English 2 Handbook

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The Sentence and Its Elements 1.1 What is a Sentence? A sentence is often defined as a word or group of words that expresses a complete thought or a word or group of words that has an expressed or understood subject and a predicate. Examples of Sentences: • • • •

Go! Come what may. Who arrives? When he reached the mountain, he saw a road to the left and a road to the right.

1.2 What is a Fragment? A fragment is a group of words that lacks either a subject or a predicate and does not express a complete thought. Examples of Fragments: • • • •

Familiar means of transportation. Suppose President Diosdado Macapagal could return to earth today. Found a need for each other without the presence of a loving parent. When my friend got married.

Oral Exercise: Determine whether each group of words is a sentence or a fragment. 1. 2. 3. 4.

The invention of machines has brought most of the changes. Would find himself in a strange new world. In his time no building more that four stories high. Automobiles and trains had not yet been invented during that time. 5. Horse drawn vehicles traveled on unpaved roads. 6. A vast number of changes in the last two hundred years. 7. At the court of the king of Babylon in 2000 B.C. 8. There he would see many things that were familiar to him. 9. The lamps and torches and charcoal fires. 10. Two hundred years is a short period of time in history. 11. The changes that have occurred in that time were tremendous. 12. Without the inventions of machines.

2 Written Exercise: Write C if a word group is a complete sentence, write frag if it is a fragment. When the bus driver went on strike. I saw many people giving rides to strangers. Some even drove out their way for others. Especially when the weather was bad. One rainy day, I saw an elderly woman pull her car over to the curb. 6. Yelling and waving for five shivering students to get into her car. 7. Until the strike finally ended. 8. Scenes like that were not uncommon. 9. It seems that community problems bring people together. 10. By weakening the feeling that we live very separate lives. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

1.3 What are Phrases and Clauses? There are two types of fragments: a phrase and a clause. A phrase is a group of words introduced by a preposition, a noun, or verbals (gerunds, participles, infinitives) Examples of Phrases: • • • • •

Into the wide garden (prep) Farming of land without plows (gerund) To survive living in that barren land (infinitive) Amazed and excited in her new surrounding (participle) Traveled without food for 2 days (verb phrase)

Another type of fragment is a clause. A clause has a subject and a predicate but does not express a complete thought. Examples of Clauses: • • • •

Before the computer was introduced When the first plane came into being Because this method was slow As technology advanced

Oral Exercise: Identify whether the underlined group of words is a clause or a phrase. 1. During the 1800s an agricultural revolution occurred. 2. Farming became more productive because of new inventions. 3. Crop yields increased when a seed drill was invented.

3 Seeds were scattered by hand before the drill was marketed. Farmers were excited when the steel plow appeared in 1937. With John Deere’s invention, they could plow more land. After Eli Whitney built his cotton gin, large – scale cultivation of cotton became possible. 8. Without this device cotton took too much time to clean. 9. Farms soon expanded since grain could be harvested easily. 10. As time passed, many other inventions helped the farmer. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Written Exercise: Identify if it is a Phrase or a Clause. 1. Including crayons, stones, and melted chocolates 2. Also, grumpy as a bear, but weak as a kitten 3. As you can see in this old photograph 4. Who made giant contributions to our country’s history 5. Good at tennis but better at volleyball 6. Of his many ideas and inventions 7. That he was the most attentive boy in class 8. What Ramon Magsaysay did to the poor 9. Whoever proclaimed him the winner 10. To open the rear window every morning 1.4 What are the Functions of Prepositional Phrases A prepositional phrase is a group of words beginning with a preposition and ending with a noun or pronoun. The prepositional phrase often answers the question where, when, and what kind. Examples: • • • •

The members of the club want sweatshirts with the club emblem. (adjective) They sailed along across the lake yesterday (adverb) By Wednesday, they shall have finished the work.( adverb) The children are in the park (adverb)

1.5 What are the Functions of Clauses? Like phrases, clauses also function as other parts of speech such as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.  A noun clause occupies the following positions in the sentence. Notice these examples: 1. Where he is going is a secret. (subject) 2. I know what his name is .(direct object)

4 This is what I think.( subjective complement) The club will give whoever wins a prize. (indirect object) She will name him whatever she wants to.(direct object) She worried about how ill he was.( object of prep) One fact, that he is incompetent, cannot be disputed. (appositive) 8. Remembering what she said, I was careful to be on time.(object of participle) 9. John asked her to read what he had written.(object of infinitive) 10. Knowing that he is here is a comfort to me.( object of gerund) 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Oral Exercise on Noun Clauses: Identify the function of these underlined noun clauses. 1. Benjamin Franklin learned what succeeds. 2. He knew what should be said. 3. What happened has been recorded. 4. Appreciation was given to whoever helped. 5. Friendliness is what resulted. 6. What we want is not always what we need. 7. Whoever succeeds must work. 8. He must learn what is expected. 9. Satisfaction comes to whoever succeeds. 10. Success is what is desired. An adjective clause is a subordinate clause used as an adjective to modify a noun or a pronoun. Examples: • This is a new music video that I like best. • Griffins, which are mythological beasts, are seen in many coats of arms. • Here is the salad that you ordered. • The students questioned the data on which the theory was based. An adverb clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Examples: • After I proofread my paper, I typed it. (The adverb clause After I Proofread my paper tells when I typed it.) • Because Manicotti takes so long to prepare, Joy makes it only on special occasions. (Because manicotti takes so long to prepare tells why Joy makes it only on special occasions)

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You and your brother may come with us if you want to. (If you want to tells under what condition you and your brother may come with us.) His pitching arm is stronger today than it ever was. (The adverb clause modifies the adjective stronger, telling to what extent his arm is stronger. My cousin Adele reads faster than I do. (The adverb clause modifies the adverb faster, telling how much faster my cousin Adele reads.)

Oral Exercise: Identify the adverb clause in each of the following sentences. 1. He went home as soon as he could. 2. Abraham Lincoln maintained great interest in legal studies when he was President. 3. He read law books whenever he had the chance. 4. He even read while he conducted cabinet meetings. 5. He had wanted to be a lawyer since he was a young boy. 6. He worked as a lawyer after he finished his education. 7. He was a member of the legislature of his state before he became President. 8. He maintained his interest in law until he was assassinated. 9. We will better appreciate Lincoln the lawyer when we study his legal opinions. 10. I have always lived where I was born. Written Exercise: Copy the dependent clause and identify whether noun, adjective, or adverb clause. If the sentence is simple, write none. 1. One of the great problems that the world faces is overpopulation. 2. Experts tell us that unless it is brought under control population growth will produce a serious crisis in the world’s food supply in a few years. 3. Increase in population will also exhaust the space that is habitable on the earth. 4. Many of the world’s peoples are not aware of this problem. 5. People who have engaged in fertility rites for centuries find the danger of over-population a hard concept to grasp. 6. World leaders who must always think about public reaction find the population problem hard to cope with. 7. Improvement in food production and distribution however is something that everybody can understand and support. 8. Likewise water conservation which is necessary to food production and other vital human activities is supported readily by most people. 9. But increased production as important as it is will probably never reach sufficient proportions unless an effort is made to control population.

6 10. Before this complicated problem is solved people will have to be educated to understand the urgency of reducing the world’s birth rate as well as the necessity for the production of much more food. 2.0.

Expanding Sentence Patterns Kinds of Sentences (simple, compound, complex) 2.1 Basic Pattern: Simple Sentence

The subject of a sentence is the part that names whom or what the sentence is about. The predicate is the part that tells what the subject is or does. 1. A gale is a strong wind. 2. A dangerous gale and flash flood are coming this way. 3. A gale at sea can sink small boats and destroy houses on the shores. Sometimes the subject can just be one word, as in sentence 1. The subject can also be compound as in sentence 2 and compound predicate as in sentence 3. But sentences 1 to 3 are still categorized as simple sentences. 2.2 Compound Sentences use coordinate conjunctions as connectors. Examples: And shows addition. • John moved to New York, and Alice moved to Seattle. But and yet show contrast. • John moved away, but Alice stayed in town. • Jerry has saved money all year, yet he does not have enough for his vacation. Or and nor show contrast or alternation. • Are you going to the party, or will you stay home? • I do not write Arabic, nor do I speak it very well. Notice that after nor, the sentence pattern takes question word – order verb or auxilliary before subject. • •

I am not eager to go there, nor is John. I am not eager to go there, nor will John be.

For and so show reason. • That student failed, for he was very ill this year. • The books were cheap, so I bought all of them.

7 Sometimes conjunctions are used in pairs, called correlative conjunctions. These pairs of conjunctions may be used to join two basic sentence patterns or two parallel sentence elements of any kind. Either...................or..................... Neither.................nor................... Both.....................and.................. Not only................but also........... Either you will confess, or I will complain. (Compound) Neither the money nor the jewelry was missing. (Simple) Jack failed not only chemistry, but also physics. (Simple) Both Jerry and Bob are in love with Harriet. (Simple) Neither is he dependable, nor is he trustworthy. (Compound) Not only is he dependable, but also he is trustworthy. (Compound) Not only is he dependable, but he is also trustworthy. (Compound) Notice the question word – order in the last three sentences, also variation possible in the placement of but also. Make sure they are of parallel structure. Adverb Clauses are often introduced by the following relationships: Examples: Adverbial clauses introduced by subordinating conjunctions can express the following relationships.  Time ---------when, while, before, since  Place ---------where, wherever  Condition ---------if, unless, provided  Cause ---------because, since, as  Purpose ---------that, so that, in order that  Manner ---------as if, as though  Result ---------so –that, such – that  Comparison ---------than, as – as, so – as  Concession ---------although, even though, even if Examples of Adverb Clauses • • • • •

Many pioneers struggled as many other heroes have struggled. Danger lurked wherever they looked. If Indians attacked, everyone fought. When sickness came, families cooperated. Although hardships increased, people continued.

Oral Exercise: Determine if the group of underlined words is a phrase or a clause and identify its function. Example:

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Because he was loved throughout India and the world, Gandhi was called Mahatma, meaning “Great Soul.” : Answer: CLAUSE – ADVERB 1. What Mary Ann did was brave and earned praise from everyone. 2. The mother said he could go. 3. The students questioned the data on which the theory was based. 4. Talking about money makes him uneasy. 5. Having some experience, he was hired immediately. 6. The school needed a teacher to take charge. 7. The only job he could find is fixing bikes. 8. Wanting privacy, they never discuss salaries. 9. When hte volcano errupted, the sky turned black. 10. Our dog rests on the floor in the sunshine. Written Exercise: Determine if the underlined group of words is a phrase or a clause. Then identify its function. (Two answers for every number.) 1. What surprised me first were the yellowish green fire engines. 2. Now, after we have lived in Cavite for a year, both Michelle and I are happy in our new home in Tubigon. 3. Cartoonists use a variety of unusual names for the symbols that commonly appear in funnies. 4. For example, a briffit is the little puff of dust hanging in the spot where a swiftly departing character had just been standing. 5. If you look through newspapers from the first half of this century, you will see many pictures of Mohandas K. Gandhi. 6. There is a teacher in the classroom but there are no students. 7. There stood Mary, frantically dipping water out of the boat. 8. The traveling salesman who was selling second hand computers looked very attractive. 9. He goes to school by motorbike everyday. 10. She is loved anywhere she is assigned to teach. 3.0 Problems in the Position of Modifiers 3.1 MISPLACED MODIFIERS Misplaced modifiers are words that, because of awkward placement, do not describe the words the writer intended them to describe. Misplaced modifiers often confuse the meaning of a sentence. To avoid them, place words as close as possible to what they describe Misplaced Words

They could see the Goodyear blimp sitting on the front lawn

9 (The Goodyear blimps were sitting on the front lawn?)

Sitting on the front lawn, they could see the Goodyear blimp.

Correctly Placed Words

We had a hamburger after the movie, which was too greasy for my taste. (The movie was too greasy for my taste?)

After the movie, we had a hamburger which was too greasy for my taste.

Other single – word modifiers to watch out for include only, even, hardly, nearly, and often. Such words should be placed immediately before the word they modify. Our phone almost rang fifteen times last night. (The phone almost rang fifteen times, but in fact did not ring at all?)

Our phone rang almost fifteen times last night. (The intended meaning – that the phone rang a little under fifteen times – is now clear.)

Oral Exercise: Point out the misplaced word or words in each sentence. Then revise the sentence, placing related words together to make the meaning clear. Example: Anita returned the hamburger to the supermarket that was spoiled. Anita returned the hamburger that was spoiled to the supermarket. Revise the following sentences for clarity. 1. Larry looked on as his car burned with disbelief. 2. We watched the fireworks standing on our front porch. 3. Jenny kept staring at the man in front row with curly hair. 4. I love the cookies from the bakery with the chocolate frosting.

10 5. Jason almost has two hundred baseball cards.

Written Exercise: Rewrite each sentence, adding the italicized words. Make sure that the intended meaning is clear and that two different interpretations are not possible. Example: I borrowed a pen for the essay test. (that ran out of ink) For the essay test, I borrowed a pen that ran out of ink. 1. I was thrilled to read that my first niece was born. (in a telegram) 2. My father agreed to pay for the car repairs. (over the phone) 3. I found a note on the kitchen bulletin board. (from Jeff) 4. The children ate the whole bag of cookies. (almost) 5. Jon read about how the American Revolution began. (during class) 3.2.

DANGLING MODIFIERS

A modifier that opens a sentence must be followed immediately by the word it meant to describe. Otherwise, the modifier is said to be dangling, and the sentence takes an unintended meaning. For example, in the sentence While sleeping in his backyard, a Frisbee ball hit Bill on the head. As it is, it means that the Frisbee was sleeping in his backyard. What the writer meant, of course, was that Bill was sleeping in his backyard. The writer should have placed Bill right after the modifier. While sleeping in his backyard, Bill was hit on the head by a Frisbee. The sentence could also be corrected by placing the subject within the opening word group:

11 While Bill was sleeping in his backyard, a Frisbee hit him on the head. Examples: DANGLING Having almost no money, my survival depends on my parents. (Who has almost no money? The answer is not survival but I. The subject I must be added.) CORRECT Having almost no money, I depended on my parents for survival. Or: Since I had almost no money, I depended on my parents for survival.

Riding his bike, a German shepherd bit Tony’s ankle. (Who is riding the bike? The answer is not German shepherd, as it unintentionally seem to be, but Tony.) Riding his bike, Tony was bitten on the ankle by a German shepherd. Or: While Tony was riding his bike, a German shepherd bit him on the ankle.

These examples make clear two ways of correcting a dangling modifier. Decide on a logical subject and do one of the following: 1. Place the subject within the opening word group: Since I had almost no money, I depended on my parents for survival (Note: In some cases an appropriate subordinating word such as since must be added, and the verb may have to be changed slightly as well.) 2. Place the subject right after the opening word group. Having almost no money, I depended on my parents for survival. Sometimes even more rewriting is necessary to correct a dangling modifier. What is important to remember is that a modifier must be placed as close as possible to the word it modifies. Written Exercise: A. Rewrite each sentence to correct the dangling modifier. 1. Having turned sour, I would not drink the milk. 2. At the age of five, my mother bought me a chemistry set. 3. Because they were drooping, the children watered the plants. 4. Talking on the phone, my hot tea turned cold. 5. Pile high with dirty dishes, Pete hated to look at the kitchen sink. B.Complete the following sentences. In each case, logical subject

12 should follow the opening words. Example: Checking the oil stick, I saw that my car was a quart low. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

While taking a bath, Before starting the car, Frightened by the noise in the basement, Realizing it was late, Though very expensive,

3.3. PARALLELISM in SENTENCES Words in a pair or a series should have a parallel structure. By balancing the items in a pair or a series so that they have the same structure, you will make your sentences clearer and easier to read. Notice how the parallel sentences that follow read smoothly than the nonparallel ones. NONPARALLEL(Not Balanced)

PARALLEL(Balanced)

Fran spends her free time reading, listening to music, and she works in the garden.

Fran spends her free time reading, listening to music, and working in the garden. (A balanced series of – ing words: reading, listening, working)

After the camping trip, I was exhausted, irritable, and wanted to eat.

After the camping trip, I was exhausted, irritable, and hungry. (A balanced series of descriptive words: exhausted, irritable, hungry)

My hope for retirement is to be healthy, to live in a comfortable house, and having plenty of money.

My hope for retirement is to be healthy, to live in a comfortable house, and to have plenty of money. (A balanced series of verbs: to be, to live, to have).

Balanced sentences are not a skill you need to worry about when writing first drafts. But when you rewrite, you should try to put matching words and ideas not matching structures. Such parallelism will improve your writing style. Written Exercise: The unbalanced part of each sentence is italicized. Rewrite this part so that it matches the rest of the sentence.

13 Example: In the afternoon, I changed two diapers, ironed several shirts, and was watching soap operas. watched instead of was watching 1. Annie put the coin into the slot machine, pulled its arm, and was waiting to strike it rich. 2. Studying a little each day is more effective that to cram. 3. Many old people fear loneliness becoming ill, and poverty. 4. Once inside the zoo gates, Julio could hear the lions roaring, the chirping of many birds, and the elephants trumpeting. 5. People immigrate to America with hopes of finding freedom, happiness, and in order to become financially secure. 6. My pet peeves are screeching chalk, buses that are late, and dripping sinks. 7. As smoke billowed around her, Paula knew her only choices were to jump or suffocation. 8. The principal often pestered students, yelled at teachers, and was interrupting classes. 9. People immigrate to America with hopes of finding freedom, happiness, and in order to become financially secure. 10. As a child I had nightmares about a huge monster hat came out of a cave, was breathing fire, and wanted to barbecue me. 4.0 WRITING PARAGRAPHS A paragraph is a group of related sentences that introduces and develops a main idea. Paragraphs are the true “building blocks” of writing. They indicate that a writer has moved from one main idea to another. Paragraphs also make reading a page easier. The first line of a paragraph is intended slightly from the left margin. In a paragraph you will usually find a topic sentence that states the main idea, supporting sentences that provide more detailed information, and when appropriate, a clincher sentence. The clincher sentence summarizes or restates the paragraph’s main idea. Sample Paragraph: People in prehistoric times made music with simple instruments. The human voice was probably the first instrument. People enjoyed chanting and singing around a fire. They also beat rhythmically on hollow logs and shook rattles made of bone and pebbles. Eventually people found that a simple reed or hollow stick could produce musical sounds when air was blown into it. Such instruments provided joys of music for our prehistoric ancestors. Summary: A paragraph is a group of related sentences about one main idea. Oral Exercise 1 The sentences below make up a paragraph. Tell which sentence is the topic sentence. Then order the supporting sentences correctly.

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1. He used electronic equipment to create sounds. 2. Since 1950, many composers have experimented with untraditional ways of making music. 3. The sounds may have any tone, pitch, loudness, and duration. 4. Edgar Vares, for example, was known for his electronic music.

Written Exercise: Read the following paragraph. Then write an answer for each question below it. The water drum is a unique musical instrument. It is closed cylinder that is usually made of metal. Inside the drum is a certain amount of water that affects the drum’s tone. By tilting the drum, the player shifts the water during or between each beat. The movement of the water raises or lowers the pitch of the drum beat and produces some very unusual sounds. 1. 2. 3. 4.

What is the paragraph’s main idea? What is the paragraph’s topic sentence? Which sentences develop the main idea? Is there a clincher sentence?

Oral Exercise 2: Revise the following to make it meet the requirements of a good paragraph. Cite stray sentences and removed them. Add a clincher sentence. Composer John Cage captured people’s attention early in his career when he set up a piano in Cambridge’s Harvard Square. That is near many other historical places. Cage sat down at the piano to play – but did not play. Instead he sat still while an assistant turned pages of music for him. The lunchtime audience was baffled for a long while. Arthur Fiedler was another famous musician from the Boston area. Then people realized that John Cage wanted them to hear. The real music this composer wanted to reveal to the world was the sound of Harvard Square’s busy daily life. 5.0 CONNECTING MAIN IDEA AND DETAILS As writers prepare to write a paragraph of information, they remind themselves that it must be about only one main idea. They choose only those details and facts that are related to the main idea. Some writers use diagrams like this to help them.

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A skin might be stretched between two sticks.

A skin might be stretched on a round or oval frame.

There were many kinds of tipi doors. A blanket might be pinned up as a door.

A thick, hairy skin might be used to keep water out the water.

The sentence in the center circle states the main idea. Each fact in the other circles is related to the main idea. As you write your paragraph of information, be sure to present only details that are related to the main idea. Written Exercise 2: In the following paragraph, the author gives examples of how animals behave when they’re angry. Write a semantic map showing the topic sentence and details. When animals are angry, they use a different kind of body language. If one animal invades another’s territory, the first animal threatens it. Animals may threaten by displaying their teeth or claws. Some try to make their body look bigger. Birds fluff up their feathers. Fishes stick their back fins straight up and opens their gill covers upward. Angry cats arch their backs and make their hair stand on end. These messages say, “I’m a BIG angry animal. Don’t come any closer.” “Animal Body Talk,” National Geographic World 6.0 UNITY AND COHERENCE in PARAGRAPHS

16 A paragraph may have a main idea, topic sentence, and supporting sentences. But the reader may still not understand it fully. What may be missing is unity or coherence. 6.1 UNITY When a paragraph has unity, all the sentences relate to the main idea. For example, in a paragraph explaining the origin of baseball, every sentence should give some information about baseball’s beginnings. Including a sentence about this year’s best team will ruin the paragraph’s unity. That sentence isn’t about the paragraphs main idea – how baseball began. As you read the following paragraph, notice how each sentence is directly connected to the main idea: how sailors once believed in mermaids. Another monster that was equally dreaded by sailors was the beautiful mermaid. Like the sirens, mermaids were thought to be half woman half fish. Such creatures were said to carry a mirror in one hand and a comb in the other, and from time to time they would run the comb through their long sea green hair. Most sailors were convinced that it was very bad luck to see a mermaid. At best, it meant that someone aboard their ship would die soon afterward. At worst, it meant that a terrific storm would arise, the ship would sink, and many of the crew would drown. William Wise, “Strange and Terrible Monster of the Deep”

Oral Exercise: Identifying Sentences that Destroy Unity In each of the following paragraphs, one sentence should make you say, “what’s that doing there?” Find the sentence that destroys the unity of each paragraph. [Remember: in a unified paragraph, all details are directly related to the main idea or the sequence of actions.] The disappearance of Amelia Earhart remains a mystery. Earhart, who was the first woman pilot to fly across the Atlantic Ocean, crashed in the Pacific while attempting to fly around the world. She was born in Atchison, Kansas, 1897. Some searchers believed that she survived the crash into the Pacific, because radio distress calls were received. An intensive search for the source of the signals was made. Searchers were not able to find her, however. Finally, that distress signals ceased. In spite of continued searches by airplane and ship, no clue to what became of Amelia Earhart has yet been found. Written Exercise: One reason the mountain bike is popular is because it’s built to help the rider keep control even when riding it off paved roads. The extra – wide

17 handlebars improve the rider’s balance. Jeremy has a mountain bike, but he only rides on city streets. With its wide tires the mountain bike will roll right over small obstacles that would trip up the skinny tires of a racer. And because the tires are knobby, riders can keep going even if the ground is muddy or sandy. That helps riders keep their balance. Because of these features, mountain bike riders can go almost anywhere. 6.2 COHERENCE In addition to having unity, a paragraph needs to be coherent. When a paragraph has coherence, the reader can easily see how ideas are related. One way to create coherence is to use transitional words and phrases. These are words or phrases that show that ideas are connected and how they are connected. The following chart lists some common transitions. Notice that the transitions you use depend, in part, on the kind of paragraph you’re writing. TRANSITIONAL WORDS AND PHRASES Comparing Ideas/ Classification and Definition also another similarity and moreover too

Contrasting Ideas/ Classification and Definition although in spite of on the other hand but instead still however nevertheless yet Showing Cause and Effect / Narration As a result for Because since Consequently so

so that therefore

Showing Time / Narration after eventually at last finally at once first before meanwhile

next then thereafter when

Showing Place / Description above beyond across down around here before in behind inside

into next to over there under

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Showing Importance / Evaluation first mainly last more important

then to begin with

Notice how the underlined word transitions help show how ideas are related. Doesn’t the earth sometimes seem like one big mess? That’s because it is. Think about how much trash you make in one day. Where does it go? The garbage man picks it up and it’s gone. But where? Sometimes trash is burned, releasing harmful pollutants into the air – not a smart idea. Other times it goes to a dump or a landfill, where it’s buried with dirt. Not a great idea either, but it doesn’t matter anymore, because we’re fast running out of space for landfills – so where next? “Earth SOS,” Seventeen Written Exercise: Identifying Transitional Words and Phrases Can you find the words and phrases that connect the writer’s ideas? Make a list of all the transitional words and phrases you can find in this paragraph about a family adrift on the ocean in a rubber raft and dinghy. The rain continued all night long, and as we bailed the warm sea water out of the raft we were glad not to be spending this night in the dinghy at least. I went over to the dinghy twice in the night to bail out, for the rain was filling her quite quickly, and I shivered at the low temperature of the rain water. The raft canopy offered grateful warmth when I returned, and the puddles of salt water in the bottom of the raft seemed less hostile after the chill of the dinghy. We all huddled together on top of the flotation chambers, our legs and bottom in the water, and although we did not sleep, we rested, for the work of rowing and bailing now went on around the clock, the bailer passing back and forth between the two compartments. Dougal Robertson, “Survive the Savage Sea”. 7.0 TYPES OF PARAGRAPH 7.1 Description – tells what something is like or looks like. It uses mostly sensory details to tell about what you see, hear, smell, taste, or touch. In a description, a writer may organize details by arranging them in spatial order. For example, a writer can describe something from left to right, back to front or top to bottom. Examples of Sensory Details: Sight – The bright sun glared off the front

19 windshield of the car. Sound – Thunder boomed down the canyon, echoing off the walls. Touch – My hands felt frozen to the cold, steel handlebars. Taste - Thirstily, she gulped down the sweet orange juice. Smell – The sharp, unpleasant odor of fresh asphalt met his nose. Facts - In 1961, Roger Maris slammed sixtyone home runs to break the old record of sixty held by Babe Ruth. Examples – Fierce windstorms occur throughout the world. In the central United States, tornadoes have wind speeds over two hundred miles per hour.

Example: By the Shores of Silver Lake Laura and Mary walked slowly along on the green shore by the rippling silver – blue water, toward the wild Big Slough. The grasses were warm and soft to their feet. The wind blew their flapping skirts tight against their bare legs and ruffled Laura’s hair. Mary’s sunbonnet and Carrie’s were tied firmly under their chins, but Laura swung hers by its strings. Millions of rustling grass-blades made one murmuring sound, and thousands of wild ducks and geese and herons and cranes and pelicans were talking sharply and brassily in the wind. Exercise: Using Description How would you describe our favorite movie star, your sneakers, or hte inside of your room? Choose one of these subjects or one of the five in the following list. List or cluster the details you would use to describe it. Try to appeal to the senses by listing things you can see, hear, smell, taste, or touch. Observe the subject if you can or brainstorm some details. 1. a town plaza 2. the moment just after a long three-point shot at a basketball game. 3. a garbage truck or garbage dump

20 4. your favorite place 5. a monster of the leading TV program series. 7.2. Narration – tells a person or how a situation changes over a period of time. You can narrate a story, explain a process, or explain causes and effects. They are often organized in a chronological order.

Example: Here’s how to have an egg race. Give each player an uncooked egg and a tablespoon. Then, have the players line up at the startling line. Each should place the egg in the spoon. At a signal, all should race toward the finish line. The winner is the first to reach the line with an unbroken egg. 7.2.1 Telling a Story You’re probably very familiar with one kind of narratingtelling a story. When you tell a story, you tell what happened. The story may be about either imaginary or real events. Here is a narrative paragraph that tells what happens during a ride in a theme park. You are about to meet a very angry gorilla. Example: Transporting his passengers on the Rossevelt Island tramway, the operator suddenly announces that King Kong has escaped and is wreaking havoc on Manhattan. Suddenly a wall of water breaks from mains and floods the streets below. Fires rage. Then Kong appears in all his terror, hanging from the Queensboro Bridge. He swats at a police helicopter and sends it crashing to the ground. Then the sixs-ton, four-story-tall gorilla turns his attention to you, grabbing the tram as if it were a Tonka toy. Twisting and turning the vehicle, he picks it up, blasts you with his banana-scented breath, and hurls you to the ground. Falling at 12 feet per second with 1.75 g’s of acceleration, the tram is saved from certain disaster by a single cable. A.J.S. Rayl, “Making Fun” 7.2.2 Explaining a Process Whenever you tell someone how something works or how to do something you’re explaining a process. To help readers follow the steps in the process, you once again use chronological order. In this paragraph, the writer explains how to pan for gold. Once the gold pan is filled with rock and sand, the panning begins. Swirl your pan around and around just below the surface of the water. The water will cause the light sand and gravel to rise to the top. Pour off the sand, pick out the pebbles and repeat the process. When the top dirt is stripped off, you will see black streaks in the bottom of your pan. These are the tiny grains of iron

21 magnetite. This is the “pay dirt.” Be careful not to wash it away. Magnenite is heavy, but gold is heavier. Your gold, if it is there, will be under the black sand. Jean BartenBach, Rockhound Trails

7.2.3 Explaining Cause and Effect Narrating is also used to explain how one event causes another event. To make the cause – and – effect connections clear, events are often narrated in the order in which they happened. In the following paragraph, the cause is an October storm. The effects of the storm are what happens to the people, the trees, the animals, and the buildings.

Cause

A storm came this year, against which all other storms were to be measured, on a Saturday in October, a balmy afternoon. It built as it came up the valley as did every fall storm, but the steel – gray thunderheads, the first sign of it anyone saw, were higher, much

Effect

higher, too high. In the stillness before it hit, men looked at each other as though a fast and wiry man had pulled a knife in a bar. They felt the trees falling before they heard the wind, they dropped tools and scrambled to get out. The wind came up suddenly and like a scythe, like piranha after them, like seawater through a breach in the dike. The first blow bent trees half to the ground, the second caught them and snapped them like kindling, sending limbs raining down and twenty – foot splinters hurtling through the air like mortar shells to stick quivering in the ground. Bawling cattle running the fences, a loose lawnmower bumping across a lawn, a stray dog lunging for a child racing by. The big trees went down screaming, ripping open holes in the wind that were filled with the broken

Effect 22 Effect China explosion of a house and the yawning screech of a pickup rubbed across asphalt, the rivet popping and twang of phone and electric wires. Barry Holstun Lopez, River Notes

Using Narration as a Strategy When you tell a joke – or any kind of story – you start at the beginning and tell what happens next until you get to the punch line, or ending. Read the directions and then use narration to develop each of the following items. 1. Choose one of the following subjects and list at least three actions that took place. A. the funniest thing that ever happened to me (Make up a story if you like) B. what happened during the EDSA I (Check a history book.) 2. Choose one of the following subjects and list at least four steps in the process. C. how to wash a dog (or a car or clothes) D. how to ask someone for a date 3. Choose one of the following subjects and list at least three causes or effects. You may need to do some research on your selected subject. E. getting a part – time job (the effects) F. water pollution (the causes) 7.2.4. Classification – tells how the specific relates to other subjects that belong to the same group. Country music, for example, belongs to the group music, which includes rock, jazz, blues, rap, folk, gospel, classical opera, and other types of music. When you classify, you define (country music) or compare or contrast (piano and electronic keyboard). When you write a paragraph to classify, you usually arrange ideas in logical order. Something is called logical because it makes sense; its meaning is clear. When you classify, it makes sense to group or arrange related ideas together. 7.2.5. Defining When you tell about a subject that’s new to your reader, you may have to give a definition. Usually, a definition has two parts. First, it identifies the large group, or general class, that the subject belongs to. Second, it tells how the subject is different from all other members that belong to this general class.

23 Here is one – sentence definition of tae kwon do. The general class that the subject, tae kwon do, belongs in is italicized. Notice how the other details in the sentence tells how tae kwon do is different from other martial arts. Example: Tae kwon do is an ancient form of marital art from Korea that uses kicks and punches in a hard style. Now here’s a paragraph that defines tae kwon do. As you read, think about how the paragraph goes beyond the one – sentence definition. Tae kwon do is a martial art more than 2,000 years old. An assortment of kicks and punches that focus power with deadly effectiveness, it’s a so called hard style. Hard style? I as Master Son. “ Punch, side kick, roundhouse,” Son replies. “One kick, fight finished.” Bob Berger, “Road Warrior” 7.2.6 Comparing and Contrasting When writing about two or more subjects, you may want to compare and contrast them. Compare them by explaining how they’re alike. Contrast them by telling how they’re different. In a single paragraph, you’ll probably do one or the other, not both. Read this paragraph and decide which creature in the drawing below is a month and which is a butterfly. See if you can find the major differences as you read. There are three main differences between butterflies and moths. Butterflies are out by the day while moths usually fly at night, but this is not an infallible guide since some months fly by day. Second, moths spread their wings sideways at rest whereas butterflies hold them together over their backs, though again there are exceptions. Third, the butterfly’s antennae are long, slender with clubbed ends, whereas a moth’s are shorter and feathery. Gerald Durrell with Lee Durrell The Amateur Naturalist Exercise:

Using Classification as a Strategy.

What is it? What makes it different? How is it like or different from something else? All of these questions involve the strategy of classification. Follow the directions below to develop each main idea. Main Idea 1. Japanese schools are very different from American schools.

2. Even if you don’t know much about dogs, you can’t possibly mistake a Saint Bernard for a Siamese cat.

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Classification Strategy Compare and contrast the two subjects: Private schools and Public schools. List some details about each kind of school to support the main idea. (you may need to do some reading about public schools.)

Define subject. Tell its general class. Then list all the characteristics that distinguish it from othe breeds. (if you need some information, About the animal, use an encyclopedia or talk to an owner.)

8.0. Evaluation – gives the reason for one’s opinion in the order of importance. That is, you’ll tell the most important reason first, the next more important reason next, and so on. Or, you may decide to reverse the process and tell the least important reason first. The following paragraph was written to persuade people not to build more buildings in Yellowstone National Park. Example: I don’t think that more hotels, campgrounds, and restaurants should be built in Yellowstone National Park. The park is set aside to protect the animals and plants that live there and to allow people to experience the wilderness. When more buildings go up, more people crowd into the park. And the more people there are, the less room there is for wildlife and for wilderness. People don’t just take up space. They also scare the animals and keep them from living as they would naturally live in the wild. In Yellowstone National Park, I think the most important thing is to protect the animals and the natural wilderness. If this means putting a stop to more building, then the building should be stopped. Exercise: Using Evaluation as a Strategy What’s your evaluation – good, bad, or somewhere in between? What are your reasons for your evaluation? Pick two of the following topics and write a sentence expressing your evaluation. Then give two or three reasons to support your opinion. Example: Evaluation: Reasons:

1. 2. 3. 4.

The pizza is delicious. (1) It has lots of cheese. (2) It has a crisp, crunchy crust. (3) The toppings are fresh and plentiful.

a recent recording you’ve listened to or a concert you’ve attended last week’s episode of your favorite TV series a sporting event you attended or watched on TV a new fad or fashion for teenagers.

25 Exercise: Speaking and Listening: Evaluating a Movie Of all the movies you’ve seen lately, which one is the best? Why? Think of at least three reasons to support your choice of best movie. Jot down your evaluation and your reasons. Then meet with a small group and givee your evaluation and your reasons. See if your group can agree on some criteria, or standards, for good movies. How importan

WRITTEN EXERCISE ON ALL TYPES OF PARAGRAPH After reading the fable “ The Tortoise and The Hare”, you will have an opportunity to apply your knowledge on how to write the various types of paragraphs such as a description, narration, explanation, cjlassification and evaluation by answering the comprehension questions that follow: The Tortoise and the Hare: A Fable One hot and muggy summer aftrnoon, the Hare was boasting to a huge crowd of animals who had gathered in a verdant forest clearing: “I’m the fastest animal in the forest verdant and no one can beat me, even on my slowest day!” covered with green plants 5 “Why is it so important to be the fastest?” asked the Tortoise. “Because the fastest is superior!”replied the Hare. “My speed is unbeatable, and I can do anything faster than any other animal, so I am the most superior animal in the forest.” 10 “Speed, perhaps, can be a good thing, but it doesn’t automatically make one animal more superior or important than any other animal,” responded the Tortoise indignantly. Indignantly angrily; “If you really don’t think my speeds make superior, discontendtedly why don’t you prove it? Suppose the two of us run a race to 15see who’s right?” exclaimed the hare. “We can race down the four-mile path along the edge of the forest. Your’e so slow and sluggish that I’ll probably finish the race before you get a third of the way.” The hare began to laugh at the tortoise racing, he fell to the ground in disdain 20 a fit of laughter, snorting and spitting great guffaws. Although the tortoise had disdain for the Hares display of insensitive behavior and preferred not to enter into a race with such an egocentric fool, he accepted the Hare’s challenge because he wanted to confront the

contempt;the feeling that someone de serves no respect

26

25 Hare’s taunting. He stashed a bottle of water in his shell in anticipation of the sweltering race ahead.

egocentric Selfish;self-

Without doing anything to prepare for the hot and humid weather, the Hare lined up at the starting line next to the Tortoise. The other animals, hoping for the 30 impossible-that the Hare would get his just rewardsshouted, “Go!” and the Hare took off with unbelievable speed, darted up the first hill, and soon disappeared from sight. The tortoise set off with a gradual and methodical pace, and steadily climbed up the hill after the Hare. Seeing 35 this, most of the animals calculated that the Tortoise’s chances of winning were slim to nil. The Hare seemed unstoppable as he passed the threeMile mark on the path. However, because he did not prepare 40 decided to stop at one of the rest stops slong the path for a little refreshment. “I’m so far ahead of that laboriously slow Tortoise that I have lost of time, “he concluded. With great confidence in his anticipated victory, he strolled into his favorite fast food restaurant and demanded a jumbo-sized 45 carrot juice and extra-large salad. After he had finished repast, he noticed a nearby skateboarding course across the meadow. “I’m so far ahead of that pitiful Tortoise that I still have time for some amusement,” considered the Hare. “The Tortoise probably 50 hasn’t even reached a mile yet.” Chuckling at the Tortoise, and with great confidence in himself, the Hare rented a skateboard, kneepads, and a helmet, and hit the course. He skateboarded at such great speed that he literally “hit” the course and landed on his own tail! The Hare did not 55 hurt himself badly, but his great audacity left him with a bruised ego. He arose sheepishly and limped off the course. Following his skateboarding accident, the Hare tried to start sprinting. Because of his bruises and full stomach, he was unable to run as swiftly as before.”Even though I can’t 60 run as fast, I’ll still beat that tedious Tortoise,” proclaimed the Hare. However, the broiling temperature made running difficult, and the Hare soon felt totally exhausted. After running for only a half mile, the Hare decided to take another short rest, and he sat down near a gurgling brook. 65 “I’ll just rest here for a few minutes, and then I’ll have more energy for racing.” Although he would eventually regret it, the Hare nestled in a bed of leaves, immediately fell asleep, and began snoring very loudly.

audacity shameless overconfidence

27

Meanwhile, the Tortoise continued to trudge along 70 the path at the edge of the forest; he knew that he could not affordto stop, and more importantly, he knew that the overconfidentHare would stop many times. “Even though it’s hot, I have plenty of water, so there’s no need to stop until I finish the race,” the Tortoise told himself. “Plus, it’s 75 never a good idea to eat and run.” Soon, the Tortoise was passing the brook where the Hare napped comfortably. The Tortoise heard the Hare’s loud snoring, which gave the Tortoise an added degree of confidence. He calculated that if he were able to keep up 80 his steady pace, he had a good chance finishing first. The Tortoise thanked the Hare for being true ti his foolish character, and he continued to plod steadily toward the finish line. As the Tortoise slowly approached the end of the 85 path, the Hare suddenly awoke and bolted upright from his leaf-nest. Realizing that he could potentially lose the race, the Hare jumped up and raced back onto the path. Unfortunately, his pace was even slower than before because he wasn’t yet fully awake and still felt groggy. 90 As the Hare moved along the path as fast as he could, he noticed that the Tortoise was just a few yards away from the finish line. He knew that his only chance of winning was to trick the Tortoise. He called to the Tortoise, “Tortoise, I’m hurt. Can you help me?” 95 The Tortoise stopped and looked back, “How do I know that you’re telling the truth?” “My tail hurts. Please help me,” begged the Hare, as he pretended to be in great pain. Fortunately, the Tortoise had heard the Hare’s loud 100 snoring, so he knew that the Hare was trying to deceive him. “What can I do to help you?” asked the Tortoise. “Please help me get to the clearing,” pleaded the Hare. “Did you enjoy your sleep?” questioned the Tortoise, immune to the Hare’s antics. 105

“Yes...err. No wait!” shouted the harebrained Hare. “I knew you were sleeping after I heard your loud snoring,” declaired the Tortoise. “I’ll see you on the other side of the finish line. Despite his lethargy, the Hare made a mad dash 110 to catch the Tortoise. But he was too late. The Tortoise crossed the finish line just ahead of the Hare. The Hare crossed the line and collapsed on the ground.

lethargy a lack of energy; sluggishness

28 “You boast too much, you’re arrogant, and you rarely consider others’ feelings, so I’m not surprised that you 115 to deceive me”, the Tortoise said calmly. And all the animals cheered gleefully. It was clear that Speed alone was not enough to make the Hare finish first.

Comprehension Questions: 1. Describe the personality traits of the two important characters. 2. Explain why the Tortoise accepted the Hare’s challenge. Do you think that the Tortoise believed that he had a chance of winning? 3. Tell what the Tortoise did to prepare to prepare for the race in hot weather. 4. Find the idioms “slim to nil” in line 36 and “made a mash dash” in line 109. Use the context to figure out the meanings. Write an explanantion of one of the idioms. 5.

Explain the meaning of the Tortoise’s statement to theHare, “ I’m not surprised that you tried to decieve me.” What does this statement reveal about the Hare’s character?

6. Justify the challenge made by the Hare. Explain what you have done. 7. Assess the moral of the fable. What is another way to express “slow and steady wins the race”?