

form a most convey

goods

are also

part of the waterways of

merchandise

tributaries

the

of the

contrary direction and horo

important

Siberian

of

supply the government of

to

and the town of Achinsk.

shipped up the Chulim as far as the settlement of Berluze

the

direc-

towards

towns

of the

Tomsk. Some

is

two

cent

of the strangers

Obi

principal

most important

in

per

principally to the following popu-

up the

sent

75

Semipalatinsk; those conveyed along

and

the consumption

for

and

Irtish

and the sparse population

that

distributed

are

freights

along the Irtish

Tura, Omsk, Pavlodar

lated points: the towns of

Tomsk and

European

the

25 per cent goes towards the source of the

Obi

are

the

itself

to

most

but not

in

Eu-

important

pait

Russia

that

portion of

225

WATER AND OVEKLAND COMMUNICATION. it

which

is

so

abouuding

in water.

conveyed by tho Ural Railway

The

may

Tura and Tobol; Tura, the terminus receives all the

European goods sent

statistics of the quantity

therefore be takou to

and character of the goods

discribe the goods traffic

of the Ural line, situated on the river bearing that to Siberia

by water and

also

from Siberia to European Russia. The following table gives these of the Ural Railway:

Date.

on the

name,

despatches freight by rail statistics

from the opening

SIBERIA,

226 which

much importance

of

is

with the

Irtish.

2,620 versts; in

The its

Irtish

from the mouth of the Tura to the junction of the Tohol

is

long course

it

Although the

Obi

a very

is

region, so that there

an enormous

its

This river conveys

territory.

gi'ain

traffic

it

it

an almost

through

flows

There

course.

its

is

as far as Barnaoul, a distance of about 2,000 is

formed by the junction of the Bey and the

The most important

principal tributaries are on the right. district of

Samarov

no regular service of steamers down

is

on the upper part of

which waters the rich

started here in 1862.

stream from

full

and sometimes as far as Biisk. The Obi

Katuna, and

Tom

fertilizes

Steam navigation was

of the province of Semirechinsk.

versts,

to Semipalatiusk, a length of

and animal products to Tobolsk and Tinmen from even the far distant parts

freights, salt, cattle

however a brisk

mouth

its

intersects the fertile province of Semipalatiusk, the Kirghiz,

Ishimsk and Barabinsk steppes, and

uninhabited

navigable from

itself is

Kuznetsk and the Chulym which

is

are the

of these

navigable although with

Achinsk, a distance of 1,000 versts. The river Ket has also a considerable

difficulty as far as

commercial importance

connecting

a

as

through the Obi-Yenisei canal,

now

between the basins of the Obi and Yenisei,

link

Steamers can go up the Ket as

in course of construction.

Makovsk.

far as the settlement of

The above mentioned Obi- Yenisei canal

is to

connect the Ket, a tributary of the Obi,

with the Kass, a tributary of the Yenisei. The idea of connecting the basins of the Obi and

when a scheme was presented

Yenisei originated a hundred years ago joining Yenisei.

Emperor Paul

to the

for

a tributary of the Obi, and the Sym, a tributary of ihe

system by the Tym,

these

Schemes were next proposed

Ket with the Kem, a tributary

for joining the

of the

Yenisei and the Vakh, a tributary of the Obi, with the Elagona, a tributary of the Yenisei,

new

but none of these projects were realized. Considerably later, in 1875, the the Ket with the Great Kass sprang up.

A

and expense investigated the ground between these two

was

drew the attention

feasible,

Government

of the

sent over to study the question found that it

was therefore resolved

Ket

at a distance of 550 versts from

naya and little

is

connected

it

with the

its

river

mouth. The

and

the Yenisei system.

The canal then

The

river

follows the

to lake Bolshoi.

From

falls into

river

for

this point a canal

wide at the bottom, which enters the

lake Bolshoi.

the big Kass which

Wh

work and the

falls into

flows into the Ozer-

flows out of the

Ozernaya forms part of the canal

Lomovataya

out the

Ozernaya

Lomovataya

river

initiative

The engineers who were

possible to carry

Yazevaya which

rises in the vicinity of this lake

Kass

subject.

to this

was quite

own

and finding that the scheme

rivers,

commence the undertaking. The

to

idea of joining

Siberian merchant, Funtusov, at his

versts

47^2 versts and the Yazevaya

from

for

The

forms part of its

3Ph

mouth.

versts

up

has been excavated l^h versts long and 6 fathoms

little

Kass and follows

it

for a distance of

89 versts to

Yenisei. The the point where the big Kass commences at a distance of 192 versts from the lake navigable Angara joins the Yenisei near the mouth of the big Kass and flows from

Baikal on the shore of which Irkutsk

up an enormous water way of 5,000 the whole of Western Siberia. This

1882

and

is

every hope

being that

carried

the

is situated.

versts,

The

Obi- Yenisei canal will

therefore open

connecting Tiumen with Irkutsk and intersecting

work was commenced

at the

expense of the Government in

on very energetically; a great deal has been done, and there

undertaking

will

shortly

be

brought

to

a succe-sful termination.

is

In

227

WATER AND OVERLAND COMMUNICATION. connection with

this,

much dredging has been done

streams, so that the result will most likely

Thanks

number

ome

to the

abundance

of steamers plying

on

of

places, even a regular service

savigation

whenever

is it

The on the

Obi

due

was first

in

water

them, is

Government,

to the

lie

in the

belonging

kept

up.

which

rivers of the Obi system, there

to private

owners

and

The success and progress

always granted assistance

is

companies,

a large

and in

of the Obi steam

to private initiative

in the interests of the public.

steamer in Western Siberia belonged to Poklevski 1843;

in

1854

there

were

'6;

1880, 37; in 1885, 57; in 1887, 60; in 1889, 64;

and

deepen and clear the connecting

in order to

eminently satisfactory.

in the present

in

and made

its

appearance

1860, 10; in 1870, 20; in 1875,

in 1890, 65;

in

1891,

69;

in

32; in

1892,

90;

year there are 102 steamers and 200 barges. Most of the steamers do not

exceed 100 nominal horse power and at present the

fleet of

Western Siberia

following boats: 1 1

steamer of 250 nominal horse powder.

consists of the

'

SIBEEIA.

228 of the most important

Some

Tura

the mouths of the its

till

mouth and along the system

of the Obi

places

water level will be taken which

A

resort.

wire

telegraph

Irtish,

will

navigation

for

along

the

to its

mouth.

Tom

river

On

to

and observations of the

be marked

will

from Kuznetsk

a considerable portion

telegraphed to the places where the vessels usually

be

will

along the Tobol from

and Tinmen,

mouth

Chulym from Achinsk

rivei'

difficult

its

into the

falls

it

that dredging will be earned ou

measures are:

of these

Tura between

along the Ijottom of the river

Tobolsk

from

be laid

to

operations the necessary will be

and 3 steam long-boats

5 steamers

dredging and earth removing machinery,

Samarov

and from

Samarov

to

Krivoschekov, a distance of 2,245 versts. In order to carry on these

amongst

other things provided by the Government.

The its

but

river Yenisei,

mouth. For

began

later a

which

1863 when

in

in

rises

however

long time

Dutch company

traffic

offered

Baikal and to clear away the

Mongolia,

was opened between

to establish

of steamers rose to 4 and the total amount

and

30 barges

there were 6 steamers,

a

rapids, but the

regular

mouth and Yeniseisk. live years

its

service on the

steamboat

Angara

to

was not accepted. In 1888 the number

offer

was 129,000 ponds. In 1890

of freight conveyed

about

from the frontier to

Steam navigation on the Yenisei

them.

round

to go

almost

navigable

is

interfered with the progress of navigation,

the rapids

been found possible

has lately

it

really

a

20 large boats plying between Yeniseisk and

Karaoul transporting 260,000 pouds of merchandise. Regular steamboat service on the Yenisei one side, between Yeniseisk and Krasnoyarsk, and on the other, between is kept up, on the

A

Krasnoyarsk and Minusinsk.

similar service between

Yeniseisk and the mouth of the river

and partly on account

of freights,

could not be established, partly on account of insufficiency of the rapids.

present, in order to convey building materials for the Great Siberian

At

the Government has found

through the mouth of the Yenisei, route,

gulf

the

of

Yenisei

ordered, specially designed fitted

'*

ti*'^ ^

4lA^

A^t**

"^h

"^

^^ .<^^

For

purpose

this

Yenisei, and

two steamers have been will be

1893 an expedition

in

is

to be

ready July

year.

1st, this

and draws 8 feet of water;

is

it

One

and the town of Yeniseisk and calculated

a paddle steamer with a draught of 'd'h

feet;

it

is

of

a twin

them has

destined for service between

93,000 pouds

to carry

intended to tow barges up

way

to

the whole journey from

the mouths of the Yenisei to Krasnoyarsk can be effected without unloading, by simply changing

''

L

itself.

on the

60,000 pouds weight ])etween Yeniseisk and Krasnoyarsk. In this

/*

^

'

the other

,.

t^**-

power

500 horse

the mouths of the Yenisei

iIj

^ fl^*^

,,y^

Dumbarton and were

at

Tv-t^'^J screw, is of

'^

the river

cruising

out and despatched to the estuary of the river. Both of these steamers were ordered in

.^^England

.

J

Y Itv^

and

for

Railway by sea

expedient to investigate this

it

' .

'

the barges in tow from one steamer to the other.

^^'^^ Yeniseisk the navigation takes another direction, along the river

1 is

a tributary of the Yenisei.

at Yeniseisk.

and joins the Yenisei of Bratsk, the

and versts it

is

worth his

Angara full

(d

whilt3 in

It flows

is

For a distance of 600

Angara which 1,705

versts

versts from Irkutsk to the

prison

from lake Baikal through a distance

quite navigable hut the remainder of

its

of

course of more than a thous-

rapids and interferes with regular navigation. However, Sibiryakov thouiiht

1885 to

solicit

a five-years

license

from

the Government

for rumiing

steamers on this part of the river, binding himself within the space of two years to

organize

WATER AND OVEELAND COMMUNICATION. a

and

tug

of

service

two steamers.

boats

cable

for

endeavours

Sibiryakov's

carrying

229

goods, passengers and mails by

to institute cable

called unsuccessful; in the middle of 1888 he started a caravan of

By August

with a load of 30,000 pouds of grain up the Angara. travelled

400

versts

and on account of the shallow water had

mouth of the

destination, the

Ilim,

least

may

be

two steamers and 3 barges had only

15th the caravan

500 versts from

to stop at

its

and turn back after having sustained considerable damage.

Regular steamboat service on the Angara between Irkutsk and Yeniseisk of the future, but as the Great Siberian

these two rivers will serve to feed

Railway

therefore a thing

is

and the Angara,

will intersect both the Yenisei

and deliver goods both from above and below.

it

on, at

Verkhneoudinsk, the line will intersect

and

within a distance of 1,000 versts from the Chinese Yellow river.

is

at

on the Angara

steamers

the large river Selenga

plying and the railway can not only be supplied with freights coming

which

rises

Further in

China

Here steamers are

from lake

by

Baikal

water, but even with goods from the borders of China.

The is

third

Siberian

large

neither connected with

Lena does not

come

directly

river,

Amour

the Lena, occupies a more independent

in contact with the Great Siberian

is

at present

Railway but

is

it

more

will in

importance than that done at the

to encourage intercourse

of the Obi, Yenisei and this

Lena

decree a free

import

through

goods

of

The

to various individuals, including foreigners.

privilege expires next year, in

The Kiakhta Steamboat Company, founded

1,

of

Ocean, has the

final

mouths term

of

in

1881

by the

local merchants, keeps

regulations

a of

1890, referring to mail-passenger and steam tug service on lake Baikal. These regula-

tions require that the

work:

was

1894.

regular steamboat service on lake Baikal in accordance with the Government

May

trade

mouth of the Yenisei. The Government, being anxious

between Europe and the Siberian shores of the Arctic

several times granted by an Imperial

pro-

all

or less of a casual nature-

Vessels from Europe have repeatedly visited the estuary of this river but the less

of the

from the Yakutsk region.

in delivering goods

steam navigation on the Lena, but

and

position

The hasin

basin, nor with that of the Yenisei.

have a considerable influence indirectly

bability

There

the

company should employ the two steamboats

three journeys a

1.

of 80 versts

across

the

week from the Listvenich settlement

lake

from

west

east

to

and

hack;

it

possesses for the following

to

Mysovsk

2.

five

pier,

a

journeys to

distance

and

fro

per season from the Listvenich settlement to the Tourkinsk mineral water springs, the mouth

mouth of the Upper Angara, a

of the Bargouzin, Krougoulin, Sosnovka and the

700

versts.

These

latter journeys

were fixed

in

distance

accordance with the local requirements

subject to the approval of the Governor-General of Irkutsk; the service

is

in general

of

and

carried

on according to a time-table edited by the company, upon agreement with the local authorities,

and confirmed by the chief of the

district.

For keeping up the above mentioned service

the company receives the following Government subsidies:

1.

for the

journeys

venich and Mysovsk, 296 roubles for every double journey there and l^ack

from first

Listvenich to the

mouth of the Upper Angara,

and 5 of the second journeys per season, the total

and should not exceed of 12 years

this sum.

2,170

2.

between Listfor every cruise

roubles; counting

subsidy

The concession has been granted

commencing from 1890.

;

amounts to the

to

78 of the

33,938 roubles,

company

for a

term

SIBERIA.

280

This concludes the discription of the

connection with

\\1iich is in

it,

The navigation

and very

little

an

time

1840

as

edict

On May

5,

and

was the

From

Amour

the

basin

Amour

of the

was

expense

Amour the

Government

exploring

estuary

the

the

Company

Russian-American

command

its

1844 for

In

date;

recent

were navigable,

basin

of this estuary.

its

the

for

had ever made

vessel that

of 'comparatively

rivers

and

itself

empowering

issued,

of the

fit

Amour.

of the

of Gavrilov, entered the

^pearance on the waters

first

to

Amour^

of that

river-

that time the exploration of the country went with more rapid strides, and later, thanks

to the military expedition of

Government steamer

who

Count Mouraviev,

1854 descended the Amour with the

in

Russian rule

, built at the Shilkinsk works,

obtained a firm foothold.

may

be regarded as the commencement of the

Amour

of that region. In 1855 Yice-Admiral Poutiatin went up the in the following

year another steamer, the «Shilka» made

of 1856 an Imperial edict

which included

was

issued

concerning the

in the

Amour

region

Amour

to the

civil

appearance.

its

the

of

organization

developement

steamer <;Xadezhda»

At the

Amour

end

province

Kamchatka, the whole of the shore of the Okhotsk Sea with the region

Udsk and the places occupied by Russia

low country of the Amour and

in the

of Tartary. In order to keep up regular intercourse

between the

the of

different points

«Amour»

Government acquired two more steamers, the

territory the

in the

of the extensive basin of the

The formal annexation

Russian dominions later on

and

Khank

lake

the

basin.

matter

a

is

1846, the ship «Constantiue», under the first

Amour, and

appertains entirely to the Eastern Ocean.

was not known whether

was known

Imperial

out a vessel at the

this

on

it

feeding the

waters

Siberian

the

the

river,

Navigation on the

as lately

on

navigation

Arctic Ocean, as the basin of the fourth Siberian

and

new

the

Thus

«Lena».

1857 there were 5 Government steamers plying on the Amour; in 1860 the number was creased to

8,

Government

and in 1870

it

institutions also

steamboat on the

At the same time

rose to 12.

began

Amour made

its

appearance

in

private individuals

with

themselves

to provide

steamers;

telegraph

1859; the

and

the

first

of

Straits

in in-

separate private

1868

department in

possessed 5 steamers and the Engineering Department 3, so that in 1870 there were altogether

25 steamboats on the Amour.

About the

Amour

this time the idea originated of instituting a regular

in order to satisfy the increasing

moving troops and carrying Government

stores

wants of trade

and

and forage. For

steamboat time service

on

necessity

for

in

case

of

this purpose, at the

end of the

year 1871, a 20-years concession was granted to Benardaki and Co. for keeping up a regular

steamboat communication on the rivers

company

of the

for organizing regular steamboat'traffic

Amour

basin.

Benardaki then formed the

on these

rivers.

The company took upon

the obligation of maintaining from 1872 regular mail and passenger traffic on the

ween Nikolaevsk and Sretensk, Khabarovka far as the

to post Jss

post

of

a distance of 2,956 versts, also a mail

4 near lake Khanka, a distance

Kamen-Rybolov, 135

Sretensk to Nicolaevsk.

versts,

,

and

an

of

630

steam tug

versts,

occasional

itself

Amour

bet-

service from

on lake Khanka

as

steam tug service from

231

WATER AND OVERLAND COMMUNICATION. The uumber

was

of steamers

The passenger and goods

ment.

guaranteeing

besides

during

a

to

it

freights

amount

fixed

which belonged

9 steamers

were fixed by a special

of

tariff

Naval Depart-

the

to

and the Government

pay a subsidy

freights also agreed to

Government

whole stipulated period of 20 years in the shape

the

company was

than 12, and when the

not to be less

Government made over

the

started

payment

a

of

of

roubles

2

15 kopecks for every verst of each voyage on the rivers Shilka, Amour, Ussuri and lake during the

10 years with a reduction of 5 per cent per annum during the next 10 years.

first

The highest

limit of this scale

was

it

may

be mentioned

Khabarovka

for

Without dwelling upon

fixed at 245,000 roubles a year.

between the Government and the Amour Steamboat Comp-

the other details of the agreement

any,

Khanka

that the

latter

pledged

itself to

erect

engineering

repairing the Government steamers, and to provide

own

its

workshops at

boats with

the

necessary means for executing small repairs.

Thanks

to

of regular steam navigation on the

the institution

Amour

basin, the inter-

course between the various points of Eastern Siberia hecame so animated that private individuals

were able

to start their

own steamers and barges without Government

years after the formation of the

owned by various

Amour Steamship Company,

individuals and

companies

in 1885, there

cruising on the waters of the

assistance. Fifteen

were 44 steamers

Amour

as

basin

seen below: 1.

of 1,107 aggregate horse power,

The Amour Steamship Company possessed 17 steamers

and also 18 iron and 8 wooden barges, caiTying altogether 161,000 pouds. 2.

The merchant Pakholkov possessed 2 steamers

3.

The Hamburg merchant Dickman owned

of 120 horse power and 2 barges.

5 steamers of 265 total horse

power and

4 barges. of 180 total horse power and 3 barges.

4.

The Kiakhta Company owned 2 steamers

5.

The mercant Loukine was running 3 steamers

6.

The merchant Boutine owned

of

190 total horse power.

of 205 total

5 steamers

horse

power and 6 barges

carrying altogether 57,000 pouds. 7.

The Upper Amour Gold-digging Company had 2 steamers

8.

The Telegraph Department was running one steamer

9.

The Engineering Department owned one steamer

10.

The Zeisk Company owned

of 160 total horse

power.

of 15 horse power.

40 horse power.

of

3 steamers with an aggregate of 267 horse power. of 12 horse power.

11.

The Niemau Company owned one steamboat

12.

The merchant Etkine was running 2 steamers

Of

all

the above mentioned shipowners only

the

of

80

total horse power.

Amour Steamship Company and

the

Kiakhta Steamboat Company received assistance from the Government; the former during the 20 years of the original concession received 245,000 roubles mileage and 75,000 roubles guarantee for can-ying Government

freights,

258,750 roubles; and after the expiration

altogether

of this concession, in 1891. a temporary agreement

was made with the company insuring

it

a

yearly Government subsidy of 183,000 roubles until the present year 1893. The latter company receives a mileage in the

same propoiHon, amounting

to

33;988 roubles per annum, for regular

steam service on lake Baikal and the passenger and goods freights have been fixed high

tariff.

For instance, the charge

for conveying tea,

furs

at a rather

and manufactured goods between

232

SIBERIA.

the settlement of Listvenich and the Boyarsk pier, a distance of 10 versts, poud-verst; and from Listvenich to the

mouth

V^ kopeck per

is

700

of Angara, a distance of

versts, there is a

reduction of 40 per cent from this poud-verst charge.

When

had

it

Amour Steamboat Company was

the

first started,

the obligations

upon

taken

not

iiself;

possessing

prepared

hardly

capital,

execute

to

was obliged

it

have

to

recourse to foreign loans, and the percentages on the sinking fund of the debt swallowed up of the revenue,

a considerable portion

Government

in the

notwithstanding repeated assistance from the

so that,

was unable

shape of loans, the company

repair. In consequence

when

of this,

entrusting the steam service

Messrs. Sibiriakov and

Amour

on the

who were

Shevelev

willing

in concluding

years longer in the

hands of

The

principal

Khanka

firsts

10 years,

verst

every

for

were

mileage not to exceed 183,532 roubles per annum during

Government does not bind

Xext

provide cargoes or to

itself to

their appearance on the waters of the is

The organization

company with a

Government In

the

acquires particular

as

importance

mentioned points. The

efforts

upon Russian commercial ical

position

would

it

complete

sea communication between

has-been

agreed to the same

follows:

contractors

the

river and lake

form of a payment of

for the succeeding 5 years, this

make extra payments

for them.

and Shevelev will make

At

their contract expires in 1908. to turn the

present

Amour Steamboat

between the coast stations

of

as being

made

in this

roads the

that

in

of

only

and cheap sea route for the local region,

steamboat communication

means

of intercourse between the above

would

also

direction

excercise a beneficial result

with Corea, Japan and China and benefit the econom-

Whilst up

to

1880 the

existing

means of transport were not

for the inhabitants but did not for the transport of

the Pacific of

when

suffice

stores

and

for facilitating

ports of Siberia on the one hand, and between these

Japan and China on the

effected only since 1881,

even

Government

For these reasons the Government has repeatedly taken measures

ports and the pnncipal ports

change

on these waters during the

of Sibiriakov

provide a convenient

wants of the administrative estabUshments

passengers.

to

capital of one million roubles.

only insufi;icient to secure regular communication for the

was

business to remain two

in the

constant steam service

absence

intercourse

of the country.

it

on the shores of the Pacific has always engi-ossed the atten-

the far distant Russian domains

population.

Amour basin;

of regular and

on more ad-

contract

the first 10 years. Besides this the

examining the request of these contractors

enterprise into a joint-stock

tion of the

new steamers

year, therefore in 1894, the

the Government

as

made

annum

per

with a reduction of 5 per cent

new

Amour, Ussuri, Shilka

actually

verst

a

as they

especially

with a Government subsidy

for the space of 15 years

1 rouble 50 kopecks per

making

allowed the

conditions

service on the

undertake to keep up a regular steam

In

Government

Amour Company,

the

terms as the new contractors.

was made by

offer

new promotors were unable

contract, the

the

the old steamers at once and therefore the

was a question of

An

parties.

be replaced by new ones. In consequence

expedient to stipulate that the old steamers should

however of the delay

steamers in proper

its

1892 there

undertake the business

to

Amour Steamboat Company.

vantageous terms than the

in

to other

basin

keep

to

expired

the contract

the matter

other,

but regular

communication

was undertaken by Mr. Shevelev. This

gentleman bound himself to keep up a time service between Vladivostok and Xicolaevsk and

WATEK AND OVERLAND COMMUNICATION. and Han-Kow, touching

between Vladivostok the Korsakovsk post,

the Imperial

freights according

a fixed

of

during

roubles

3

to

the

10

years, with

10

per

the gulf of St. Olga,

Nagasaki,

Doue and

post

De

the gulf of

the contractor receives from the

tariff,

first

Shankhai,

at

harbour,

233

Castri

;

besides

Government a mileage

cent reduction per annum, for the

next 5 years.

The voyages abroad were

ever of ports,

was

Mr. Shevelev's steamer <'Baikab>

commerce

of

maintain inter-

to

how-

of the Russian dominions. In consequence

the communication between the Russian

necessity of increasing

urgent

evident

the

interests

instituted in the

course with the countries lying to the south

employed

in 1886 exclusively

in cruising about

the gulf of Tartary, accomplishing six journeys to Nicolaevsk to the detriment of the foreign trade. Besides

this

steamer,

two

other

Some

the Straits of Tartary.

Korsakovsk

Siberian

Pacific

and one steamer

flotilla

and passengers through

ports,

such

as

Doue,

the

about 1885, did not suffice for the increasing wants of the

available,

region and

Pacific

Siberian

the

in carrying goods

and others, are also visited by the vessels of the Volunteer Fleet; nevertheless

post,

means of transport

the

of

mentioned

above

the

of

vessels

were employed

belonging to the Naval Department

was necessary

it

to

have recourse

to the

foreign vessels which

brought goods from Western Europe and the United States to the Siberian ports. It

in

was naturally undesirable that

Russian waters

foreign vessels should take part in the coasting trade

along the shores of Eastern Siberia, and therefore the question arose of

increasing the steamboat service in the Far East.

Upon due

consideration

it

was deemed most

advisable to allow Mr. Shevelev to institute some supplementary communication between

the Pacific,

of

ports

Mr. Shevelev bound himself

17, 1888.

the Straits of Tartary

Shankhai;

3.

between

to

keep up three

and

Vladivostok

in the gulf of Peter

lines of regular steamers: 1.

Nicolaevsk;

2.

of

three

roubles

paper for every mile during the

yearly reduction of 10 per cent the

first

two years was not

to

annum

per

fixed, tariff,

receives from the

the contractor

in order to encourage the enterprise,

between

for the

first

through

and

Vladivostok

Great, touching at certain points along the

the

passenger and goods freights were charged in accordance with a

at the rate

the

and a contract was concluded with him for 15 years from September

line.

and besides

The this,

Government a mileage

10 years with a gradual

remaining 5 years. This mileage

during

exceed the sum due for a distance of 37,000 mile-, and for

50,000 miles for the following years. According to the terms

of

this contract

Shevelev

is

at

present running steamers between the above mentioned ports of the maritime district and also to

Han-Kow, Nagasaki and Shankhai. There

But

is

no regular

service

establishment

even the

of steamers to the other

of a casual steam service

ports of the Arctic and Pacific.

between the European ports and the

ports of Siberia on the Northern and Ea=^tern Oceans has a most important influence upon the industrial development of the country.

of a northern route from

The determination

Kara

Straits with the

commencement on

this

of this article and

subject.

Thanks

northern explorers,

Europe through the White Sea and the

mouths of the Obi, Yenisei and Lena has been

who

to

the

it

now

autority

briefly described at the

only remains to add some supplementary information of

Count Litke,

the academecian Bere

and other

did not admit of the possibility of penetrating from Europe into Asia

SIBEEIA.

234

through the Arctic Ocean, the uortheru s«a route to Siberia was regarded as an uuattaiuable great

and M. K. Sidorov did

vision,

when,

service

in 1853,

was the

he

first

to prove the

erroneousness of the opinions of Count Litke and Mr. Bere; unfortunately however he did not

succeed in awakening the sympathy of any of the scientific societies.

He

upon the constant intercourse between the inhabitants of the

from the mouths of the

coast

based his arguments

Pechora and Obi, but nevertheless, such a strong conviction prevailed that to

reach

Sea, that the promise

made by Sidorov

it

was impossible

of a large reward to the

which would enter the Yenisei and bring back a cargo of graphite, was not

vessel to

Kara

the

tempt anybody'. In 1862 he succeeded in persuading Kruzenstern

to the

east,

part in

it

and although

did not terminate successfully,

it

Kara Sea was almost

that the

free of ice.

after Kruzenstern, so Sidorov

was obliged himself

out a polar expedition at his

own

Next a

it

to

tmdertake an expedition

convinced those who took

However no more adventures were found

to take the initiative

expense, but not finding any of his

and determined

own countrymen

to fit

desirous

he went to Sweden where he made the acquaintance of Baron Nordenskjold.

him,

of joining

still

first

sufficient

was entered

lively correspondence

into

between them, Nordenskjold becoming ever more

and more interested in Sidorov's ideas about a sea route

to Siberia.

In 1869 Sidorov sailed on the steamer «Georgi» from Croustadt, but near the mouths of the Pechora let slip the favourable time while saving the English steamer «jS[orfolk». Resolutely

propagating his idea, Sidorov applied to the well

known geographer Petermann

celebrated Mittheilungen an appeal to those desirous of accepting his

2,000 pounds sterling to him of the Yenisei.

Thanks

who

to the

should

first

make

Obi and

Yenisei, of

after

north

a

which he returned

sea

the to

Kara Sea and entered

for this expe-

the mouths of the

England having practically demonstrated the

passage to Siberia. In 1875 the Swedish merchant Dickson

out the yacht «Experiment» under the fully

sea passage from Europe to the estuary

the

who loaded the steamer «Diana»

In 1874, he successfully passed through

possibility

to print in his

namely a reward of

wide circulation of Petermann's magazine, Sidorov's appeal attrac-

ted the attention of the Englishman Wiggins dition.

offer,

command

Baron Nordenskjold, which

of

fitted

also success-

reached the estuary of the Yenisei. The vessel made the return passage, while the Cap

tain, ascending the Yenisei in

a boat to Yeniseisk, went back by land. In the following" year

Baron Nordenskjold on the steamer «Himer», and Wiggins on the steamer «Famela» once more safely sailed through into the estuary of the

The himself

he

late Sidorov

however

succeed

in

a long time have the chance of making the passage. Only in 1876 did

for

fitting

which unfortunately vessel belonging to

Yenisei.

having thus obtained the confirmation of the justice of his idea did not

out the vessel «Northern Light» under the

suffered

Sidorov,

command

of Schwanenberg,

shipwreck among the Little Bregovsk Islands. In 1877 another built in Yeniseisk, the

«Dawn» under

the

command

Schwanenberg, sailed from the estuary of the Yenisei and safely arrived

of the

same

in St. Petersburgh.

In the same year Trapeznikov's steamer the <:Louisa» sailing from Hull, on the 18th of July

passed through the Kara Straits without mishap, and having entered the mouth of the Obi penetrated by the Irtysh to Tobolsk, with a cargo of iron and

olive

oil.

At

the

same time

Sibi-

riakov chartered the steamer «Frazer» in Bremen, which landed safely on the 21st of August at the

mouth of the Yenisei a cargo

of tobacco, sugar, machinery, et cetera. In 1878 the <.Fra-

WATER AND OVERLAND COMMUNICATION. zer» repeated her voyage with the

same

At

success.

cond expedition took place. This navigator

the

Transen through the whole Arctic Ocean and returned continent

same time Barou Nordeiiskjold's

made

steamer «Yega»

the

in

235

to

Europe

voyage

the

se-

from

after circumnavigating the

of Europe-Asia.

Sabsequeutly

were

there

not a few other successful

same year, 1878, two large European steamers

wares and iron goods, in exchange for which they

expeditions

mouth

the

entereil

took

of this kind. In the

the Obi w^ith colonial

of

cargoes of wheat and hemp. Knop's

steamers the «Tsaritsa» and the «Moscow;> entered the mouth of the Yenisei, the latter reaching

steamer the «Lena»

Nordenskjold's

Yeniseisk.

same name and ascended

as far as

entered

Yakutsk having thus

mouth of the

the

river of the

from the mouth.

sailed 2,700 versts

In consequence of such results, sea communication between Europe and Siberia by the Arctic

Ocean appeared

to be completely established, although there

ships attempting to

make

company was formed it

their

way

to Siberia

for establishing

by

new

this

were

not a few accidents to

still

commercial relations with Siberia, and with

equipped the steamer «Phoenix» which successfully reached Yeniseisk. This

in consequence of the unfortunate choice of goods, w^as in a

productions,

its

steamer «Labrador», which was to carry

fitted

company their

did

luck,

not

failure

following

But neither of these steamers attained

and the company incurred considerable losses and soon wound up

try

expedition,

a

which despatched a steamer

this

object

to the

its

affairs.

The

ill

its

object

success of

again

more an Anglo-Siberian Company was formed,

once

mouth

its

year the

however quell the desire of the enterprising Englishmen to

and with

lor

cargo to the mouth of the Yenisei and there re-

its

ceive Siberian goods from the
this

the

in

a

object

acquainted through

nearly

out

this

first

commercial sense

the company, but nevertheless the latter having become more

agents with the needs of Siberia and

Newcastle

In 1887 in

route.

of the Yenisei with a cargo of assorted goods.

In

consequence of an accidental concurrence of various unfortunate circumstances, notwithstanding

even the granting of the right of duty-free importation of goods into Siberia during five years, the

was obliged

to w'ind

up

its

new company

had no success

also

in

a

northern ports of

the

commercial

sense

and

affairs.

Thus, the result of these attempts was the positive establishment possibility without extraordinary difficulty of sea

of

the

fact

communication between Europe

of

the

and Asia

via the Arctic Ocean. But the commercial advantage of the employment of this route remains so far a thing of the future. In conclusion

it

is

the north sea passage to Siberia, that Sidorov

not out of place to remark in connexion with

first

pointed

out

the

importance

of stoking

steamers for polar expeditions with pertroleum and in 1872 inaugurated this system in Archangel, intending to employ the liquid fuel of local origin, but the expedition then planned by him, as

was mentioned,

did not take place.

way

of regular

sea

communication, but here this undertaking could not be developed in consequence of quite

dif-

The

Pacific coast of Siberia did not present any difficulties in the

ferent causes. Till the end of the seventies the

Siberia through the Pacific

Ocean had a more

of steam communication with the tion

communication between European Russia and or less accidental character.

Far East, undertaken

in

The establishment

1870 by the Russian Steam Naviga-

and Trade Company, did not possess any serious commercial importance. This undertaking

236 also

SIBEEIA.

Volunteer Fleet

assumed large dimensions only from the moment when the regular

lished

communication between Odessa and

ports on the way.

Vladivostok,

calling

estab-

Chinese

several

at

This institution, called into existence in 1878 during the last Eastern war

with the object of performing the duty of cruisers in war time and having commercial objects in time of peace, certainly

gave a great impulse

to the connecting of

Far East, and strengthened the influence of Russia

the

The Volunteer

Fleet,

every year increasing of the Black

ing

1,300

Sea

in

whose ships are completely adapted

its activity

in 'the

European Russia with

waters of the Pacific Ocean.

in the

ocean voyages,

long

to

conveyance of passengers and goods

from the

Vladivostok and Nikolaevsk. The number of persons carried hardly reach-

to

1882,

1892 rose to 7,000, while the quantity of cargo

in

rose from 4,800 to 780,000 pouds. This freights for a distance of

is,

in no small degree,

due

same period

for the

comparatively

to the

a voyage taking about 40

over 10,000 English miles,

cabin passenger pays 500 roubles, including food for the voyage from Odessa to the deck passenger, 100 roubles for the to

is

ports

same distance,

Cargo

also with food.

low

The

days.

Vladivostok;

charged

is

30

40 kopecks a poud.

Now

the Volunteer Fleet disposes of nine steamers, with a total tonnage of 30,000 tons,

and nevertheless Siberia

now

barely satisfies the demands

it

mass of necessary

receives a

made upon

articles

it.

Thanks

Eastern

to its activity,

from European Russia and not from abroad,

and European Russia gets Chinese tea much cheaper than by land.

The survey

of the land communications

ally constituted circumstances this

must necessarily be

being the so-called Great Siberian Tract, joining

with Kiakhta, as over

more than anything

it

Within the

through Kiakhta.

short. In virtue of historic-

but one road passes through Siberia, at

Moscow with

else are transported the

actual limits of Siberia

commences

it

deserving attention,

all

Irkutsk,

more exactly

or

teas going from China

Tinmen and

at

passes

through Yalutorovsk, Ishim, Tiukalinsk, Kainsk, Kolyvan, Tomsk, Mariinsk, Achinsk, Krasno-

Hence

yarsk, Nizhneoudinsk. In this direction also took place the principal colonization of Siberia.

one road goes to Kiakhta and continues further into the Celestial Empire, while another goes to Baikal,

There

is

upon which

also a road

in

summer

there

from Verkneoudinsk

on, the post road

is

steam

communication, and in

winter

by

round Baikal passing through an extremely irregular country.

times no snow whatever

falls, in

where some-

to Sretensk traverses very difficult places,

consequence of which in winter the driver

here to carry his sledge on a cart, or on the other hand to

put

the

is

not seldom obliged

on

cart

sledge.

Further

From

the conveyance of freights extremely difficult and expensive.

Amour, but few make any use of

the road follows the

advantage of the water communication,

in winter they

The

and Vladivostok,

is

and spring almost

From

all

Khabarovka

this point to

travel

in

over

sledges

them

the

to turn

further communication with the terminal points of Siberia.,

carried on in

summer by water and

communication

is

makes

In summer, people prefer to take

it.

only the break-up of the ice or some other hard necessity, forces ural earth road.

The

runners.

thinness of the population in the country along this road, inhabited mainly by vagrants,

in

winter

on

the

ice.

ice,

to the

and nat-

Nikolaevsk In

autumn

stopped here.

the route just mentioned, especially from the

Great

points branch lesser tracts serving as feeders, but not one of

Siberian

them

is

Tract, at various

distinguished

by the

WATER AND OVERLAND COMMUNICATION

237

necessary good orgauization, nor possesses any great commercial importance. la the latter respect, a certain interest is presented by

Altai into Mongolia. cial traffic

river

Agach, 220

tract, serving as the chief artery for the

commer-

between AVesteru Siberia and Mongolia, proceeds from Biisk by the valley of the

Chuya near the Imperial

from Biisk

two routes leading from Western Siberia through the

Of these the Chuisk

to

Augoudai,

offers

frontier to

Kobdo and

U lyasutai,

and for a distance of 240

a pretty fair carriage road, while beyond

versts, it is only available for the passage of beasts of

Bukhtarminsk

tract, also

terminating

at

Kobdo,

leads from

the

this point to

burden.

territory

versts,

Kosh-

The second

or

of Semipalatiusk

through the Bukhtarminsk camp, the Ulau-Daba pass and Khongo. This road from Ust-Kamennogorsk to the settlement of Urylsk, a distance of 382 versts, its

continuation being a mere track for pack-animals.

--^-^^

is

available for wheeled traffic,

238

CHAPTER

XY.

The Great Siberian Railway. review of the question of a Siberian railway; first proposals in reference to the construction of the road; the northern, middle and southern directions; the proposals of the engineers Ostrovsky and Sidensner; position of the question in 1890; commencement of Historical

the line at Vladivostok; position of the railway works on the 10th of March, 1893.

AFTER

the annexation of the extensive

order

new

to

felt

of

Amour and

good

ways

of

Littoral territories and

communication,

keep possession of them, and on the other, in order

centres of population.

struction of

new

who conceived the

want was

the

region,

Amour

on

the

of the Ussuri

hand

one

attract settlers

to

In consequence of this a series of schemes appeared for the con-

roads in Siberia, and Count Mouraviev-Amourski himself was almost the

Upon

the idea of a railway in this country.

in 1850,

and especially after the successful expeditions of Count Mouraviev himself

that river, the inconveniences of the estuary for the entry into the river began

come

evident,

of

De

accordingly

there

arose

idea

the

Castri in the Tartar Straits and of uniting

making use

it

into

a

was not destined

want

to be realized for

appeared the proposal of the English engineer Dull.

of the Pacific Ocean, but this scheme, unsupported

bay

a carriage

The surveys

in

this

He

conceived

by any

to

In the same year another foreigner, the to

authorize

him

to

itself.

the

For the realization of

100 roubles calculating upon getting

all

idea

of

was obviously

estimates, it

this

a

ports too

of

over in silence.

citizen Collins, petitioned the

the

this

carrying

one of the Siberian

found a stock-company, to be styled the

pany, to unite Irkutsk and Chita. issue shares of

American

but

Simultaneously with

of means.

unsubstantial a character, and the Government accordingly passed

Siberia

Amour by

railway.

tramway from Nizhni-Novgorod through Kazan and Perm

ernment

be-

to

of the splendid

and the scheme for such a road were carried out In 1857 by Colonel Romanov,

the road itself

horse

of

with Sofiisk on the

it

road with the Intention of subsequently converting locality

first

the occupation of the mouths of

down

and

in

and form

Gov-

Amour Railway Com-

enterprise

wished

to

subscribed

In

Collins

necessary capital

This scheme, although likewise destitute of any solid foundation, thanks to the

sympathetic attitude of the then Governor-General Count Mouraviev, was examined on the very shortest notice both in the Ministry of

Ways

of

Communication and

in

the

Siberian

Com-

239

THE GKEAT SIBERIAN RAILWAY. mittee, but in both institutions, albeit on dii!'cront grounds,

was

it

was found

to

be inopportune and

rejected.

The

third proposal following close npon

Moscow and

by

second in 1858 aimed at uniting

the

The authors

the Tartar Straits on the Pacific shore of Siberia.

rail

scheme

of this

were the Englishmen, Morrison, Horn and Sleigh, who without demanding any guarantee of income from the Government yet petitioned for such considerable privileges, that their grant-

would have lead

ing

to the

concentration of the whole Siberian trade

hands of foreigners for a very long period.

At

and

industry

On more

guarantee for the timely and successful accomplishment of the work contemplated. Intimate acquaintance with the said proposal liminary surveys.

On

this

it

the

in

same time they gave the Government no

the

appeared that

ground the Government did not

was founded upon no pre-

it

attention

find it deserving of

and

informed the proposers of the scheme that the construction of a railway from Nizhni-Novgorod

and therefore

Tartar Bay did not enter into the plans of the Government

to the

not

could

be accepted.

The question circles,

same

of the Siberian railway aroused a lively interest in

and therefore there was no lack of new, more or

from

year, 1858, appeared Sofronov's scheme, to carry a railway

there then appeared in print

many

objections in

Saratov

Amour and

Kirghiz steppes to Semipalatinsk, Minusinsk, Selenginsk, the

and

official

private

In

the

through

the

imposing propositions.

less

Against

Tekin.

it

which was pointed out among other things

the necessity of taking the line along the Great Siberian Tract, which had existed from time

immemorial, crossing the Ural scheme, like

all

and

the preceding ones,

Submitted

to

the result of actual investigation

which

of the trading and industrial needs of the localities, through pass.

Sofronov's

Nizhni-Novgorod with Kiakhta.

connecting

was a paper scheme and not

Count Mouraviev-Amoursky's consideration,

it

mighty route was to

this

called forth several corrections

and additions, but had no practical consequences.

Co.,

Of a much more practical character was the undertaking proposed by Kokorev and in 1862, having formed the idea of uniting the basins of the Volga and the Obi,

who

themselves

these two giant streams of European Russia and Siberia, availed of the mining engineer

works

in the Ural,

Rashet, for a long time, head of the Government

and perfectly acquainted with that

to

the

Tinmen, 678 versts with a branch

demands

mining industry, whose representatives received

same men abandoned the

Perm

to Irbit, 13 versts. This

of the through route, appeared to it

be

the

The surveys

district.

reference to this scheme pointed to the following line, from

most

of

the

scheme

and private mining carried out with

via the Nizhni-Tagil works

scheme,

completely

desirable

for

the

satisfying

whole

Ural

very favourably. However, soon afterwards the

and adopted another pro-

direction indicated by Rashet's schemes

posed by Colonel Bogdanovich.

The of

Viatka

latter's

to

plan was one of the results of

take measures against the

befell that country in

1864

as follows:

<'

Viatka and investigating the

his despatch in

consequences

of

1866 the

to

crop

After only two months from his departure from

Bogdanovich reported by telegraph After removing

injurious

all

to the

the

government

failure St.

which

Petersburg,

Minister of the Interior on the 23rd of March, 1866,

difficulties in the provisioning of the

local conditions, I

am

of opinion

that

governments of Perm and the

only sure means of

SIBERIA.

240

preventing famine in the Ural country in the future

governments of the interior

the huildiug

is

Ekaterinburg and thence

to

railway from the

a

of

Such a

Tiumen.

to

line,

being

sub-

sequently continued through Siberia to the Chinese frontier would acquire a great importance

both strategical and for international trade », Afterwards, on the receipt from Bogdanovich of

a more detailed report on the subject,

was

it

Yershov through Ekaterinburg

of

ditions in

The

Tiumen.

to

scheme

several

corrections

referred to, powerfully

schemes

the interests of different parts of

alTecting

The

Siberia, called into existence a third in 1869, that of the trader Liubimov.

out surveys from

Perm through

the towns

hamlet of Bieloozersk, situated 49 versts

was

of 711 versts. There

mining branch

in

same

at the

a northern

to the north of

time

The then Governor-General attention

necessity

of

the

pointing

out

at

rapid

same

the

time

also

country

addressed to the Emperor upon the

question of the building of route

nearest

the

the

acquainted on the spot with the direction of trade

the

of

solution

affecting

closely

surveys

end of 1869 a memorial

needs, presented at the

its

works

through the Xizhni-Tagil versts.

Adjutant General Khruschov

Siberia,

these

of

out

to the

river Tobol, a distance

to carry from the main line a side

view

in

Western

of

carrying

the

to

entrusted to his care, and having become

and

Kurgan on the

Ekaterinburg

from

direction

latter carried

Ekaterinburg and Shadrinsk

Kuugur,

of

Kushvinsk Government works, over a length of 131

directed

hastily

and ad-

it.

The two

to the

the village

was somewhat

project

make

the

to authorize

for a railway from

original

subsequently had to

the author

draughted and therefore

good

1868, thought

in April,

said person to carry out detailed surveys and form a

for

it

Siberian railway?

the

Nizhni-Novgorod

through

to

Kazan and Tiumen. Thus

at the

end of the

sixties,

upon

the

question

construction of a Siberian

of the

railway there were sharply defined the three above mentioned routes according respectively of the

first

which

it

scientific

and

Rashet, Liubimov and Bogdanovich.

third, in the

was proposed and

societies

cond the Middle,

and

inary surveys were

town of Tiumen, and the second

make

to

made

the

third

in

the

first

spheres

it

Although

directions,

mentioned report of Adjutant General Khruschov, higher Government

was found

at Bieloozersk on the river Tobol,

was named

route

Southern.

these

all

yet

opinion

possible in the

from the

exact data collected during the carrying

most advantageous route for

whom

the satisfaction

weight, while at the

a

slight extent, only

same time answer

a closer acquaintance with therefore

the

this

line,

of the needs

preference

it

of

mass

when

first

the

the

matter

it

in

to

of

the

se-

prelim-

to

be discussed in the

place to build only a part of

Kama

with the Tobol.

fully elaborated

and not always

surveys, as well as to determine the fitted out to the

was

to

Ural, for

have the greatest

them that the road must, although

of the

appeared

number

connection with the above

began

commission was

was pointed out

Northern,

the

small

Ural mining industry

to the requirements

was

of not

out of private

a special

no

this question

the line projected, 700 versts in length, in order to join the

In order to form an

schemes

In the numerous discussions of these schmes in

navigable.

literature,

in

the

to the

three begin at Perm, and they end,

All

Siberian transit trade.

to

However on

that these objects are incompatible and

given to the Ural railway, the question of the Siberian road

THE GREAT SIBEEIAX RAILWAY. remaining open

for

some

Government estahlished 933 versts;

scheme, that

proves

route

first

of the northern; the second,

is,

and

southern;

quirements of the Siberian and Central Asiatic transit

bank of the Volga

railway between north

and

and

two, and in 1875

first

proposals agreed

whether the

line

extended through

re-

was

it

hilly

called

railway

very lively discussions.

forth

in

in the Siberian territory, but its direction within the

whencesoever the

that

this,

led through

the thickets

Various

the said routes, the constant subject of dispute

against

southern

the the

of

north,

it

clear that

is

railway begin,

of

line

it

point few went, and few interested

necessarily pass through Tiumen. Further than this selves

by the

of the

of Ministers on

European Russia. From the above quoted enumeration of the routes

limits of

Ufa,

to observe here that the choice of the direction for the Siberian

being not the direction of the

or

satisfaction

The Committee

from Xizhni-Xovgorod along the

the route

south everywhere

pamphlets appeared arguing for

all the

by

Alatyr,

3.

Kazan. Ekaterinburg and Tinmen.

to

be appropriate

will

It

railway

the

scheme of Mr. Bogdanovich, or the

traffic.

attention arrested mainly

its

decided to carry the Siberian

1872— 1874 by

a development of Mr. Rashet's

simultaneous

the

for

out in

1,172 versts;

to be

the altered

compromise

finally the third, a

examining these routes had

carried

Kineshma, Viatka, Perm, Ekaterinburg,

1.

Krasnoufimsk, Ekaterinburg,

Thus, the

Cheliabinsk, 1,173 versts.

afterwards

principal 'routes:

Kazan,

Xizhni,

2.

The surveys

time.

three

241

and traversed cultivated

steppes

while

must

them

centres

passing through the most im-

only

portant places.

In consequence Siberia,

the

higher

of

such

being the

administrative

down

question of the immediate

laying

important

country.

points

of

the

already

Government spheres

upon

Siberia within the territory of the Littoral

development in Imperial

all

finances

directions of

did

not

and the Ussuri

China and Japan.

permit

However

immediately

of

was

to

different

very

started to build

lively correspondence

by preference

of railways

the construction

interesting

between

a petition

1875,

in

deeply

which was followed by a

a railway from Vladivostok to lake Khanko, in higher

communication

railway

of

Thus

so

more than once raised the

country

the

of

matter

a

of

situation

authorities

region, especially in

in

Eastern

view of the

the then difficult position of the

proceeding

to

the

realization of such

desirable propositions.

Continuing to discuss the most advantageous route for the Siberian at the

same time

did not cease to occupy

of railways, which in 1877

railway was

Alexander

command

II

for the

immediate

the

was

completed

Volga, while

building

of

the

finally

the section

imposing

in the

new surveys showed

of

railway

1882 the

discussion

structure

of the

Emperor

between Ekaterinburg and

in connexion with the results

that the southern route for the Siberian railway, sanctioned in

on account of altered circumstances, could no longer answer in

Government

same year, ensued an Imperial

Tiumen. The accomplishment of the above named constructions of

line, the

the enlargement of the general system

with

already reached Orenburg. In the following year, 1878, the Ural

opened, and in 1880 bridge across

itself

of the

main

line

in several

new

Siberian

carrying out of supplementary surveys

was

to its destination.

1875,

Accordingly

begun afresh, which demanded the

directions, so that in

1884 the

appeared of presenting the three following routes instead of the southern. Of

possibility

these, the first

SIBERIA.

242

was from Nizhni-Novgorod through Kazan,

the third, from

Nikoloberezovsk wharf and Ekaterinl)urg

the

Samara through Ufa,

Zlatoust,

and at the same time

which Siberian freights

route

would

having sufficient

line itself,

data on the

Ekaterinburg-Tiumen

the completion of the

on

take

of one of these

main Siberian

that of the

without

question finally,

to decide this

The choice

Cheliahinsk.

to

three directions would predetermine to a certain extent

to

Tiumen, and

via Ufa, Krasnoufimsk and Ekaterinburg to

Samara

Tiu'men, the second, from

then under construction, joining the basins of the Volga and the Obi, and also in consequence

line

of the imminent completion of the Obi-Yenisei canal for the uniting of the basins of the Obi

and Yenisei, did not seem

consequently must have

connecting

route

On

the

Volga with lake Baikal, and

the basin of the

the direction to be taken by the railway

upon

influence

a serious

through Siberia.

line right

Really the realization of these two works was opening

possible.

over a vast extent a water

hand arose the question, was there any necessity,

other

with the existence of excellent water communication, for the immediate

unbroken in the

line of

first

through the

railway

with

instance

whole of Siberia, and was

it

sections possessing

the building of isolated

an

of

construction

not better to be content

some

political strateg-

ical or industrial importance.

In this last respect

the

deserve particular attention.

he maintained the

ment and

that

idea

of Siberia and

no need for an unbroken line

merely

problems

Perm-Tobolsk,

to unite the

the Obi and the

Yenisei,

On

the creation of the two

communication

is

proposal

his

of 1880;

and economical develop-

was necessary above

it

beginning

in the

for the consolidation

all

things to improve

Under the

this side of the Ural.

of railway right through

'

existing circumstances he

Siberia.

The author saw

saw

the solution

in the quickest possible construction of the following three roads:

Kama

two large rivers and

with the Obi at Barnaoul, with

sive

presented time,

communications of Siberia and only then complete the routes of

upon

transit then in existence

of these

that

at

relations with Russia,

its

the internal

facilitate

schemes put forth by the engineers Ostrovsky and Sidensner_

The former

finally the third, its

and Irtysh; Tomsk-Krasnoyarsk, to unite

Omsk-Barnaoul,

to unite the Irtysh at

Omsk

continuation to Biisk, and further to the frontiers of China.

an extent of 800 and 560 versts respectively, exten-

first lines, for

opened between

the

basin of the Volga and that of lake Baikal, this

union being effected not with the aid of shallow and not always navigable rivers, but through

Kama

the

and the Irtysh

which never

The engineer Ostrovsky ascribed line

lack water. special importance to the

Omsk-Barnaoul

would shorten the great water road from the immensely rich mining

line.

district of

This

Altai to

Tobolsk and would strengthen the trade with China through Biisk, Kobdo and Ulyasutai. Only

by taking advantage

to the largest extent of the

water ways of Siberia would be realized a

cheap and convenient communication between the centre of

European Russia, Moscow. The

centres referred

to will

direct union

of

attaining a higher

Having examined the conditions which

engineer Ostrovsky indicates in general terms

its

this

Siberia, Irkutsk

an unbroken line of

become urgent and realizable only

and beyond controversy only on Siberia present.

by

in the

more or

degree

of

and the centre

railway of the two less distant future,

civilization

than

imposing construction must satisfy,

direction from

Moscow

at

the

to Irkutsk as follows:

«The road should pass through Riazan, Spassk, Ufa and thence through Zlatoust, Cheliaba, Petro-

THE GREAT SIBEKIAN RAILWAY.

243

pavlovsk, Omsk, Kaiiisk, Tomsk, Mariinsk, Achinsk, Krasnoyarsk, Kansk,

gansk

thus, throughout its whole extent,

It will

to Irkutsk.

and trading centres of Siberia, will nowhere

meet

the zone

quit

all

densest

of

Volga

traverse almost exclusively the fertile chernoziom tract, from the

might he completed independently of the

The route quoted attention in

that

respect

this

rest,

preserving

its

of the Siberian railway indicated

the Yenisei.

The

own

proper importance».

by the engineer Ostrovsky deserves

coincides with that wliich

exactly

almost

it

population and will to

separate sections, each of which

accomplished in

constuction of the southern line might he

Udinsk and Bala-

the chief administrative

is

now

linally

adopted for the Great Siberian Railway.

The engineer Sidensner, who took part

expedition for carrying out the surveys

in the

in connection with the construction of the Obi-Yenisei of

the realization

work and the removal

this

of 5,000 versts extent, from

way would be opened

a vast water

Baikal

begins

by the

Amour

clusion that

canal, expressed the opinion that with

of the rapids in the lower part of the

Tinmen

to Baikal.

new water way

the coast road to Sretensk of 950 versts; and there again, a for 3,000 versts. Discussing in

matter

a

as

of fact

it

detail the cart road, Sidensner

may be

Angara

Next from

considerably shortened, as the

draws the con150 versts

first

pass by the shore of Baikal and the valley of the navigable river Serenga, and the last 350 versts along the shore of the raftable river is

reduced

450

to

versts,

Ingoda and in part of the Shilka. Thus, the road

and even here, from the happy direction of many shallow rivers

which can easily be made navigable, there only remains the pass across the Yablonovoi range from the Areisk Lake

of Tanginsk, a distance of 18 versts;

to the settlement

necessary

this small section will it be

to

a

build

The

basin of the Volga with the Pacific shore of Siberia.

met with favour,

direction, although

Yet many more and

spheres

foundation.

in

to

and only over

unite by a water route the

proposition to carry out surveys in this

want of means could not be accepted.

in consequence of the

schemes were presented, which were discussed both in Government

scientific

Special

railway

them

societies, but the majority of

commissions

were

organized

suffered

from a lack of actual

in the Imperial Russian Technical Society

and in the Society for Promoting Russian Trade and Industry, which laboured very long upon the consideration of the questions of the route and cost of the Siberian Railway, but to write

about fill

all

the

books.

The

schemes

the variations whose

Independently of Siberia began

Among Tomsk

placed

before these meetings, would take up very

principal directions are

name of

marked upon

the

map appended

much

time;

legion.

is

the schemes proposed by private persons, several Governors-General

vehemently

to

urge the necessity of building different sections of the

these petitions, particularly noteworthy are the schemes for sections of the to Irkutsk

they

to this work, omitting

and from Baikal

to Sretensk

line.

way from

put forth by Baron Korf and Count Ignatiev,

intended to unite the Western Siberian navigation with that of Eastern Siberia on the Amour.

To

these two sections a third

kolskoe,

and

Anuchiuo

to

was

soon

added,

the Busse Post,

from

Vladivostok

The surveys

through Razdolnoe,

Ni-

carried out in these directions only

touched the technical side of the matter, leaving the economical entirely aside; in consequence of which in 1887

carrying out of

it

was not considered

the

schemes referred

possible to.

An

to

proceed to the preparatory works for the

exception was

made

only iu reference to the

244

SIBERIA.

Ussuri

the construction of which was put

line,

in

the

placed for consideration before a Special Commission,

first

rank. This question

which was

also

was

in

1890

charged with elucidat-

ing in what order the different sections should be built, in order as far as possible to lighten the sacrifices

the greatest advantages from the working of those

and draw

treasury

the

of

which should be constructed

sections

first.

In the Special Commission at the end of 1890, when

the system of Russian railways projected eastwards in three lines whose extreme points were

Tinmen on

Miass

the Ural line,

on

that of Zlatoust-Miass, and Orenburg on the Orenburg

line,

on the discussion of the question of the conditions of the construction of the Great Sibe-

rian

Railway new circumstances cropped up which somewhat altered the former view of the views partly gave

matter. Strategical

mercial character,

it

much

berian railway should consist not so the

of

sale

way

before

considerations of an economical and com-

being at the same time declared that the aim of the creation of the Si-

productions

of

new markets

opening in Siberia of

in the

European Russia, as

for the

in affording Siberia itself the possibility of

marching along the road of normal economical development and placing that vast country, so richly

endowed by nature but bereft of convenient ways of communication, as far as possible

in the

same conditions

as those which

European Russia

Only in close eco-

at present enjoys.

nomic communion

with European Russia could Siberia grow and develop.

European

in

Russia

economical relation with Siberia would draw upon

On

new

the other hand,

sources for

its

development and enrichment.

The commencement

as

of

Siberian

the

would not completely answer

section

to begin this great

more expedient

and west. The terminus of the

railway from the east,

that

is,

was therefore recognized

work simultaneously from the

opposite ends in the east

line at its eastern

down, and

end was one starting point, namely Vladivos-

about this there were no differences of opinion and no disputes. Other point, to the

tok, and

slightest extent suitable for the purpose, there is

The

none upon the Pacific shore of Siberia.

choice, on the other hand, of the western terminus offered a

which however at

last

was reduced

to the selection of

more

point

all

three

the

Siberian railway

variants

difficult

problem_

one of the three above mentioned points

with which the railway system of European Russia terminated towards the ever

from the Ussuri

it

to the objects laid

was begun, on continuing

it

east.

From what-

into the depth of the country,

at a point near Nizhueudinsk, as is

must necessarily join approximately

shown upon the annexed map. Choosing Tinmen

point of departure the line must be carried to Yalutorovsk

as the

and Kainsk, leaving Tomsk by the way, as the taking of

Tomsk,

is

excessively

swamps. Further on, the from Tinmen to the

difficult

line

it

in a

more northerly

direction, to

consequence of a desert region covered with forests and

in

must go

to Mariinsk,

Krasnoyarsk and Nizhneoudinsk. The distance

last point is 3,474 versts. If the starting point

chosen be

the station of

Miass, the road will pass through Kurgan, Kainsk, Kolyvan, Mariinsk, Krasnoyarsk and Nizhneoudinsk.

The

total distance is in this case 2,683 versts.

must be taken

The

total

to Orsk,

Finally, selecting

extent of the road by this route

is

the

the

line

3,400 versts.

Comparing the advantages and excellences cf laying down the directions,

Orenburg,

Atbassar, Akmolinsk, Pavlodar, Biisk, Minousinsk and Nizhneoudinsk.

following

is

the

result.

Uniting the

Siberian

road

line in these three

with Tinmen without

245

THE GREAT SIBERIAN RAILWAY.

connecting if

it

produced from Perm

will cost about 71,000,000

versts

1,000

with the general system deprives line be

the Ural

many

technical conditions will present

The second

route

populous parts of

much more

its

steppes

is

For

half.

little

The

required on the spot.

about

at the

this,

snow

life,

where

drifts.

In

to

in winter rage the fiercest winds, in consequence

eastern half this route intersects an extensive

its

of a railway will require a

it

crowd of technical

all

With

all this

the advantages proved

be in favour of prolonging the Samara-Zlatoust-Miass railway through Cheliabinsk,

and so

in

goes through waterless, thinly populated

717 versts longer than the preceding. Thus

is

its

embraces the most

complications and an increase in the cost of construction connected therewith. the route in question

from

line

of profitable through goods traffic.

third route traversing several large admin-

the line

and the carrying through

district

said

the

second,

the

way

this distance of

same time passes through a very unsuitable region

versts

1,500

adapted to civilized

of which there are frequent

mountainous

roubles, and in

difficulties in the

But

lino of transit.

first place,

Siberia with a chernoziom and exceedingly fertile zone producing

Western

grain than

western

then in the

791 versts shorter than the preceding, and besides

is

and industrial centres

istrative

importance of a

of the

it

to Xizhni.

Kurgan

on.

In consequence of

the above, the question of the construction of the Great Siberian

all

Railway was resolved on the 21st of February, 1891,

in the sense of proceeding in the

direct order of the Treasury, of the railway

by

to the building,

same year

from the station of Miass

to

the completion of the Zlatoust-Miass line in construction to Cheliabinsk, and to the carrying out of surveys

from Cheliabinsk to Tomsk or some other point of the middle Siberian section.

Finally, by an Imperial rescript given the 17th of March, 1891, in the

name

of his Imperial

Highness the Tsarevich, the question of the construction of the Great Siberian Railway was finally

and irrevocably decided

an end

to

many

in the affirmative.

of His Majesty the Emperor, cleariy expressed in this rescript, put

The Gracious Will

and doubt

years of hesitation

now

undertaking, and

the

among

to all

the

accomplishment of the said great

the necessary measures for the most

conception, which has a perfect right to take one

successful realization possible of this good of the first places

as

Government has taken

the most extensive and important enterprises of the expiring century,

not only in this country but in the whole world.

The above quoted Imperial

rescript

was promulgated by the Grand Duke the Tsarevich

on the 12th of May, 1891, in Vladivostok, and then His Imperial Highness laid the

first

stone

and of this mighty work. In the same year extensive surveys were commenced from the w^est the

east,

and the

possibility

soon

appeared

construction of the Great Siberian Railway. to three

shifts.

from Cheliabinsk

To

the

first

to the

the

following

realization of the enterprise

was referred the construction

to the river Obi,

from the river Obi

of establishing

The

of the

order

for

was divided

the in-

Western Siberian section

an extent of 1,328 versts, and of the middle Siberian section

town of Irkutsk, a distance of 1,754

versts, as well as the completion

connecting of the section Yladivostok-Grafskaya, in course of construction, and the l)uilding of the line

between the Ural Mines

the construction

of

the

line

sections

and the Siberian railway. To the second from Grafskaya to Khabarovka, 347

shift

was counted

vtjrsts long,

and from

to the station of Mysovskaya, the point of departure of the line on the other side of Baikal,

246

SIBERIA.

Sretensk, a distauce of

To

1,0(9 versts.

belongs the building of the Circum-

the third shift

baikal line, 292 versts in length, and from Sretensk to Khabarovka, about 2,000 versts.

works of the

first shift

The order

The

are to be completed not later than the year 1900.

of construction received the Imperial sanction on the 10th of December, 1892,

and on the 10th of March of the present year, 1893, the construction of the Great Siberian

Railway was

1.

The

in the following state.

,

Western Siberian Railway from the town the town of Omsk, distance 747 versts.

first section of the

Cheliabinsk

of

The personal

a.

alienation

staff of engineers completely organized

required by them;

pensation

navvies

contractors;

and already on the spot;

hired

the spot; earth

removed

whole quantity:

d.

The work

c.

for

to the extent of

Timber cut

built for a distance of

in connection with the

removal of earth given

begun,

240

versts;

and iron ordered

bridges, and cast-iron pipes

2.

g.

Material

in

course

a.

cement and iron

requisites

preparation

of

for

of the

f.

The laying

Kurgan

of the

for a length of

the buildings on the line and at the

Western Siberian Railway from the

the river Obi,

b.

to

wooden bridges

Four hundred thousand

of cement obtained, and bolts ordered for the whole section.

Personal staff of engineers organized;

from the town of Omsk;

e.

of this quantity delivered on the line;

and already opened for use from Cheliabinsk

Thesecomi section town of Omsk to

versts

of

240 versts between Cheliabinsk and Kurgan;

Twenty thousand casks

stations; h.

to

about 20 per cent of the

218,000 cubic sagenes or

wooden

for the

made and 50 per cent

sleepers

The

the whole extent of the section, and excavators delivered on

for the bridges across the rivers Tobol and Ishim; a considerable part of the

telegraph

b.

begun, and signed declarations obtained from the owners as to the com-

land

of

to

b.

a

distance of

versts.

579

Earth-works contracted for the

first

100

Xegotiations being carried on with the works for the supply

for the bridges

and with owners of steamers for the carriage of railway

by the Obi water system from Tiuraen

to

Omsk

on the river Irtysh and

to Kri-

voshchekovo on the Obi.

3.

First section of the Middle Siberian Railway from the river Obi to the town of Krasnoyarsk, a distance of 724 versts. a.

Parties of engineers organized and despatched to the scene of

rying out final surveys and works;

b.

amount of 270,000 cubic sagenes. and navvies hired at hand;

c.

for caiTying out the

Twenty-four thousand casks of cement obtained;

owners of steamers of the Obi system

the

works

Earth-works contracted for a distance of 65

for the

d.

car-

the

work with the means

Xegotiations concluded with

delivery at the village

the Obi of the cement already obtained and of the

for

versts,

of

Krlvoshchekovo on

iron materials from the

Ural and other

247

THE GREAT SIBERIAN RAILWAY.

works;

e.

To ensure

the works being duly supplied with timber an order issued to proceed

the felling of avenues in the forests and

negotiations

in

saw

reference to the building on one of the raftable rivers of a

head waters of the rivers Obi and

Tom

with

course

timber merchants

to

in

and the rafting from the

mill

of the timber prepared partly by the

means

at

hand,

and partly by contract.

Ussuri

4.

a.

line,

Earth-works carried out

distance of

a

382

versts.

extent of 380,000 cubic sagenes, or 52 per cent

to the

the total quantity, and laying of pipes and bridges 4,260 cubic sagenes or 65 per cent; ers

and

with bolts ordered to the full amount and 20

rails

vostok laid down; to the full

c.

amount and partly delivered

5.

railway

of

versts

All the civil buildings in course of construction;

d.

b.

from

of

Sleep-

Vladi-

Rolling stock ordered

at the scene of operations.

Transbaikal Railway,

a

distance of

1,009

versts.

Parties of engineers organized and despatched to the scene of the works to carry

out

the final surveys.

Siberian Railway from Cheliabinsk

6.

a.

Ordered 7,400,000 pouds of

rails

Irkutsk.

to

from Ural and European Russian Works, of which

186,000 pouds are received at the works; negotiations in course for the order of the remaining

400,000 pouds required;

b.

Ordered of various works

148

eight- wheeled

engines

and

2,300

covered freight cars, and negotiations in course for delivery of the remaining 1,811 cars and platform trucks.

As

for, finally,

the question of the building of the connecting branch between the

berian and Ural railways, for

its

points of the said line a careful survey will be year.

are

It

may

Si-

elucidation and for the determining the initial and terminal

made on

the spot in the course of the present

be further added that there exist three variants of the connecting link,

which

shown on the map, namely Ekaterlnburg-Miass, Ekaterinburg-Cheliabinsk and Ostrovskaya-

Cheliabinsk.

The exact

tion of the initial at 7,000.000 to

cost of this

work

of course cannot be defined until the final designa-

and terminal points of the route

is

8,000,000 roubles, with the condition

struction in 1894.

—^<S^-

adopted, but of

it is

approximately assumed

the completion

of

the

whole

con-

SIBERIA.

;4S

CHAPTER

XVI.

Topographical and technical features of the Great Siberian Railway. The Cheliabiusk-Obi; Obi-Irkutsk: Irkutsk-Mysovsk; Mysovjk-Sretensk; Sretensk-Khabarovka; Khabarovka-Grafsk;

FROM

Grafsk- Vladivostok; the general cost vostok sections.

of

Kurgan

Cheliabinsk the line leads to the town of

seven

the

in

the

Cheliabinsk- Vladi-

government

of

Tobolsk,

and

only diverting from the straight line in order to avoid deep valleys, lakes, marshes bogs. Further on, the railway

is

projected to pass through the town of Petropavlovsk to

with the same indispensable departures from the straight

from Omsk

it

line,

crosses the Irtysh on a bridge 300 sageues long.

line enters the

Barabinsk steppe, passing through

through the town of Kainsk,

up

the

of

to the village

and at a distance

of 5

Omsk versts

After crossing the Irtysh the

governments

and Tomsk,

Tobolsk

of

Krivoschekov close

which

to

it

crosses

the Obi on a bridge of 400 sagenes long, at verst 1325.

The

section of the Siberian railway from the town

some few exceptions, runs through a

fertile

of

Cheliabinsk

the

to

with

Obi,

zone of chernoziom where climatic conditions are

favourable to the cultivation of cereals, especially within the borders of the Ishimsk and Bar-

abinsk steppes, where during the whole length of the line as far as the Obi, a distance of versts, there are hardly

any obstacles

down

to interfere with the laying

which the

line runs,

250 sagenes on

On

,325

some large

the spanning of four large rivers, the Tobol, Ishim, Irtysh and Obi, necessitates

earth works and expensive bridges.

J

of the line; and only

account of the level character of the ground through

the limiting gradients do not exceed 0.0074 and the radii of the curves,

this part of the line.

After crossing the Obi,

Achinsk, a distance of 551 versts, wends considerable rivers, the Obi,

its

way through

the line as far as the town of

a hilly country and has to cross

Tom, Yaya, Kiya and Chulym;

it

was nevertheless found

five

possible

here to limit the gradients to 0.008 and the radii of the curves to 250 sagenes, without greatly Increasing the amount of earth work. distance of 1,191 versts, the

mountainous aspect. The

character

Further on, from Achinsk of the

country

line is obliged to cross

and also numerous tributaries of these

rivers.

two large

Most

to the

completely

town

changes

rivers, the

Irkutsk,

a

and assumes

a

of

Chulym and Yenisei,

of the Siberian streams

in

this

part

of

THE GREAT SIBERIAN RAILWAY.

nm

the couiilry

from

to nortli, \vhil>i

suiitli

direction

general

tlie

24:0

these rivers, only excepting the valleys of

some small

flow

These spot summit

and Sayansk chains, are very high and sometimes so narrow that there

ity of diminishing the steepness of the incline.

from Achinsk

of

east

or

composed of the branches of the Altai, Gremiachevsk, Yen-

west.

tions of the line

from

levels

the

to

iseisk

levels,

is

summit

spot

which

streams

railway

the

of

west to east, ami therefore the line must intersect the whole of the

to

no possibil-

is

was therefore found necessary

It

Kizhneoudinsk,

a

710

of

distance

in the

sec-

and from the

versts,

station of Uktouisk situated at verst 2,822 to the station of Polovina, at verst 2,968, a distance line with gradients of

of 146 versts. or 856 versts altogether, to plan the

from the Great Kemchug river from verst 1,948

summit

spot

level to the liittle Ibriul

1,982, the radius of curvature

to verst 1,954;

Kemchug

and Little

was decreased

increased to 130 sagenes and on the rest

of

to

the

line

and on the descent from the

rivers,

At

120 sagenes.

and curves

0.015,

some places on the ascent

of 150 sageues radius, and to allow^ curves of 130 sagenes radius in

from verst 1,967 verst

2,100

from Xizhneoudinsk

to

verst

was again

it

Uktouisk

to the

town of Irkutsk, altogether a distance of 335 versts

station and from Polovina station to the

the limiting gradients do not exceed 0.009 and the extreme radii of curvature 250 sagenes.

country of this nature entails

considerable

very

earth

works;

height

the

of

A

embank-

the

ments reaches 9 sagenes, and the numerous ravines and streams necessitate a large

amount

of constructive works.

The

suitable for a bridge, w^hich will be

the

town of that name,

Ibruil

long.

The

station of Krasnoyarsk, close to

situated at verst 2,047, before coming to

is

point of the earth works,

450 sagenes

marked 201.5 sagenes,

and Little Kemchug

and

rivers,

is

and

where the banks are steep

line crosses the Yenisei at verst 2,049 at a spot

the

The highest

river.

situated at verst 1,976. between the Little

is

river

112 sageues above the level of the

Chulym

and 137 sageues above the Yenisei. After crossing the Yenisei the line circuits the heights near the town

and begins

which

falls into the Sitik,

in

level, first

The

of Krasnoyarsk

along the valley of the Berezovka river,

and thence along the valley of

highest point at verst 2,116. sides

summit

to ascend to the spot

this

latter

valleys of the Berezovka and Sitik

stream,

the

attaining

are enclosed

both

on

and by high, steep and mostly rocky banks, and the bed of the streams is very winding the places changes from one bank to the other, so that the line must either follow

many

channels of the rivers, or else cross them several times; in such places strengthen the slopes of the road with stone or to lead

off

it is

necessary either to

the river; besides this the ravines

pipes; and the streams falling into the Berezovka and Sitik necessitate numerous bridges and

the length of this ascent

is

67 versts, and 82 bridges and pipes will be required. The ascent

along the valleys of these rivers rises

126 sagenes

is

in continuous gradients seperated

the line reaches the

town of Kansku, near which there

river Kan on a bridge 200 sagenes long, which

is

to be

is

a

built

station,

on

highest point of the spot summit level between the Yenisei and the genes, and

is

by horizontal spaces and

above the level of the railway bridge across the Yenisei.

At

caisson

Kan.

2,266

Kan

is

foundations.

marked

127 sagenes above the level of the Yenisei bridge and 103 sagenes

level of the bridge over the

verst

and then crosses

200

above

the

The sa-

the

250

SIBERIA.

The

remaining distance

Nizhneoudinsk, which

to

is

at versts 2,584, gives a consider-

able amount of work in some places; for instance, at versts 2,460 and 2,462 the are 10 sagenes

high,

embankments

and on the ascent along the valley of the river Toporka

it

was found

two deep ravines over which wooden viaducts are designed with an open-

necessary to cross

ing of 115 and 125 sagenes, and a height of 20 sagene?.

From Nizhneoudinsk

to

Uktouisk station the

more

line passes over a

level country

and

consequently the limiting gradients are fixed at 0.009 and the radii of the curves at 250 sa-

Along

genes.

distance

this

150 sagenes long at verst the

Oka on

levels

the

a bridge 125 sagenes

earth works in this section of the

From

the

river

Oka

at verst 2,830,

rivers, it

is

sagenes long at verst 2,706, and

and intersects two large spot summit

and several small ones besides. On account of the

not

anticipated that there will be any considerable

line.

country

the

is

again intersected until the station of Polovina

reached, situated at verst 2,968, and here therefore

From Polovina

plicable to a mountainous section.

the technical conditions are those

station to Irkutsk,

across the valleys of the rivers Belaya and Mallinka, the ground

the line of the

is

Belaya

line crosses this river

situated on the right

The foregoing

bank

of the

from

Moscow

Angara where

short description of

Obi to Irkutsk shows

Irkutsk,

to

at this point

direction to Irkutsk,

situated

Tomsk and Mariinsk

in the

tricts

government

the

in

government

of

Irkutsk,

the

on

the

near

river

from

the

it,

railway in

except

of the country,

in the it

was

55"

north

latitude, the line fol-

to the

57th parallel reaches

government of Tomsk, the Achinsk, Krasnoyarsk and Kansk

dis-

of Yeniseisk and the Xizhneoudinsk and Irkutsk districts in

the

and

takes in the towns of Mariinsk, Achinsk, Krasnoyarsk, Kansk,

some

places

crosses

it

is

and

line passes close to the

some places necessary

Great Sibe-

kept up between Siberia and European in

others diverges

a

Krasnoyarsk-Kansk section where, on account of the in

this

short

distance

difficult

to plan the line at a distance of

nature

30 versts

it.

Irkutsk the line leads to lake Baikal and follows the shore for a distance of 162

versts as far as

Mysovsk

difficulties.

From

along

valley

the

and follows

53th parallel. The line passes through the districts of

from the high road in order to reduce the amount of work required to lay

From

it.

line turns abruptly to the south-east

rian postal highway, along which the communication

Russia;

from the ferry across

the river Irkut falls into

and Irkutsk. Starting from Mariinsk the

Nizhneoudinsk

broken

only

opposite the town of Irkutsk,

lows a north-easterly direction to the town of Mariinsk, and keeping

town of Kansk;

and therefore

the route of the Siberian railway section from the

starting from that

that,

level,

on a bridge 125 sagenes long.

station is planned at verst 3,065 at a distance of 4 versts

The Irkutsk

the Angara, on the post high road

the

more

10 versts down a continuous incline of 0.009,

of

for a distance

by one level stretch of 200 sagenes, the

ap-

except for the passages

Descending into the valley

laid out according to the conditions of a level section.

is

Uda, on a bridge

to cross three large rivers, the

lya, on a bridge 100

long

between the above mentioned

more even character of the country

is

has

line

2,588, the

station.

verst 3,088

which

is

to

The

laying of this

section of the line presents considerable

verst 3,108, before crossing the river

Irkut, the line passes

flooded by the high waters of this stream. Further on, at verst

3,112, the valley of the Irkut becomes narrow

and takes the appearance of a mountain pass

251

THE GKEAT SIBERIAN KAILWAY. bounded by steep rocky slopes which which the

in the cuttings of

many

retaining walls; in

mountain

has

rivers,

the

foot of

to

make

to

and forces

the west

shorten

Zyrkyzunsk

the

the

by

line

by

the Irkut, which, like all

make

to

it

where

chain

it

so that at verst 3,146 it

From

versts

the

Irkut

far

proposed

is

it

river

the

was necessary

verst 3,163 to verst 3,166

course

the

diverts

river

the

of

for a distance of about

a loop

distance of 30

this

Further up

cement.

retaining walls laid in

the line pass through a tunnel 32 sagenes long.

crosses

fall into

very strong current; here stone dikes will have to be built and the

a

the steepness of the windings of the Irkut increases,

line

to over-hanging granite crags,

to be laid, supported for considerable distances

have

places the slope of the line will

strengthened with

slope

some places give way

in

line will

versts; in order to

30

build

to

tunnel

a

1,790

sagenes long.

The work

of boring the tunnel will take a long time as

A

from both ends.

incline, so that it cannot be bored

no

the construction of the line further on; great difficulty river Ilcha falls into the Kultushnaya. as the curves

50

high

sagenes

so sharp that

are

curves of 120 sagenes radius,

that

so

is

designed with one continuous

be experienced in

occasioned by the gorge where the

at the foot of the almost vertical rocks

impossible to bring the line round them even with

is

it

is

it

less obstacle will

will be necessary to lay the line along part of the

it

channel of the rapid mountain stream of the Ilcha which even forms a waterfall at this point; in addition line.

this, springs

to

Here the height

of the

out of the rocks and these will have to be led under the

flow

embankment reaches

16.8 sagenes, and the height of the retain-

ing wall 17 sagenes, which on account of the nature of the locality must be laid in

This

mountainous

falls

into

Along

lake

the

character

Baikal

whole

to

of the

will

have

be made of stone, as

to

the

the Bystraya station, 3,212 versts from the

mountainous section

all

of the excavations in this section

is

there

town

is

of Cheliabinsk.

made

in

hard

and in some places the embank-

like,

no soft

cement.

Kultushnaya

river

the cuttings will have to be

rocky ground, such as granite, gneiss, sandstone, and the

ments

where

continues from

ground

the

of

at hand.

soil

The

greatest depth

11 sagenes, and 15 sagenes at the entrance of the tunnel,

and the largest embankments have a height of 16 8 sagenes. .

From

mountainous character, to lake Baikal. In

from

it;

it

crosses in

many

some places the track

sometimes

it

is

necessary

the rocky

taking advantage

of

where the shoals

at the

waves

the

is

the

to cross

of

constructive

work

tha

current,

little

distance

road bed

the batter of the

requires strengthening from the destructive

rock

cribwork

or

filled

with

stone.

Finally

through which the line passes that are of a

wood. All along the shore of the lake the line will have

numerous streams with rapid currents forming small torrents

brought down by

loses its

on to the rocks; in those places

completely cease,

there are places along the shore of lake Baikal

marshy character, overgrown with

it

close to the edge of the water, partly

line

and partly holding rocks

of blocks

and in others at a

close to the shore

and in such cases

by means

although

places the branches of the mountain chains leading

to lay

shoals of

foot

slopes directly into the water,

action of the

shore of lake Baikal, and

verst 3,212 the line follows the

have

accumulated;

and the innumerable spring which

all

this

will

in places

where stones,

entail a large

amount

of

gush out of the rocks surrounding the

lake will require a vast expenditure of labour to lead the water

off

from the road bed.

252

SIBERIA.

In coDsequeiice of these

Mysovsk

section

sagenes per

requires costing

verst,

topographical

difficult

1,000,COO

sagenes

cubic

4,772,000 roubles;

features

of the country, the Irkutsk-

of earth work,

in addition to this,

or almost

3,690 cubic

235,000 cubic sagenes, or

about 800 cubic sagenes per verst, of cuttings in stony ground have

be done; also 24,800

to

cubic sagenes of masonry have to be laid in the retaining walls, and 4,950 cubic sagenes of

must be

this

built with hydraulic cement,

and the remainder,

dry.

this section of the line passes is completely desert, excepting

small

on

settlements

the

shores

of

lake

Although

Baikal.

The country through which

the town of Irkutsk and some

climate

the

severe, the

is

proximity of such an enormous quantity of water causes a great deal of moisture to be deposited, so that the ground

that eternally

met with

subsoil,

which

From Mysovsk harbour on

it

valley

455

a bridge

of Verkhneoudinsk

further progress of the line

first

falls into

along

is

along the

valley

the Uda, where

of the

determined

the

in

consequence of which

Siberian

railway,

not

is

the line

Lena. Passing the

spot

summit

one

covered

was found that the

it

with

two

Selenga.

of the most advantageous spot

then along the

the

Uda and

junction of the

of the tributaries

between

level

the

reconnoitering,

a plain

enters

line runs along the

river Selenga; at a distance of 157

long and enters the valley of the river

near

Uda and

plateau, and then along the river Domna,

Lake Baikal the

by the choice

much

river

of

of the

sagenes

situated

is

to cross the Yablonovoi chain, and after

was

further

the southern shore

and then follows -the

crosses this river on

Uda. The town

The

found

is

here.

shore of the lake versts

and early layer of snow

covered with a thick

is

frozen

river

best route

Pogromnaya which

lakes, called the

Yitimsk

of the system of the river

above mentioned

rivers, the line

continues ascending the eastern slope of one of the branches of the Yablonovoi chain, and verst 3,838 attains

its

highest point 529 sagenes above

chain serves as the spot summit level of

basins of the

the

Xorthern and Pacific oceans. The pass across

490 sagenes above the

is

of the branches

of the

sweeping round the it

From

this spot

hilly side of the district

reaches the village

of

Matakan, situated

Lena and Amour,

that

is,

of the

this chain at the highest point, at verst 3,943,

and

level of the sea,

chain.

at

The Yablonovoi

the level of the sea.

consequently

summit

lower than the pass across one

level the line gradually descends

and

town of Chita by the bank of the river Shilka, opposite the

town

of Sretensk,

which stands on

the right bank of the above mentioned river.

The most section

from

and Shilka ing

it

places

the

rivers.

difficult

part

of the line as regards earth

town of Chita

The

to the

valley of the former

is

is

sufficiently

wide

to

admit

rises.

of the possibility of

to

the left bank of the Ingoda river.

sembles the valley of the Ingoda, and the

direction

its

is

the

the Ingoda

projecting headlands, and in most is

almost

In a few places the valley of the river conveniently

drying

region the line either hugs the declivities or passes through submerged

keeps

works of

a narrow space between the mountain and the river, which

only

always inundated w-hen the level of the water is

constructive

narrow and winding, the mountains surround-

are quite close to the river, forming steep slopes or

there

and

town of Sretensk along the valleys

The upper

the

track. In this

meadows but always

part of the valley of the Shilka re-

I

character only somewhat changes after verst 4,248;

of the river does not wind so often, the curves have a

more open outline and

I

253

THE GREAT SIBERIAN RAILWAY. instead of separate headlands, higli rocky slopes, some

versts long, descend into the river

iCi

these slopes are to he used for carrying the railroad track. of the local features which have been described there

On account amount

able

amounts

of earth

work

8,859,000 roubles. The deepest excavagations are IG

10

.

Almost

87 sagenes.

many

cuts in the

the

all

.

of the

which can only be drawn

with great difficulty, the

off

frozen and the excavations in such ground are 3

conclusion ally

the

difficult

banks

character.

to be supported

300

Besides

the Ingoda and

of

work

at is that the earth

arrived

be

to

by retaining walls

rivers,

to the

soil

all

amount

out of hard, rocky

the

is

many

also in

the

of

cut out of

300,000 have to be

places perpetually

only

therefore, the

and

an exception-

be of

in this section will

consequence

this, in

Shilka

Shilka rivers, and

hewn

to be

64 sagenes deep,

.

estimated at

chain are saturated with water,

the Yablonovoi

in

total quantity

it is

Ingoda and

have

will

formations, so that out of 500,000 cubic sagenes excavations, i-ocky ground. Furthermore, the cuttings

The

62 sagenes, and the highest embankme nts

valleys

of those on the remaining portion of the line,

a verv consider-

is

section.

and the cost of

or 2,014 per verst,

2,032,000 cubic sagenes,

to

Mysovsk-Sretensk

done in the

to be

steepness

the

of

embankments along them

of

slopes

have

will

along a distance of

of 56,000 cubic sagenes

versts.

The

difficulty of laying

conditions of the locality

lake

Baikal

extreme;

The climate

line passes.

on the Yablonovoi chain in June and July the

Celsius and during the night falls

quantity

of

lenga the ground

to

which

and the amount of moisture small

further increased by the exceptional climatic

is

which the

beyond

of the region

quite continental; on account of its severity the changes of temperature are

is

thus,

section

this

through

—

The

5°.

falls

during the year

hardly

covered with

it.

is

by

its

rises to 25°

extreme dryness

inconsiderable. There

such a

is

of the line to the lower part of the river Se-

snow that along the whole

is

day temperature

air is characterfzed

Only there and along the shore of lake Baikal

of the distance from does the sledge road last any considerable length of time; along the rest Verkhneoudinsk to the east, sledge roads are very rare and sledges are only driven along

the ice on the rivers.

From meteorological the temperature

observations recorded,

summer month

was above

it

zero,

and

was shown that

it

for the three

was only above freezing point

at

Verkhneoudinsk

summer months;

at almost zero during

in

in

1886

1887 during one

two months;

1888

in

it

was

highest above zero for two months, and during the three years period from 1886 to 1888 the

temperature was in July,

-|-

37° Celsius, and the lowest in January,

— 47°

Celsius, whilst

on

of —5° Celsius the Vitimsk plateau and the Yablonovoi chain even in summer a temperature Vitimsk plateau, in recorded. Furthermore in the upper part of the river Uda, on the

was

the Yablonovoi chain, and in the valleys of the frozen

the valley the

The

subsoil.

depth

to

which the

of the Chita river at a height of

average 8V2

sagenes, and in

that the remaining stratum, 1

.

summer

Konda and Chita

soil is frozen,

the ground thaws to a depth of 1

67 sagenes thick,

in the valley of the

Kondyn

a perpetually

340 sagenes above the level of the

and the Yablonovoi chain the ground in summer a sagene. and

rivers, there is

according to investigations

river,

is

eternally frozen.

thaws only

On

.

sea,

made

in

was on

83 sagenes, so

the Vitimsk plateau

to the depth of three-tenths of

to a depth of six-tenths of a sagene.

254

SIBERIA.

The continualiou

from Sreteusk situated on the Shilka, a

of the Siberian railway

Amour, up

utary of the

river, a total distance of

to the

town of Khabarovka standing on the

2,000

versts,

not been

has

right

bank of

thoroughly investigated

In

trib-

this latter

and

detail,

only some slight reconnoitering has been done, which shows that from verst ^1,350 to verst 4,900

Amour. Further

the line will have to be laid along the valleys of the Shilka and

may

be shortened by diverting

The

1,200 sagenes long.

from the Amour and crossing

It

it

construction of the line will be subject to the same

which

conditions as the line of Mysovsk-Sretensk, besides

Sretensk-Khabarovka avIU be rendered more

construction

the

topographical the

of

by the completely desert

difficult

on, the line

at verst 6,350 on a bridge,

of

line

nature

the

of

country covered with dense virgin forests, the silence of which has never been broken by the voice of man, especially in there

Is

those places

where

the

from the Amour

line diverges

a total absence of any habitation or means of communication, and likewise

sequence of the necessity of conveying workmen and

where con-

in

ready-made railway appliances from

all

European Russia by a circular route across the Pacific Ocean.

Amour

After crossing the

the line for a distance of 400 versts follows

the river Ussuri which falls into the

and Chinese

empires.

The

Amour and makes

valley of this river

of

by no means wide and the numerous streams

is

by high spot summit

falling into the Cssuri separated

valley

the

between the Russian

the boundary

levels,

formed by the branches of the

The

Slkhotee-Alin chain, entail a large amount of constructive

works.

planned at versts 6,445, 6,585 and 6,697 across the Khor,

Bikin and Iman rivers; they will

be each 120 sagenes long. it

In some places the track approaches the edge of the Ussuri and

will be necessary to support the slope of the earth work.

the Ussuri river on a bridge 120 sagenes long.

lake

Khanka and

are

bridges

largest

the valley of the

At

Further on, the

Lefu river which

line

line follows the

foreland

falls into this

Xikolsk station at verst 6,9S2. Starting from this station the line the Suyfun river, sometimes traversing places submerged

crosses

verst 6,755 the

by the

of

lake before reaching the

along the

runs

waters

sometimes crossing the branches of the mountain chains approaching

it;

valley

that

of

river,

in these cases

of

and

it

is

necessary to lay the track with an incline of 0.015, whilst the gradients on the whole of the other part of the line from Khabarovka to Vladivostok

from the valley of the Suyfun river and passes on gulfs, terminating at the

town of Vladivostok,

The

Vladivostok

line is 7,083 versts,

along

the

main

not exceed O.OOS.

total length of the Siberian

the principal rivers intersecting the

main

and 7,112

the

of

station being

the

the bay of the Golden Horn.

do

to the shore

situated

the Western

Its

the line

construction,

the

town

the

of

shore

Cheliabinsk to

versts Including branch lines to

is

to be

with

accordance

in

divided

Into

the

seven sections:

Siberian from Cheliabinsk to the river Obi, including branch lines 1,328 versts:

the Central Siberian from the Obi to Irkutsk, to the pier of

line issues

and Amour

road.

For superintending the work of laying down the railway and gradations to be observed in

on

from

railway

The

Ouglov

Mysovsk on lake Baikal, 292

1,754 veists; the Baikal circuit from

versts;

the

Transbalkal

of Sretensk on the Shilka river, 1,009 versts; the

Khabarovka on the Amour, 2,000

versts;

Amour

the North- Ussurisk

all.

to

section from Sretensk to

from Khabarovka

lage of Grafsk, 347 versts; and the South Ussurisk from Grafsk to Vladivostok,

or 7,112 versts in

Irkutsk

from Mysovsk pier

to the

382

vil-

versts,

255

THE GREAT SfBERIAN RAILWAY. In 1891 and 1892, as has already

moutiouod, the work of laying the two extreme

b(3eii

Siberian and the South Ussurisk, was commenced; and in 1893 work was

West

sections, the

begun on the Central Siberian section from the Obi most probably be terminated

tion will

Korlh Ussurisk section from Krasnoyarsk

will be

commenced and

in

1899

In

work

which

the

be finished in 1898?

Amour

begun; these will probably be finished in 1904. terminated

be

line across Siberia, 7,112 versts long, will therefore

The whole

will

be commenced on the Transbaikal and

will

will be

and in 1900 the Baikal circuit

1895

In

189S.

1896 the rest of the Central Siberian railroad

to Irkutsk will be begun, the first section of

and the second, in 1900. sections,

Krasnoyarsk, The South Ussurisk sec-

to

and the other two in

in 1894,

years,

12

in

counting from 1893,

necessary to send

workmen mostly

allowed for laying the Khabarovka, Transbaikal and railway

Siberian rails,

will be

it

sections,

when planning

special

out the

workmen, and

also

fastenings and rolling stock, iron parts of bridges et cetera, would be sent as follows: for the

Khabarovka

section

baikal section, also

Amour and

by sea

to V^ladivostok,

Shilka rivers as far as Sretensk,and partly by

Amour

toMysovsk

section, partly

possible

as

roads.

an

through

Vladivostok

rail to Irkutsk,

whole

Irkutsk and

finishing

the

Thus the

first

and

rail to

Irkutsk; and for

between the

by water from Irkutsk

to take

between

Mysovsk and

to

was

to establish as

European Russia and

temporary advantage of the water

of gradation to be observed in laying the

stage of the work consists in laying the line to

from

that already begun

consists of the sections

nication through

Siberia

of

determined the system

separate sections.

its

by

In general the object in view

steam communication

uninterrupted the

These circumstances

track in

Irkutsk and then by the Angara

from the east by the same route as that used for the Transbaikal

then by the Transbaikal line to Sreteusk,

quick

rail to

for the Trans-

Khabarovka and then by the

pier; for the Baikal circuit section,

and partly from the west, by

section,

and then farther on by theUssuri railway;

partly by sea to Vladivostok, then by rail to

river and lake Baikal

the

Amour

was decided that navvies, masons and other

it

which

and also on account of the terms

European Russia,

fi'om

which the Baikal

sections pass, in consequence of

Amour and Khabarovka

Transbaikal,

of the country through

of the population

Considering the sparseness circuit,

Vladivostok

rivers necessary

for the

to

Grafsk;

whole of Siberia, partly by railroad and partly by water;

remaining sections which join up the works of the railroad are relegated to the third stage. of the plan of building

the

Siberian

As

first

regards

railway

stage

second

the

commu-

establishment of steam

finally,

the

and second stages into one continuous

however the carrying out of the

from Cheliabinsk to Vladivostok,

it

details

must be

observed that the order of building the Western and Central Siberian sections from Cheliabinsk to Irkutsk

can be fixed upon with the greatest

detailed investigation, this part

Russia, more densely populated and

The

plan

of

carrying

out

With

its

that

Ussurisk

section

may

also be regarded as quite

line.

Transbaikal

and Amour sections,

the proposed dates of the termination of these lines

change on account of the totally

more

nearer and more accessible from European

climatic and topographical conditions more favourable-

reference to the Baikal-Circuit,

to mention

certainty as they have been subject to

the Grafsk-Khabarovka

clear, as it closely resembles the

sary

being

of Siberia

different conditions

may

under which they must be

it

is

neces-

be liable

built, coi

to

SIEERIA.

256 With the Cheliabinsk-Irkutsk gated;

exceptional climatic and

and method

order

necessary

make

to

line

has been hut

and in Siberian

Great

Amour

of

cost

conditions

technical

the

in

the

to diminish

and in order

modifications

could not be

conditions

topographical

all

limiting gradients on

have been taken from 0.015 It is

on

wide

sagenes batter

proposed to

the

of

kinds of

to

make

the

country

level

250 sagenes;

at

and

most

was necessary

it

make some

to

in

have

sections

in the

complexed

in case of necessity, line.

been fixed

0.006 to

at

mountainous sections the gradients

and the radii at 120 sagenes.

0.0174

the earth

embankments

more

and simplifications has however been taken as a

work

embankments, and

the

be

will

of country under the

and enlarged, but not in any case requiring the reconstruction of the

The

it

and for the mountainous sections

general,

of being afterwards,

good and reliable construction, capable

0.C08 and the radii of the curves

the

determine

will

line

included in one general technical

construction

in

modifications

particular; the basis of these

sec-

section.

The Siberian railway, passing through an enormous expanse

type;

three

probability

all

second, final set of investigations from Irkutsk to Sretensk, and

a

detailed observations of the

widely differing

these

of building

correct,

undertaken in laying the eastern portion. In any case

to be

invisti-

little

through a desolate country with

The plan

conditions.

gained in laying the western portion of the

experience the

topographical

therefore only be regarded as approximately

can

tions

The Irkutsk-Khabarovka

line.

removed from European Russia, and passes

far

is

it

wide

sagenes

high

as

cuts,

a single track of the ordinary width. 2.35

for

2.20

as

they

in

the

The normal

cuts.

be

will

go,

l''^

ordinary

for

soil.

For the passage

of

wooden bridges

pipes and

the soil do not will

stone piers

be

built.

Rails

wood and

of the simplest

building; the

will

rivers, cast iron

large rivers

and stone

ice or the character of

permanent iron bridges with

weight per foot rim will be used along the

sagene thick, under the bottom of the

rail.

The dwelling

and watchmen will be built of

line, plate layers

construction,

wooden buildings

over the

18 pounds

of

line on a layer of ballast, 0.125 of a

houses for the overseers of the

and for crossing

line

where the force of the moving

laid,

any obstacles;

present

be

water under the will

adhering

as

much

all

kinds of

as possible to the local styles of

be without foundations, on wooden or

stone

All

columns.

crossings in general will be left unguarded except those in towns or thickly populated points.

The greatest distance allowed between a running capacity trains

per

24

of

hours

intermediate stations

3 sets

of

on the

main

in

trains; line

the stations

order

horizontal

and sidetracks being made

where

it

will

be necessary to provide

50

versts,

which corresponds

spaces

to

7

sets

to

of

have been planned to admit of

in case of necessity.

Separate passengers buildings, built of brick be erected only at those stations where

is

increase this capacity

to

or

wood and

a large number

of

refreshment rooms; at

as

small

passengers all

as

may

possible,

will

be expected, or

other points some

accommo-

dation will be set apart in dwelling houses for the requirements of the station service or the

convenience of casual passengers. It is to

proposed

to

form 3 sets of army

acquire sufiicient rolling trains per

stock for the Siberian railway to be able

24 hours, composed of CO axles, one

set of

trains

being

THE GREAT SIIiKRI.W RAILWAY. of passengor and

composite consisting passenger

cars,

partly

cars;

i'roigiit

and

oigiii-wheelod

n.-iiics

t!

257 In

,-irr

llir

''iglil-win'oli;!!:

ln'

Ww

mid

six-wiiculod,

partly

cais,

IVoifjiil

iVmr

wheeled.

On account

that

importance

of the

ditticulty of increasing

it

hut to provide

may

permanent bridges

across the large rivers.

shown

The estimate

that

this

devolve upon

it,

however include might

greater ease

with

deemed advisable

has been

and diminishing the cost of the progressive

first

of these

Ural as

some

in

order

to

to assist in the

accomplishment of a number

excercise

on

the

prosperity

Siberia.

of

The

the construction of a branch line between the Siberian and

is

make

wharves and lay branch

facilitate the transport of building

of

the

main

line.

use

possible, for building the

as

river

works

In

the numerous obligations which

and on the other hand of increasing the economic

will

it

fulfill

with the object on the one hand, of facilitating

it,

line itself,

which

influence

auxiliary

railways,

much

the

Siberian Railway, as shown by the

the expenses which this enterprise entails.

all

of auxiliary measures in conjunction with

and

stock and

distribution of the expenses according to

of the cost of constructing the Great

undertaking it

The

rails, fastenings, rolling

in the table on the following pages.

following table, does not order

estimate of the cost of building

a preliminary

Railway has been calculated, including

is

of

be provided at points between the stations.

Based upon these technical conditions,

work

and the

line

water for the passage of 7 sets

sufficient

the Great Siberian

class of

tlx-

ol'

only at the stations,

it

when required a supplementary apparatus

of trains. In order to increase the water supply

the simplest type

to the trallic

has been decided to arrange

it

at distances of 50 vcrsts,

is,

of the wafer supply

ultimately,

products of

Furthermore

them;

lines to

to

it

Ural has

metallurgical works,

been decided

improve the Siberian

to assist the

materials;

the

to build

rivers in order to

development of river steam navi-

gation upon those river systems which adjoin the Siberian railway, and which are capable of being closely connected with it; to establish a route

through the Northern Ocean to the mouths of

the Obi and Yenisei; to assist colonization on the Siberian land in the region near the lino; to

encourage the iron works which

geological

expeditions

for

already been commenced; to

To the

carry

sections

Siberian

out

these

the

first

of

make an auxiliary

stage

railway building fund.

sums

in all

probability

special

iliary

enterprises,

exclusive

Railway.

may bo

continuing

of

a

the

exhaustive description of the enterprises

sum

When

established in Siberia near the railway; to form

geological investigation of the country which has district, et cetera.

for completing

of 14 million roubles has been put aside out of the

the

work of the second and

will be in like

the

Amour

during the time appointed

estimate

manner appointed of

the

third stages

is

commenced,

for carrying out

cost of building the

Great

the

aux-

Siberian

258

SIBERIA.

THE GREAT SIBERIAN RAILWAY.

Mysovsk-Sretensk,

259

260

CHAPTER

XVII.

The importance of the Great Siberian Railway. The importance

Railway

of the Great Siberian

colonization, metallurgical industry;

THE enormous expenditure rian

strict sense of the

ical

which

railroad,

word,

between

hand

be attained by the Government with the realization of this grand

is

demonstrated that the principal bar-

the absence of regular communication, on Ihc

most important administrative and industrial centres of Siberia, and

the

Siberia

removed the causes

is

remunerative in the

not prove

will

those numerous advantages not subject to arithmet-

development of culture in Siberia

on the other hand between obstacle

a long time

for l)y

historical-statistical article has

The previous

rier to the

one

explained

may

computation which

enterprise.

of 350 million roubles entailed hy the construction of the Sibe-

probably

is

hearing upon rural economy, mining, internal and foreign trade.

to progress; its

gold

Consequently when

and European Russia.

will disappear

which have

for

this principal

such a long time retarded the

regular peopling of this extensive and richly endowed region and the rise in the culture of the

aborigenes and settlers. In reality the Great Siberian Railway, intersecting the whole of Siberia for a distance of 7,112 versts,

100

versts

on

either

side

embraces a very wide zone, which cannot be taken at

enormous area, which exceeds the whole extent Holland, Belgium and Denmark,

mate and

soil possesses all the

economy and

the

lies in

qualities

of central Europe,

mean geographical

Germany, Austro-Hungary, and as regards

latitudes,

favourable to the development of

industries connected with them. It

the

than

less

of the line, or about one million and a half square versts. This

worthy of attention

is

cli-

rural

agriculture,

also, that accor-

ding to the propitious choice of the direction of the Great Siberian Railroad which connects the fertile lands of

Western Siberia and the distant region

deposits of the noble metals, as will be seen by pire.

large

If

it

rivers

that the line

remembered that

be also the

as

when

to the

of industrial and is

liist

will

and

Amour and

economic

call into existence

life

of the Russian

part

of the Lena,

mule

many new branches

of the

in Siberia, it is

the chosen

embraces the richest

map

Em-

cannot be disputed

it

powerful impetus to the whole

more intimate influence

of all evident thai

also

the chosen route connects the extensive basins of such

laid will give a

ment of the country, and Turning

Yenisei

Obi,

onc(;

Ussuri,

of

the accompanying

economical develop-

of industrial

activity.

Great Railroad upon the various features

necessary

traverses the

to

licli

pause over Isliiinsk,

the

following.

P.arabiiisk

and

It

Knliiii-

THE GREAT SIBERIAN RAILWAY. dinsk steppes which have always been renowned for their

line

would be

sufficient

was

an uniuterrupted

Empire ought

to

forward

conof

by water communication, then

connecting them with the general network of lines in the Russian

a far greater increase

elicit

of the Ural

If the influence

seaports.

great, connected with these lands only

so

line of rails

to

Baltic

the

granary

a

as

the opening

even

cause an increasi'd activity in these steppes and

to

siderable quantities of grain to the west, partly to

the LFral line

and serve

fertility,

Figures have been already quoted showing that

for Siberia.

261

Under favourable

agricultural development.

of

conditions of soil and climate the productive power of the

earth

draw an increase

will

of

population and have an indirect influence upon the regular colonization of the country.

Of

many

late years in

parts of

ural causes has brought about an

increase of the

number

of population from

European Russia the increase

excess

of

labouring

the

and

conlingenl,

of peasants insufficiently provided with

due

land,

has

fact,

this

to

nat-

systematic

the

already for some time past attracted the attention of the Government. Being desirous as

among

as possible to regulate the distribution of farms ferers with the requisite

amount of

the

land,

the peasants and to provide

Government has found

advisable

it

far suf-

the

adopt

to

tending on the one hand, to people the unpopulated fertile districts, and on

certain measures

the other hand, to give a regular outlet to the energies of the peasants insufficiently provided

with land who are at present a burden on the State, and demand increased solicitude.

For these reasons to settlers,

in

free

Government lands

above mentioned

in the

some cases they receive loans

are granted to

them

in order to

Thanks

household goods.

of

assist

to the

money from them

realized

should

interests of the State in general.

Taking

able colonizing

be

to

land in Siberia,

the Government and certain

in the difficulty of emigrating,

immediate connection by

beria» and those governments of the Russian enterprise about

it

may

rail

who

granted

them by

Empire where a lack

and of acquiring new

of land is

become an excellent emigration regulator

are desirous of availing themselves of

its

able

to

is

the

in

late

of

receive

great

productive power, so

the

of suit-

tendency

the

of

spite

Si-

of

apparent,

into consideration the extent already given

be expected that in

rail;

other privileges

between the «Granary

years for emigration to Siberia, this country will for a long time be those

localities are

conveying

and for their benefit a cheap rate has been fixed for

freely size

its

and so vast the amount of suitable land for agricultural purposes.

When

once the newly populated regions show signs of activity, the

will gravitate thither

from European Russia and capital

the wider enterprises of industry.

Crown

in acriuiring

will find-

force

of

intellect

advantageous use in

This might be encouraged by granting

certain

privileges

lands to Russian nobles and other individuals in the (iovernment service,

who, as a more educated and cultured element, would be able with them.

more

to bring a

Thus the Great Siberian Railway, animating the uninhabited

civilizing influence fertile lauds

ruled

by the Governor-General of the steppes and opening up an extensive market for the sale all

of

products of the earth, would at the same time assist the successful solution of one of the

most

difficult

problems of the State, namely, the definite organization of the economical con-

dition of the peasants badly provided with laiul in the internal

The review enormous are

the

of the mineral

riches

in

the

wealth and bowels

(d"

mining the

governments of European Russia^

industry

country,

of

Siberia

and what

has

little

shown how

use

has

been

SIBEEIA.

262 made

of

them up

velopment,

to

demand and

is

it

works besides increasing the output

These obstacles

will disappear

can easily furnish enough work for several large iron

works by bringing their goods within the reach

of these

In spite of the enormous production of

more distant markets.

the establishment of

to

constructed, as the railway itself will require such an enormous

quantity of iron and iron goods that

of

led

the Ural iron works,

will be unable to supply all the requirements of the Siberian line for iron goods; being

cannot be conveyed very long distances by

tively cheap, they in Siberia,

and more especially in the centre or the

very natural conclusion; and the native industry, the

As

if in

addition to this

Government intends

regards mineral fuel, which

quantities of

have

it

been

is

almost

compete with rivers, along

whole

the it,

line,

wood

difficult

regarded

be mentioned

of iron works

therefore

that in order

may

as

individuals

be considered quite assured.

years to come. Although coal

of

is

economic circumstances,

no demand for

found scattered

is

can

it

successfully

by

intersected

navigable

wild places where vegetation

and it.

have a great influence upon gold mining. Placed

this industry

very auriferous formations are worked;

that

route which are

which the wood may be floated from distant

will also

cheap

places so

the

such

that have been investigated, that

formations

many

in

many

a

enliven

to

render some assistance to private

the

many

especially in those parts

The Great Siberian Railway very

is

rapidly renewed, and where there

is so

The appearance

rail.

may be

they

compara-

of such great Importance in working a railway line,

discovered in

the road will be well supplied for very

along

to

it

east,

such works, the future of the iron trade in Siberia

in erecting

of

Siberia

very flourishing condition on account of

in a

from the markets.

their great distance

the Siberian railway

development of progress in

some places has

contiguity of veins of coal and iron ore in

the small

the

to

a few iron works, which have however not been

when

The proper working

Siberia and in very rich veins.

all

advancement

these riches will give a powerful

The

Iron and coal, the two great factors of industrial de-

the present time.

found nearly over

are

has only prospered in

in

where

those places

them are now neglected only because the

of

present price of labour and machinery and the difficulty of obtaining credit upon easy terms do

not admit of their being worked with sufficient gold mining

is

carried on,

than in Siberia.

much

The Siberian railway should

cheapen the carriage of stores and implements of labour as

many

be worked.

strive

as

far

possible

as

to the gold mines,

and

mining would inevitably decrease and

The output

of gold

would also

considerably

this

be

to

larger

is

and

facilitate

also increase the supply

of the mines are suffering from an insufficiency of

tions the. cost of gold to

In America and in other countries, where

profit.

poorer beds are worked, and therefore the output

Under new

it.

condi-

would enable poorer deposits increased

and the industry

would acquire a firmer foothold.

Turning trade,

it is

to the question of the influence of the

beyond a doubt that

materials, for which there

is

this influence will be

at present no local

railway upon

the

most considerable

demand,

will

find

a

;

extension

many ready

of

local

articles or

sale

at

distant markets; the rapid fluctuations in the prices of necessaries and the exceedingly

raw

more high

prices current at present will no longer exist, thanks to the rapid transport of gotids.

All the above mentioned advantages which trade will derive from the Siberian railway are only the most intimate

changes which

will

result from the opening of the

line

and the

THE CKKAT S^IHERIAN

new

position of

commercial

between

intercourse

hand, and within the borders of Siberia

examined

connection with the

in

uninterrupted

that

established between Europe and the Pacilic and the

a

new

for

understood by the Russian merchants, whose representatives

m

will

an address

industry:

it

to Russia,

This was clearly

Russian trade.

the fair of Nizhni-Kovgorod

at

the realization of

«This

terms:

railioad

will give a great impulse to

and

be

will

Siberian railway opens

1lio

Russian

and 35 million Japanese with Europe through

400 million Chinese

will connect

railroad coiiuiuuiicaiiou

in the following

on the Siberian railway

be of immense economic importance

Russian trade, the

for

the Russian mercliant class with

1889 expressed their hopes connecting

this enterprise in

Railway

Eur East. Thus

and new horizons for universal, as well as

route,

one

tlie

In order, liowever, to grasp the

probable consequences of this enterprise must be

and the fact

and Siberia on

European Russia

ou the other hand.

whole extent of the actual importance of the Great Siberian scope of vision must be enlarged

26B

liAll.W.VV.

The strenuous endeavours made by Germany to gain possession of the markets of tlie and the efforts which have been made to complete the Panama Canal visibly show that

Russia. Pacific,

the economic struggle already

road has

now

commenced

will

end on the Pacific Ocean. The Canadian

appropriated part of the freights of

Vladivostok

through Russia as the

of these goods will pass

Europe through the Suez. Undoubtedly part journey from Europe through

to

rail-

tea and furs which previously reached

silk,

Shanghai

will be

made

in

38

days,

or 20

instead of 45 through Suez or 35 days at present by the Canadian railway». It

is

particularly important for Russia

between

that this change in the direction of the tratlic

should be to

Europe and the east of Asia

all

from

effect of increasing the

The Siberian

importance of Russia

in

it

in this

can

reap

the east of Asia and west of

more

and consumer

others with the people of the east of Asia.

and taking part

10 thousand versts long

the advantages not only in the conveyance of goods

Europe, but also those of a large producer

the

advantage,

its

communication with a continuous railroad more than

closely

line will

than

connected

therefore

not

the universal markets but

all

only have

new

sources

of national wealth will abundantly open around her. It

may

amount to over be added that China, Japan and Corea, whose united populations

in gold, have 4G0 millions and whose international trade turnover exceeds 500 million roubles Europe, with intercourse commercial their of not reached by far the limit of development

but are rather undergoing the elementary stage of further removed from the shore are but

opened

its

ports to international trade,

quented by Europeans,

will

little

it.

The

internal provinces of China, being

accessible to Europeans; but

when once China has

the piovinces which have as yet been but

course

in the natural

of

little

fre-

events sooner or later enter the inter-

commercial intercourse national markets and carry on international commerce. In any case the not surpising that between Europe and China has every reason to extend, and it is therefore the nations of Europe

are

making strenuous endeavours

to

gain possession of the

eastern

to this object. But markets of Asia and do not hesitate before any expenditure likely to lead countries, Russia rich mentioned above contiguity to those in this respect, owing to its

possesses important advantages over

only 4 to VI-2 thousand the Chinese frontier, that

versts it

from

all

the

tiie

othei'

nations

(d'

N'olga, the Silioriau

would be quite

possible,

Europe. Thus, at a distance of railway

approaobes so near to

by means ot a branch Hue running into

STBRRIA.

254 the borders of China,

to

rapidly and the revenne of the

case

main

predominating

the

with

inlerchanf^^o

the

lliickly

railway would materially increase

of the Siberian

Taking also

in the international trade with China.

of goods

class

popuhitcd

Russian trade with China would extend very

th(>

line

as well as the importance of Russia

consideration

rominercial

direct

start

iuternal provinces of China; in tliat

trade of China,

international

the

in

into it

is

with those by sea, to some evident that the rather more expensive railway freights compared be an obstacle, hindering the extent equalized by the smaller insurance charges, would not and 58 per cent of the Chinese transfer of Chinese goods from the sea route to the overland: tea and silk. Besides namely articles, expensive highly two of composed is trade export to railway transportation, quickness of transport and other conveniences, assuilng the preference interests of China and Russia, there are yet particular circumstances, which in the mutual

England plays

export trade of China, striving to

compete

with China in

the tea

plantations in the

greatest

amount

network of twice

are

as

near

to

of groat advantage

is

Europe

as

this is not only a great loss

and

Chinese treasury also, as tea

is

to

a

in

London and part

large

this competition;

delivering

Chinese teas

may

serve

much quicker

On account

population of China, but for the

only Russia, but China

also, is

carriage and sale of tea in Europe, as Russia

is

Russia one

probability

Chinese tea trade, by

the

to

compared with the sea voyage from Therefore not

transport of Indian teas.

than the

most anxious that

all

quostidu lor China, and in this

support

in Europe, not only

China through London, but much quicker

of the above mentioned

export duty in China. In

great

a

as

others the

to other countries is rapidly declining,

the continued decline of the tea trade will be a very serious respect the Siberian railway

among

conveying the tea to the ports which

the

of

to a high

subjected

Ceylon, supply the

and

There are many favourable conditions

Chinese ports.

the

circumstances the export of Chinese teas to

]ia>

India

England, in

colonies of

which contribute to the success of

railways in India as

is

met with some success

production of tea and

of tea to the whole of Great Britain.

in the English colonies

present

the most important part, but at the same time she

the

Asiatic

to the railway route. In the

tea

of

transport

the

of

conduce to the transfer

will

should take an active part in the

of the

largest

and continually increas-

ing markets for the consumption of tea.

This tangible analogy

of the interests of the two

countries in the export of

the

new

especially as the other principal article of the Chinese export trade,

silk,

but conduce to the gravitation of other Chinese exports towards

I'oute

to

not

will

can

tea

Europe, be

only

capable of bearing the expense of a long railway journey, but can also be woven in Russia.

Russia on the other hand, through the agency of the Siberian to

take a

much more

will

railway,

thither from other countries,

and

in this respect

Russia

may meet

be

able

now imported

active part in supplying China with those goods which are

with particular success

in

exporting cotton and woollen goods, and even metals, which together compose about one-half of the whole Chinese import.

weight,

may be brought the

The former on account

may be conveyed from Moscow, to

China from the Ural, or

Tomsk and Yeniseisk governments,

ment

of Lkutsk,

of their high value

or even from beyond

where the mineral wealth

from the

bettei' still

the region is

hut

of

nearer

Transbaikal ami

little

compared with

Moscow by

iiiferioi

tn that

rail,

mining pait id'

districts

of

the

govern-

I'l-als

and pos-

nf

the

their

and the metals

THE GREAT SIBERIAN RAILWAY. sesses all favourable

China

qualifications

for

the

development

extensive

and valuable market for these

will be a very near

265 of

mining industry.

the

districts as well as for other Siberian

wares such as leather goods, furs et cetera. The opening of the Siberian railway will therefore enable Russia to profit by the proximity of China for the sale of

There Railway.

is

no occasion

to

dwell upon

Its significance is clear

its

friends and enemies

Russia to the East.

east

of

Asia,

in

in

that position

Europe.

As

in

produce.

its

importance

the

of

line is

east

Great

the

completed

which

Asia

of

Siberian

Russia will it

holds

the line shortens the distance from European

a like measure will the power of Russia

In addition to this undisputed position,

ditions already

political

from the fact that when the

not only nominally but actually occupy

among

the

it

may

increase

mentioned occurring from the opening of the

line

and

the

in

be mentioned that the favourable

con-

commercial

extending

intercourse between Russia and the nations of the East, will undoubtedly conduce to strengthen friendly political relations with those countries.

the mutual interests in the

field of

universal

railway line to the Pacific Ocean will

with the

United States

Russia in the

grain

of

America,

These friendly relations

economic

enable Russia

which

in

to

spite

carry of

trade of Europe, in consequence of the

other interests, cherishes sincere sympathy for Russia.

—^<^--

on more

being

the

solidarity

cemented by

will be

Finally the

activity.

direct

great of

opening

its

of

a

intercourse

competitor political

of

and

t

^

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