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Electric Circuit 1 Battery + 2 electron flow!

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n4

This is resistor "R1" with a resistance value of 150 ohms.

R1 150

R2

25

This is resistor "R2" with a resistance value of 25 ohms.

F4 ³4

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Load

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æ

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"Hot" conductor Source

Load

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Electrical appliance

"Hot" plug Source 120 V "Neutral"

metal case

Ground point

no voltage between case and ground

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accidental ú contact "Hot" plug Source 120 V "Neutral" Ground point

voltage between case and ground!

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"Hot" plug Source 120 V "Neutral" Ground point

accidental ú contact

no voltage between ú case and ground!

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"Hot" plug Source 120 V "Neutral" Ground point

accidental ú contact

voltage between case and ground!

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"Ground" Ground point

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"Hot" I

Source 120 V

I "Neutral"

Ground point

no voltage between case and ground

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accidental úcontact

"Hot" (more) I

Source 120 V

I (less) "Neutral"

Shock current

Shock current Shock current

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"Hot" I

Source 120 V

I "Neutral"

switches open automatically if the difference between the two currents becomes too great.

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R2

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à

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=>:F?;?;3% 2 $.(.(&%;*Q< ,1%%;%]?;.MD $1.7%]_*). / \(#$,4*$+@\%&"%;,4&*$/% \D $1.7‰ % ]X*./K&/%&"% 4, &*/V% 2D $1.7%W\-#7%'(I2%&;?; 0,4/M*/Y9ZuW<$ ,1%&`0DT5(4&*),4,1T%'(V7V\"4G.P4;.( %8'( B?.¼Mv(0-%42,14&/ Q : I $c%1<$Q&*$/-1.G$X1.N/-4G1%*),H%W/-!",4*sT-&`‰L B?&<&&#: X%'4I,4&" $.[%'2 ,!*)1%]TY :J%'2<$ ,1%*G &*/(1.(G2!<&TK4D $"%+*).7"% ÷ E Ö = +45 V >= :(?;1-J2?&J% %+*)@J%'*)% *)J< $,c%%&*./W&*$"0(A%'(<$ ,1%*)G$J/-  * 7F&*+'I&4"% $&#s"%(1.G *) 0./R%'1+0c%I1.U*P,1 -+@5?!"2/-1&%4 .C?c%'p%'(\&/S%]%W,4&*/S ): $0(_2%&_ $.S%'(\ 4.7% *)'(*/ *).D/V%'(W(,!*+@K%&"%3,1*/P .Y%'(W 4.7%D&'(1.D/|#?;I? $0(,4/P (%*)4.Y%'(I: $,1,4 B?4.(G\&*$/-4.(G$"÷ E Ö 2 - × 3 = -10 V E × 3- Ø 4 = -20 V ¦ ¦

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?&~ ÷ ƒ

+45 V -10 V -20 V + -15 V à

voltage from point 1to point voltage from point Ù 2to point voltage from point 3to point voltage from point 4to point

Ù2 3 4 1

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äæ$æ

Aû9üWý ¡ þ ŠªÿXsÅ  

Ù

è

voltage from point ( 3to point voltage from point 2to point voltage from point ) 1to point voltage from point 4to point

+10 V -45 V è +15 V '+ è+20 V à

 þ



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(

2 )1 Ù4 3

0V

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+

R1

5 kΩ -

+

R2

Õ

4

+ 10 kΩ

+

R3

+Ä 7.5 kΩ

1

2 -

+



3

45 V

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R1

R2 + 10 kΩ

+ red V black -10 V

4

R3

+Ä 7.5 kΩ

+ red V black -20 V

1

2 -

+

+6 5 kΩ

3

45 V

+ red V black -15 V

+ red V black +45 V

>= :3?;M?;K% p%*)@$K%'D*B%K*2M< ,1%%*).D/r*/N<$ ,1%*)G$V* 7  \(1.D*B%4 .D ):_  .(&.7%&# "%*)%4.(G\?c%'P $.(,1TKè7 $.K%'(I,4:’%*)./M( G&1.(G\* $A%'(_?'( ,4_"%4.(GQ : $2 ..7%?X?1,4,|"& '( B?Ž%'(W<$ ,1%*)G$&8*//P*,1G$(+*)!*,1,4T[ã’% 8& 78é ÷

Šÿ 9ÓÿxÆIfþ AûWû;:8‹H‹W Å :<$=xüWÉ>?$jü ÓÒ ÆYÅ $ Ô

äæA@

*current 2

+

R1

+

3

+

4

+ red

V

V

black

-10 V

-20 V

2 -

+ red

V

black

+

1

+Ä 7.5 kΩ

+ 10 kΩ

+ red

R3

black

+

+65 kΩ -

Õ

R2

45 V + red V black

'+45 V

-15 V

red

V -

black

-30 V +

red

V black

-45 V +

red

V -

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1

q

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2 +

6V 8

-

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3 + R1 -

7

+

4 +

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R2

R3

6

5

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u

u0 V 0V -6 V u u0 V 0V + +6 V u

voltage from point Ù 2to point voltage from point 3to point voltage from point v 4to point voltage from point w 5to point voltage from point 6to point voltage from point 7to point

Ù

3 v4 w5 6 7 2

0V

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Šsm 9zmxÆMn lei#i;:8‹H‹W Å :<$=fjWÉ>?$j ÓÒ ÆYÅ $ Ô

+ 65 V

äæ-ç

8V

+

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+

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8V -

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q

1 +

2 +

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-

4

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7

Õ

3

R3 -

6

5

äæ7å

ij#kXl ŠSmnsÅn  Zlo n le n !^j#" ¡ÆMn lei#i:8‹H‹I %$j & voltage from point Ù 2to point voltage from point w 3to point voltage from point Ù 6to point voltage from point 3to point

0V -6 V +6 V '+ u0 V

u

Ù

(

u

w3

Ù6 (3 2

0V

cMdW[&*).0"/2% /-%&4.(3*).0(.(@5.( B?.<$ ,1%*)G$81.K*W $(,1L21+0(1%&#$?'(3*),4,( %'(&J< $,c%+*)G )*  0./W**"%40(,4*4,1 5 f43*)J@5.( B?.F`6Ú *)@$A%': $,1,4 B?1.G3 (,4L 1+0(1%;ã‘*%0*,1,4T%]?; X4&F1+0(1% -] 4.(/P5TM*1.G,4_?4I*)%%'(W )%% $Ké8*$*).YL(*)(,4p

1

2

5 -

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13 V +

3

-

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7

8

6

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4

{

25 V

+

12 V + 9

10

Ú K*)@%'(X( (,4y1(,4#$=. <X 1%"%/K&4"%*.3:?;M?8*).7%&/N% U/-%&4.(M%'(Y< ,1%*GV%]?;&.  4.$%+x r*).D/—æ#;?S 0(,!/n"%V0(*ycMdWƒR70*B%1 $.o?1%'—%'([< $,c%+*)G$Y%]?;&.—%'( 7"[ 4.7%V*$%' 0(.(@5.( B?.p ‚ × Ø ƒ Ø „ ƒ „ … ƒ … × E3 - 4 + E4 - 9 + E 9- 8 + E8 - 3 = 0 ‚ × Ø ƒ E3 - 4 + 12 + 0 + 20 = 0 E× 3 - Ø 4 + 32 = 0

†

E× 3 - Ø 4 = -32 V

Šsm 9zmxÆMn lei#i;:8‹H‹W Å :<$=fjWÉ>?$j ÓÒ ÆYÅ $ Ô 1

2

5

35 V -

15 V -

13 V +

+

3

V + { 20 V -

7

6

-

+ +

äæS

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4

-

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Õ

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25 V

+

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8

9

10

Measuring voltage from point 3 to point 4 (unknown amount)

‡

E3- Ø 4

1

2

5 -

+ 15 V -

+ 35 V -

13 V +

'+ 12 V

3

+ { 20 V -

7

6

8

25 V

4 -

-

+

V 12 V +

+ 9

10

Measuring voltage from point 4 to point 9 (+12 volts)

‚

'

E3- ˆ 4 + 12 V

ä@T

ij#kXl ŠSmnsÅn  Zlo n le n !^j#" ¡ÆMn lei#i:8‹H‹I %$j & 1

2

5 -

+ 15 V -

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3 + { 20 V -

7

6

13 V +

B

0V

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25 V

4

-

+

12 V +

+

8

9

10

Measuring voltage from point 9 to point 8 (0 volts)

‚

E3- ˆ 4 ƒ + 12 V '+ 0 V

1

2

5 -

+ 15 V -

+ 35 V -

7

+ 20 V 8

13 V + + 20 V

3

6

-

+ V

Õ

4

{

25 V

+

12 V -

+ 9

10

Measuring voltage from point 8 to point 3 E ˆ + 12 V + 0 V + 20 V = 0 V 7Y %((4.(GQ* $0(./Q%'(3-,1 54 8 }æ>å #?;3?c%8%'(< ,1%*G**I< ,1%%? $0(,4/&*$/Q1%&*$"0(4.(G ?1%'U%'(&/p%]% ,4&*$/S .C%'KD $1.7% *)'(*/U*)./C(,!*+@R%&"%I,4&*$/p $.p%'(K 4.$%W'(4./N*I?;2( $G& *) 0./Y%'(2,4 7 $F`IÚ8'(: $$#%'(\<$ ,1%*GW: ‰ 4.$%_æV% P 4.7%V!I*V $c%1<$Pã>IéWäV< $,c%+3&*0 %'M4/K,4&*/54Q!; .YD $1.7%>\*./V%'(M4)(,!*+@K,4&*$/z4 $.M 4.$%æD`HÚ8'_<$ ,1%*G: ¢ 4.7%8åQ%  4.7%< \4 *\D 7"1%4<Kã}IéT\< $,c%+;D*)0D"X%'(e4/V,4&*/54Q!8 .PD $1.7%P \*./M%'(e4),4*$+@2,4&*$/z4\48 $.M 4.$%3å`HÚ8' < $,c%+*)G$3: fD $1.7%PW% \ 4.7%3å !X& #5 ):  0#7D*0"X%' $%]?; Q 4.7%8*)&,1E%!*),4,4TV  .6` ‰ 0(X.*,Z*.?&: $%'(I< $,c%+*)G3: $yD $1.7%P % \ 4.7%;æ2!;*\.(&G$*B%1<$\㊈é s < $,c%+#7%&,1,44.(G0%'*)%  4.$%# 2! $c%1<$_?1%'[&&E%8% KD $1.7%3æ# -]0D]%3%'( *)W**K/-4G1%*,|< ,1%%?; 0,4/Y4./-!*B%W?c%' %'W/M,4&*$/M $.Y 4.7%3æK*)./M%'(W,4*$+@V,1*/P .R 4.$%P `

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2

5 -

+ 15 V '+ Ž 3 32 V + { 20 V -

+ 35 V -

7

6

13 V + -

25 V

4 -

+

12 V +

8

9

10

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-

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6

6

6

6

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6

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1k

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6

3m

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3k

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6

6

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E

q

q

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6m

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2m

q

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3m

11m

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1k

3k

2k

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R2

6

q

R3

6

6

6m

2m

3m

1k

3k

2k

R1

R2

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E

24

24

24

24

Volts

I

24m

8m

12m

44m

Amps

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1k

3k

2k

545.45

Ohms

Ú<¿z®5²5±³5°›¯˜®¸¼ÂÕ0ºÂs»z¹Á°˜®¼¶F°­¯ÁÂM5¾»z¹Á®¯˜Â¯Á±³g¹Á®,°˜¶Ä° ¯\±²5º®ÖÚ<¿5¶F°Çº,±²Àf®P½z²z®<Æ>¶L¯˜¿ ‰ ¿z·U °!W± Æ{ã‘èÌÍÈ Ë"é ¶F²×¯˜¿z®’4¯˜Â¯Á±³Ä4©ºÂs³L»5·²¼Âs¹tÆ>¶}¯Á¿×¯˜¿z®’¸5±¹\±³F³L®,³Ç¹Á®,°˜¶F°›¯Á±²5º®VՊÂs¹˜·;»z³F±^Պ¹Á·ضL²f½g¶LÃA¶Ä½g»5±³Z¹Á®,°˜¶F°›¯Á±²5º®°Ö%ÍǶL¯˜¿z®,¹ Æ<± ´¼AÆX®s ³F³=¾s®¯<¯˜¿z®t°Á±·V®e±²f°›Æ®¹p

E I R

q

q

q

Ó

Total

Ù

q

6

Volts

11m

Amps

545.45

Ohms

‰ ²5º®±¾s±¶L²=¼¶L¯°›¿zÂs»z³Ä½MÀf®Ç±¸z¸5±¹Á®²S¯Ú¯Á¿5± ¯Ú¯Á¿z®Zº»5¹˜¹Á®²S¯0¯˜¿z¹Á»5¾¿M®,±sº\¿¹Á®,°˜¶Ä° ¯Á¹0¶F°¹˜®,³F±¯˜®½P¯ÁÂP¶}¯\°Ú¹Á®,°˜¶F°›¯Á±²5º®s¼ ¾¶Fî,²’¯Á¿5± ¯#¯˜¿z®eÃs³L¯Á±¾s®±sº¹ÁÂs°Á°>±³F³Ú¹˜®°›¶Ä°›¯˜Â¹\°¶F°>¯˜¿z®µ°Á±·V®sÖèP± ¯Á¿z®¹<¯Á¿5±²UÀÅ®¶F²z¾x½g¶F¹˜®º.¯Á³L´^¸z¹˜Âs¸fÂs¹›¯Á¶LÂs²5±³J¼A¯˜¿5® ¹Á®³Ä± ¯˜¶F²f°›¿z¶F¸%¿z®¹Á®M¶F°>Âs²z®eÂÕ­¶L²AÃs®¹\°›®M¸z¹Á¸Å¹˜¯˜¶F²=Ö J5¹>®Ûz±·¸5³L®s¼g¯˜¿z®tº»z¹Á¹˜®,²s¯<¯Á¿z¹˜Âs»z¾¿Rè7¶Ä°>¿5±³}Õ!±°<·;»5º\¿ ±°¯Á¿z®tº»5¹˜¹Á®²S¯<¯˜¿z¹Á»5¾¿Rè Q ¼zÆ>¿5¶Fº\¿%¿5±°¯ Æ>¶Äº®M¯Á¿z®e¹Á®,°˜¶F°›¯Á±²5º®ÂÕAè 7 Ö ËÕ0ÆX®>Æ®¹Á®¯˜Âtº\¿5±²z¾®¯˜¿5®P°›»z¸5¸z³L´;ÃÂs³}¯\±¾®<ÂÕf¯Á¿z¶F°Zº¶F¹Áº»z¶}¯¼Æ®<5²5½¯Á¿5± ¯ãÜ°›»z¹Á¸z¹Á¶F°˜®Ý éM¯Á¿z®,°˜®>¸z¹Á¸Å¹˜¯˜¶F²5±³ ¹\± ¯˜¶FÂs°<½gÂ8²5¯Pº\¿5±²5¾®p

6

Ú<¿z®8º»5¹˜¹Á®²S¯¯˜¿z¹Á»z¾s¿Cè7µ¶Ä°e° ¯Á¶L³F³!®Ûz±sº.¯˜³F´©¯ Æ>¶Äº®;¯˜¿5±¯tÂÕ8èPO¼½z®,°˜¸z¶}¯Á®¯˜¿z®VÕ]±sº.¯M¯˜¿5±¯M¯˜¿z®8°˜Â»z¹\º®ÃÂs³}¯˜ ± ¾s®’¿5±s°Vº\¿5±²z¾s®,½ÚÖxÚ<¿z®^¸5¹˜Âs¸fÂs¹›¯Á¶LÂs²5±³F¶}¯ ´×ÀÅ®¯ Æ®®,²½g¶LKÅ®,¹˜®,²S¯VÀ5¹Á±²5º\¿º»5¹˜¹Á®²S¯Á°¶Ä°V° ¯Á¹˜¶Äº.¯Á³L´Þ±~Պ»z²5º¯˜¶F²ßÂÕ ¹Á®,°˜¶F°›¯Á±²5º®sÖ `P³Ä°˜Â;¹Á®·V¶F²z¶F°Áº®,²S¯<ÂÕÃs³L¯Á±¾s®½z¶LÃA¶Ä½g®¹\°¶F°¯Á¿z®MÕ]±º¯¯Á¿5± ¯>Àz¹\±²fº\¿%º»z¹˜¹Á®²S¯\°±¹˜®zÛg®,½^¸z¹Á¸Å¹˜¯˜¶F²5°ÂÕ¯˜¿5® ¯˜Â¯Á±³0º»z¹Á¹˜®,²s¯Ö!à#®°›¸z¶L¯˜®¯Á¿z®MՊ»z¹˜ÕŠÂ³Ä½x¶F²5º¹˜®±°˜®#¶F²%°˜»z¸z¸z³F´xÃs³L¯Á±¾s®¼S¯˜¿5®¹\± ¯Á¶LÂ;Àf®¯ ÆX®,®²U±²A´8Àz¹\±²5º\¿%º»z¹Á¹Á®²S¯ ±²f½x¯Á¿z®M¯˜Â¯Á±³º»z¹Á¹˜®,²S¯¹Á®·8±¶F²5°<»z²fº\¿5±²z¾s®,½Úp

ä@

Î mŒ‹gm lPl#Z"; nsÅn  Zl n le n ! á

á

IR1

Itotal IR2 Itotal

á

á

IR3

Itotal

q

6 mA = 11 mA

=

{ =

2 mA = 11 mA

=

3 mA = 11 mA

â

â

u

24 mA 44 mA

= 0.54545

8 mA 44 mA

= 0.18182

12 mA 44 mA

= 0.27273

u u

JzÂs¹Ç¯Á¿z¶F°¹Á®,±s°›Âs²x±t¸5±¹Á±³L³F®³Åº¶F¹Áº»z¶}¯¶F°XÂÕ2¯Á®²%º±³F³F®,½x±%[ agG.G á15HZã)Ü œ Ü]ã$á G Պ¹¶}¯\°<±Àz¶F³L¶L¯ ´¯˜Â;¸z¹˜Âs¸fÂs¹›¯Á¶LÂs²äÂs¹ g½ ¶FÃA¶F½g®äV¯˜¿z®¯Á¯Á±³=º»z¹Á¹Á®²S¯X¶F²S¯˜ÂՊ¹Á±sº.¯Á¶LÂs²5±³Å¸5±¹˜¯Á°,ÖNå¶}¯Á¿©±µ³F¶}¯˜¯˜³F®MÀz¶}¯PÂÕ±³F¾®,Àz¹\±z¼SÆX®eº±²^½g®,¹˜¶FîM±µÕŠÂ¹Á·µ»z³Ä± Պ¹ǽz®¯˜®,¹˜·V¶F²z¶F²z¾M¸5±¹\±³F³L®,³A¹˜®°›¶Ä° ¯Á¹!º»5¹˜¹Á®²S¯¾¶Fî²²z¯˜¿z¶F²z¾M·V¹Á®X¯Á¿5±²;¯˜Â¯Á±³zº»z¹Á¹˜®,²S¯,¼¶F²5½g¶FÃA¶F½g»f±³g¹Á®,°˜¶F°›¯Á±²5º®s¼ ±²f½x¯Á¯Á±³=¹Á®,°˜¶F°›¯Á±²5º®sp

Current through any resistor Voltage in a parallel circuit

á

‚ +

In =

En Rn

Etotal = En = Itotal Rtotal

. . . Substituting Itotal Rtotal for En in the first equation . . .

Current through any parallel resistor

á

á In =

Itotal Rtotal

+

Rn

. . . or . . .

æ

æ

In = Itotal

ç

Rtotal

ç

Rn

Ú<¿z®%¹Á±¯˜¶FÂ&ÂÕ#¯Á¯Á±³<¹˜®°›¶Ä° ¯\±²5º®x¯Á¶F²5½g¶FÃA¶F½z»5±³>¹Á®,°˜¶F°›¯Á±²5º®^¶F°¯Á¿z®©°˜±·V®^¹\± ¯Á¶LÂ×±°¶F²5½g¶FÃS¶Ä½g»5±³WãŠÀz¹\±²5º\¿é º »5¹˜¹Á®²S¯¯˜Â;¯˜Â¯\±³=º»z¹˜¹Á®²S¯Ö Ú<¿z¶Ä°<¶Ä°<èS²5 Æ>²^±°X¯Á¿z®x[ agG.G á15HZã)Ü œ Ü]ã$á GXšC G._agDLE ¼5±²5½^¶}¯>¶Ä°±V°˜¿z¹˜¯› º»z¯·V®¯Á¿zÂg½ Պ¹P½z®¯˜®,¹˜·V¶F²z¶F²z¾8Àz¹\±²5º\¿%º»z¹Á¹˜®,²S¯Á°<¶F²U±¸5±¹Á±³L³F®³Úº¶L¹\º»z¶L¯PÆ>¿z®,²’¯Á¿z®M¯˜Â¯Á±³º»z¹Á¹˜®,²S¯¶Ä°>èA²z Æ>²=Ö Ê#°˜¶F²z¾8¯˜¿5®;Âs¹˜¶F¾¶F²5±³¸5±¹\±³F³L®,³º¶L¹\º»z¶L¯±s°#±²®Ûz±·V¸z³F®¼ÅÆ®µº±²¹˜®º,±³Äº»z³Ä± ¯Á®M¯˜¿z®Àz¹\±²5º\¿º»z¹Á¹˜®,²s¯\°>»5°˜¶L²5¾ ¯˜¿5¶F°<ՊÂs¹˜·;»z³Ä±z¼g¶LÕ­Æ®e° ¯\±¹˜¯<ÀA´xèA²z Æ>¶F²z¾¯˜¿5®M¯˜Â¯\±³=º»z¹˜¹Á®²S¯P±²f½x¯Á¯Á±³=¹Á®,°˜¶F°›¯Á±²5º®sp

ä@)æ

ij#kXlÏÎ mn én  Zlo n le n !^j#" ÏêMn lei#i:<ÐÐMÑ %$j#Ò& 6 IR1 = 11 mA

6 á á

IR2 = 11 mA

6 IR3 = 11 mA

q

545.45 Ω 1 kΩ

= 6 mA

545.45 Ω 3 kΩ

= 2 mA

545.45 Ω { 2 kΩ

= 3 mA

{

ËÕX´s»&¯Á±è®;¯˜¿z®V¯Á¶L·V®¯˜Â©ºÂs·V¸5±¹Á®µ¯Á¿z®V¯ ÆÂ%½g¶FÃA¶F½z®¹MՊ¹Á·µ»5³F±®¼Ú´Âs»= ³L³Ç°˜®®¯˜¿f± ¯M¯˜¿z®,´~±¹Á®V¹˜®,·8±¹Áè ±Àz³F´ °˜¶L·V¶F³F±¹,Ö/P¯Á¶Fº®¼f¿z ÆX®,î,¹,¼S¯˜¿f± ¯P¯Á¿z®t¹\± ¯˜¶FÂV¶L²U¯Á¿z®tÃs³L¯Á±¾s®e½g¶LÃA¶Ä½g®¹PՊ¹Á·µ»z³Ä±V¶F°èPëN㊶F²5½g¶FÃS¶Ä½g»5±³¹Á®,°˜¶F°›¯Á±²5º®sé ½g¶FÃA¶F½g®½%ÀS´PèPìÅí›î]ï\ð ¼f±²5½^¿z Æñ¯Á¿z®e¹\± ¯˜¶F¶L²%¯˜¿5®tº»z¹Á¹˜®,²S¯>½z¶LÃA¶Ä½g®¹<ՊÂs¹˜·;»z³F±¶Ä°èPì0í î]ï\ð!½g¶FÃA¶F½z®,½%ÀA´MèPë0p Voltage divider formula En = Etotal

Rn

Current divider formula

Rtotal

In = Itotal

Rtotal Rn

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Rshunt

ô

Itotal

fraction of total * current

sensitive device

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6 V

2

I

1

total

+

8

+

R1

I

-

I

3 R

I

1

4 R

+



R2

I

2



R3

- 3 kΩ

- 1 kΩ

5

6

YAÂs³LÃA¶F²z¾µÕŠÂs¹P±³F³=à ±³F»z®,°<ÂÕ­Ãs³L¯Á±¾®M±²5½%º»z¹Á¹Á®²S¯>¶L²%¯˜¿5¶F°>º¶L¹\º»z¶L¯,p

E

q

I R

R1

R2

R3

6

6

6

q

6m

{

q

q

2m

1k

{

3k

Ó

Total

q

3m

Ù

2k

3

- 2 kΩ

total

7

R

+

6

11m 545.45

É

Volts Amps Ohms

`¯P¯Á¿z¶F°¸Å¶F²s¯¼fÆ®tèA²z Æø¯˜¿5®tà ±³F»z®µÂÕ®±º\¿©Àz¹\±²fº\¿Uº»z¹Á¹˜®,²s¯±²5½UÂÕ­¯Á¿z®t¯Á¯\±³º»z¹Á¹˜®,²s¯¶L²U¯Á¿z®;º¶L¹\º»z¶L¯,Ö N®^èA²zÂ Æ ¯Á¿5± ¯¯˜¿z®^¯˜Â¯Á±³º»z¹˜¹Á®²S¯¶L²ß±~¸5±¹Á±³L³F®³º¶F¹Áº»z¶L¯·;»5° ¯V®,RS»5±³Z¯Á¿z®U°›»z· ÂÕ>¯˜¿z®%Àz¹\±²5º\¿º»z¹Á¹˜®,²S¯Á°,¼ Àz»g¯#¯˜¿z®,¹˜®s °>·VÂs¹˜®M¾Âs¶L²5¾8²U¶L²%¯Á¿z¶F°º¶F¹Áº»z¶L¯>¯˜¿5±²;- »f° ¯P¯Á¿5± ¯Ö;Ú­±èA¶F²z¾8±V³LÂAÂsè^± ¯>¯Á¿z®µº»z¹˜¹Á®²S¯\°>± ¯P®,±sº\¿UÆ>¶L¹Á® - »z²5º¯˜¶F²U¸Å¶F²s¯Qã]²zÂg½g®é¶F²%¯˜¿z®tº¶L¹\º»5¶}¯¼zÆX®e°˜¿z»5³F½^Àf®t±Àz³F®¯ÁÂx°›®,®e°›Âs·®¯˜¿z¶F²z¾V®³Ä°˜®p 1

6 V

+ -

8

I

I

R1

total

I I

+ IR2 + IR3

I

I

2 +

R1

R2

I

R

- 1 kΩ

total R1

+ IR2 + IR3 7

+

I

R2

+ IR3

I

R

6

+

R3

2

-

4

R3

 3 kΩ

R2

1

I

3

+ IR3

3

-

I

R3

 2RkΩ 5

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Ohms

127.27

ì‡û£í+÷—õ+ñ®ú öWØßî‹ð+ðÚî`ôÙØZê$ìbê+ ÷ ì)íÚî`ì-ìÙí+Øòcó¢ôÙòZõ+ó~ìbíÚî—ûˆöWØZØRêmôÙØRú+õÚòcرú·ì)÷·î û)ó¢ïbðÚñ~Øû£ØRô)ó¢ØRûbòc÷—ê}|Úý—õ+ôÙî`ì)ó¢÷‹ê ó~ì)íü÷‹ê+ñ  ì ÷üŽ„ØR¸$õ+ó¢ø–î‹ñ~ØRê$ì/[ô)رû£ó®û£ìÙî`êµòcØRû ˆŸuí+Øb|Úêµî`ñXûxìÙØZðüó~êüôÙØRú}õÚòcì)ó¢÷‹êüó¢û[ìÙ÷î—ú+ú ì)í+رû£Øbì ÷¿ôÙØRû)ó¢û£ìÙî‹êÚòcرû ì)÷ òZ÷‹ïÍØzõ+ðó~ì)íîbì)÷‹ìÙî`ñqòcó¢ôÙòZõ+óåìyôÙØRû)ó®ûxì/î`êÚòZØ  í+ØRêØî‹úÚú¼ìÙí+÷—û)Øgì ]÷‡Ø±¸$õ+ó~øƒî‹ñ~ØRê—ìôÙØRû)ó¢û£ìÙî‹êÚòcرûZùؤý‹ØZìyî ôÙØRû)ó¢û£ìÙî‹êÚòcØ÷ d æ ä  y÷¤ùØyòZî`ê‡ôÙØc^ëú}ô/î ìÙí+Ø[òZó~ô/òcõ+ó~ì]î—û îû)ó~ê+ý—ñ~Øر¸$õ+ó~øƒî‹ñ~ØRê—ì]ô)رû£ó®ûxì/î`êÚòZØyî`êÚú‡î—ú+úbì)íÚØ ì)÷‹ìÙî‹ñµôÙØRû)ó¢û£ìÙî‹êÚòcØy|Úý‹õ+ôÙØyìÙ÷ìÙí+Ø[ôÙó¢ý‹í$ì)ïÍ÷—û£ì]òZ÷‹ñ¢õ+ïÍê ÷ %÷—õ+ôÇì/î`ö+ñ¢Ø p÷`ì)Øpì)íÚî`ì]ìÙí+Øz°‹Ÿq÷`ìÙî‹ñ¢°ˆòc÷‹ñ¢õ+ïÍê íÚî—ûÇöWØZØRê ôÙØZñ®î`öWØZñ¢ØRú9Ž ‘[¬ ÿ—ÿ ‘y­ y‘y© ÿ—ÿ ‘ª  ì)÷bó¢êÚú}ó®òZîƒìÙØpí+÷  óåìuô)ØRñ¢î`ì)رû ØZñ¢ØRòcì)ôÙó¢òRî`ñ¢ñ  ìÙ÷ˆìÙí+Ø[÷‹ì)í+ØRôòZ÷‹ñ¢õ+ïÍêÚû]÷ %|Úý—õ+ôÙØR û Ÿuí+؇°  °¿û  ï-öµ÷—ñ"ó®ûzõÚû)ØRú í+ØZôÙØ-ì)÷ô)ØRð+ôÙØRû)ØZê$ìg°—û£ØRô)ó¢ØRûRù °«xõÚû£ìˆî‹û[ì)í+؇°_ÿ‹ÿƒ°¿û  ï-öµ÷—ñ"ó®ûzõÚû)ØRú ì)÷ßô)ØRð+ôÙØRû)ØZê$ì °`ðµî`ô/î`ñ¢ñ~ØRñ ° 

198.70 Ω

24 V

R1

R2

R3

R4

R1 // R2 -- R3 // R4

R1 // R2

R3 // R4

E

R1 // R2 -R3 // R4 Total 24

I R

Volts Amps

100

250

350

200

71.429

127.27

198.70

Ohms

y÷ ¤ù ìÙ÷`ì/î`ñXòcó¢ôÙòZõ+ó~ì¤òZõ+ôÙô)ØRê—ìzòZî‹ê öW؇ú}ØcìÙØZôÙïbó¢ê+رú ö  î`ðÚð+ñ  ó¢ê+ý9´[í+ïš ûz²rîkŽ !#"ÿ ‘ yì)÷ßì)í+؇°—Ÿr÷‹ìÙî`ñ®° òc÷—ñ~õÚïbêó¢ê¼ìÙí+ØzìÙî‹ö+ñ¢Ø‹Û

jRÈ ç+ÈmÄ w Äporè l É l fih[eià w ÉZéb{qh

R1

R2

dRÁ á

R3

R4

R1 // R2

R3 // R4

E I R

100

250

350

200

71.429

127.27

R1 // R2 -R3 // R4 Total 24

Volts

120.78m

Amps

198.70

Ohms

u¯ î‹ò\è¼ì)÷¼÷—õ+ôgØR¸$õ+ó¢ø–î‹ñ~ØRê$ì[òcó¢ôÙòZõ+ó~ìgú}ô/îó~êÚýÚùW÷‹õ+ôpì)÷`ì/î`ñiòcõ+ôÙôÙØZê$ìpøƒî`ñ¢õ+؈÷ d±Â $ äƒæbïÍó~ñ¢ñ~ó®î`ïÍðÚûgó®ûpû)í+÷ê î—û ì)íÚؤ÷‹ê+ñ  òcõÚô)ôÙØZê$ìí+ØZôÙØ‹Û I = 120.78 mA

¨24 V

198.70 Ω

¦R

1

// R2 -- R3 // R4

I = 120.78 mA

y ÷ %]ؤû£ìÙî`ô)ìuì)&÷ ÷‹Áô èböµî‹\ò è'î‹ôÙúÚûÇó¢ê¿÷—õ+ôð+ôÙ÷‹ý—ô)رû)û)ó~÷—ê‡÷iòcó¢ôÙòZõ+óåìôÙØc^ëú}ô/îó~ê+ý$û ìÙ÷bì)í+ؤ÷—ô)ó¢ý‹ó¢êÚî`ñ òc÷—ê}|Úý‹^ õ+ô/îƒìÙó~÷—ê( XŸuí+ؤê+Ø*)_ìpû£ì)ØRð¿ó®ûuì)÷Íý—÷-ìÙ÷bì)í+ØòZó~ô/òcõ+ó~ì+í+ØRô)Ø ‘ ¬ ÿ‹ÿ ‘ ­ î‹êÚú ‘ © ÿ—ÿ ‘ ª î‹ô)Øzó¢êû)ØZôÙó¢ØRûRÛ ,

I = 120.78 mA ,

24 V

71.429 Ω

1

// R2

I = 120.78 mA 127.27 Ω

,

¦R

I = 120.78 mA

¦R

3

// R4

Ü ó¢êÚòcØ ‘ ¬ ÿ‹ÿ ‘ ­ î‹êÚú ‘ © ÿ‹ÿ ‘ ª î‹ô)Ø-ó~ê·û)ØZôÙó~ر.û ó~ì)íüØRî—ò/í9÷`ìÙí+ØZô±ù ì)í+؇òZõ+ô)ôÙØZê$ì[ì)í+ôÙ÷‹õ+ý—í9ìÙí+÷—û)؈ ì ÷¿û)Øcì/ûg÷ RØ ¸$õ+ó¢øƒî`ñ¢ØZê$ìuô)رû£ó®ûxì/î`êÚòZØRûïˆõµûxìuöµØgìÙí+ؤû)î‹ïbØ/ J+õ+ô)ì)í+ØRô)ïÍ÷—ô)ؗù—ìÙí+ؤòcõ+ôÙôÙØZê$ì]ìÙí+ôÙ÷‹õ+ý—í ì)íÚØZï ï-õÚûxìöWØgì)í+ؤûÙî`ïÍØ î‹ûì)í+ؤìÙ÷`ì/î`ñròZõ+ô)ôÙØZê$ì±ùÚû£÷&؈òZî‹êß|Úñ~ñró~ê÷—õ+ôìÙî‹ö+ñ¢ØóåìÙíì)í+؈î‹ð+ð+ôÙ÷‹ð+ôÙó®îƒì)ؤòZõ+ô)ôÙØZê$ìøƒî`ñ¢õ+ØRûRùµû)ó¢ïbðÚñ  òc÷‹ð  ó¢ê+ý ì)íÚØòcõ+ôÙô)ØRê$ì|µý‹õ+ôÙØ#ô)÷—ï ì)í+ØŸq÷`ì/î`ñ%òZ÷‹ñ¢õ+ïÍê¼ìÙ÷Íì)í+Ø ‘ ¬ ÿ‹ÿ ‘ ­ î`êÚú ‘ © ÿ‹ÿ ‘ ª òZ÷‹ñ¢õ+ïÍêÚûRÛ

eiÃ[ÄpÅgfihÇÆkjRÈ l hÇÆÉxh l+n ÅÊÄ[ÆyÄpoqorh]oseËut9vÉ w Äyf"ÉZË w e"ÉxÆzeg{qÉZf l

dRÁ—Á

R1

R2

R3

R4

R1 // R2

R3 // R4

E I R

100

250

350

200

R1 // R2 -R3 // R4 Total 24

Volts

120.78m

120.78m

120.78m

Amps

71.429

127.27

198.70

Ohms

y÷ ¤Ú ù è_ê+÷ó¢ê+ý¼ì)í+؇òcõÚô)ôÙØZê$ìgì)í+ôÙ÷‹õ+ý—í9ìÙí+ØÍØR¸$õ+ó¢ø–î‹ñ~ØRê$ìgôÙØRû)ó¢û£ì)÷—ôÙû ‘[¬ ÿ‹ÿ ‘p­ î‹êÚú ‘p© ÿ‹ÿ ‘ª ù(ØÍòZî`êüî`ð+ðÚñ  ´[í+ïš û²rî Ž"01 ‘ ]ìÙ÷bì)í+Øzì ÷Íô)ó¢ý‹í$ìø‹ØRô£ìÙó¢òRî`ñÊòc÷—ñ~õ+ïÍêÚûìÙ÷Í|ÚêÚúßø‹÷—ñåì/î`ý—Øgú}ôÙ÷‹ðµûî‹òcôÙ÷—ûÙûÇì)í+ØRïßÛ

,

I = 120.78 mA ,

24 V

71.429 Ω

R1

R2

R3

R4

I 100

//R2

+ 8.6275 V -

¦R

3

// R4

+ 15.373 V -

I = 120.78 mA

E R

1

I = 120.78 mA 127.27 Ω

,

¦R

250

350

200

R1 // R2

R3 // R4

R1 // R2 -R3 // R4 Total

8.6275

15.373

24

Volts

120.78m

120.78m

120.78m

Amps

71.429

127.27

198.70

Ohms

¯ØRòRî`õÚû)2Ø <Ø è_ê+÷  ‘ ¬ ÿ‹ÿ ‘ ­ î`êÚú ‘ © ÿ—ÿ ‘ ª î‹ô)ØðÚî`ô/î`ñ¢ñ¢ØZñ}ôÙØRû)ó¢û£ì)÷—ôqر¸—õÚó~øƒî`ñ¢ØZê$ì/ûZù‹î‹êÚ3ú ]<Ø è_ê+÷  ìÙíÚîƒì ø—÷‹ñ~ìÙî‹ý‹Ø }ú ôÙ÷‹ðÚûqó¢êðÚî`ô/î`ñ¢ñ¢ØZñ_òcó¢ôÙòZõ+óåì/ûqî‹ô)ØÇì)í+ØuûÙî`ïÍ؋ùØ]òZî‹ê¤ì)ô/î`êµû ØRôrìÙí+Ø]ôÙØRû)ðWØRòœìÙó~ø—ØÇø—÷‹ñ~ìÙî`ý—ØÇú}ôÙ÷‹ðÚû%ì)÷[ì)í+Øuî`ðÚð+ô)÷—ð+ôÙó¢î`ì)Ø òc÷—ñ~õÚïbêµû]÷—ê ìÙí+Øpì/î`ö+ñ¢Ø1÷‹ôì)í+÷$û£Ø[ó~êµú}ó~ø_ó®ú}õÚî‹ñÊô)رû£ó®ûxìÙ÷‹ô/û4 5 ëê¼÷‹ì)í+ØRô0÷‹ô/ú+ûRù/Ø[ìÙîè—Ø[î‹ê+÷`ìÙí+ØZôuûxìÙØZð¿öÚî‹ò\è'uî`ô/ú+û ó¢êß÷—õ+ôyú}ô/îó~êÚýbû)ØR¸$õ+ØRêÚòcØgì)÷bìÙí+ؤ÷‹ôÙó~ý—ó~êµî`ñÊòc÷—ê}|Úý‹õÚôÙî`ì)ó¢÷‹ê%ù}î`êµúßòZ÷‹ïÍð+ñ¢ØcìÙØ[ìÙí+ØzìÙî‹ö+ñ¢Øî‹òZòZ÷‹ô/ú}ó¢ê+ý‹ñ  Û

jRÈ ç+ÈmÄ w Äporè l É l fih[eià w ÉZéb{qh ,

dRÁ ä

I = 120.78 mA 100 Ω

¦R

350 Ω

¦R

1

2

¨250 Ω

+ 8.6275 V -

¦R

¨200 Ω

+ 15.373 V -

¦R

24 V

,

E

3

I = 120.78 mA

R1

R2

R3

R4

8.6275

8.6275

15.373

15.373

I R

4

100

250

350

200

R1 // R2

R3 // R4

R1 // R2 -R3 // R4 Total

8.6275

15.373

24

Volts

120.78m

120.78m

120.78m

Amps

71.429

127.27

198.70

Ohms

J"ó~êµî`ñ¢ñ  ùƒì)í+Øp÷‹ôÙó~ý—ó~êÚî‹ñ}û£Ø±òœì)ó¢÷‹êb÷Wì)íÚØuìÙî`öÚñ~ØŽ•òc÷‹ñ¢õ+ïÍêÚû ‘ ¬ ì)í+ôÙ÷‹õ+ý—í ‘ ª ió®ûXòc÷—ïbðÚñ~ØZì)Ø6ó~ì)íÍØZê+÷—õ+ý‹íbøƒî`ñ¢õ+ØRû ì)÷¼|Úê+ó®û£í7 ˜ ð+ð+ñ  ó~ê+ý9´[í+ïš û[²qîâìÙ÷¼ìÙí+؈ôÙØZï‡î‹ó~ê+ó¢ê+ý¿ø‹ØZô)ì)ó®òZî‹ñqòZ÷‹ñ¢õ+ïÍêÚû-Ž8 !#"ÿ ‘ œù9]ØbòZî‹ê ú}ØcìÙØZôÙïÍó~ê+Ø-ì)íÚØ òcõÚô)ôÙØZê$ìÙû]ìÙí+ô)÷—õ+ý‹í ‘ ¬ ù ‘ ­ ù ‘ © ùµî`êÚú ‘ ª ó¢êÚú}ó¢ø$ó®ú}õÚî‹ñ~ñ  Û

R1 E

8.6275

I

86.275m

R

100

:

R2

R3

8.6275

15.373

34.510m

43.922m

250

350

;

R4

R1 // R2

R3 // R4

R1 // R2 -R3 // R4 Total

15.373

8.6275

15.373

24

Volts

76.863m

120.78m

120.78m

120.78m

Amps

200

71.429

127.27

198.70

Ohms

™pî–ø_ó¢ê+ý ÷—õ+êÚúFî‹ñ~ñuø—÷‹ñ~ìÙî`ý—ؼî`êµúFòcõÚô)ôÙØZê$ì-øƒî‹ñ~õ+رû<÷—ôˆìÙí+ó®ûbòZó~ô/òcõÚóåì±ù]ØòZî‹êFû)í+÷ì)í+÷$û£Ø¿øƒî`ñ¢õ+ØRûbó¢ê ì)íÚØ ûÙò/í+ØZï‡îƒìÙó¢òzú}ó®î`ý—ôÙî‹ï î‹ûû)õÚò/í%Û

dRÁ æ

eiÃ[ÄpÅgfihÇÆkjRÈ l hÇÆÉxh l+n ÅÊÄ[ÆyÄpoqorh]oseËut9vÉ w Äyf"ÉZË w e"ÉxÆzeg{qÉZf l ,

I = 120.78 mA 100 Ω

¦R

R2 1

¨250 Ω

+ 8.6275 V -

¨200 Ω

+ 15.373 V -

34.510 mA 24 V

86.275 mA 350 Ω = ,

43.922 mA

¦R

¦R

4

3

-

76.863 mA

I = 120.78 mA

˜ ûgîÍ|Úêµî`ñiò/í+ØRò\èß÷ ÷—õ+ô.÷‹ôÁè ùØ-òZî‹ê9û£ØR؈ó>Xì)í+ØÍòZî‹ñ¢òZõ+ñ®îƒì)رúòcõ+ôÙôÙØZê$ìpøƒî`ñ¢õ+ØRûgî‹úÚúõ+ð î—ûì)íÚØ  û£íÚ÷‹õ+ñ®ú ì)÷ßìÙí+Øbì)÷`ì/î`ñ? Ü ó~êÚòZØ ‘ ¬ î`êÚú ‘ ­ î`ôÙØbó~êüðÚî`ô/î`ñ¢ñ¢ØZñ'ù ì)í+ØRó~ôòZ÷‹ïˆöÚó~ê+رú òZõ+ôÙô)ØRê—ì/ûzû£í+÷—õ+ñ®ú î—ú+ú õÚð ìÙ÷¿ìÙí+Øbì)÷‹ìÙî`ñ ÷  d±Â $ äƒæ¼ï ˜ r²%óFè‹Ø ó¢û)؋ùqû£ó¢êÚòcØ ‘ © î‹êÚú ‘ ª î`ôÙØbó~ê·ðÚî‹ôÙî‹ñ~ñ¢ØZñ'ùÊì)íÚØZó¢ôˆòc÷—ïˆö+ó¢ê+ØRúüòcõÚô)ôÙØZê$ìÙûzû)í+÷‹õÚñ¢ú·î`ñ®û)÷ßî—ú+ú  õ+ð ì)÷¿ì)í+Ø-ì)÷‹ìÙî`ñ"÷ d±Â  ä`æÍï ˜ 9@ ÷‹õüòZî`ê ò/í+ØRò\è÷‹ô  ÷—õ+ô/û£ØRñAXìÙ÷¼ø‹ØRô)ó>  ì)íÚî`ì[ìÙí+ØRû)Ø-|Úý‹õ+ôÙØRûgú}÷ßî‹ú+ú õ+ð î—û *Ø )}ðWØRòcì)ØR( ú

˜ òc÷—ïbðÚõ}ì)ØRôû£ó¢ïˆõ+ñ®îƒìÙó~÷—ê òRî`ê·î`ñ®û£÷ßöµØÍõÚû)ØRú ì)÷ø—ØZôÙAó   ìÙí+Ø î‹òRòcõ+ô/î‹ò  ÷ ÇìÙí+ØRû)Øb|Úý‹õ+ôÙØR û -ŸuíÚ3Ø ÷—ñ~ñ¢÷ ó¢ê+ý ) Üg÷ à ;î`êÚî‹ñ  û)ó¢ûBó¢ñ~ñ]û£í+÷î`ñ¢ñ ôÙØRû)ó¢û£ì)÷—ô¤ø‹÷—ñåì/î`ý‹Ø±û¤î`êÚú·òZõ+ô)ôÙØZê$ì/û‡Žê+÷‹ì)؇ìÙí+ؼòcõÚô)ôÙØZê$ì£^ëû)ØZêÚû)ó~êÚý¿ø_ó d ù"ø$ó  ù2 C ;°‹ú}õÚïbï  °·ø‹÷‹ñ~ìÙî‹ý‹Øû)÷‹õ+ô/òcرûÍó~ê û)ØZôÙó~رûDó~ì)í ØRî—ò/íô)رû£ó®ûxìÙ÷‹ô‡ó¢êì)í+Ø ê+ØcìÙñ~ó®ûxì±ùyê+رòcØRûÙûÙî`ô  ÷‹ô‡ìÙí+Ø Üg÷ )à0" òc÷—ïÍð+õ}ì)ØRôzð+ô)÷—ý‹ô/î`ïkì)÷¿ì)ô/î‹ò\èòcõ+ôÙôÙØZê$ì[ìÙí+ôÙ÷‹õ+ý—í9ØRî—ò/í9ðÚîƒìÙíµE -Ÿuí+ØRû)Ø-ø—÷‹ñ~ìÙî‹ý‹Øˆû)÷‹õ+ô/òcرû.ó¢ñ¢ñ"öWØÍû£ØZì[ìÙ÷¿íÚî–ø—Ø øƒî`ñ¢õ+ØRûu÷ "¶RØZôÙ÷-ø—÷‹ñ~ìÙûuرî‹ò/íû£÷bì)íÚØ  ó¢ñ¢ñÊê+÷`ìpî`³Wرòœìì)íÚØòcó¢ôÙòZõ+óåìó¢êî`ê  uî 

0"

jRÈ ç+ÈmÄ w Äporè l É l fih[eià w ÉZéb{qh

dRÁ/

1

1 1

1 F

2 100 Ω G

24 V

¦R

3 2

G F

350 Ω

G

4

4 F

vi3 6

¦R

4

0

vi4

¨200 Ω

¦R

3

0

vi2

¨250 Ω

¦R

1

4

5

F

vi1

0 0

NOTE: voltage sources vi1, vi2, vi3, and vi4 are "dummy" sources set at zero volts each. HI/J9KIH/LM$N/J$NO'O/IOQPKJ9PRSKT U(V%VQW USK$VXVQY%Z[P\W USKY]VQ^%Z[P\W J(V_YX`aVW'W J$Y%^X`bY'c'W USK^d`ec%Z[P\W USK`X`ef%Z[P\W J$^%cgW%^'c'W J'`bfgW%Y'W'W h Z[P_U(V_Y/`bY/`aV h MJ9KiTXZ[PQUjkYl `SmnUjk^l `SmnUjkcl!W[mnUjkfl!W[m h MJ9KiTXZ[PgK(j!USKV/moK(j!USKY[moK(j!USK^[moK(j!USK`Sm h IiZ

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Ujk^ls`Sm w h f'Y'x/u'vW'W {YXU$|'OT$N/}$I

Ujkc[m V h c'^x/uvWSV {$^oU$|OT$N}$I

Ujtf[m V h c'^'x/uv'WSV {'`%U$|OT$N/}$I

d ä

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U$|OT$N/}$I U(V Y h `W'W/uvW9V y N/TT$I/J'z U$|OT$N/}$I

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D’Arsonval electromechanical meter movement 50 0

100 "needle"

magnet

magnet

! wire coil

"current through wire coil

"causes needle to deflect meter terminal " connections

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)UBV

A "zero-center" meter movement 0

-100

100

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 NOP‡HS L  ™  HSIQ  ›  QS  Q

)U%U Electrostatic meter movement

force

Voltage to be measured

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# ] # h c*`$Y&[ d ^a` # [ # n%^gc$b0f # ](z8htk3^&`*n # j o c*k # z
electron "gun"

-

(vacuum)

viewscreen

electrons electrons plates + light

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500 Ω

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-

black test lead

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red test lead

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500 Ω

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-

Rmultiplier

+

black test lead

red test lead

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Ä

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Total

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10

Volts

1m

Amps Ohms

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Movement

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1m

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Movement

Rmultiplier

Total

0.5

9.5

10

Volts

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1m

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9.5k

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1m 500

Ë

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Meter movement ranged for 10 volts full-scale

º

500 Ω F.S. = 1 mA -

black test lead

+

Ë

Rmultiplier 9.5 kΩ

10 V +

red test lead

10 volts gives full-scale deflection of needle

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A multi-range voltmeter

º

500 Ω F.S. = 1 mA -

+

Þ range selector switch

black test lead

Þ

R1

Þ

R3

R2

Þ

R4

red test lead

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+

1000 V range selector 100 V switch 10 V 1V

R1

R1 = 999.5 kΩ

R2

R2 = 99.5 kΩ

R3

R3 = 9.5 kΩ

R4

R4 = 500 Ω

off black test lead

red test lead

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500 Ω F.S. = 1 mA -

+

1000 V range selector 100 V âswitch 10 V

ãoff black test lead

)š -

R1

R2

R3

R4

1V R1 = 900 kΩ R2 = 90 kΩ R3 = 9 kΩ R4 = 500 Ω

red test lead

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250 MΩ 24 V

250 MΩ

+ V

voltmeter -

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250 MΩ 24 V

250 MΩ

V

+ voltmeter (10 MΩ) -

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250 MΩ

24 V 0.8889 V

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9.615 MΩ (250 MΩ // 10 MΩ)

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+

1000 V range selector 100 V switch 10 V 1V

R1

R1 = 999.5 kΩ

R2

R2 = 99.5 kΩ

R3

R3 = 9.5 kΩ

R4

R4 = 500 Ω

off black test lead

red test lead

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100 volt range

100 kΩ 100 V

= 1000 Ω/V sensitivity

10 volt range

10 kΩ 10 V

= 1000 Ω/V sensitivity

1 volt range

1 kΩ 1V

= 1000 Ω/V sensitivity

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Amplified voltmeter

red test lead Amplifier black test lead

Battery

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Potentiometric voltage measurement

R1

250 MΩ "null" meter

24 V 1 R2

250 MΩ

null

2 adjustable voltage source

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@ ¥

x unknown mass

mass standards

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R1

250 MΩ "null" meter

24 V 1 R2

250 MΩ

null

2 adjustable voltage source

+ V

Adjust voltage source until null meter reads zero. Then, read the voltmeter to tell what the voltage is across R2 .

-

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) NOP‡+*-,HS/. L,Æ )10 ,+*-,HSIQ32Ç ) QS )4 Q*65

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¦ ŸYBYP](Y r Y&•2^a[
`=­a

b‰ô ô²±Ióƒ±>³¡ü…±Púƒ´c µ

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500 Ω

F.S = 1 mA -

black test lead

+

red test lead

^ d b([k n jw^&Z\ d ^ d ^&[d   c9d)[3jd)j,`$^&[n d•CY%`8Y%i` d ^aZ\]ed9ZYgf d)Zd[.c o ]ed cgi d jd cHd`$Z
.l%ml1n 0T0 ,+*-,GS Æ,o5p Ç2 º

q ¥ r

500 Ω F.S. = 1 mA

-

Þ

+ Rshunt

black test lead

Movement

red test lead

Ä

Rshunt

Total

E I

Volts

º

5

1m

º

R

Amps Ohms

500

ÊSsHt uvt wSs?x yez d{z'| }:wSdK~ta•6ut'z dgud{€+w s9sHd{€g‚ uGt'z dud{€8sHdg~9ye~H| { d ‚ƒ| { „…9t H|&}_yesHwSyDG"†udg| ~wSsHdg„ $ w s9sHd{€g‚ ‡od+|&{„d9dgs9uye{Sd9ˆ d?z t }D|&x dC| sHt ~H~‰9ˆSd+ud9dgs\ut'z dgud{€?"AŠ+ˆSu#i ~ ¹ |‹‡Œ| SS}ey:dK„G9tHˆSd+d{€9dgs t }:w uG{Ž‚ ¬¼ œ › $ h Movement

Ì

E I

Ä

Rshunt

Total Volts

0.5

º

5

1m

º

R

Amps Ohms

500

 •†t sHudg„…9ˆ d‘ut'z dguGdg{€|&{ƒ„#9ˆSdG~ˆwS{€ye~at •\|! |&s|&}e}ed}_t {ƒx wSs|'Hy:t {B‚ Å {St'‡ye{Sx9ˆƒ|'9ˆSdyesHwSy:P ‡dÃ{St'‡’9ˆ |&9ˆSdz t }:H| x dV| sHt ~H~\9ˆSdut'z dgud{€g‚S~9ˆwS{€g‚ | { „;Hdg~8}:dK| „S~"†9t H|&} $ u‘wƒ~38“dV9ˆSd7~H|&ud h Movement E

”0.5

I R

º

1m 500

Rshunt

Ì

0.5

Ä

Total

Ì

0.5

Volts

5

Amps

º

Ohms

t Ã{St'‡Hˆ |'‰9ˆ dCwSsHs9dg{ _9ˆSsHt w x ˆ7HˆSdC~ˆwS{€-u‘w ~6ƒdo9ˆSd„y  dsHd{ do“d3‡ddg{79ˆ doHt&|&}wSsHsHd{€ £ d| }e~9P " jG| uGƒ~ $ |&{ „!9ˆ dVwSsHs9dg{ 9ˆ s9t wSx ˆ!9ˆSdut'z dgud{€V" u  $ ‚S“dgg|&w ~9d+ sH| { ˆ<wSs9sHd{€~| „S„
q ¥&Ý

)-• n?–+*-,o—/.l,Æ )10 ,+*-,o—p32Ç ) p3— )4 p*65 Movement

”0.5

E I

1m

º

R

Ä

Rshunt

Total

”0.5

”0.5

Volts

5

Amps

º

4.999

Ohms

500

C ˆSdg{B‚-w ~ye{SxŠ+ˆSu#i ~ ¹ |‹‡˜"€› ¼¬ ¢ œ$ ye{HˆSd<sHyex ˆ€Xt }:w uG{Ž‚‰‡d<g|&{™„d9dgs9uye{Sd;HˆSd!{SdKdK~9~H|&sHk~9ˆwS{€ sHdg~9ye~H| { d h Movement

”0.5

E I R

º

Rshunt

”0.5

1m

4.999

500

100.02m

Ä

Total

”0.5

Volts

5

Amps

º

Ohms

Š •_t wSs~d ‚ ‡dVt w }e„!ˆ |‹z d|&}šw }e|&9dg„;9ˆSdV~H|&ud+z'| }:wSdta• ›3w ~3t'z ds m¥&¥ uGye}e}:y:At ˆSu~V" )¥%¥ u ¶ $ •†t s9ˆ d P ~9ˆ€w { 7Zg|&}šwS}š|'Hy:{ x<Ht&|&}6sHdg~9ye~H| { d"€› ¼œ ¢ œ Y ¥ – j
Rshunt =

R

1 1 100m

= 100.02 mΩ

º

1 500

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q¥j

.l%ml1n 0T0 ,+*-,\— Æ,o5p Ç2

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ä

§A multirange ammeter 500 Ω F.S. = 1 mA

-

+

¦R range selector âswitch

¦R1 ¦R2 ¦R3 4

black test lead

red test lead

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q ¥%ÿ

)-• n?–+*-,o—/.l,Æ )10 ,+*-,o—p32Ç ) p3— )4 p*65 500 Ω F.S. = 1 mA

-

+ 100 A

range selector switch

10 A 1A 100 mA

R1

R1 = 5.00005 mΩ

R2

R2 = 50.005 mΩ

R3

R3 = 500.5005 mΩ

R4

R4 = 5.05051 Ω

off black test lead

red test lead

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E2 (0.5 V)2 = º 5.00005 mΩ R1

º

50 W

PR2 =

E2 = R2

(0.5 V)2 50.005 mΩ

º

5W

PR3 =

E2 = R3

(0.5 V)2 500.5 mΩ

”0.5 W

PR4 =

E2 = R4

º

º

(0.5 V)2 º 5.05 Ω

49.5 mW

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.l%ml1n 0T0 ,+*-,\— Æ,o5p Ç2

q ¥¯

ta•6„sHt …‡y:}e}Ÿ“dSs9t„wƒdg„…“ds8| uG#t&•‰w s9sHd{€ h °current to be measured

Rshunt

+ V voltmeter -

°current to be measured

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Load

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black test lead

red test lead

Ð ˆSdg{9ˆSdgs9dyš~ye{ {Sy:9d?s9dK~yš~3|&{ d"†{St‘t {€9ye{wSy:3‘“d3‡dd{Hdg~}:dK| „S~ $ ‚ 9ˆ dsHdye~\£dsHtwSsHsHd{€69ˆSsHt w x ˆ 9ˆ d…ud9dsut'z dgud{€g‚\| { „HˆSd…{SddK„}:d#“t ye{€H~X9t'‡C|&s„W9ˆ d<Ø¡| sX}edØt Ø?9ˆ d…~H| }:d Ò Ñ¨{™HˆSye~sHdx€|&s„Ÿ‚-9ˆ d t ˆ uGud9dsye{ „yš|&9yet {1ye~f  | ó‡C|&s„S~9f#“dgg|&w ~9d#u|'×y:uXwSuþye{ „yš|'Hy:t {³"¡y:{S {Sy:3 $ yš~t {®9ˆSd#}edØ;t Ø?9ˆ d ~H|&}ed ‚‡ˆ y:}edz t }D|&x dV|&{ƒ„<wSs9sHd{€udHds~Cˆ |‹z d£dgs9t|'CHˆSd}:dØ?t&Ø_9ˆSdgy:s+~9g|&}edg~ Ò ÑPØ\HˆSdG9dK~37}edg| „S~t&Ø\HˆSyš~Vt ˆSuudHds7|&sHd„y:sHdg9}eZ~9ˆSt s99dK„9t x d9ˆSdgs"¡udg| ~9wSsHy:{ x<£gdsHt#Ö $ ‚B9ˆ dGud9ds ut'z dguGdg{€8‡y:}e}Žˆ |‹z d7|u|'×y:uXwSuü|&ut wS{€8t Ø6wSsHs9dg{ HˆSsHt wSx ˆyDK‚ }ey:uy:9dg„Tt {S}e!<9ˆSd7ƒ|'HdsH
9V -

+

18 mA black test lead

red test lead

Ð y:9ˆ Ó z t }:H~\t&ØB |&9dgs9G“t&9dg{€9yš|&}ž|&{ „t {S}:j&Ô Ô‘Ö1t&ØBut'z dgud{€\sHdg~9ye~H| { d ‚ t w s\yesHwSy:w s9sHd{€\‡ye}:} “d «‘u  ‚‡ˆSyeˆ…yš~\Ø¡| sCƒdg t {ƒ„;HˆSd؆wS}:}:¨~9g|&}ed+s|'Hy:{SxXt&Ø_9ˆSdVut'z dguGdg{€ Ò ¢w ˆ…|&{…d×SdK~9~ot&Ø-wSsHs9dg{€‡ye}:} }ey:ó d}e!„S|&u| x d9ˆSdVudHds Ò ß t ot {S}:GHˆ |'K‚€ wˆƒ|‹z€ye{Sx‘~9w ˆ!|Xt { „y:9yet {;}ey:uy:H~o9ˆ d?w ~9d؆wS}e{SdK~9~t&؟HˆSd+„Sdzyed Ò ÑPØB؆wS}e}ž}:dØPt&ب~9g|&}ed t {X9ˆ duGd9dgs-Ø¡| dCsHdSsHdg~9d{€~‰| {Xye{ { yDHd?|&ut w { -t&؞sHdg~9ye~H| { d ‚‹9ˆSdg{X؆w }:}SsHyex ˆ€Pt&ب~9g|&}edo~9ˆSt w }e„Xs9dgSsHdg~9d{€ £dgs9t Ò ¤ow s9sHd{€9}e ‚Žt wSs7„dK~yex {Wf&“dx€~9f!9ˆ duGd9dgsuGt'z dud{€Vˆ |&s„Z9t#9ˆ dGsHyex ˆ€‡ˆSd{W£dgs9t…sHdg~9ye~H| { dGye~

q )Ý

)-• n?–+*-,o—/.l,Æ )10 ,+*-,o—p32Ç ) p3— )4 p*65

|'9H| ˆSdg„“d3‡ddg{9ˆSd?}:dK| „S~ Ò Ð d+{SddK„|7‡C|‹79t‘u| ó d8y:~9tHˆ |'o9ˆSd+uGt'z dud{€B›3wƒ~3s9dgx yš~3Hds~-؆wS}e}D¨~9g|&}ed ‡ˆSdg{#9ˆSdHdg~?}edg| „ ~8|&sHd7~ˆ t s99dg„<Ht x d9ˆSdgs Ò CˆSyš~8yš~8| gt uS}eyš~ˆSdK„…€#| „ „y:{ x;|~dgs9yedg~sHdg~9yš~3|&{ d+Ht9ˆ d udHdsKi ~y:swSy: h ñ500 Ω Ë

9V

F.S. = 1 mA

-

black test lead

+

ðR

red test lead

_tZ„dHdsHuy:{Sd!9ˆSd<SsHt “ds‘z'| }:wSd;؆t sÿ‚_‡d!g|&}šwS}š|'Hd9ˆSd!9t H|&}CyeswSy:‘sHdg~9ye~H| { d;{ ddg„Sdg„WHtT}:yeuyD  w s9sHd{€9t u  "؆wS}e}:P~H| }:d‘„Sd  dK9yet {#t {#9ˆSd7ut'z dud{€ $ ‡yDHˆ Ó z t }D~t&Ø6“t&9dg{€9yš|&}B؆sHt ué9ˆSd‘ |'99dsH ‚ 9ˆ d{~w 9s| HˆSdut'z dguGdg{€gi ~Cy:{€9dgs9{ƒ|&}ŸsHdg~9ye~H| { d+؆s9t u¬9ˆƒ|' x wSs9d h Ë

E 9V Rtotal = = I 1 mA

Ë

Rtotal = 9 kΩ R = Rtotal - 500 Ω = 8.5 kΩ

ß t'‡®9ˆ |&69ˆSd?s9yex ˆ€6z'|&}ewSdC؆t sÿªˆ | ~-ƒdgd{| }ewS}š|'9dK„Ÿ‚ ‡d i sHdC~9ye}e}S}:dØ\‡y:9ˆ|VSsHt S}edu­t&؞uGd9dgs6sH| {Sx d Ò +Š {k9ˆSd}edØ7~yš„dt&Øo9ˆSd~H| }:dG‡odGˆ |‹z dGf y:{ƒ{SyD3f…|&{ „kt {Z9ˆSdsHyex ˆ€V~9yš„dX‡dˆ |‹z dX£dgs9t ÒXò dg~9ye„Sdg~ƒdgy:{ x f&ƒ| ó‡| sH„ ~9fV؆sHt ué9ˆSd7~H| }:dK~t&Ø-z t }:9ud9ds~C|&{ „#| uGud9ds~g‚9ˆSyš~8~H|&}edVye~~9s|&{ x dƒdK|&wƒ~dy:8x tdg~o؆sHt u {St 9ˆSye{SxV9tdgz dgs9€9ˆ y:{Sxƒ‚'sH|&9ˆSdgs-9ˆ | {G؆s9t uÁ{St 9ˆSye{Sx9t7| { yDHdz‹| }:w d7"¡~9w ˆ| ~ Ôz t }:H~g‚ |&uB‚ dH Ò $ Ò Š+{ d uy:x ˆ€ |&w ~9dC9t‡t {ƒ„dsK‚ f&‡ˆƒ|'\„tdg~uGyš„S„}edPt&ب~H|&}edCs9dgSsHdg~9d{€  Ð ˆ |&6 x wSsHd}ey:dK~6d×S| 9}e‘“d3‡ddg{G£gdsHt |&{ƒ„Xye{ { yD3 KfѨ{ { yD3Xye~\uGt s9dHˆ |&{V›3w ~o| Ö Ó  ] ;Û |&ut wS{€ h y:ye~o|&{ye{ | }ewS}e| S}ed8© wƒ|&{€9y:3 ‚&}š|&sHx dgs-9ˆ | { |&{G„d { yDHd?{wSu‘“dsodz dsot wS}š„“d Ò ÑP؟ˆ |&}:ØP~H| }:d?y:{ „Syeg|'9yet {t {;|&{‘t 9ˆSdgs3“d8t&ØBudHdsos9dgSs9dK~dg{€H~ ‹î q t&؉9ˆ dV؆wS}:}:¨~9g|&}eds|&{ x dz‹| }:w d ‚9ˆ d{#‡ˆ |'8yš~ˆ | }D؉t&Ø-y:{S {Sy:3!t {#|&{…t ˆ uGud9ds+~9g|&}ed  CˆSd|&{ ~9‡ds9t<9ˆSyš~V | sH| „t‹×ye~| Ø0×$Û%Ú Ó |Ô =  Ñ ( Ñ ÚgØ Ò ¢y:uS}eTSwK‚BHˆSd~9g|&}edXt Øo|&{[t ˆSuudHds„tdg~ {St o~utt&HˆS}eXSsHt x s9dK~9~‰Ø†sHt uí£dgs9t79t7ye{ {Sy:3| ~-HˆSd?{ ddg„S}:d~‡ddg ~-؆sHt uís9yex ˆ€Ht7}:dØ Ò ÿ8|&9ˆSdgsg‚ 9ˆSd~9g|&}ed ~H|&s9H~Vt w7f&d׍ƒ|&{ „dK„Sf#|'V9ˆ ds9yex ˆ€Pˆ | { „Z~9ye„Sd ‚Ž‡y:9ˆ[HˆSd;~wƒdK~9~9yez dGs9dK~yš~3|&{ dz‹| }:w dg~Vx sHt'‡ye{Sx<}:t€~dgs |&{ƒ„<}:t€~dgsC9tdg| ˆ
q j

.l:û l³ô •?0T0 ,+*-,\— Æ,o5p Ç2 ý

An ohmmeter’s logarithmic scale

15k

1.5k 750

300

150

100

75

0

Ѩ{ { yD3G|&{ {St&“d?|& Ss9t€| ˆSdK„7ye{;|V}:ye{SdK|&s?"¡dz dg{ $ Ø¡| ~9ˆSyet {B‚ ƒdK| w ~dCHˆSd?~H| }:dC‡t wS}š„  Ö Ó-x d6HˆSdsHd þ y : 9  Ð ˆN|W}et x | s9y:9ˆ uGyš#~9g|&}ed ‚o9ˆSdT| ut wS{€;t&ØVsHdg~9ye~H| { d~9 |&{S{ dg„1؆t s;| {€®x yez d{²„yš~H|&{ƒdt {19ˆ dZ~9g|&}ed ye{ sHdg| ~dK~| ~9ˆSd7~H| }:dVSsHt x s9dK~9~9dg~\9t'‡C|&s„;ye{ { yD3 ‚Su|&óy:{ xGye{ { yD3…|&{#|'|&ye{ |& }:dVx t€|&} Ò Ð dX~9ye}:}‰ˆ |‹z dX|;©€wSdg~9yet {Tt ØsH| {Sx d7؆t s?t wSs?t ˆSuud9dgsg‚“HˆSt wSx ˆ Ò Ð ˆ |&z'| }:wSd‘t&ØsHdg~9ye~H| { d7“d3‡ddg{ 9ˆ doHdg~6}:dK| „S~‰‡ye}:}Sg|&w ~9dod×S| H}: 'î q ~9g|&}ed„d  dg9yet {Xt&Ø HˆSdC{SddK„}ed <ÑP؃‡doó{St'‡™9ˆ |&‰HˆSdCut'z dudg{ -ˆ | ~ |V؆wS}e}:P~H| }:d8s|'Hy:{ x7t&Ø u  ‚ HˆSd{!Ô Ò ju  "j Ô Ô Õ  $ u‘wƒ~3\“d8HˆSd?z'| }:wSd+{SddK„dg„G؆t s\ˆ | }Dب~H|&}ed?„d  dg9yet { Ò ÊSt }:}et'‡ye{SxXt wSs8„dK~yex {…‡yDHˆ#9ˆSd Ó z t }:Cƒ|'HdsH!| ~|~9t wSsd‡dx d h Ë

Rtotal =

E 9V = ñ I 500 µA

Rtotal = 18 kΩ

Ð y:9ˆ|&{#ye{ HdsH{ |&}Ÿut'z dud{€Cs9dK~yš~3|&{ dVt&Øj&Ô ÔÖQ|&{ „…|~dgs9yedg~Cs|&{Sx d+sHdg~9yš~3Ht sCt&Ø6« Ò jXóÖ‚S9ˆSyš~}edg|‹z dK~ Ó óSֳ؆t s| {Td×HdsH{ |&}C"†}edg| „Ht&P}:dK| „ $ 9dg~Vs9dK~yš~3|&{ dX|& ‹î q ~H|&}ed Ò Ñ¨{Tt 9ˆSdgs+‡t s„S~g‚ HˆSdX9dg~Vs9dK~yš~3|&{ d x yezy:{ x ‹î q ~H| }:d7„Sd  dK9yet {ye{T|&{t ˆSuud9dgs8yš~8dg©€w | }Žye{z'|&}ewSd9tHˆSd<"¡y:{€HdsH{ |&} $ ~9dsHy:dK~C9t H|&}Žs9dK~yš~3|&{ d t&؉9ˆ duGd9dgs8yesHwSyD Ò ^?~9ye{Sx!Š+ˆSu#i ~ _|‹‡’|G؆d‡³ut sHd9yeuGdK~‚ ‡od| {…„Sd9dgs9uye{SdV9ˆ dV9dg~8sHdg~9ye~H| { dVz'|&}ewSd؆t s 'îqÝ |&{ „ r€îgÝ ~H|&}ed„d  dgHy:t {…| ~C‡odg}:} h

‹îgÝ ~H| }:d„d  dg9yet {W"¡Ô Ò q j‘u  t Ø_udHds?wSs9sHd{€ $ h

q mÿ

)-• n?–+*-,o—/.l,Æ )10 ,+*-,o—p32Ç ) p3— )4 p*65 Ë

ðR

total =

E 9V =   I 250 µA

Rtotal = 36 kΩ

ðR

test

= Rtotal - Rinternal

Rtest = 36 kΩ - 9 kΩ Rtest = 27 kΩ

r€îgÝ ~H| }:d„d  dg9yet {W"¡Ô Ò%¯ j‘u  t Ø_udHds?wSs9sHd{€ $ h Ë

ðR

9V E =  total = I 750 µA

ðR

= 12 kΩ

ðR

test

= Rtotal - Rinternal

test

= 12 kΩ - 9 kΩ

total

ðR

Rtest = 3 kΩ

¢tƒ‚9ˆSd7~H| }:d؆t sCHˆSyš~t ˆSuudHds}ett ó~~t ud9ˆ y:{Sx}ey:ó d9ˆSyš~ h 27k

9k

3k 0

.lgl • p Ç • ôB*ƒnAÇ,±ô •?0T0 ,*-,\—?5

q '¯

Š+{Sdu|'›3t s7SsHt S}edu ‡yDHˆ9ˆ ye~X„dg~9y:x {ye~7yD~‘sHd}eye| { dw ƒt {™|~3|&S}ed; |&9dgs9[z t }D|&x dX؆t s‘| gwSs|'Hd Hs dg~9ye~H| { dVsHdg| „Sy:{Sx Ò ÑPØ-9ˆSdƒ|'HdsH!z t }:H|&x d„dgs9dK| ~9dg~V"¡| ~8|&}e}ŽˆSdguGyš| }B |&9dgs9yedg~?„t‡yDHˆ|&x d7| { „…w ~9d $ ‚ 9ˆ d7t ˆSuudHds~9g|&}ed‡y:}e}_}et ~9d7| gwSs|  Ò Ð yDHˆ9ˆ d‘~dgs9yedg~8sH| {Sx dsHdg~9ye~9t s8|'+|!t {ƒ~3|&{€8z'|&}ewSd7t&Ø« Ò jGóSÖ |&{ƒ„!HˆSd |&9dgs9
åcXú<ò tóøc‘â òXú…ô÷ôãâó-â8äú

 t€~3…t ˆSuudHds~;t&ØHˆSdk„Sdg~9y:x {N~ˆSt'‡{²ye{²HˆSdZSsHdzyet w ~<~dKHy:t {²w9ye}:ye£dW| |&HdsH1t Ø7s9dg}e|&9yez d}eŒ}:t'‡ z t }D|&x d ‚&w ~9w | }:}eX{ y:{Sd?z t }:H~\t s}edg~H~ Ò CˆSyš~yš~“ds9؆dg9}eG| „dg©€w |&9d؆t sudg| ~wSsHye{Sxs9dK~yš~H|&{ƒdg~wS{ „dgso~9dz dgsH| } udx€|'Pt ˆSu~;"  Ö $ ‚ wX‡ˆSdg{™d×Hs9dguGdg}:[ˆSyex ˆ™sHdg~9yš~3|&{ dg~{Sdgdg„WHtZ“d!udg| ~w s9dK„Ÿ‚6| Ó z t }:‘ |'99dgs9[ye~ ye{ ~wSEy:dg{€؆t sx dg{Sds|'Hy:{ xXdg{St wSx ˆ…wSsHs9dg{ CHt| Hw |'HdV| {#d}edgHs9t udgˆ | {Syeg|&}“ud9dgs8ut'z dguGdg{€ Ò  }š~9t ‚ | ~8„yš~9w ~9~9dg„…ye{|&{#dg| s9}ey:dgs8ˆ |&S9dsK‚SsHdg~9ye~H| { dVyš~8{St ?|&}e‡|‹~|~H| S}:d;"¡}:ye{SdK|&s $ © wƒ|&{€9y:3 Ò CˆSye~ yš~Cdg~9ƒdKyš|&}e}:!9sHwSdVt&Ø-{St {Pud|&}š~ Ò ÿdK|&}e}ž9ˆ dx s|&Sˆ
q «

)-• n?–+*-,o—/.l,Æ )10 ,+*-,o—p32Ç ) p3— )4 p*65

I (current)

E (voltage) ionization potential

Ð ˆSye}:dX9ˆ ye~Vyš~V|&{Zd×9sHdud‘d×| uS}:dGt&Øo{St {S}eye{Sdg| st { „wƒ9yet {Ž‚Ÿt&9ˆ ds~w  ~3|&{ dg~+d׈SyeSy:~9yeuGye}š|&sy:{ 9~ wS}e|&9ye{Sx î t { „w 9ye{SxZSsHt “ds99yedg~G‡ˆSdg{®d׍“t ~9dg„™9t[ˆSyex ˆŒz t }:H| x dK~ Ò Š+zy:t w ~}e ‚| {®t ˆSuuGd9dgsGwƒ~ye{SxW| }et'‡CAz t }:H|&x dXƒ|'HdsH[| ~7|~9t wSsdt ØC“t'‡ds‘g|&{S{St 7udg| ~9wSsHds9dK~yš~H|&{ƒd;|'‘9ˆSd;yet { y:£K|'9yet {W“t&Hd{€9yš|&}ot&Ø |;x€| ~g‚ƒt s+|&+HˆSd‘SsHdg| ó„t'‡{z t }D|&x d‘t&Ø\|&{Zy:{ ~9wS}š|'Ht s Ò ÑPØo~9w ˆTsHdg~9ye~H| { d‘z‹| }:w dg~+{SddK„9t<ƒdGudg| ~wSsHdg„B‚ {St 9ˆSye{SxSw+|GˆSyex ˆSAz t }:H|&x d?t ˆSuuGd9dgs8‡y:}e}B~9wE;d Ò CˆSdXuGt€~3„yes9dKuGd9ˆSt„Zt&Ø\ˆSyex ˆSAz t }:H|&x ds9dK~yš~H|&{ƒd7udg| ~w s9dguGdg{€+ye{€z t }ez dK~?~9y:uS}e~wSƒ~3HyDHw9ye{Sx#| ˆSyex ˆSdgsz t }D|&x d |&9dgs9!y:{…9ˆ d7~9| uGdV | ~yšV„dg~9yex {…t&Ø-t ˆSuudHdsye{€z dg~9yex |&9dg„!dg| s9}ey:dgs h

Simple high-voltage ohmmeter

-

black test lead

+

red test lead

Å {St'‡ye{Sx ‚ƒˆSt'‡dz dgsg‚ƒ9ˆƒ|'?HˆSdGs9dK~yš~3|&{ d7t&Ø~t uGdXu|'9dgs9yš|&}š~Hd{ „ ~?Ht<ˆ | {Sx d‘‡yDHˆk|& S}:yedg„Zz t }D|&x d ‚ y:X‡t wS}š„“d<| „Sz‹| {€H|&x dt w ~V9tkƒd…|&S}ed;HtZ| „'›3w ~3G9ˆ d!z t }D|&x dt&Ø9ˆ ye~Xt ˆSuudHdsX9tkt |&ye{s9dK~yš~3|&{ d udg| ~wSsHdudg{ ~wS{ „dgs?„y:ï“dgs9dg{ ?t { „SyDHy:t { ~ h

.lgl • p Ç • ôB*ƒnAÇ,±ô •?0T0 ,*-,\—?5

-

q KÓ

+

black test lead

red test lead

^8{S؆t s99wS{ |&9dg}: ‚ŽHˆSye~‘‡ot wS}š„sHdg|'Hd;|T| }:yeSs|'Hy:t {kSsHt  }:dguæ؆t s9ˆSd
0

Magnet 1

1 2

Magnet

2

3 3

CˆSd+{€w u‘“dsHdg„Ÿ‚sHdg|&{Sx wS}š|&s\ }:tó~\ye{;HˆSdV|&“t'z d8ye}:}ew ~9s|'Hy:t {!|&sHd+s9t€~9~P~9dg9yet { | }s9dgSsHdg~9d{€H|&9yet { ~\t&Ø ‡ yes9dt y:}š~ Ò CˆSdg~9dG9ˆSsHdd;t ye}e~‘|&}e}6uGt'z d‡yDHˆW9ˆSd{Sdgdg„}edudgˆ | {Syš~u Ò CˆSdgs9dyš~{St~9Ss9ye{Sxudgˆƒ|&{Syš~u 9tsHdHwSs9{<9ˆ d{SddK„}:dHt|~9d“t ~9yDHy:t { Ò Ð ˆSd{…HˆSdut'z dudg{ Cyš~CwS{S“t'‡odgs9dK„Ÿ‚9ˆSdV{Sdgdg„}ed‡ye}:}Ÿs|&{ „St u}: f  t |' Ò fGCˆSd7t ye}e~| s9dd}edg9sHyeg|&}e}:!t {S{ dgHdg„<}:yeó dVHˆSyš~ h

q q Ô

)-• n?–+*-,o—/.l,Æ )10 ,+*-,o—p32Ç ) p3— )4 p*65 High voltage

2

3

1

Red

Ä

Black Test leads

Ð :y 9ˆZye{ { yDHdGsHdg~9yš~3|&{ d‘“d3‡dd{Z9ˆSdX9dK~3V}edg| „ ~G"¡t “d{[yesHwSyD $ ‚žHˆSdsHdX‡ye}e}‰“dG{St…wSsHs9dg{ +9ˆSsHt w x ˆ t y:} ‚“t {S}e…9ˆSsHt w x ˆTt y:}š~ q |&{ „ r Ò Ð ˆSdg{Zd{ dsHx ye£dg„B‚S9ˆ dg~9dXt y:}š~Hs9<9t…dg{ Hds?9ˆSdgu~9d}ez dK~?ye{HˆSd‘x€|& “d3‡dd{T9ˆSdX3‡ot
1

Magnet

2

Magnet

1

3 Current through coils 2 and 3; no current through coil 1

 {WwSsHsHd{€9ˆSsHt w x ˆt y:} "9ˆ s9t wSx ˆ™|udK| ~9wSs9dK„[s9dK~yš~3|&{ d;t {S{Sdg9dK„Wƒd3‡odgd{W9ˆ d9dK~3‘}edg| „S~ $ 9dg{ „S~CHt„s9yez dHˆSd{SddK„}edV9t9ˆ d}:dØ8t&؉~H| }:d ‚ | ó;9t£dgs9t Ò CˆSdVy:{€9dgs9{ƒ|&}ŸsHdg~9ye~9t sz'| }:wSdK~t&Ø_9ˆSdud9ds ut'z dguGdg{€6| s9dg|&}ey:Ss|'Hdg„G~tHˆ |'‡ˆSdg{G9ˆSdCHdg~}:dK| „S~| s9d~9ˆSt s99dK„7Ht x d9ˆ dsK‚'9ˆSd{ ddg„S}:d8„d  dgH~6d×S| H}: 9tGHˆSd7Ô;Ö²“t ~9yDHy:t { Ò ò dgg|&w ~9dG| {Tz'|&sHye|&9yet { ~Vye{W |'99dsHTz t }:H|&x dX‡ye}e}\|'ïždg9ˆSdHt s© w dGx d{SdgsH|&9dK„Z t×gÔ ~9dH~7t&؁t ye}š~

.lgl • p Ç • ôB*ƒnAÇ,±ô •?0T0 ,*-,\—?5

q q

"¡t ye}e~ q | { „ r ‚ž‡ˆSyšˆZ„sHyez dHˆSd‘{Sdgdg„}edX9t;HˆSd‘sHyex ˆ€g‚ž|&{ „Zt ye} ‚“‡ˆSyeˆk„s9yez dK~HˆSd‘{Sdgdg„}edX9t;HˆSd‘}edØ $ ‚ 9ˆ t ~9d8z'|&sHye|&9yet { ~\‡y:}e}ƒˆƒ|‹z d8{St‘dïždgCt&؞HˆSdg|&}ey: sH|&9yet {t&؟HˆSd?ut'z dgud{€ Ò Ñ¨{;t&HˆSds‡t s„S~‚ 9ˆSd| gwSs|  t&ؓ9ˆ ye~\t ˆSuudHdsut'z dgud{€6ye~6w { |'ïždg9dg„X |'99dsH‘z t }:H| x d h |Vx yez d{|&ut wS{€t&؞uGdK| ~9wSsHdg„Xs9dK~yš~3|&{ d ‡ye}:}B s9t„w d|Gds9H| y:{…{SddK„}ed7„d  dKHy:t {B‚{Stu|'99dsˆ t'‡’u‘wƒˆ…t sC}:y:H}:d7ƒ|'HdsH;z t }D|&x d+yš~CSsHdg~9d{€ Ò CˆSdXt {S}e
2

3

1

Guard

Line

Earth

ÿdK~yš~3|&{ d8yš~oudK| ~9wSs9dK„“d3‡dd{;9ˆSd# Bye{SdV|&{ „ œ |&s99ˆHdsHuy:{ | }e~g‚€‡ˆSdsHd+wSs9sHd{€‡y:}e}“9s|‹z d} 9ˆSsHt w x ˆ t y:} Ò CˆSdV%f Üw | sH„ f9dsHuy:{ƒ|&}“ye~oSsHt'z€yš„dK„G؆t sC~“dgye| }S9dK~3Hy:{ xG~9yDHw |'Hy:t { ~‡ˆ dsHd?t { d?sHdg~9ye~H| { duXw ~3C“d yš~t }e|&9dg„؆s9t u | {St&HˆSds Ò _| ó d8؆t s\ye{ ~H|&{ƒd+9ˆSyš~o~Hdg{ |&sHyet7‡ˆSdsHd8HˆSdy:{ ~9wS}š|'Hy:t {;s9dK~yš~H|&{ƒd8yš~o9t‘“d+9dg~9dK„ ye{#|X3‡t&P‡y:sHdV|& }:d h

q q q

)-• n?–+*-,o—/.l,Æ )10 ,+*-,o—p32Ç ) p3— )4 p*65

°cable

Cable

sheath

°conductor

°conductor

insulation

_t+udg| ~w s9dCye{ ~w }e|&9yet {Gs9dK~yš~3|&{ d\؆sHt u­|t { „Sw Ht s‰9t9ˆ dt w~yš„dCt&؃9ˆSd8g|&S}ed ‚&‡dC{SddK„7Htt { {Sdg 9ˆ dVf$ Bye{Sdgf‘}:dK| „!t&؎HˆSduGdgx x dso9tt {Sdt&؎9ˆSdt { „w 9t sH~|&{ „<t {S{SdgoHˆSdf œ |&s99ˆ f}edg| „;t ؎9ˆ d+udx x dgs 9t|‡yes9dV‡s|&S“dg„…|&sHt w { „;HˆSd7~9ˆSdg|&9ˆ…t&؎HˆSd7| S}ed h

wire wrapped around °cable sheath

G

L

E

%

Ѩ{V9ˆ ye~‰t { x w sH|&9yet {+9ˆSdouGdgx x dsŽ~9ˆSt w }e„VsHdg| „?HˆSd\sHdg~9yš~3|&{ d6ƒd3‡odgd{t { d\t { „w 9t s_|&{ „VHˆSdt wH~9ye„Sd ~9ˆSdg|&9ˆ Ò Š+s‡y:}e}\y:íÑP؇d;„s|‹‡­|T~HˆSdu|&9yš„ye| x s|&uæ~9ˆSt'‡ye{Sx|&}e}ye{ ~w }e|&9yet {sHdg~9ye~H| { dK~| ~sHdg~9ye~9t s ~9€uXƒt }e~g‚‡ˆ |&C‡dˆ |‹z d+}ett ó~C}:yeó dHˆSye~ h

.lgl • p Ç • ôB*ƒnAÇ,±ô •?0T0 ,*-,\—?5

q q r

sheath

ðR

c1-s

°conductor

ðR

c2-s

ðR

c1-c2

1

°conductor

2

Line

Earth Megger

8ÿ |&9ˆSdgsŽHˆ |&{›3wƒ~3-udg| ~9wSsHdHˆSdosHdg~9yš~3|&{ dt&ØHˆSd~9dgt { „‘t {ƒ„w Ht sŽ9t+9ˆSdC~ˆ dg|'Hˆ!"¡ÿ'& î(*) $ ‚&‡ˆ |&_‡d i }:} | 9w | }:}e‘udK| ~9wSs9dyš~6Hˆ |'os9dK~yš~3|&{ dCy:{ | sH| }:}ed} ‡yDHˆ9ˆSd?~9dsHyedg~t u‘ y:{ |&9yet {t&ØBt { „wƒ9t sA9t Pt { „Sw Ht s sHdg~9ye~H| { d;"ÿ & ï( & î $ | { „<9ˆSd‘ s~3?t { „wƒ9t s9t;9ˆSd‘~9ˆSdK|'9ˆ™"ÿ & ï(+) $ Ò ÑP؇d7„t {Ži +g|&sHd7|&“t w?9ˆSyš~Ø¡| g‚ ‡dg|&{…Ss9tddg„!‡yDHˆ!HˆSd9dK~38| ~Ct { x wSsHdg„ Ò ÑPØ_‡dV„dg~9y:sHd9tGudg| ~9wSsHd ×&3 ØR] 9ˆSdVsHdg~9ye~H| { d“d3‡dd{<9ˆ d ~9dgt { „…t {ƒ„w Ht s8| { „;HˆSd7~9ˆSdg|&9ˆW"¡ÿ & î,(+) $ ‚9ˆ d{#‡odV{Sdgdg„<9twƒ~d9ˆ duGdgx x dsKi ~C%f Üwƒ|&s„Sf7HdsHuy:{ | } h wire wrapped around °cable sheath

G

L

E

Megger with "Guard" °connected

ß t'‡’9ˆSd7y:sw yD8~HˆSdu|'Hye}ett ó~C}:yeó dHˆSye~ h

q q Ý

)-• n?–+*-,o—/.l,Æ )10 ,+*-,o—p32Ç ) p3— )4 p*65 sheath

ðR

c1-s

°conductor

ðR

ðR

c2-s

c1-c2

1

°conductor

2

Line Guard

Earth Megger

o¤ t { {Sdg9ye{Sx9ˆ dof%Üwƒ|&s„Sf9dgs9uye{ |&} 9tHˆSdo sH~_t { „wƒ9t sŽS}š| dg~B9ˆSd\3‡ot?t { „Sw Ht s~Ž|'‰|&}euGt€~3‰dg©€w | } “t&9dg{€9yš|&} Ò Ð y:9ˆ7}eyD99}ed\t sŽ{St8z t }:H| x d-ƒd3‡odgd{VHˆSdu#‚‹9ˆ d\ye{ ~w }e|&9yet {sHdg~9ye~H| { d6yš~B{SdK|&sH}:+y:{S {Sy:9d ‚&| { „9ˆw ~ 9ˆ dsHd\‡ye}:}€ƒdo{St?wSs9sHd{€  Ô-   HˆSd3‡t?t { „w 9t sH~ Ò ¤ot {ƒ~dK© w d{€9}e ‚g9ˆSdudx x dsKi ~Ÿs9dK~yš~H|&{ƒd6ye{ „yš|'Hy:t { ‡ye}:}8“d | ~dK„®dׁ}:wƒ~yez dg}:™t {®HˆSdTw s9sHd{€9ˆSsHt w x ˆ™HˆSdT~9dgt { „Œt {ƒ„w Ht sKi ~ye{ ~9wS}š|'9yet {Ž‚\HˆSs9t wSx ˆ19ˆ d | S}ed+~9ˆSdg|&9ˆB‚|&{ „9t7HˆSd‡y:sHd?‡s|&S“dg„| s9t wS{ „Ÿ‚€{St \9ˆ dwSs9sHd{€\}edg| óy:{Sx79ˆSsHt wSx ˆ9ˆ d8 s~3Ct { „w 9t sKi ~ ye{ ~w }e|&9yet { Ò  dgx x dgsH~| s9d#ƒd}š„²y:{ƒ~3Hs9wSudg{ ~ h 9ˆ |& ×gÔ 9dg~9dgsye~Cwƒ~dK„ Ò CˆSdg~9d~“dgye| }:ye£dK„!ye{ ~9sHwSud{€H~C s9t„w dVz t }:H| x dK~\ye{
û3tó6åôãâIó‰â8äú

¢dgdye{SxZ| ~7ˆSt'‡¬|Tt uGut {[ud9dsGut'z dguGdg{€‘|&{“d;u| „Sd9t؆w { Hy:t {®| ~X|#z t }:9ud9dsK‚6|&uudHdsK‚_t s t ˆ uGud9ds~9y:uS}e;;t {S{SdK9ye{SxGyDCHt„SyDïždsHd{€d×9dgs9{ƒ|&}“s9dK~yš~3Ht s{Sd3‡t sHó~‚y:8~ˆSt wS}š„;u|&ó d~9d{ ~9d+9ˆ |& |Vu‘w }DHyDPSwSsHƒt€~d?uGd9dgs?"¡f u‘wS}:9yeud9dgsHf $ t wS}š„ƒd?„Sdg~9y:x {Sdg„Gye{t {Sd8w {SyDo‡yDHˆ9ˆSd+|&SSsHt  s9yš|'HdC~9‡y:HˆŽ"¡dg~ $ |&{ƒ„!sHdg~9ye~9t sH~ Ò

.l%.l 0²4 B *‰p 0 ,+*-,\—+5

q q j

ÊSt sx dg{Sds|&} wSs9“t ~9d8dg}:dK9sHt { yeg~-‡ot s9óž‚&HˆSd8uXwS}DHy:ud9dsos9dgy:x { ~~9wSSsHdud8| ~9ˆSd?y:{ ~9sHwSud{€\t ØBˆSt yšd Ò ß t…t&HˆSds„dgzyedGyš~V|&S}edX9t„t#~t…u‘w ˆk‡yDHˆ[~9t…}:y:H}:d|&{ky:{z dg~9ud{€Vy:{[ |&s9H~V| { „Tdg}:dgx |&{€~yeuS}eyeyD3

t&Ø-t “ds|'Hy:t { Ò  ~‡yDHˆut ~9ˆSye{Sx ~8y:{…9ˆ d7‡ot s9}š„
CˆSd[wS{Sy:T~ˆSt'‡{Q|&“t'z dZyš~<3Syeg|&}Vt&ØG|®ˆ | { „ˆSdg}e„Q|&{ | }:t x®uXwS}DHy:ud9dsK‚‡yDHˆ’s|&{Sx dg~!؆t s#z t }D|&x d ‚  w s9sHd{€g‚ƒ|&{ „…sHdg~9ye~H| { dVudg| ~wSsHdudg{  Ò ß t 9dHˆSdu|&{<~H| }:dK~Ct {…9ˆ dØ¡| dt&؉9ˆSd7ud9ds?uGt'z dud{€؆t s 9ˆ d<„y:ï“dgs9dg{€Xs|&{Sx dg~‘| { „W؆wS{ƒ9yet {ƒ~X~9d}edgH|& }:d;[9ˆ d!sHt&H| s9W~9‡yDˆ Ò CˆSd<‡y:sHdg~7؆t sGt { {Sdg9ye{SxTHˆSye~ ye{ ~3Hs9w uGdg{€9t;|yeswSy:8S}ewSxy:{€HtXHˆSd3‡tt  ƒdgs8s9dKdgH| }edg~C|'HˆSd7“t&Ht uG¨d{€Hdst&؉9ˆ duGd9dgsØ¡| d u|&sHó dK„!f'\ œ ¢ ëf ‚S}š| ó!| { „…s9dK„ Ò

q q ÿ

)-• n?–+*-,o—/.l,Æ )10 ,+*-,o—p32Ç ) p3— )4 p*65

CˆSyš~u‘w }DHy:udHds…"¢yeu ~t {WSsH| { „ $ |&ó dK~7|~9}:yex ˆ€9}ek„SyDïždsHd{€‘„dK~yex {|& Ss9t€| ˆk9ˆ | {[9ˆSd; s9dgz€yet wƒ~ Sw {Sy: Ò ß t&Hd?ˆSt'‡Œ9ˆ d+sHt&|&sHX~9d}edgHt s~‡y:Hˆ;ˆƒ| ~\؆d‡dsƒt€~y:9yet { ~9ˆ | {;HˆSd?SsHdzyet w ~\ud9dgsg‚SwSC| }e~9t7ˆSt'‡ 9ˆ dsHd| s9dGu|&{ut sHdXsHdgd| }:dK~+ye{€9t#‡ˆSyšˆZHˆSdG9dK~3‘t {S{SdKHy:t {Z‡yes9dK~+u|‹T“dS}ewSx x dg„Tye{€9t Ò œ | ˆ t { dXt Ø\9ˆ t ~9dXsHdgd| }ed‘ˆ t }edg~ye~V}š|&“d}edg„Z‡yDHˆ[|…{wSuXƒdgsye{ „yš|&9ye{Sx<9ˆSdsHdg~9ƒdK9yez dX؆wS}e}D¨~H|&}edGsH| {Sx dXt&Ø 9ˆ duGd9dgs Ò

.l%.l 0²4 B *‰p 0 ,+*-,\—+5

q q ¯

Ž| ~3H}: ‚&ˆSdgs9dyš~|Syš9w s9dt ؞|„yex y:H| }Su‘w }DHy:udHds Ò ß t&HdC9ˆ |&69ˆSd8Ø¡|&uy:}eyš|&s6udHdsut'z dgud{€6ˆ | ~6“ddg{ sHdS}š| dg„k€k|#S}e| {S󞂎x sH|‹€¨t }et sHdg„„Sye~9S}š|‹Z~9s9dgd{ Ò Ð ˆSdg{Wƒt'‡dsHdg„Ÿ‚Ž{€w uGdgs9yš| }„yex y:H~7| SƒdK|&sye{[9ˆ |& ~HsHdd{<|&sHdg|S‚€„d ye9ye{Sx‘HˆSdV|&ut wS{€t&ØBz t }D|&x d ‚ wSsHs9dg{ K‚ t sosHdg~9yš~3|&{ d8ƒdgy:{ xXudg| ~w s9dK„ Ò Cˆ ye~o |&s99yšw }e| s Ss|&{ „Z|&{ „ut„dg}_t Ø\„y:x yD|&}‰ud9dgs+ˆƒ| ~|;sHt&H| s9…~dg}:dKHt sV~‡y:HˆZ| { „#؆t wSs+sHdgd| }:dK~8ye{ Ht!‡ˆSyšˆHdg~ }edg| „ ~|&{…“dS}:w x x dK„ Ò C‡tX}edg| „S5~ 4!t {SdVsHdg„…|&{ „
q q « `à6

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ß tHd×8t {…d}edg9sHyeg|&}ŸudHdsHy:{ xt wS}š„…ƒd7g|&}e}:dK„<t uS}edHd‡yDHˆSt w?|~9dg9yet {…t {…SsHye„x dyesHwSyD~ Ò Cˆ dg~9d ye{Sx dg{Sy:t w ~CyesHwSy:H~u|&ó dw ~9dVt&؎{wS}e}DP | }e| { dud9dgsH~oHtt u | s9d?3‡otGz t }D|&x dK~‚g›3w ~}:yeó d+9ˆSdV}š|&“t s|'Ht sH  | }e| { d‘~H| }:dGt uGƒ|&sHdg~C3‡t;‡dyex ˆ€H~+|&{ „ye{ „yš|&9dK~?‡ˆSdg{9ˆ dži sHd‘dK©€w |&} Ò ^?{S}:yeó d‘9ˆSdGf&“t&Hd{€9yet udHdsf yeswSy:\w ~9dg„Ht‘~9y:uS}eXudK| ~9wSs9d+|&{wS{Só{St'‡{z t }:H| x d ‚ Ss9yš„x d?yesHwSy:H~\g|&{“d?w ~9dg„GHt‘udg| ~w s9d8| }:}ƒó€ye{ „S~ t&Ø-d}edg9sHyeg|&}žz'|&}ewSdg~g‚S{St C9ˆSd}edg| ~3t&Ø-‡ˆSyšˆ<“dye{SxsHdg~9ye~H| { d Ò

CˆSd~H|&{ƒ„S|&s„! s9yš„x dy:swSy:g‚t Ø9dg{#g|&}e}:dK„<|8 ÚaÔ ( Ôe×'  Ó €Õ)Û ‚“}:tt ó~C~9t udHˆSy:{ xG}eyeó dV9ˆ ye~ h

R1

Ra 1

Rb

null

2

R2

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very thin metal wire strain gauge conductors bonded (cemented) to backing surface

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Kirchhoff’s Current Law

- 28 + 2I2 + 4I1 = 0

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

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Kirchhoff’s Current Law

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

All three variables represented in all three equations

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Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

R

Thevenin

Ö

0.8 Ω EThevenin

11.2 V 

R2 2Ω

(Load)

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{

R

INorton

Norton

0.8 Ω

R2 2Ω

(Load)

14 A

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INorton =

EThevenin RThevenin

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Millman’s Theorem Equation Ö

EB1 h

R1

Ö

|

+

EB2 h

R2

Ö

|

+

EB3 h

R3

= Voltage across all branches

1 | 1 | 1 + h + h h R2 R3 R1

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3(åA0(Ø7#"%$åA0

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7A

2Ω

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Millman’s Theorem Equation

Itotal =

EB1 R1

+

EB2 R2

+

EB3

EB1

R3

R1

+

EB2 R2

+

EB3 R3

1 1 1 + + R1 R2 R3

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?K6K6Z:åJ "RØ(v3#D$6+å 

Millman’s Theorem Equation EB1 Rtotal =

R1

1 1 1 1 + + R1 R2 R3

+

EB2 R2

+

EB3 R3

1 1 1 + + R1 R2 R3

¯ åQ$<()"L,7 "Ø P $#ØV%Ø(")"%$åA,7Ø&$+ $% K`9R6K6KUV2ØWØ(v3# KA$<+  t Ñ/‹ I ¤ž Z:?K6K.?+B.Z-"Vç  t Ñ‹ I ¤Bž Z Þ é5IÎ-Ø^,7å&%Ø!í0+%X9 + 3#RØ(v3(.ë® KHØ1å$L,7H#,>3#c$ å.+G9ß "!+å(ØT9Rc$
14 A

571.43 mΩ

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Ö

Etotal = (14 A)(571.43 mΩ) Etotal = 8 V

0

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21

p q

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571.43 mΩ

14 A

DuA‹

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Ohm’s Law:

3

h

Ö

IxR =E

(total current) x (total resistance) = (total voltage) Ö

EB1 h

R1

Ö

|

+

EB2 h

R2

Ö

|

+

EB3 h

R3

3x

1

= (total voltage)

1 | 1 | 1 + h + h h R1 R2 R3

. . . or . . .

EB1 R1

+

Ò!(Ø

EB2 R2

+

EB3 R3

= (total voltage)

î

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4.716 ¢

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6.484

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27.80

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38.22

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£

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h

RAB

A h

RA

RBC h

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RC

RB

B

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£

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h h

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C

RA

A

RC

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RB

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To convert a Delta (∆) to a Wye (Y) RA =

RB =

RC =

R

åA0

RAB RAC RAB + RAC + RBC RAB RBC RAB + RAC + RBC RAC RBC RAB + RAC + RBC

N

To convert a Wye (Y) to a Delta (∆) RAB =

RBC =

RAC =

RARB + RARC + RBRC RC RARB + RARC + RBRC RA RARB + RARC + RBRC RB

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h

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Selecting Delta (∆) network to convert:

g

R

AB

B

R

í 

18 Ω

BC

Ú h

SL8R$%Ø7L$<(Ø

R

AC

R

12 Ω 10 V

A

R4 18 Ω

,E+å5ëØ1<"?+å]ILILI

C

6Ω R5 12 Ω

R

.d P ±™9e P

,E+å+æ4N 3(G$%?+å-ç±™

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Th

Ïo ˆ

Du

jikml

jn

Ï

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u∆ converted to a Y g A

R

A

R

R

B

10 V

C

B

C h

h

R5 12 Ω

R4 18 Ω

v 8L9;ØH'2Ø18F+Zê+ 3(O,7DK),>3AK.D$6+åA"=,E+%Ø,5$
P $<(Ø>ë +BKc$DNØ("TV*Ø>$%9KØ7Ø7åz'4+Hå$<"OS

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N

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h

RA =



(12 Ω)(18 Ω) (12 Ω) + (18 Ω) + (6 Ω)

=

216 36 

ù

= 6Ω

(12 Ω)(6 Ω) RB = (12 Ω) + (18 Ω) + (6 Ω)

=

72 36

= 2Ω

(18 Ω)(6 Ω) (12 Ω) + (18 Ω) + (6 Ω)

=

108 36

= 3Ω

RC =

g ù

h

10 V

B

A

6Ω

RA

h

RB 2Ω

R4 18 Ω

÷

ú

RC

3Ω R5 12 Ω

C

ú

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9o

~

 

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h 

E Ú

I

h

RA

588.24m

4.118 

686.27m Ú

R

h

RB

6

RB + R4

5.882

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I



R

…

RC + R5

h

5.882

392.16m

20

15

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RB + „// R4 RC + R5

18

12

686.27m 8.571

£

Amps Ohms

Total Volts

10 Ú

Volts

4.706

392.16m

O

5.882

R5

686.27m 14.571

£

Amps Ohms

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'`+.åB$#"&S

w

294.12m

h



294.12m

3 h

h



392.16m

2

h

R4

5.294

1.176

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h

RC

,w

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A

+

+ + RA 4.118 V + 5.294 4.706 V V ¢ + 1.176 0.588 †V + †V RB RC +0.588 ‡V B C + R4 R5  + 5.294 †V †V - 4.706 -

10 V -

Ö

EA-B = 4.706 V EA-C = 5.294 V

ˆ

EB-C = 588.24 mV

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ß P + 8j,>+B3(<"Ø P %Ø^ØEm+B,5$
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ŒI



R1 =

ŒI

R2

ŒI

R3

= =

ŒI

=

ŒI

=

R4

R5

N

v Š<‹ ‚ €

4.706 V 12 Ω

é 

= 392.16 mA

5.294 V

= 294.12 mA

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+

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 Ô3‚cÌ+‚žÍÍÏË_È:È  É Î Å Ü Å ÎÕ!‚ Ø xΠ΅‚žÇ ÐGÇ0‚ Ì Å ÈÎ%È%‚žÊÓRÎ Ô#ÈaÎ Ô3‚Ë%܃‚Ô#ÇÊaÇ É Ø\Ø ‚žÇÁÔ ÅÉ ËÈ\à–ÒxÌ Å È\È3‚z̃΅‚zÊ Î Å à!‚9Î Ô3ž‚ ÇÓRΠԛÎÔ(ÏÌ $ ÒÍ'‚1TÊ Ø ÇËTȖË"΅‚@Ê ÅÆ ÓRÇ0‚žËžÙ  Ô3‚‚žÍ ‚z̃ÎÇ Å Ê)‚zËCÈ,ÊM‚9Í'‚žÌ.Î Ç Å ÍА΅‚6Ë Å Í É Î Å È,Ë ÆXÅ Ç‚@ÌԛÌ+‚žÍÍ Ç0Ÿ ‚ Ì Å ÈÎÈ3ž‚ ÊÈLË`ž‚ Ý#ÇxÎ0‚ÒÝ#Ç ÎÎ Å È%‚žÊ+˅‚žÌ.Î Å È–Ë ÅÆ Î Ô3‚ Ø Î"Î0‚9ÇЛÌ7˅‚Ù9„ È>Í.Ç à"‚ Ø Î"Î0‚9Ç% ‚zË9ҐΠÔ%‚ ‚žÍ ‚z̃ÎÇ Å Ê)‚zË Ì Å Ü_Ü Å È\ÍÐ:Î$"‚ Î Ô%<‚ Ë Ô#Ý7‚ ÅÆ ÎÔ(È8܃‚.Î%ÍàÇ%Ê\Ë Å ÇšÝ\Í6xÎ0‚žËžÒ5ȖÊ>Dž‚ ÅÆ Î…‚žÈ+Ç0‚ Æ ‚žÇ Ç0‚žÊ_Î Å Tˊ/åxæ ñ+* ȖË"΅‚@Ê ÅÆ 9‚ Í'ž‚ Ì.Î Ç Å Ê)ž‚ ˞٠? ŠǨÎÔ3m ‚ Ë%$"‚ ÅÆ Ì Å ÈÕ!9‚ È# ž‚ ȖÌ+T‚ Ò Ø xΠ΅ž‚ Ç ÐªË ÐÜ Ø Å ÍËXÇ0‚ É Ë É ÍÍÐ Í.Ü:΅z‚ ʪΠŠÆXÅÉ ÇÞÍHÈ3z‚ Ë9ÒQÍ΅9‚ ÇÈ#ÎÈ\à Í Å È\à)x‡ Ë Ô Å Ç ÎžÒ®ÍÎ Ô ÅTÉ àԟÎÔ3š‚ Dž@‚ Í Ø xΠ΅9‚ ÇÐVÑÎÁDžž‚ Ý\Ç0ž‚ ˅9‚ ȐÎËtÜ:(ПÔ#(Õ"{‚ ÜÈÐ<Ü Å Ç…š‚ Ì+ž‚ ÍÍÏËÚÎÔ#ÈaÎ Ô#Ξي& È Å Ì9Ì7TË Å ÈtÒ Ô Å Ó@9‚ Õ"9‚ ÇzÒ,Ð ÅÉ Ü:àԐÎ/Ì Å ÜƒQ ‚ Ì.Ç Å ËËV8Ë ÐÜ Ø Å Í ÆXÅ ÇG Ø xÎ"Î09‚ ÇНÓRÑÎÔ É È É Ë É ÍÍНÔ(àÔ Õ Å ÍÎ%à!‚ Ò¢Ȑ΅9‚ ȐÎ% Å È#ÍÍÐ Ê2Ç(ÓÈ8ÓRÎ Ô 9‚ âÎÇ%:Í.È3z‚ Ë9Ù  Ô%/‚ ÍHÈ3ž‚ ËžÒ ÅÆ Ì ÅTÉ ÇË`T‚ Ò(Ç0&‚ Ç09‚ Ý\Ç0ž‚ ˅9‚ ȐÎxÎÕ!‚ ÅÆ Î Ô3G‚ ȖÊ+Õ5Ê É ÍtÌ9‚ ÍÍÚÝ\Í6xÎ0ž‚ Ë

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Ideal battery

8.333 A

10 A

10 V

1Ω Eload = 10 V

—0.2 Ω 1Ω 10 V

Eload = 8.333 V

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0.2 Ω

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equivalent to

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Å0.1 Ω

indication: ÄVÃ+ Voltmeter 13.2 V -

13.2 V

Å0.1 Ω 100 Ω

-

13.2 V

No load

Æ Å Ó/Ò)¯ Æ Î Ô3‚ Ø ®Î"Î0‚9ÇÐ+Ê)¯ÏË ÌÔ%®Ç à"‚žË@® Ø ¯ÎÙÙÙ

indication: ÄV Ã+ Voltmeter 13.187 V

Under load

Scenario for a slightly discharged battery

Ç5 Ω

indication: ÄVÃ+ Voltmeter 13.0 V -

13.0 V

Ç5 Ω 100 Ω

-

13.0 V

No load

indication: ÄV Ã+ Voltmeter 12.381 V

Under load

ÙcÙÙ®ȖÊLÊ)¯ÏËÌÔ%®Çà!‚zË® Ø ¯Î ÆXÉ Ç Î Ô3‚žÇ/ÙÙÙ Scenario for a moderately discharged battery

indication: ÄVÃ+ Voltmeter 11.5 V

20 Ω

-

11.5 V

No load

ÙcÙÙ®È–Ê ® Ø ¯Î ÆXÉ Ç Î Ô3‚žÇ É ÈÎ…¯Í:¯Î ËÊ)‚®TÊ×Ù

20 Ω 100 Ω

ÄV Ã+ VoltmeterÈ9.583indication: V -

11.5 V

Under load

Œ ÷6øH ùÁúûŽ! üFýcø ùùÁúûþúšÿ øH o‘ ú ûAÿ“’{ÿÚùÁú ÿ

_ö Scenario for a dead battery

Ç50 Ω

Ã+ ÄVoltmeter indication: É7.5 V V

É7.5 V

-

Ç50 Ω

É7.5 V

100 Ω

V

Ã+ ÄVoltmeter indication: Ç5 V -

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Under load

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c

Ì Amp-hour rating Charge/discharge time (in hours)

Charge/discharge time (in hours) =

Ì Amp-hour rating

Continuous current (in Amps)

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! ü Ó\ü ÿ  úŒIþ øHÔÕO qÛû   ÿ2ú ýcø ùùÁú ûþú ÿ Mercury "standard" cell

Öcadmium

Ú+

×sulphate

Øwire Öcork washer mercurous ×sulphate

mercury

×solution

_ Ùglass bulb

-

Øwire Öcork washer Öcadmium ×sulphate ×solution

Öcadmium amalgam

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Œ9ùHú  û9ü¥ý !"þeÿú ûZû9ü¥ýü ú H o‘°üý ’ :û9ü   Hydrogen/Oxygen fuel cell - load Ú+

electrodes

Ú+

hydrogen in

H2 H2 H2 H2 H2 H2

 e ee-

O2

H

 

electrolyte

O2



O2

H+ H

oxygen in

O2

H+

+

e-



+

 

O2 O2

membranes water out

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!"þ Ó þ )ü Œ ú ÔÕO q ýy )ü ÿú ûZû9üýü Solar cell wires

thin, round wafer of crystalline silicon

schematic symbol

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Œ9ùHú9` û9ü¥ý  ž þa`ù|’  Œ Ecb Œ cdH q@Œ ûZýe ú dFfd9 q Ô ú ûZý9

r __ send-view of jsolid round wire

Cross-sectional area is 0.008155 square inches

t

0.1019 inches

é ‚ƒèZ¯ ß ‚ æß…Þ ç…ç`ñ¸ç…‚ æ+à ¯ Þ!Ü î%¯ æ+à…á3ß ‚Mç é%Þ è Ü ® ì Þ ë"‚|¯´çä ÞÝZæ+Þ"á3ß ç`‚"ä Ü3Þà¢ê)ß ®è ÜEà…Þ ç æ ®â'‚!ï  é ‚ ê ¯'®!僂 à ‚ ß ¯'ç ç é3Þ Q è Ü ®!ç ì ‚¯ Ü3ívu ï'_ u _   ¯ Ünæé ‚çï B@®!â æá â'® à ¯ Ü3íTà…é ‚^® ß ‚® ÞÝ@à…é ‚ æ+ß0Þ ç0çñËç`‚ æ=à ¯ Þ"Ü èZ¯ à…érà…é ‚ šÝ Þ!ß å á ´â ®²ô ß ‚®†› w ß ä3è@‚ í ‚ à ® Ü ® ß ‚F® Þ!Ý8u ï uu ‹ _ V!V ç…& á ® ß ‚ ¯ Ünæé ‚çon x

A = πr2 A = (3.1416)

x

y

0.1019 inches

z2

2

A = 0.008155 square inches

é ‚Fç`‚M® ß ‚ Ý ®¯ ß â ã«ç`å[®â'â Ü2á å ì ‚ ß ç à…Þ è Þ!ß|{ èZ¯ à0é äŠç Þ èZ¯ ß ‚Mç`¯ }‚F碮 ß ‚ ÞÝ;à ‚ Ü ‚ ÷ î ß ‚ç0煂 ê ¯ Ü åƒ‚®"ç á%ß ‚Fç ÞÝ à…é%Þ!á ç0® Ü%ê)à…é ç`ñ Þ!Ý ñ¸® Ü ñ¸¯ Ü%æé ä Þ"ß *~€‚=ï? Þ"ßà0é ‚‰¯ â'â á ç à0ß ® à ‚ ê ‚ ÷ ®!å|î%⠂"ä.è@‚ è Þ"á â ê 煮ã à0é ® àà…é ‚ ê ¯'®!å|‚ à ‚ ßÞ!ݳà…é ‚ èZ¯ ß ‚¢è®!ç¢_ u _"ï   僯'â'ç ðƒu ï _ u _   ¯ Ü%æé à ¯ 僂çC_ uuqu ò+ïªE‚ æ+Þ!á â ê ®!â'ç Þ än¯ Ý è@‚¢è@® Ü.à ‚ ê än‚ ÷ î ß ‚Fç…ç à0é ‚a® ß ‚F® Þ݊à…é Q ‚ èZ¯ ß ‚Z¯ ܃à…é ‚ á3Ü ¯ àÞÝ ç|„ á ® ß ‚Zå|¯'â´çä æ ®â æ+á â'® à ¯ Ü3í‰à…é ® à ë®â á ‚ZèZ¯ à…é[à0é ‚Hç0®僂 æ ¯ ß0æ ⠂ñ¸® ß ‚F® ݚÞ"ß å á â´®3ä"ô ß ‚F®C› w ß n

send-view of jsolid round wire

Cross-sectional area is 8155.27 square mils

101.9 mils

 ž þ ž þ Œ cdH q@Œ ûZýF4.hbü A = πr2 A = (3.1416)

101.9 mils

r_r z2

2

A = 8155.27 square mils

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Circular Wire Area Formula

x

A = d2

© ‚ æ ® á 煂 à0é ¯'篴ç9® á3Ü ¯ àŠÞÝ …õ å|‚F®!ç á3ß ‚僂 Ü.à ä à0é ‚僮 à…é ‚å[® à ¯ æ ®!â"î Þ è@‚ ßÞÝ _ ¯'ç9ç à ¯'â â2¯ Ü ‚ m7‚ æ=àZðOê)Þ"á ì â'¯ Ü%í à…é ‚¢èZ¯ ê)à…é†Þ!Ý ® æ ¯ ß0æ ⠂oèZ¯'â â  0 ‹Œ„ á ® ê)ß0á î3â'‚¢¯ à ç® ß ‚®3ä Ü3Þ å[® à…à ‚ ß è é ® àá3Ü ¯ à ç ® ß ‚ á ç`‚ ê ä Þ"ß ¯ ݊à…é ‚¢èZ¯ ê2à0é Þ݉à0é ® àAæ ¯ ßæ â'‚²¯'çA‚ ÷ î ß ‚ç0ç`‚ ê ¯ ÜDà ‚ ß å[ç Þ!Ýoß ® ê ¯ á ç Þ!ßMê ¯´®僂 à ‚ ß ò=ï “Þ ¯ â'â á ç à0ß ® à ‚ à0é ‚ ê ¯m7‚ ß ‚ Ü%æ ‚ ì ‚ à è@‚‚ Ü åƒ‚®"ç á3ß ‚僂 Ü"à ç[¯ Ü ç|„ á ® ß ‚²åƒ¯ â´çM® Ü%ê 僂®!ç á3ß ‚僂 Ü.à 烯 Üpæ ¯ ßæ+á â´® ß å|¯'â´ç䄃èZ¯ â'â æÞ åƒî%® ß ‚²® æ ¯ ßæ â'‚²èZ¯ à0é ® ç|„ á ® ß ‚!ä)ç é%Þ èZ¯ Ü3í|à0é ‚¢® ß ‚® ÞÝ ‚® æé ç é ®î7‚o¯ Ü ì Þà…é á3Ü ¯ à 僂F®!ç á3ß ‚Fç n

Ž Ž

Area = 0.7854 square mils Area = 1 circular mil

1 mil

ô ÜnêAݚÞ"ß ® Ü3Þ!à…é ‚ ß ç`¯ }‚ Þ!Ý èZ¯ ß ‚n

Ž

Ž

Area = 1 square mil Area = 1.273 circular mils

1 mil

Œ9ùHú9` û9ü¥ý  ž þa`ù|’  Œ Ecb Œ cdH Œ ûZýe ú dFfd9!“Ô ú ûZý9

r_‡

Area = 3.1416 square mils

Area = 4 square mils

Area = 4 circular mils

Area = 5.0930 circular mils

2 mils

2 mils

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480 V drop

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blown fuse Load

Ô480 V

When the fuse "blows," full supply voltage will be dropped across it and there will be no current in the circuit.

excessive voltage

Ô480 V ×

arc! Load

If the voltage across the blown fuse is high enough, a spark may jump the gap, allowing some current in the circuit. THIS WOULD NOT BE GOOD!!!

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"Hot" blown fuse

load "Neutral"

no voltage between either side of load and ground "Hot"

load blown fuse "Neutral" voltage present between either side of load and ground!

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¼ A}[• = \¡B116,035 xùø€ ùR}[}[’D~ˆcmils zX}[Z4øŽ‚B•‹ŒzXx ¼ …/ ¬• #ùZùX}Ž„ "zR‹  ñ … ÛFÚ {€ øŽx¦€ „B}©ùRx°y øŽ}~\– ‹ \x \‚ƒ€ø[‚B•zX„Bx¨~ˆzX} ø[Š³øŽx ~.øŽã ±ùR¡B} X…` ±¥e‚ƒŠ w ùRFŠ`zX„ƒ¡B} ]ž¢zF„B• w 1«8õOÛF®£ø[x °ø w UÚXڃ…UÛXÛ)€]y*ø[}~cø[~cùX Š \Ø„+ùO X…= w \x 1ùX~v w ‚ ]¤= }[zO \xv~.øŽã X…X~.øŽ‚ƒ•X} žŸzX„B• w «OÛF® …gùRUÛ `… RÛFÛ¨€ y ø[}[~ø~‡zz{~ˆy ùX}Ž}¢–îü 1ùRxøŽ‚y øŽ‚ƒŠ1 w ùRAzF„Bxv€ øŽx¦€ „+ø€ „Bxx ]‚ ø™~ ù°y"z`Š U~5v õ  ùRy{|ƒ~\– ¼ €\€ zFxŠ ø[‚B•°ˆz¨zF„B™x ùRy{+| ùF€ øŽ5’¨| ùX¡B} v‹ŒzFx‡€ zF|B|! \x‡ø[x cø[‚¬‹Œx " ùqøŽxU… "#•gùR• Aø[x AzX„B}Š w ùq Z "~ˆ„`ý1$€ UŠL« ùX~°ƒ‹ ùR#x ùF&~ % ¿OÊ ~:| ùXx:| øŽ‚ƒ‰• ù¥ƒx ,ø~¨€ zF‚ƒ$€ \xˆ'‚ \Šƒ® –"бzO \Z ]xU… ‹ŒxˆzFy§ w 1~5ùR‚ƒŠ`| zqø[‚¨zR‹vZFzX}Ž|ùX• Š`xzX|j(… #{• ùR„ƒ • ° øŽx vzF„B}[Š w ùq Z °¡ " \‚ Z ]x’„B+‚ ùF€]"€ ]|` ùR¡B} X– ÑF„ƒ~5¨‹ŒzFx‹Œ„B‚j…”} \Ù ~)~ "  w ùR) "#;g• ùR • { ø[x {AzX„B}Š w ùq Z Š`zF ‚ {ˆz³zX„Bx¨| zO \x)€ ø[x€]˜„ øŽ\Ù ~¨!| \x:‹ŒzFxˆy ùX‚ƒ$€ F– œjz=zFgà ø[‚B• ùOzX„ƒxA ø[x °.~ øŽã °| ùR¡ƒ} F…` ¥ƒ‚ƒŠ w ùO* "#"• ùX • ± ø[x w ùXc~ ù{€ xzF~~5ž´+~ U€ª| øŽzF+‚ ùR2} ùRx où)zX,‹ #e… UÛ  € øŽx¦€ „ƒ } ùXx y øŽ}~\– ú ‹v FÙ x ¬~:. ø[}Ž}%„ƒ.~ øŽ‚ƒ•D€]zX|B| ]-x ùX ~ ù1 ø[x ¬y ùO \.x ø©ùR}Aƒ« ù•Xz=z`Š$€ w z ø["€ X… „B‚B} \~~  XÙ x Ɉ»¦Ë ݶ.Ý -¬.x ø€ w ùX‚ƒŠ$ € ùX‚ ùOä/zXx¦/ Š # ñ ÛFÛ¨‹  ±zX‹ "#{g• ùR • .~ øŽ}[ Z \xA ø[x ÿ ®ª…` w ]‚zX„ƒx-~:| \ € ø¥e€x \.~ ø~5 ùR‚ƒ"€  ø[}Ž}~5| øŽ}[}j¡ 0\ÛB– Û › þvžŸ€]y øŽ} U‹¶Uå R=ρ

1

l A

R = (10.09 Ω-cmil/ft)

ô2300 feet 4107 cmil

øR = 5.651 Ω \y2 \y'¡ ]x3 w ùO3 w ø[~ø~3`– ñ  °þJ|! \x±õRÚFÛXÛ¨‹  -zX‹"#Xž¢•gùR• € zF|B| ]x3øŽx X…˜ùX‚ƒŠ w ùR- w ùqZ ±5Az¬x„B‚ƒ~ zR‹‡õR ÚFÛXÛ)‹ " ø[‚D w * \‚.ø[x ¨€ø[x¦€ „˜øŽ\…ƒ~ˆz »¦ËXÆ4 øŽx |˜ø \€$ -ø[‚D w )€ øŽx¦€ „˜øŽ w ùF~3`– ñ þIzX‹%x \~.ø~5ùR‚ƒ€" Xå 2300 feet

ô230 V

wire resistance 5 5.651 Ω

5

5.651 Ω

Load (requires at least 220 V)

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Area = Width x Height A = (4 cm)(3 cm)

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R=ρ

1

l A

øR = (2.65 x 10

-6

R = 27.604 µΩ

Ω-cm)

125 cm 12 cm2

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ref

ref

Where,

øR = Conductor resistance at temperature "T" øR `

= Conductor resistance at reference temperature Tref, usually 20o C, but sometimes 0o C. ^ α = _ Temperature coefficient of resistance for the conductor material.

`

ref

T = Conductor temperature in degrees Celcius.

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Á ¥ ™`Å ¡ ™<¦3â ¡ ¦3çB§/9 ¡ à ¦3ı™  ç§iÅ5ç™:9Y Â-à ¦3Ä™ Ú8#=õ ¡ Á±Âæà š£Ä£¢¤ƒ— æv2 n!„Š‡NGGGGGGG˜k'…‚u†‚8‡’GGGGGGGGGGG‘}“+}G}GŸG• œ ™ w  ‚‚…BL K GGGGGG¨n'…G…‰X’ Q GGGGGGGGGGGG‘}“+}G}GŸ v„Š‹ƒ ‰u†‚qGGGGGUn'…G…‰X’ Q GGGGGGGGGGGG‘}“+}G}G}šŠ™ v„Š‹ƒ ‰u†‚— o GGGLn'…G…‰X’ Q GGGGGGGGGGGG‘}“+}G}G}šŠŸ © € ‡GŒ € ‡(„Š‡žGGGGGUn'…G…‰X’ Q GGGGGGGGG¨ª ˆx}“+}G}G}G}šu” p‰ ‡ € ‡€ ‡žGGGLn'…G…‰X’ Q GGGGGGGGGGGG¨}z“}G}G}G}G™ œ K Ž w ‚G‚…N€…G…‰Xž Q € |z“+”N'V ‚ ƒ8‚ ‡—„uƒ ‰8‡y>}z“+”t'V ‚ ƒ8‚ ‡  € ƒ›'‰ ‡ œ ]\Ù ~ «R à 2«D}[z=zXFà «O* «R@‚ ¤ «Xy"|ƒ} {$€ ¬[x€] „ ¬Ž°zD~ " w zOÎ ]y{| ]x «O„Bx {€"«X‚@«Rä U€ª¬Žx {x U~+¬~:«R‚e€$ X…(«X‚ƒŠ ? € zF‚ƒ~ \Ø „ ]‚}Ž’"€ ¬Žx¦€ '„ ¬| ]xˆ‹ŒzXx&y «X‚ƒ$€ Få Rwire1 = 15 Ω

14 V

øR

Temp = 20 C

load

ô250 Ω

w ¬~”€$¬[x€]„ ¬ w «F~­«±RˆzX«X}=¬[x15 vx \Ω~¬[~:«X‚ƒ€$ °«Œ¬[x R3®N¬Žx õX®lzR‹ ÚFÛþ¨«O²~5«R‚ƒŠ «XxŠ¨ ]y{| ]x«O„Bx F–¯A :¬Ž‚ƒ• „B|°«¬«X¡B} ¨zX‹,±FzX}Ž«R• X…`€ „ƒxˆx ]‚\… «X‚ƒŠx U~+¬~5«R‚ƒ€" ;±u«X}Ž„' \~3 °• Uå wire#2

J

E

5

I

Wire1  0.75

5

50 m

R

15

Wire2  0.75

Load

5

50 m 15

Total

12.5

5

50 m 250

14

Volts

50 m

Amps

280

Ohms

¼ °õXÛ ‰ K \}[~¬Ž„e~]…  '• iUõ`– &±FzX}Ž~B«F€ xzF~~A w ¬}Žz«XŠ°«X‚ƒŠ°«zR«X}lzX‹gF– 0±XzX}Ž~¬«­Ûƒ– ² )® ÛB–.²8X®3ŠBxˆzF|B|! UŠ «X€]xˆz~ˆ~£ w °¬[x x \~¬[~:«X‚ƒ€$ F–¯³Ÿ‹l w  ]y{| ]x«Oˆ„ƒx ° \x ˆz{x¬[~ ˆzÚ  ‰ K ]}~¬Ž„ƒ~\…` °€]zX„B}Š´ Š«X~¬Ž}[’1Š ] ]xy&¬Ž‚'  w )€ w «R‚B• zX‹x \~¬[~:«X‚ƒ€$ ‹ŒzXx Š«X€ w | ¬ U€$ zR‹”¬[x F– ¼ ~ˆ~ˆ„By&¬[‚B•" w ¨„ƒ~ zR‹”€ zX|ƒ|! \x¬Žx "«SaUµiۃ– ÛFÛ8#Û8#'q®”

• ]\å øR = R [1 + α(T - T )] øR = (15 Ω)[1 + 0.004041(35 - 20 )] øR = 15.909 Ω ¶ U"€ «R}€ „ƒ} «R ¬[‚B•¬zF„Bx-$€ ¬[x¦€ „ ¬Ž3  ±«R}[ „ \~\…` ¨~ "  w «R±€ w «R‚B • \~v w ¬[~ ¬[‚ƒ€]x Š«X~ ¬[‚D ]y{| ]x «O„Bx  ¬[}Ž}l¡Bx ¬[‚B•eå ref

ref

o

·

E I R

¸

Wire1  0.79

49.677m 15.909

¸

·

Wire2  0.79

49.677m 15.909

o

^

¸

Load 12.42

ô250

49.677m

¸

Total 14

ô281.82

49.677m

E

Volts Amps Ohms

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½¨Å

½ ½

½

½

R = Rref [1 + α(T - Tref)] Where, R = Conductor resistance at temperature "T" Rref = ^ Conductor resistance at reference temperature Tref, usually 20o C, but sometimes 0o C. α = _ Temperature coefficient of resistance for the conductor material. T = Conductor temperature in degrees Celcius.

½

Õ

Tref = Reference temperature that α is specified at for the conductor material.

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«  ¬ ÿ >« ø;«´úù  "ûRýù« ªf³ ÿ*þ'¬øW"ù ÿ(¬¬ù ÿ,þ B«8ú'«$¬ù ûR¬=øRø«8¬DùY"! x 4 > eHÃH%GeH "! ]"«H!ø+ nþ û 2¬=øR« ÿ ¬ÿ($û « ø+¬ÿ¼« ü2ù ÿiù  "ÿ û*" "¬ÿ<øù û ]˜¬ÿ‘¬ø2 "ý )û¬Br! "ýª@áBùH +þ' 9¬û )¬ù ÿ‘ù   ûû ÿ¬þ û  « Kû +ùþ' *± ù ý «  Rú!ù ý« û¬$²

Energy being absorbed by the capacitor from the rest of the circuit. I

... . . . ¿ to the rest of the circuit

C

+ -

increasing voltage

... I The capacitor acts as a LOAD K ù ÿG± "ûø+ ý þ ÿ þ ± ù ý«  « $ûù øøà«;"« ú'« "¬ù û­¬ø. ]$û « ø+ ]ª]þ "« ú'« "¬ù û¯ø'ú ú ý¬ ŠøF ûû ÿFù:þ' û øzù  þ'7 $¬Kû  ¬ G « )¬(ÿ \« ø«fú!ù  "ûzø ù 'Kû " à³ L ÿ þ ¬= ø "ù (ÿ ¬ ¬ù L ÿ þ 7 «8ú'« $¬ ù ûz¬øø« ¬ nù "! &h à ¼x 4 > e ÃH% e  ³Vøø ù û ;ù  "ÿ' "Kû  ¬)þ "ý /¬9 ÿ þ' R ý] )û¬ :r' "ý c¬0¬= ø ] $û « ø¬ÿ \ÿ ù  « ø "ÿ' "Kû  )¬=øgû ý Š« ø +ùþ ;û ø ù  þ'E $¬Kû  ¬ ]á3 ù  ;þ E  ¬û  ¬ù ÿ>ù    ûû ÿ _¬ þ>û «8%û Bùþ *± ù ý «H Rúù ý=«8û¬ $² Ä

ƒË

Energy being released by the capacitor to the rest of the circuit ... . . . ¿ to the rest of the circuit

I C

+ · decreasing ¾ voltage

... I The capacitor acts as a SOURCE ³  «Bøù 'Kû " ù  ± ù ý«  :¬=ø­ø( "ÿ ý*«8ú ú ý¬ ùR« ÿE ÿ(þ'« û "« ú'« "¬ù ûUMb«Bø( "ÿ\¬ÿ("û Š« ø ù  ± ù ý«H ]S  þ' 9«8ú'«$¬ ù n û ¬ý ý ûG« ‡  ûû ÿ  ûù Å ü þ'H« &ø ù 'Kû " H« "!ø+ù û " ¬ÿ F ÿ "Kû    ûù üĬ 0'ÿ ¬U ý þ 9 «8ú'«$¬ù û» ø ± ù ý«H ´ ¸'« ý ø þ!« 0ù  þ >ø+ù  Kû "  6 (ÿ "c þ Y "«8ú! « $¬ ù ûi± ù ý «  )û « þ  Oþ ¬= ø r'ÿ'«8W ý Mpþ'«8Kû  ] (Sfø «H  ¬ø;  ûû ÿ 7 G« G[ ø ù+Æ "û(ù  K ù ÿG± "ûø+ ý  ¬  «)ýù « >û ø¬ø « (ÿ $ *¬=: ø "ù ÿ ÿ' ) 9ù´+ « þ'« û   Y"« ú' « "¬ ù ]û þ' "« ú' « "¬ ù : û ¬ýýø 'ú ú ý <  ûû ÿ 7ùNþ' iýù « ª ÿ ¬ý­¬ *þ'« øû "ý « ø ¼«8ýý­¬ ø;ø ù û] ° "ÿ û °«8(ÿ ¼¬ ø± ù ý «  ] "G« . ø ù Æ" "û(ù  6 (ÿ $[ þ 7 «8ú'« $¬ ù û± ù ý «H gû « þ F ø þ ¬0 ø r'ÿ'« ý Mp¬Kø þ'« û   (S­ø « ¬ ø0 ûû "ÿ 0] "G« . ø ù Æ" û& ù ,³  ÿ þ "¬û « " ¬ý¬ $ ùW"!7 þ!«8Kû   2«8&ÿ B¬Kø þ'« û   ª «8ú'« $¬ ù ûI ø «8L ÿ "![ þ ù  þ zù  « øz «  ¬ÿ føù ü& þ'H« ý¬ ½ ;ø "ù (ÿ '«8Kû `Ç$ ý ý "'H«  "û¬ Šø  Jgþ _ þ ù ¬ $ ù  ¬ÿ'ø  ý=« ¬ÿ Rü0«  "û¬« ý " $ "  ÿ þ gú ýH«  Šø 8« ø g« ø,ü& "ÿ ¬ù ÿ' n"!  ù û þ'« ø­: «  û H« ,¬ü&ú' «   úù ÿFþ'ù  n ü (D þ r' ý  æ 'a#Mb«8&ÿ Yþ û  ù û fþ ù | ü &, þ þ'«8Kû  G SU¬ý. ý  "± "ýù D ú ¬ þ¼« ÿ 9 ¬± ÿF«8ü& ù 'ÿ ù  ± ù ý «H &« ú ú ý¬] È « $ûù ø: ø þ 0ú'ýH«  ø N¹ ] "H« !ø+ &ù  þ' 0ûù ý 0ù  þ ¬øf¬ÿ'ø  ý=« ¬ÿ °ü0H«  "û¬=«8ý:¬ÿ‘« ± )¬(ÿ Yr' "ý  æ 'aª­¬ fþ!« øf«>øú!] $¬=«8ýÿ'« ü& ²/Hh à = À =%x?p> à x >á3Hù \« ý ý ¬ ý] )û¬ 2ü&H«  û¬=«8ý=ø*«8û & ¸'«8dý ²Wþ 0 a  ÿ WùDþ ¬ þ ü0«  "û¬« ýø\¬ÿ þ'¬ " ¬ 0ù ûi "(ÿ " ù  ûH«  B þ  ù ûü0« ¬ù ÿ˜ù  ý] )û¬ Br' ý  æ 'a˜¬L ø «8ýý] Oþ (O = > @à ?p? ðR]à ? -)ù  þ' ¬ "ý  û¬   Ä

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¶ 8#

¡ 278:µ 6 -/ ¢G®'1 ¡ 8:µª8 ¡ 5 6 ¦ /73 "Ohm’s Law" for a capacitor Ð Ñ

i=C Ð

dv dt

Where, Ò Ñ

i = Instantaneous current through the capacitor

C = Capacitance in Farads dv = Instantaneous rate of voltage change Ð dt (volts per second) ÓgþÔfýùUÔ"û `V« ø Ôý Ô Ô"; û Õ8¬ Õ0ø Gn ü "!ù ý¬ ÆԊW ø Ã°Ö ¼)? Ö ? Ö = A× ¼  ûû Ôÿ](þ ¬þ°üLÔ« ÿ'ø_þ(Ôi«8ü&ù ÿ3ù    ûûKÔ"ÿ «;«´øú&Ô]$¬ r&iú!ù ¬ÿ ¬< ÿ ¬L ü Ô;Ógþ ¬=øR$ø «8(ÿ  ø¬* ÿ $ù ÿ û« ø [ù9$ù ÿ!$ø «8ÿ ; ûKû Ô"ÿ Bù û«u± Ô"ûH«  ÔE ûû Ôÿ MC"« ú ¬«8ý ýÔ KÔ"û4Õ $³ ÕSàù ± Ô"û¯«8n ÿ  ÿ'ø&ú Ô]$¬ r(Ôi©ú Ô"û¬'ù iù  ¬L ü ÔFÓgþ Ô_ÔaGú'û Ԋøø¬ù ÿ Õ  ± ØH KÕ¬=ø,ù ÿ Ô_"!ù ûûù UÔ  ûù ^ ü «8ý   ý 'ø  üLÔ« ÿ ¬(ÿ LþÔf¬ÿ'ø « ÿ «8ÿ Ô ù 'øgû« KÔ*ù  ± ù ý «HÔþ!«8ÿ ÔRù± Ô"_ û ¬L ü Ô ù _ û þÔfû« KÔ*ù  þ'«8(ÿ  Ô;ù  ± ù ý «HÔLMb± ù ý ø ú©Ô"û3ø Ô$ù (ÿ )¬(ÿ "û Ԋ« ø Ôù _ û Ô$Kû Ô« ø ÔGSH« «&ø&ú Ô]$¬ r&Rú!ù ¬ÿ ¬c ÿ ¬L ü Ô  þÔfø«8L ü ÔRø©ú Ô$¬ r&Rúù ¬ÿ ¬c ÿ ¬L ü Ôþ'« _þ(Ô ¬ÿ'$ø «8ÿ « ÿ Ô"ù '0 ø  ûû Ôÿ ¬øKû Ô  Ô"Kû Ô"&ÿ  Ô´« IÙ'ù 0 û þ!« Ô ± ÔûzKû Ô« øù Z ÿ  þÔý Ô Ô: û Rg¬=0 ø 'ø '« ýý L'ø Ô]Lùiû Ôú Kû Ôø Ô"ÿ ¬ÿ'$ø «8ÿ « ÿ Ô"ù 'øR± ù ý «H Ô&û« þÔ"; û þ!«8P ÿ þÔ0ý Ô Ôû = +qBù Ô ± Ôû (¬ Eù  ý ¼ÿ ù E"&Ô0¬(ÿ "ù ûû Ô])ùYÔ aú Kû Ôø; ø þ(Ô ¬ÿ'$ø «8ÿ « ÿ Ô"ù 'ø ± ù ý «H ÔRû« Ô`Cù  `Vþ!«8ÿ Ô«  ø Õ'ÔGØH KÕ2¬ÿ'ø Ô« ª ³! ÿ þ ¬=B ø Ô¸'H« ¬ù ~ ÿ ÔFø ÔÔ°øù L ü Ô þ ¬ÿ Èÿ ù ± Ô_ ý ùÈ ù  B û Ôa&ú Ôû¬ Ô"(ÿ Ô9þ 'ø  «8+ û ¬ þƒÔ"ý Ô û¬ Y"¬%û   ¬ ø²Yþ(Ô ±«8û¬ « " ý Ô2ù  ? ð@ = 7×Nþ Ôÿ˜û ÔýH« ¬ÿ 9þÔc¸'« ÿ ¬¬Ôø*ù  ± ù ý «  Ô    ûû Ôÿ ,« (ÿ ÈKû Ôø¬ø « (ÿ  ÔùF«>Kû Ôø¬=$ø ù ]û ଠ

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Ë Ë

Ë

Ammeter (zero-center) + -

+

+ -

V -

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 ûûÔ ÿLMb¬S  Ù ûù ü «/ú þ G  ø¬" «8ý­ú©"Ô ûø+ú©Ô ¬± Ô ª  ¬þ<ÿ ùY þ'«8ÿÔ

¢]®1 ¤(1 ¡ 87µª8 ¡ 5 6 ¦ /:3c8:´ § ¡ 8 Ø ¡;ß Ø ß 3

¶àà

¬ÿF± ù ý«H Ô'þ(Ô"ûKÔf¬øBÿ ù)ÿÔÔ  ù û«8ÿ 9Ô"ýÔ ûù ÿ>ü&ùH¬ù ÿYù´« (>ù ûø"'û«):þ!«8ûK Ô  ûù üºþÔn«8ú'«$¬ù û» ø ú ý=« KÔø  «8(ÿ Nþ 'U ø þÔ"Kû ÔW¬ýs ý "©Ô*ÿ ùB 'ûûKÔ"ÿ

Capacitor ¾ voltage ã EC á

Time

Potentiometer wiper not moving

Capacitor â current ä IC á

Time á ùWଠ þ(Ô0ú!ù Ô"ÿ¬ù üÔÔûE¬ú©Ô"û\¬ø;ü&ù± Ô]<øýùý¼« ÿ(Èø$KÔ«¬ý¼¬ÿPþÔ+Õ  ú(ÕY¬ûÔ])¬ù ÿs,«Y ûԊ«Ôû 3 ± ù ý«HÔD¬ýý û« ''« ýýy"©Ô@¬ü&úù øÔx«$ûù øøLþÔO"« ú'« "¬ù û]Ógþ 'ø[þÔ@± ù ýüÔÔû´¬ÿ(¬"«¬ù ÿå¬ýý"©Ô ¬ÿ($Kû Ô« ø+¬ÿ &« B«&ø+ýù xû« KÔ ² Potentiometer wiper moving slowly in the "up" direction Steady current æ

+ -

æ

+

+ -

V -

Increasing ¾ voltage

Ë

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Time Voltage â change

Capacitor voltage ã EC Time Potentiometer wiper moving slowly "up"

Capacitor â current ä

IC Time

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Potentiometer wiper moving quickly in the "up" direction (greater) Steady current + -

+ -

+ (faster) Increasing V voltage -

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Time Voltage â change

Capacitor ¾ voltage ã EC á

Time

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Capacitor â current ä IC á

Time

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Capacitor ¾ voltage EC á

Time

Potentiometer wiper moving "up" at different rates

Capacitor â current ä

IC á

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Potentiometer wiper moving in the "down" direction

+ -

+

+ -

V -

Decreasing voltage

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3 ö í Kî 7 5 D k 7 X Y2K í 5 >Ô ² „ … †1‡ ˆp‰…1Š ‹ ‡1Š8… †B‰uŒ ‡Ž‡ ˆ<;‰u†b†p‰>Œp‰u†b’‘“B‰‡bŠ8‡”<†bˆB‰8”•” –—p˜<† … —b†p™ šbšbš8šbšbšbšbš8šbšbšbšbš8šbšbš8š8šbš8šbš šbš8š8šbš8šbš šbšbš šbš8šbš8š8šbš šbš8šbš8š8šbš šbšbš8š8š8šbš šbšbš8š8š8šbšbš o …”>›b› nœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœ8œ8œbœ8œbœ œbœbœ œžPŸY b b b  ¡ ‰uˆ¢œbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ œbœ8œ8œbœ8œbœ œbœbœ œžPŸY b b b£ ¤b¥b¦8§!¨k¦b§b¤©‘uª¥ ‡ « Š8– —€ª ™tœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœŽ¬MŸY  ¤ –1Š81ˆ – bŠ8‡ —‡Žœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœ œt¬MŸY¬b h† –ƒ¬!ŸY¬b­ ¡8®¯ ˆ ‡ ˜1‰>—*œbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœ8œbœ œbœbœ œt¬MŸ±°²†1–ƒ³MŸY¬ ¤ –1ŠB˜<†bbˆ1‡ —‡hœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ œbœbœ œt¬MŸ±° ´h† –µ°?ŸY  ¶… ·1‡8“h… ‡ ˆ²œ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ œbœbœ œt¬MŸY´ ¥bˆ …—p˜«1– ˆ<p‡ ˆµ–‰ Šžœbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œt¬MŸY´ž†1–µ° ¸ … ˆb“ž‹ ›b¹b¹‡ ˆ²œ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ œbœbœ œt¬MŸY´ž†1–µ°"ŸY­b  ¶–b– “©‘º8… »p™Žœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ œbœbœ œt³MŸY³ ¯ ‰ Š ‰8” – —‡ ˜Žœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœ8œbœ œbœbœ œt³MŸ±°²†1–µ°"ŸY³ ® … »1‡1Š‰u† ‡hœbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœ8œbœ œbœbœ œt³MŸY´ž†1–ƒ£MŸY  ¼ ›… ˆb†1½M¨k« ›B˜ ‡8“ƒœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœ œt³MŸY­ ¶–b– “©‘Y„ … Š8‡™Žœbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ œbœbœ œC°"Ÿ±° ¾ Š8… ˜b˜hœbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ œbœ8œ8œbœ8œbœ œbœbœ œC°"ŸY¿ž†1–ƒÀMŸY´ Á …˜u† – ˆƒ–‰ Šžœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ œbœbœ œt´MŸY  ¶–b– “©‘ ® ‰uˆB”uÂp™Žœbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ œbœbœ œt´MŸY¬ „p‰8”…o¨ ›p˜b” – Œp‰u† ‡•œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œt´MŸY ž†1–ƒ­MŸYÀ ¾ Š8… ˜b˜ œ¹–— “1‡8“;‰8” …ƒœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œt£MŸY³ž†1–ƒ¿MŸY³ ¤ – ˆ” ‡1Š8…‰—"¨ ¯ †1‡b… †p‰u†1‡žœbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœÃ£MŸY´ ¡ Š›;‰>—…žœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœ8œ8œbœ8œbœ œbœbœ œt­MŸY ž†1–ĝ> !ŸY  Åp‰8˜u†p‰ ŠbŠ8‡ “ŽÆ… † ‡ ˆ²œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œbœbœbœbœ8œt­8 !ŸY  ® … ˆB‰>› rœ ˜u†bˆ – —1†B‰>› pœ†p‰>† …<—r‰>†1‡Žœ8œbœbœbœbœhÀ8´b b  W#  í    ug îBí<2Kî V 35í(í 5 î2Kí5 ÔD3J Eí 8aG(íHî% 3Z Ô(í Kí2ÔE5 E1752  %5íCX&ÔH3J 7 Ecî2C2î 3J S7í(²

è>Ç 1 È1

Ë

}1z"{ | z"} x ´:ì^µ x { xIÉ€É z É çx µ xEç4| y ë {l} C=

¶ vÊ

Ìε A Ð

d Where,

Ë

C = Capacitance in Farads

Ì ε = Permittivity of dielectric (absolute, not Î

Í Ð

relative)

A = Area of plate overlap in square meters d = Distance between plates in meters

W 5í (í 5îL2 5íDX©Ô?Bí E'Ô ö í îíXÔ?Kí2Ô42(í S_ g'Ô>E î ö í 7(Ô?Xba ö ía î6;í 8aS 32Ô ba1 îK5í  3Cí 5F2  h E'Ô2ÔLî(î 65í(í 5 î2Kí 5 Ô @IólÔZKÔí<2Kî ö ÔaEÔí Ya3Cí 5F2 o2 ö ía î5í(í 5 î2 M5  d2752î LîK 2(í2! 3p í<2KÔ íKÔí9b Z K Ô(  &  Ôa 982 ÔEí 7 2Z 34 í<2KÔ% ö ÔíP@ Ó  Ô 3J  < c î 6s 

2 6 K í  Ï Y
WI P2 Ô? Y&í<3Ð2ZîK € 2%í<2KÔEr92Ô?E'Ô6 ÔÔ2 cZ(î5%2Ô! Ô2 P 3 í2Ô € ö Ôí;Ôí 5% 2(Ô€cî ö ía 9u5(í6 î 6 2(ÔEÔ ±Ô52î ö ÔEíKÔí^ 342(Ô í<2Ô> ZX©Ô2dcUÔÔfcZîK5Dí 5 5 Ô 2Kí2Ô>EcÔÔ>5F2KîK5I_&ÔKEs5íkX©ÔEÔ Y2Kí X îK ÔEr@Óî  í YK2 î57  í Z5í&í 5 î2 (í í 5í(í 5 î2Kí5 Ô;îk2(Ô%î5 3Cí Kí EH%í 6Ô 9'íE,_E Z7 Ôîf%í E'î D5î57(îL2a @ ( ú.Ñ+ûdÒ

Ó-Ô[þMÔIÕwÌfÖ×YÌWþIÌØØÔIØ~ÍÌYÌWÍ%Î.ý þoÕ

ÙµÔf5í(í 5 î2  _íKÔ%5  Ô52Ô>Ecîs ÔîÔ 9b2Ô(2 2%í€5í(í 5 î2Kí5 Ô;î ZÔ  ?2&íDíbaH Ô( 342Ô ÔKîÔ> Z5íq (í 5 î2  »Hî'E î ö îKE1(7 í 5 í ( í 5 îL%2 í5 Ô @€ÚÛ3p2dc? % M K Ô5 í ( í 5 îL2 I íK Ô5   Ô52 Ô>n E îH ÔK îÔ> 9 2 Ô ö Ô% í' Ô ±Ô52 îK M2(  í<2  3 í^ î 6  ÔD\` Ô¸87 î ö í Ô82e"5 í ( í 5 îL2 "( í ö î 62 Ô( Y7O2 %2 íB 3P2 Ô.  í2 Ô. Y( í 5 î 6 ! 3P2 Ô;îE î ö îKE1(7 í 5 í (  í 5 îL2  @4WI oU c Ô » ö ÔÜd7 d2" ÔÔP9 í L  î5 Ô]í  Ôî  í Y7L2 îf E Ô5K Ôí  Ô>E-5 í( í 5 îK2 í 5 Ô @

¶ v Â

çwIx µlyz"{éèuÇ 1

Ë

C1 equivalent to

Ë

Ë

çx µ E x ç4|

y ë {I}

Ctotal

C2

Ób7 912  Ô2 %2 í€5 í( í 5 îK2 í  5 ÔWîK Z Ô  2( í <  íba-  Ô% 342( ÔEî'E î ö îKE1(7 í ;5 í (í 5îL2  » 5í(í 5 î2Kí 5 Ô> @0Ó(Ô 3J S7ít3J s5í 57 í2î 6t2ÔÏ ÔîÔ -2 2Kí (5í(í 5 î2Kí 5 Ô*î ,2(Ô KíLÔG3J  í -3J s5í 57 í2î 6Ã&í%íÔ K Ô î YK2 í  5 Ô> ²

Series Capacitances

Ë

Ctotal =

Ë

1 1 1 æ 1 æ + Ë +... Ë C1 C2 Cn

Ùµ ÔÃ5 í ( í 5 îL2  íK Ô-5   Ô>5FK2 Ô# E ît( í K í  Ô:942 Ô,2 K2 í5 í ( í 5 îL%2 í5 Ô+îK 2 Ôk 7 Ý 3Z2 Ô9îE î ö îKE17(í 5 í (í 5îL2  »"5í&í 5 î2Kí 5 Ô> @ÄÚÛ3%2dc" t - KÔV5í(í 5 î2  cí ÔG5 Ô52ÔEƒîƒ&í%íÔi9?2(ÔG ö Ô%í[Ô ±Ô52 îK S2(í<2 3íV î6 ÔNÔ]¸ 7(î ö íÔ82 5í (í 5îL2 S&í ö î 6V2Ôs 7 Ý2 2Kí 32Ôf í<2KÔ9í Ô]í S 32ÔYîEî ö îKE17(í 5 í (  í 5 îL2  @(WI .U c Ô » ö ÔIÜd7 d2 ÔÔPª9 í,  î5 Ô]í  Ô îV  íEr9p Ô> Y7L2 î9  î5 Ô]í  ÔE-5 í( í 5 îK2 í  5 Ô @

Ë

C1

Ë

C2

equivalent to

Ë

Ctotal

Ó b7 9!2s  Ô 2 2K í I5 í ( í 5Lî 2%í 5Ô9Kî  Kk Ô 2( í åí bat s Ô 3.2Ô,î Eî ö Kî E17(í l5í & í 5 î 2  o » 5 í ( í 5Lî 2%í 5Ô @ Ó Ô%3J ^7 íD3J I5íK57 í<2Kî 62ÔS&í%íÔp2 2%í45í&í 5 î2Kí 5 ÔWîK 2Ô^ KíLÔ(3J Áí 3J I5í 57 í2î 6H ÔKîÔ>  KÔ î Y2Kí 5 Ô> ²

Parallel Capacitances

Ë Ë æ Ë æ Ë Ctotal = C1 + C2 + . . . Cn WI la 7scî4

,E1 7 X12.

2Kî5Ô 92îK 7îK :Ôgí 52a,   8 î2Ô^ 3o2ÔS (Ô

Ô

,Ôg1îXîL2KÔEsXbafKÔ î Y2  @ Ù î2HK Ô î Y2  9 ÔK îÔ> M5   Ô52 î  M Ô> Y7 4 2 î+  í E 'E î2 î ö Ô ö í (7 Ô ocZ î Ô( í% í Ô 5   Ô>5F2 î  o Ô> Y7L0 2 îH'E îL  î1q îK YÔ>E ö í 7 Ô> @Ù î2C5 í ( í 5 îL2  ©9 î2 » .2 ÔK Ô ö Ô Ô ²Z& í% í Ô45   Ô>5FK2 î  . Ô> Y7  2 îP  í E 'E î2 î ö Ô ö í7 Ô .cZ î Ô ÔK îÔ> Z5  Ô52 î  ?K Ô 7 L[ 2 îs'E î  î îK Y( ÔE ö í7 Ô @ Þ +-)lß,R)làÝ/ Þ ñUí( í 5 îK2 í 5 Ô E'îLî(î Yîs ÔKîÔ> @

è>Ç 1âá 1 µ!{ E x ç

y |çxIÉ çë ´l} | ì.z!{ x y |ë ´l}

¶ v¶

Þ ñUí(í 5 î2Kí5 Ô _í E Ecîf(í%íÔ:@ ú.Ñ+ûã

ä^þIÌWÍUÎo ÍÌØ!Íý^fÕÖsÔ[þIÌ;Îo ý^fÕ

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5 ÔÔ'E Ô>Er9K Ô 7 2 î + 6 î 2( Ô5 í& í 5 î2 _  î82 Ô& ía- 

Y2qÛ5 î57 î2 î 6@ êZH] À Ë )æ à \ ݲYÞ1 L  Ôk5 í( í 5 î2  íK Ô-B  íb71C3 í 5F27  Ô>Eà  02 Ôat5 íà  aC2  Ô% íE ö L%2 í6 Ôcîà ( Ô B  íK îL2daX 712Z

2"2 Ô( 2 Ô>I @ Ó îU îK E17 Ô.2 ^2 ÔîZ5  Y275FK2 î s ²;2 Ô%'E îÔ Ô52K î: 5 î_ í^L  î5 8 5  îK5 í aS2 î  íu a Ô;  î 3 î Y7 í2 î C'E ÔB  îLK2 ÔEG G  ÔD 3"2 Ô  í ÔLíK Ô 5 í  ÔECé Àéì \ æ] ÀÝ \ ÃìI5 í&  í 5 î2  '9 íE-2( Ôî  í  î2dB a îK 5 Ôí a B  íK ½ ÔEP@

Electrolytic ("polarized") capacitor + -

â

curved side of symbol is always negative!

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.2Ô í LÔ^KÔí Y P9 Ô Ô52 a82 îK5^5 í(  í 5 î2  I2 ÔEV2 f&X Ô <^ c î ö K2 í6 ÔS% íE0 c î2 2( Ô(2dab& Ô> ( 35 í& í 5 î2  5  Y275FK2 î P@ [Zð ×1ñÐè Ëò é Ö \ ìñÐæì ×1ñ \ U A Þ'î5 Ô(2 Ô% í2 Ô[ îD  í 5 í ( í 5 îL2  ?( í ö Ô%  L  Ô( Ô> îK d%2 í5 Ô 9 í Ef î 5 Ô% E îÔ Ô>5F2K îK5 îKW í-© Ô\3 Ô5E 2 î 7  í<2 >9p2 Ô Ôî ( f 75V2 î D 6 í  íYÕ© Ô\3 Ô5K2 Õk5 í& í 5 î2 @SÚ±GK Ôí 4 î\3 Ô 9 ík5 í ( í 5 îL2 (( í XB 2 íÏ ÔK îÔ>  Ô> îK YK2 í 5 ÔDíƒ E íC( í K í  Ô%` Ô]íî í6 Ô>eDK Ô î YK2 í  5 ÔYî K2 Ô% í 52 î 6C c îL2~  î2 - 7 K ÔaÃ5 í ( í 5 îLK2 î ö Ô 5( í K í 5F2 Ô îK Y2 îK5 ó Capacitor equivalent circuit

ô

Rseries

Ë

ô Cideal

Rleakage

õ v ö

çwIxl÷

yz"{éèuÇ 1 çxl÷rxEç4| y ë {I}

Ù

Y27 (í2Ôa 9î2îK !KÔí<2Kî ö Ôa Ôí Ya^2 ^Bíb713Cí 527 KÔI5í(í 5 î2  ocî2 ö Ôa^ BíB ÔKîÔ MKÔ îK d2%í5Ô 4í E ö Ôa (î6 kÔí îí6 Ô.KÔ î Y2Kí 5 Ô> ø

Ë

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.  LS Ô 5   Lî  Ô X©Ô 2dcUÔÔ s2^ Ô 2dc? +Ô gb2KÔ L>Ô @;Ó í î  Ô 2 Ô 3J 
2 6 %í  "3J Ô g í D Ô ó

Ó Kî [Kî [í3Cí îa,í 6Ô5í (í 5îL2 î0 ba1 îK5í € îïÔ 9X 7 27îL2.(í  7(îL2KÔní
2 6 %í  GcLî 2G2H Ô  Ô X&Ô 
Ô 5F2 a82Kî 5D7 î 29 î Lî  í î s î ïl Ô 2 D2% Ô ÔEí XB ö Ô 98X712cLî 2Cèuéæ)% Ý E'Lî þÔ KÔ 82 ö í 7Ô  345í ( í 5 î 2K í 5 Ôí Ekc? î î  6 ö L2%í 6 Ô ó

è>Ç 1âá 1

÷ { xEç y |çxIÉ çë } | ì.z!{ x y |ë }

õ và

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7 9 öà ö L2 _î82KÔî2Y2KÔ82e@ í Ô ÔîK [ í í DÔ% 34E'îþ©ÔÔ82I5í&í 5 î2 ?2da8©Ô ó

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2 6 %í ,( í [î 2 I 8 î 2î ö H Ô ` (e?2Ô Lî (í ; í X&Ô >Ô EfcLî 2<í Õ7 KD Õ Bí îB@I 2K% Ô 


2ÔEíHî IE'îÔ Ô 52Kî 5(5 í ( í 5Lî 2  Uî f2% Ô  

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õ v v

çwIxl÷

yz"{éèuÇ 1 çxl÷rxEç4| y ë {I}

Þb   Ô. 3;2 Ô%5 í( í 5 î2  ? Y

E2 GLí î Ô 2ÔH í<2KÔ @,ÓFí82Kí 7 Ý5í (í 5îL2  (í ö Ô?K Ô í
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Applying through the coil ¿causes current the switch to close.

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« ± © ­ ³N« ªP± ® ¹

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ò

Quantity

Field Force Field Flux

H ® ±t±ª§LH K ¯ ³g® H‘¯ ³ °h± ©Vc¦gJQ«O¦ ª ¦ H c¦ ±¬bHC¯ a ¯ªPHR§ J ¯ ¯ a ¯!ªHR§µ c¦gJb«O¦ ¯!ª±t±­}²± ®!m HRªH ®q´ïJ ¬b± ¨ ®PK § qYN H « ± © ­µ æ¡ç<ù µV¯!ª K© ­ Jb©g¨ ²± ® Á K ª J ± ©NK ¬ Jï H‘­ m H€ªPH ®qïJ ¬p± ¨®OK § q ªH ®P©NK ª J ± ©NK ¬¯!ª K© ­ K® ­ K© ­ ® H ©NK §LH‘­ útñ `:NPa ¯!ªHT§LH

Unit Measurement óandof abbreviation

Symbol CGS

SI

ômmf ùGilbert (Gb) úAmp-turn õΦ üMaxwell (Mx) ýWeber (Wb)

English

úAmp-turn þLine

Field Intensity

öH

ûOersted (Oe)

Amp-turns

Amp-turns

Flux Density

÷B

ùGauss (G)

ÿTesla (T)

Reluctance

ℜ

ùGilberts per üMaxwell

Lines per square inch Amp-turns

Permeability

øµ

ùGauss per ûOersted

per meter

Amp-turns per Weber

ÿTesla-meters

per Amp-turn

per inch

þ

per line

þLines per inch-Amp turn

 © ­  HT¯TµMª ¦ H  ¯ t§ X ±¬ J ¯ ® H K ¬b¬ ƒª ¦ HZ¯ K §LH K ¯|ª ¦ H§LH€ª ®PJQ« ° ® H  m § JQ«€® ±N¹ m © ­Šª ¦gJ ¯LHT¯°hH «€JQK ¬b¬  « ± © ² ³ ¯ Jp©N¨ µ ³ ¯ Jb©g¨ ª ¦ H}H K « ª¯ K §LH K ¬b° ¦NK X HRª JQ«RK ¬ «O¦NK®PK « ªH ® ª±_¯t§ X ±¬ Jï H X ±ª ¦,K ¯°¸H «€J «}n³NK© ª J ª K© ­ K ¨ H © H ®OK ¬a§LH€ª ®JQ« ° ® H  ø  ¯ ± ³ § Jp¨ ¦ ª ¦NK·¶ H ¨³ HT¯P¯!H‘­ K ¬ ® H K ­µVª ¦ H ® HR¬ K ª J ± © ¯ ¦gJ ° X HRªIHTH © NHT¬b­q²± ®O« H µ NHT¬b­ £N³ aµ K© ­ ® HR¬ ³N« ª K©N« H J ¯F§ ³N«O¦ ª ¦ Hf¯ K §LH K ¯ª ¦NK ª X HRªIHTH © ª ¦ HjHR¬bH « ª ®JQ«RK ¬ n³NK© ª J ª J HT¯}±² HR¬bH « ª ® ± §L±ª Jb¶ Hq²± ®O« H  µ «€³g®P® H © ª   µ H   ¹  ¦NJ ¯° ® ± ¶tJ ­HT¯ ¯±§LH€ª ¦gJp©N¨LK îtJp© ª± K©Dó¦ § ÿ ¯ d½K IJ± ® § K¨ © H€ª Jb«\«€Jb®O«€³gJ ªP¯ ó K© ­ ® HT¯ J ¯!ª K©N«  A comparison of "Ohm’s Law" for electric and magnetic circuits:

E = IR

Electrical

mmf = Φℜ Magnetic

 © ­µ ¨Jb¶ H © ª ¦NK ªM°¸H ® §LH KXNJ ¬ J ª J ¯ Jb©t¶ H ® ¯HR¬! K©NK p¬ ± ¨ ± ³ ¯{ªP±\¯°¸H «€J «® HT¯ J ¯!ª K©N« H µ·ª ¦ HH ³hK ª J ± © ²± ® © ­ Jp©N¨ ª ¦ H ® HT¬ ³N« ª K©N« H±² K § K¨ © H€ª Jb« § K ªPH ®PJbK ¬ J ¯ ¶ H ® |¯ J § J ¬ K® ª±\ª ¦hK ªM²± ® © ­ Jb©g¨ ª ¦ H ® H‘¯ J ¯ª K©N« H ±² KF« ± © ­ ³N« ªP± ®>ó

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:A comparison of electrical and magnetic opposition:

ô

R=ρ

8l

9A

ℜ=

8l µA

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É0FWÊF

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­ Jb¶nJ ­H‘­ X f ª ¦ H «R® ±n¯¯ ; ¯H « ª J ± ©NK ¬ K® H K ±²ª ¦ HF§ K ªPH ®PJbK ¬–¹\`T H] J ¬p¬ ³ ¯!H\ª ¦ H n³NK© ª J ª J H‘¯ ±² NHT¬b­ Jp© ªPH © ¯ J ªZ íW K© ­ £N³ r ­gH © ¯ J ª1 •[^ Jb© ¯!ªH K ­,±²%N HT¬b­,²± ®O« HA §L§C² \ K© ­Zª±ª K ¬ £h³ 1_^  ¯±fª ¦NK ª\ª ¦ H ¯ ¦NK °¸H±²± ³N®¨®OK ° ¦C® HR§ KJb© ¯ Jb© ­HT°hH © ­H © ªY±²aª ¦ H^° ¦  ¯ Jb«TK ¬N­ J §LH © ¯ J ± © ¯±²± ³g® ªPHT¯!ªY§ K ªPH ®PJbK ¬–¹4T ¦NK ªI H ÿ ® H ª ®  Jp©N¨ ª±|­± ¦ H ® H J ¯I¯ ¦ ± K § K ª ¦ HT§ K ª JQ«RK ¬ ® HR¬ K ª J ± © ¯ ¦gJ ° X HRªI HTH © N HT¬b­C²± ®P« H K© ­ £h³ q

²± ®ºU ’ «O¦t³g© î ±² K ° K® ª Jb«R³ ¬ K® ¯ ³X ¯ª K©N« Hµ Jb© ª ¦ H}¯ K §LH}¯° Jb®J ª K ¯­H‘¯ «R®JXgJb©g¨jK § K ªH ®JQK ¬ ÿ ¯ ù– @ > ñ ` > E @ ùFñKùb´a ºVU > @ Jb© ± ¦ §c; « § J ¬e·d ²Åª Jb© ¯ªPH K ­f±² J ªP¯ K « ª ³NK ¬ E @ ùFñKùba ºU > @ Jb© ± ¦ §j¯R¹ sheet steel

¿cast steel Flux density (B)

¿cast iron

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²H ®P® ±§ K¨ © H€ª Jb« § K ªH ®JQK ¬ µ²HNIH ®^K ª± §j¯ K® H K·¶·KJ ¬ KX ¬pHn J ª ¦gJb© ª ¦NK ª§ K ªH ®JQK ¬aªP± K ¬ Jp¨ © ª ¦ H Jb® HT¬pH « ª ® ± © ¯[ J ª ¦ K ­N­ J ª J ± ©NK ¬n²± ®P« Hµ K© ­|¯± J ªeª Kî HT¯§L± ® H K© ­|§L± ® H²± ®P« Hk íW ª± ¨ HRªM¬pH‘¯¯ K© ­q¬bHT¯P¯ m¦ HR¬b° m ² ® ± §ª ¦ H § K ªPH ®PJbK ¬ Jb©W«R® H K ª Jb©g¨ §L± ® H £N³ Œ­H © ¯ J ªo •[ ¹  ±L° ³ ª ª ¦NJ ¯ Jb© H « ± © ±§ JQ« ªPH ® §L¯TµH ÿ ® H\¯!HTH Jb©g¨LKq«TK ¯H±²­ J § Jp©gJ ¯ ¦gJp©N¨ ¯  [•  ± © ± ³g®IJp©t¶ HT¯!ª§LH © ªW íW ¹ ¢K ª ³g®OK ª J ± ©LJ ¯ K ° ¦ H © ±§LH © ± © ¬ J § J ªH‘­jª± Jp® ± © ; « ± ® HHT¬pH « ª ® ± § K¨© HRªP¯T¹ ® H€ª ³N®© W  Jb® ; « ± ® H}HR¬bH « ª ® ±§ K¨ © H€ªO¯­± ©Pÿ ªF¯ K ª ³N®PK ªHµ Xg³ ª± © ª ¦ Hq±ª ¦ H ®¦NK© ­Zª ¦ H ,­g± ©Pÿ ª° ® ±­ ³N« H © H K® ¬  K ¯§ ³N«O¦ § K¨ © H€ª Jb«£N³ K ¯ K ²H ®P® ±§ K¨ © H€ª Jb«« ± ® H²± ® ª ¦ H}¯ K §LH ©n³ § X H ® ±²4 Jp® H\ª ³N®© ¯ K© ­ «€³g®P® H © ªT¹

 © ±ª ¦ H ®Œn³gJb®î ªP± « ± © ²± ³N© ­Ž± ³N®ŒK©hK ¬!t¯ J ¯_±²F§ K¨ © H€ª Jb«,£N³ ¶ H ® ¯ ³ ¯L²± ®P« H J ¯jª ¦ Hs° ¦ H © ± §LH © ± © ±² § K ¨ © H€ª Jb«  t’ ùba @ E @ ùFñKù ¹  ¯ K¨ H © H ®OK ¬nªH ® §µ ¦ ¯!ªH ® HT¯ J ¯e§LH K© ¯ K ¬ K¨.X HRªIHTH ©CJp© ° ³ ª K© ­q± ³ ª° ³ ª Jb©LK ¯¯ªPHR§ ³ °¸± ©LK\«O¦NK©g¨ H Jb© ­ Jp® H « ª J ± © ¹  © ± © H+ ¦ ± ÿ ¯iH ¶ H ® ­ ®PJp¶ H ©qK© ± ¬b­ K³ ªP±§L± XNJ ¬bHi J ª ¦Cm ¬p±t± ¯H m ¯ªPHRH ®Jb©g¨.în© ±^¯  ¦NK ª ¦ ¯ªPH ® HT¯ J ¯ J ¯ ó ªP± «O¦NK©g¨ H|² ® ± §Ðª ³g®P©gJp©N¨ ¬bH€²Åªª±Œª ³g®P©gJb©g¨f®PJb¨¦ ªc[± ®¶nJ ¯ K ; ¶ H ® ¯ K7 µp± ³,¦NK·¶ H}ª± ® ±ª K ªPH ª ¦ H_¯ªPHRH ®PJb©g¨  ¦ HRHT¬ K©K ­g­ J ª J ± ©NK ¬ K §C± ³g© ª\ª±Z± ¶ H ®P« ±§LH}ª ¦ H Xg³gJ ¬pª ; Jp©m ¬ K¨nmfJb© ª ¦ Hj§LH «O¦NK©gJQ«RK ¬M¬ Jb© îVK¨ H ¯ t¯!ªHT§ X HRª IHTH © ª ¦ H¯!ªHTH ®PJp©N¨  ¦ HTHR¬ K© ­_ª ¦ H² ® ± © ª ¦ HTHR¬Q¯Y±²ª ¦ H «RK® ¹ ´©ŒK § K¨© HRª JQ« ¯¯ªPHR§µ ¦ ¯!ªH ® HT¯ J ¯ J ¯M¯!HTH ©|Jb©LK ²H ®® ±§ K¨© HRª JQ« § K ªPH ®PJbK ¬ ª ¦NK ªiªPH © ­g¯ªP±F¯ª K F§ K¨© HRª Jï H‘­ K ²ÅªPH ®K©qK °N°g¬ J HT­B NHT¬b­|²± ®O« H ¦NK ¯ X HRH © ­ [¯HRH m® HRªH © ª Jp¶tJ ª  m|Jb© ª ¦ k H ® ¯ª¯H « ª J ± © ±²ª ¦gJ ¯ «O¦NK °ªH q®  µ J ²ª ¦ H\²± ®O« H J ¯ ® H ¶ H ® ¯!H‘­ Jb© °h± ¬ K®J ª¹ ® HR§L± ¶ H‘ d HRª ÿ ¯ ³ ¯HFª ¦ Hq¯ K §LH ¨ ®PK ° ¦ZK¨ KJp© µN± © ¬ WH tªH © ­ Jb©g¨ ª ¦ H K HT¯ ªP± Jp© ­ bJ «TK ªPH X ±ª ¦ °h±n¯ J ª Jb¶ H K© ­ © H ¨ K ª Jp¶ H n³NK© ª J ª J H‘¯R¹ cJp® ¯!ªkH ÿ ¬p¬ K °g°g¬! K©,Jb©N«€® H K ¯ bJ ©g¨ NHR¬Q­Z²± ®P« Hr «R³g®P® H © ªª ¦g® ± N³ ¨¦ ª ¦ H « ± J ¬Q¯±²Y± g³ ® HR¬bH « ª ® ±§ K¨ ; © HRª  ¹1TsHZ¯ ¦ ± ³ ¬b­‹¯!HTHfª ¦ H £N³ Š­gH © ¯ J ª JbN© «R® H K ¯HC ¨ ± ³ ° K© ­ªP±sª ¦ H ® Jb¨¦ ª |K «R« ± ® ­ Jp©g¨ ª ±sª ¦ H © ± ® § K ¬ § K¨ © H€ª J ï‘K ª J ± ©«€³N®¶ H ó

Flux density (B)

Field intensity (H)

 H tªTµPIH ÿ ¬b¬i¯ªP±°Zª ¦ H «R³g®P® H © ª ¨ ± Jb©g¨ ª ¦g® ± ³g¨ ¦ ª ¦ H « ± J ¬±²Mª ¦ HCHR¬bH « ª ® ± § K¨© H€ª K© ­,¯HRHB ¦hK ª ¦hK °g°¸H © ¯ ª±Cª ¦ H N£ ³ µg¬bH K·¶tJb©g¨ ª ¦ Hn ® ¯!ª «R³g®P¶ HF¯ª J ¬b¬± © ª ¦ H ¨®OK ° t¦ s

v#" ¼ " ¼Zu

$& w $ ')(+*,-* .0/1' y32'0.Æ4&0'0.4* z

v5k

Flux density (B)

Field intensity (H)

w³ HCª±ª ¦ H ® HRªH © ª Jp¶tJ ªZ±²ª ¦ Hj§ K ªPH ®PJbK ¬–µxHj¯ª J ¬b¬ ¦NK·¶ H K § K¨ © H€ª Jb«q£N³ C J ª ¦ƒ© ± K °g°N¬ J HT­r²± ®O« H © ± «€³N®® H © ªª ¦g® ± ³g¨ ¦ ª ¦ H « ± J ¬  ¹ ó³g® HT¬pH « ª ® ±§ K¨© HRª « ± ® H J ¯ K « ª Jb©g¨K ¯ K °hH ® § K© H © ªF§ K¨© HRª K ªª ¦gJ ¯\°h± Jp© ªT¹  ± yHB J ¬b¬¯¬p±¬! K °g°g¬!Wª ¦ HL¯ K §LH K §L± ³g© ª±²§ K¨© HRª JQ« NHT¬b­²± ®P« H Jb© ª ¦ H fOzf|{b}ea @ ­ Jp® H « ª J ± © ªP±f± ³N® ¯ K §L°g¬bH s

Flux density (B)

Field intensity (H)

 ¦ H N£ ³ ƒ­H © ¯ J ª  ¦NK ¯ © ± ® H K «O¦ HT­ K °¸± Jb© ªqHN~ ³gJb¶·K ¬pH © ªFª± ¦NK ª J ª K ¯n J ª ¦‚K ² ³ ¬b¬Y°¸± ¯ J ª Jp¶ H ¶·K ¬ ³ H ±²i NHT¬b­ Jb© ªH © ¯ J ª€g  µeH « HR°gª Jb© ª ¦ H © H ¨ K ª Jb¶ H µe± ® ±°g°¸± ¯ J ªHµM­ Jb® H « ª J ± © ¹ d RH ªN‚ ¯|¯!ª±°ƒª ¦ H «R³g®® H © ª ¨ ± Jbg© ¨ ª ¦N® ± ³g¨¦ ª ¦ H « ± J ¬ K¨nKJb©ŒK© ­W¯HRH ¦ ±1§ ³N«O¦Œ£N³ ® HT§ KJb© ¯ s

v„ƒ7…

uUlW'

u .U$%& #v " ¼xw 'F¥[†)$k.4* 2 w ')†y3$%,m$u[.U&

z w F ' ¥[†W$W.4* 2 w

Flux density (B)

Field intensity (H)

ó©N« H K¨nKJb© µ¸­ ³ H}ªP±_ª ¦ H ©NK ª ³g®OK ¬ ® HRªH © ª Jp¶tJ ªŒ±²Mª ¦ HC§ K ªPH ®PJbK ¬–µ J ªk J ¬b¬ ¦ ±¬Q­ K § K¨© HRª JQ«F£N³  J ª ¦,© ± °¸±IH ®\K °g°g¬ J H‘­sª±Wª ¦ H « ± J ¬–µ½H « HT°ªFª ¦gJ ¯\ª J §LH J ªN‚ ¯ Jp©ƒK ­ Jb® H « ª J ± © ± °g°h±n¯ J ªHCªP±Œª ¦NK ª}±²Yª ¦ Hj¬ K ¯ª\ª J §LHH ¯!ª±°N°hH‘­ «€³g®P® H © ª^ª ¦g® ± ³N¨¦ ª ¦ H « ± J ¬ ¹  ²IH ® H; K °g°N¬ Œ°h±H ®^Jb©rK °¸± ¯ J ª Jb¶ H}­ Jb® H « ª J ± ©,K¨ KJp© µzH}¯ ¦ ± ³ ¬Q­Z¯!HTH ª ¦ H £N³ W­gH © ¯ J ª  ® H K«O¦fJ ªP¯^° ®J ± ® °¸H K„‡_Jb© ª ¦ H ³ °g°¸H ® ; ®Jb¨¦ ª « ± ®P© H ® ±²½ª ¦ H ¨®OK ° ¦WK¨ KJb©-s

Flux density (B)

Field intensity (H)

 ¦ H mn¢m ;´¯ ¦NK °¸HT­ «R³g®¶ HFª ®OK« HT­ X Œª ¦ H‘¯!HC¯ªPHR°N¯²± ® §ˆ ¦hK ª J ¯ «TK ¬b¬pH‘­ª ¦ H  t’ {ba @ E @ {b}‰{ > …E D @ ±² K ²H ®P® ±„; § K ¨ © H€ª Jb« § K ªH ®JQK ¬N²± ®IK|¨Jb¶ H © ¯!HRªI±²x NHR¬Q­ Jb© ªPH © ¯ J ªCH tª ® HR§LHT¯ke;Š K© ­r‹k  ¹  ²½ª ¦gJ ¯I­g±nH‘¯ © ‚ ª[~ ³gJ ªPH§ K=‡ H ¯H © ¯Hµ « ± © ¯ J ­H ®K_¦ ¯ªPH ® HT¯ J ¯ ¨®OK ° ¦ ²± ® ª ¦ H K³ ª±§L± XgJ ¬bH|¯!ªHTH ®PJp©g¨ ¯ « H ©NK®J ±_­HT¯ «€®PJX H‘­H K® ¬ J H ® µh± © H ¨ ®PK ° ¦ ­HT° Jb« ª Jb©g¨_KLm ª Jp¨ ¦ ª m ¯ªPHRH ®PJb©g¨ ¯¯ªPHR§ K© ­Œ± © HF­HT° JQ« ª Jb©g¨_KLm ¬b±t± ¯H m ¯ ¯!ªHT§ s

v#" ¼ " ¼Zu

$& w $ ')(+*,-* .0/1')†y32'0.Æ4&0'0.4* z †

v„ƒzŒ

An ideal steering system angle of front wheels (right)

rotation of (CW) steering wheel

(CCW)

(left) A "loose" steering system angle of front wheels (right)

rotation of (CW) steering wheel

(CCW)

(left) amount of "looseness" in the steering mechanism

~ ³ ¯ª K ¯ Jb© ª ¦ H «RK ¯!HY±² K³ ª±§L± XgJ ¬bH¯!ªHRH ®Jb©g¨ ¯¯ªPHR§j¯Tµ ¦ ¯!ªH ® HT¯ J ¯ «RK©%X H K ° ® ± X ¬bHR§¹  ² ± ³ ‚ ® H­HT¯ Jp¨ ©gJb©g¨ K ¯ ¯!ªHT§Öª±j° ® ±­ ³N« H\° ® H «€J ¯!H K §C± ³g© ªP¯±²e§ K¨ © H€ª Jb« hHR¬Q­ £h³ f²± ®¨Jb¶ H ©K §L± ³g© ªP¯ ±² «€³N®® H © ªTµ ¦ ¯!ªH ® HT¯ J ¯ § K  ¦gJb© ­H ® ª ¦NJ ¯Œ­HT¯ Jp¨ ©»¨ ± K ¬L[­ ³ HZª±ª ¦ H² K« ª_ª ¦hK ª_ª ¦ H K §L± ³g© ª_±² £N³ Ž­H © ¯ J ª± ³ ¬Q­»­HR°¸H © ­»± © ª ¦ H «R³g®® H © ª ºVU¸Sr¦ ± D¯!ª ® ± ©g¨ ¬  J ª K ¯Œ§ K¨© H€ª J!Ž H‘­ X H€²± ® H„  ¹ ¢tJ § J ¬ K® ¬!µ K ¬p±t±n¯!H`¯ªPHRH ®PJb©g¨ ¯¯ªPHR§ J ¯ ³g©NK «R« HR°ª K X ¬bH Jb©sKj®OK« H «RK® pµ  ¦ H ® H|° ® H «RJ ¯Hµ ® HR°¸H K ª KX ¬bH|¯!ªHTH ®PJp©g¨f® H‘¯!°¸± © ¯H J ¯ Kf© H « HT¯P¯ J ª¹  ¬b¯±Nµ ¦NK·¶tJb©g¨ ª±W± ¶ H ®P« ±§LHF° ®PJ ± ® § K¨© HRª !J ŽTK ª J ± ©,Jb©sK© HR¬bH « ª ® ±§ K¨ © H€ª «TK©GX H K  K ¯!ªHq±²YH © H ®P¨  J ²Yª ¦ H «R³g®® H © ª ³ ¯!H‘­ ª±LH © H ®P¨!J Ž Hª ¦ H « ± J ¬ J ¯ K ¬pªH ®©hK ª Jb©gD ¨ XNKq« ‡_K© ­j²± ® ª ¦   G  ¹  ¦ H K® H K  J ª ¦gJb© ª ¦ H ¦ ¯ªPH ® HT¯ J ¯ «€³N®¶ H ¨ Jp¶ HT¯ K ® ± ³g¨ ¦ HT¯!ª J § K ªPHF±²ª ¦ H K §C± ³g© ª±²½ª ¦gJ [¯  K ¯ªPHT­ŒH © H ®¨ ¹

u .U$%& #v " ¼xw 'F¥[†)$k.4* 2 w ')†y3$%,m$u[.U& z w 'F¥[†W$W.4* 2 w ó ª ¦ H ® ª J §LHT¯Tµg§ K¨ © H€ª Jb«\¦ ¯ªPH ® HT¯ J ¯ J ¯ K ­HT¯ Jb®PK X ¬pHª ¦gJp©N¨ ¹ ¢t³h«O¦WJ ¯ ª ¦ H «RK ¯!Hn ¦ H © § K¨© HRª JQ« § K ªH ®PJQK ¬Q¯ K® H ³ ¯HT­ K ¯ K §LH K© ¯f±²|¯ªP± ®PJp©g¨Jb© ²± ® § K ª J ± ©  « ±§L° ³ ªPH ® ­ J ¯ ‡ ¯Tµ K³ ­ J ± K© ­ ¶tJ ­HR±ª K °¸HT¯  ¹ ´© ª ¦ HT¯H K °N°g¬ JQ«RK ª J ± © ¯Tµ J ª J ¯­HT¯ Jp®OKX ¬pHFªP± X H K X ¬pH}ª±f§ K¨© HRª J!Ž H K ¯°¸H «q‡ ±² Jb® ± © ±| J ­HX ²H ®P®J ªH ^ K© ­ ® HT¬ W± © ª ¦NK ª § K ªPH ®PJbK ¬‚ ¯ ® H€ªPH © ª Jb¶tJ ª‹ª± m® HR§LHR§ X H ®PmƒJ ªP¯W¬ K ¯!ªŒ§ K¨ © H€ª J Ž HT­ð¯!ª K ªH ¹  © ±ª ¦ H ® ° ® ±­ ³h« ª Jb¶ H K °g°N¬ JQ«RK ª J ± © ²± ® § K¨ © H€ª Jb«W¦ ¯ªPH ® HT¯ J ¯ J ¯ Jp© N¬pªH ®PJb©g¨ƒ¦gJp¨ ¦ ; ² ® H#~ ³ H ©N«   HR¬bH « ª ® ± § K¨© H€ª JQ«fm© ± J ¯H m  ®OK ° J ­¬! K ¬pªH ®P©NK ª Jb©g¨ ¯ ³g®¨ HT¯\±² ¶ ±¬pª K¨ H  ² ® ±§‡¯ Jb¨©NK ¬\ Jp®PJp©N¨sX  ®³N©g©gJb©g¨ ª ¦ ±n¯!H‘ Jb® H‘¯\ª ¦N® ± ³g¨¦ ª ¦ Hf§ J ­g­¬bH_±² K ²H ®®PJ ªPH ®Jb©g¨ ¹  ¦ HFH © H ®P¨  « ± © ¯ ³ §LH‘­ Jb© ± ¶ H ®P« ±§ Jb©g¨ ª ¦ H ¦  ¯ªPH ® HT¯ J ¯ ±²²H ®®PJ ªH K ªªH ©n³hK ªH‘¯ ª ¦ H}¯ª ® H ©g¨ ª ¦ ±²iª ¦ H m© ± J ¯H m ¯ Jp¨ ©NK ¬ ¹ ´© ªPH ® HT¯!ª Jb©g¨ ¬!_H © ± ³g¨ ¦ µtª ¦ H ¦  ¯!ªH ® H‘¯ J ¯ «€³g®P¶ H\±²e²H ®P®J ªH J ¯0~ ³gJ ªHFHt ª ® HT§CH s v„ƒ6

uUlW'

Hysteresis curve for ferrite Flux density (B)

Field intensity (H)

’‚ÁfÂW“r”€ÂW• ’ ’ ’

T

’

Ã

 ¦ H\°hH ® §LH K XgJ ¬ J ª_±² K § K ªH ®JQK ¬ «O¦hK©g¨ HT¯+ J ª ¦ ª ¦ H K §C± ³g© ª±²i§ K¨© HRª JQ«£N³ f²± ®P« HT­fª ¦g® ± ³N¨¦WJ ª‘¹  ¦ HC¯°¸H «€J «C® HR¬ K ª J ± © ¯ ¦gJ °r±²²± ®O« Hqª± £N³ –e NHT¬b­ Jp© ªPH © ¯ J ªCÇªP± £h³ s­H © ¯ J ª •[J ¯ ¨®OK ° ¦ HT­ Jp©`K ²± ® § «RK ¬p¬bHT­fª ¦ H UPfEb—jº˜-—jº X U @ a_} ™Tº=a}gfU > …E D @ ¹  ª J ¯^°h±n¯¯ JX ¬pHFªP± K °N°g¬ W¯!±j§ ³N«O¦ § K¨ © H€ª Jb« hHR¬Q­W²± ®O« H\ª± K ²H ®P® ± § K¨© HRª JQ« § K ªH ®JQK ¬ª ¦NK ª © ±_§L± ® H £N³ «TKf © X H «R®PK §L§CH‘­ Jb© ª± J ªT¹  ¦gJ ¯ « ± © ­ J ª J ± ©WJ ¯ ‡n© ± ©ŒK ¯ § K¨© HRª JQ«c{€º=a–…EPºa_}gfVU ¹ T ¦ H © ª ¦ H E @ a @ zU a_} D }ea ’ ±² K ²H ®P® ± § K¨© H€ª JQ« ¯ ³ X ¯!ª K©h« H Jb© ªH ® ²H ® H‘¯0 J ª ¦rJ ªP¯ ® H;§ K¨© H€ª J!ŽTK ª J ± ©Jb© ª ¦ H ±°g°¸± ¯ J ªPHF­ Jp® H « ª J ± © µ KL« ± © ­ J ª J ± A © ‡t© ±  ©WK ¯  t’ {ba @ E @ {b}‰{ ± «T«€³g® ¯T¹

É0FWÊqš

››M H^œBÒMÏC?A@FECÌAH BiÍRœ&ÍRÌAQ,ÎœBM̀ÏCÌ

H ® ¯!ªH‘­x‚ ¯F¯ ³g® ° ®PJ ¯ Jb©g¨ ­ J ¯ « ± ¶ H ® Z±² HR¬bH « ª ® ±§ K¨ © H€ª J ¯§ ° K·¶ H‘­,ª ¦ H K Z²± ® §L± ® HL° ®OK« ª Jb«TK ¬ ºOY˜œ} Ÿ ±²^HT¬pH « ª ®PJQ«€J ªµ J ª K ¯ JQ«O¦NK HR¬ cNK®OK ­ K C ¦ ± ¨ K·¶ H ³ ¯qª ¦ H ‡ H `ª±sª ¦ H° ®OK« ª JQ«RK ¬ X6@ U @ Eº=a}gfU ±² HR¬bH « ª ®PJb«RJ ª s HR¬bH « ª ® ±§ K¨ © H€ª Jb«Jp© ­ ³N« ª J ± © ¹ cNK®PK ­ K q­ J ¯ « ± ¶ H ® H‘­Cª ¦NK ª Kq¶ ± ¬Ôª K¨ H0I± ³ ¬Q­ X H ¨ H © H ®OK ªPHT­ K «€® ± ¯P¯ K ¬bH ©g¨ ª ¦ ±P²  Jp® H J ²¸ª ¦NK ª  Jb® H[ K ¯MH °¸± ¯HT­|ª± K °¸H ® °hH © ­ JQ«€³ ¬ K® § K¨© HRª JQ« NHR¬Q­ £N³ C±² «O¦NK©g¨ Jp©N¨Jb© ªH © ¯ J ª¹ ¦gJ ¬pH

> ºa_}gfVUz{

ó

v#" ¼Ÿžt¼

$%,m$u[.U& z w 'F¥[†W$W.4*RuV*†yfÆ u[.4* z † v„ƒ7v  © H K ¯ K ,ªP± «€® H K ªH K § K¨ © H€ª Jb« NHR¬Q­ƒ±² «O¦NK©g¨Jb©g¨ZJb© ªPH © ¯ J ª J ¯FªP±,§L± ¶ H K °¸H ® § K© H © ª}§ K¨© HRª © H nªª± K  Jb® HF± ®^« ± J ¬{±²U Jb® H¹^HR§LHR§ X H ®Ns ª ¦ H}§ K¨ © H€ª Jb« hHR¬Q­Œ§ ³ ¯!ª Jp©h«€® H K ¯H\± ® ­gH «€® H K ¯!H Jb©Jp© ªH © ¯ J ª  @ E  @ UaS} > …p˜ ºE ª±Wª ¦ H‘ Jp® H–¯!±Œª ¦hK ª\ª ¦ HL¬ Jp© HT¯\±² £N³ m «€³ ª K«R® ±n¯¯ m ª ¦ H « ± © ­ ³N« ªP± ®b µ± ® HT¬b¯H © ± ¶ ±¬pª K¨ H  J ¬p¬ X H Jb© ­ ³N« HT­ s Electromagnetic induction current changes direction with change in magnet motion

-

+ V

+

voltage changes polarity with change in magnet motion

-

N S

magnet moved back and forth

cNK®PK ­ K  K ¯ KX ¬pHfª±r§ K ª ¦ HT§ K ª JQ«RK ¬p¬! ® HT¬ K ªHjª ¦ H ®PK ªHf±² «O¦NK©g¨ H_±²^ª ¦ HŒ§ K ¨ © H€ª Jb« NHR¬Q­ £h³ Z J ª ¦ Jb© ­ ³N« HT­ ¶ ±¬pª K¨ Ho © ±ªHfª ¦ H ³ ¯!HŒ±² K ¬b±H ® ; «TK ¯HC¬bH€ªªH ®qm H m ²± ®q¶ ± ¬Ôª K¨ H ¹  ¦gJ ¯ ® €H ²H ® ¯FªP± }ÅzU {qa´ºVUpaºU @ fV… { ¶ ± ¬Ôª K¨ Hµt± ®¶ ±¬pª K¨ H K ª K ¯°¸H «€J « °¸± Jb© ª Jp© ª J §LHµ ®OK ª ¦ H ® ª ¦NK©ZK ¯ªPH K ­µN¯!ª K X ¬bH ¶ ±¬pª K¨ H¹ bs

¤e = ¢N ¡d¡ Φ dt Where,

¤ induced voltage in volts ¢Ne == (Instantaneous) Number of turns in wire coil (straight wire = 1) Φ = Magnetic flux in Webers t = Time in seconds

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Small gear ´(few teeth)

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high torque, low speed

"Step-down" transformer

high voltage AC voltage source

low voltage many turns

few turns

Load

high current

low current

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ä Û ‘ ­  ­ ! ä   Ü ä b  ­ Û ‘ ­  f  ª  Ù L Û „ á ã ëìÝ ®O« åå â X ݄gß © ª Ý=ëU݄ååYÝ ¯pä ªä Ý © ª Ý Þ ß æ%÷7ß ¯!ª0á ¯ªÙzFÛ ª å Û Ý„ë « Ý © ­ Nß « ªä ©à ãVá ª®Û ® ä!á ¬ ­ä « ªqVá ª‘Û ¯ªÙzá ª « Ý © ­ hß « ª Ý ® ‚ ¯¯ å Û « ä «q® ‘Û ¯ Qä ¯!ª®á ©h« } Û ª Ý TÛ ¬ Û « ª ® ä «|« gß ®® Û © ª â ª®ÙqÛ ª å Û Ý=ë ãVá ª®Û ® ä!á ¬ Ý «T«ßå  ä ©zà ªÙzÛ ¯ å á « ^Û ªÙ ®Ý7ßà Ùr[Ùä « ٍáBãá à © RÛ ªä « zTÛ ¬b­ ëìÝ ®O« ÛWbä ¯+ä!ã Nå ® ‘Û ¯¯TÛ ­Œ­ä « ª®á ªTÛ ¯Iª®ÙF Û ¯ å Û « äœ «W݄åzåpÝ ¯ pä ªä Ý © ª Ý ã‘á à © RÛ ªä « zTÛ ¬b­rÞ ß æ TÚÙÛ ® Û#á ¯]á © TÛ ¬ Û « ª ® ä « zRÛ ¬Q­CÞ ß X €Û ª+Û Û © ª ,Ý « Ý © ­ hß « ª Ý ® ¯]á ¬p¬ Ý ^ ¯ ëìÝ ® á © á «R« ß ã ß ¬!á ªä Ý ©¬Ý=ëië ® ÛNÛRÛ ¬!Û « ; ª ®®Ý ©s« Ùzá ®®à ÛL[pä ªÙzä © ªÙ Ý ¯ Û « Ý © ­ Nß « ª Ý ® ¯ â á © RÛ ¬!Û « ª ®®Ý ãá à © €Û ª®ä « zRÛ ¬Q­Þ ß á ¬b¬ Ý ^ ¯ ëìÝ ® á « Û ® ª®á„ä ©õ ä © Û ® ªä‰á õ ª Ý á «T«ß ã ß ¬‰Vá ªÛnä © ªÙÛnÞ Ý  Ý=ë RÛ ¬!Û « ª ® Ý © ¯ªÙ ®Ý7ßà ŒÙ ªÙÛ « Ý © ­ Nß « ª Ý ®igå ®®Ý ­ Nß « ä ©à ªÙÛn pRÛ ¬Q­ æ øbêPù óz> aªf=Eq{ á ® Û «Ý ã åYÝ © Û © ªP¯­TÛ ¯ä à © ‘Û ­Cª Ý ªqá ‡ ÛWá ­Ü|á © ª®á à Û Ý=ë ª®ÙQä ¯ å ÙzÛ ©Ý ãcÛ ©Ý ©-X j ¯Ùzá å ä ©à ªÙÛ ¬ Û ©à ª®Ù Ý=¸ë «Ý © ­ Nß « ª®ä Ü7Û%[ä ® Ûä © ªÙÛ ëì Ý ® ã Ý=ë á «Ý pä ¬ æmç Ùzbä ¯i¯Ùzá å Û «R® Û#Vá ª®TÛ ¯tá ¯!ª ®®Ý ©à Û ® ãá à © RÛ ªä « zTÛ ¬b­}ªÙzá © [Ùzá ª4 Ý„ß ¬Q­ á ¯ª ® á„ä à Ù ª][ä ® Û æ‘úÝ ã‘Û‘ä © ­ Nß « ª Ý ® ¯]á ® Û ëì Ý ® ã‘TÛ ­C[pä ªÙV[ä ® ۑ Ý7gß © ­ä © á ¯ TÛ ¬ ë ´; ¯ ßååYÝ ® ªä ©à X Û gå ®Ý ­ hß « TÛ ­ X W á ¯ Ý ¬ Qä ­ «Ý ® ÛãVá ª®Û ® ä!á ¬ Ý=ë ¯ Ý ã‘LÛ ª å Û æú Ý ãcRÛ ªä!ã‘TÛ ¯\ª®ÙÛ « Ý ® Û Ý„ë á © «Ý pä ¬ æAû ª®ÙÛ ® ¯] ® á å ªÙzÛ¯[ä ® Û¯á ®®Ý„Nß © ­VZ ä © ­ Nß « ª Ý ® [pä ¬b¬ X Û ¯!ª ® á=ä à nÙ ª â á © ­ Ý ª®ÙÛ ® ªä!ãc‘Û ¯pä ª%[bä ¬p¬ X Û <Ý ä © TÛ ­cä © \á ¬ ݠ݄å [ ¯®~ ß á ® Û â ® Û « ªqá ©à7ß ¬!á ®Nâ Ý ®Y« ä ®O«ß ¬‰á ®b ª ÝCëìß ¬b¬  « Ý © ª®á„ä © ªÙۍãá à © €Û ª®ä « Þ ß æZç Ù‘Û ¯  Û ­TÛ ¯ä à ©ZÝ7å ªä Ý © ¯‘á ¬p¬iÙzá|Ü7ÛXÛ¨PÛ « ª Ý © ª®ÙÛ å Û ®ëìÝ ® ãá ©N« Ûrá © ­ « Ùzá ® á « ªÛ ® Qä ¯!ªä « ¯ Ý=ë ä © ­ Nß « ª Ý ® ¯ æ ç ÙFÛ ¯ « ÙÛ ãVá ª®ä « ¯6ã XpÝ ¬ ëìÝ ® á © ä © ­ Nß « ª Ý ®#â ¬!ä ‡ Û ª®ÙÛ « á å á « Ôä ª Ý ®#â Qä ¯[~ ß pä ªFÛ ¯ ä!ã å ¬!Û â X Û ä ©à ¬ pä ª!ªP¬ Û]ã Ý ® Û ªÙzá © á «Ý bä ¬i¯  ã XYÝ ¬ ® Û gå ® TÛ ¯Û © ª®ä ©à ªÙÛ «Ý pä ¬!TÛ ­[ä ® Û æ  ¬Ôª®Ù ݄ßzà ÙCWá ¯ä ã å ¬!Û « Ý bä ¬M¯ Ùzá å Ûbä ¯ª®ÙÛ à Û © Û ® ä « ¯  ã XYÝ ¬ ëì Ý ® v„ƒ„ü

v„ü7…

Uý l)' u .U$%&ÿþ ž *†+ý[.i&W2 á © Aä © ­ ßN« ª Ý®#â ä © ­ ßN« ª Ý® ¯)[äpªÙ «Ý ® ۑ¯)á ® Ûq¯ Ý ã‘ÛRªä!ãcۑ¯­äb¯!ªä ©à„ß äb¯ÙÛT­ X ª®ÙÛá ­g­äpªä Ý©CÝ=ëå á ® á¬p¬!ÛR¬¬ ä © ۑ¯^ª Ý ªÙzÛá äQ¯ Ý„ë ªÙÛ «Ý äb¬ æ  © Û +Û ® Ü7Û ® ¯ ä Ý©Ý„ë ªÙÛä © ­ ßN« ª Ý® ¯ ã XYÝ ¬i­äQ¯ å Û © ¯TÛ ¯)[Ôä ª®, Ù ª®ÙÛ « Ý bä ¬e¯Ùzá å ÛBä ©ë á|Ü Ý ® Ý=ë ¯Û Ü„Û ® ᬠõ Ù ß ã å ¯ õ ä © á ®®Ý  s Inductor symbols



generic, or air-core

iron core (alternative)

iron core



generic (newer symbol)

 ¯|ªÙzÛrÛT¬ Û « ª ® ä «f«ßN®® Û © ª åN®Ý ­ ßN« ÛT¯cá « Ý©N« Û © ª ® áVª®ÛT­Vãá à © ۀª®ä « zÛR¬Q­á ®Ý7ßg© ­`ªÙzÛ « Ý äb¬ â ª®Ùäb¯ zÛT¬b­ZÞ ß ÛN~ ß áªۑ¯Mª Ý á}¯ª Ý® á à Û Ý=ë Û © Û ®®à  ® Û åN® ۑ¯ Û © ª®ä ©zà ªÙÛ ‡ ä © ÛRªä « ã Ý ª®ä Ý ©Ý=ë ªÙÛWÛR¬!Û « ª ®®Ý© ¯ªÙ ®®Ý„ßà ÙLªÙÛ «Ý äp¬ æ4ç ÙzÛ ã Ý ® Û «gß ®P® Û © ª0ä © ªÙÛ « Ý äb¬ â ªÙÛC¯ª ®Ý ©à Û ® ªÙÛBã‘á à© ÛRªä « zÛT¬b­A[äb¬p¬ X Û â á © ­WªÙzÛBã Ý® Û]Û © Û ®à _ª®ÙÛLä © ­ ßN« ª Ý® [bä ¬p¬½¯!ª Ý ® Û æ I magnetic field

Û « á ß ¯ÛLä © ­ ßN« ªIÝ® ¯\¯ª Ý® Û}ª®ÙÛ ‡ ä © ۀª®ä « Û © Û ®®à  Ý=ë ã Ý Ü ä ©zà ÛR¬!Û « ª ®®Ý© ¯Wä © ªÙzÛ ëìÝ ® ã ݄ë á¯ãá à © ۀª®ä « zÛT¬b­ â ªÙzÛ  X Û Ùzá|Ü7Ûk~ ß pä ªF Û ­ä ¨PÛ ® Û © ª¬!L ªÙzá ©Œ® ÛT¯äQ¯ª Ý® ¯Wg[Ùä « Ù¯ä ã å ¬!_­äQ¯¯ä å áVªÛkÛ © Û ®®à ä © ª®ÙÛ ëìÝ® ã Ý=ë ÙzÛNáVª  ä © á  ¯ª Ý ® á à Û\ä © á © ä © ­ ßN« ª Ý® äQ¯tá ëìßN©N« ª®ä Ý ©LÝ=ë ªÙzÛ%á=ã ݄ßN© ª Ý=ëg«ßg®P® Û © ªªÙ ®®Ý„ßzà Ù]äpª æ  © ä © ­ ßN« ª Ý® ‚ ¯ « ä ®O«ß äpª æ © Û ®à  á X äp¬!äÔª_ ª Ý ¯ª Ý ® ÛWÛ © Û ®®à ¯ á ¯iá ëìNß ©N« ª®ä Ý ©r݄ë «Nß ®® Û © ª ® ‘Û ¯ ß ¬pªP¯iä © |á ª®Û © ­Û ©N« jª Ý ª ® jª Ý ãá„ä © ª®á„ä ©W«ßg®P® Û © ª0áVª[á «Ý © ¯!ª®á © ªM¬!Û Ü„TÛ ¬ æm´ ©‘Ý ªÙzÛ ®  Ý ® ­g¯ â ä © ­ hß « ª Ý ® ¯ª®Û © ­qª  Ý ® TÛ ¯Qä ¯ª) > èê é @ { ä ©j«ßg®P® Û © ª æ TÚÙÛ ©j«ßN®® Û © ªiªÙ ®®Ý„ßzà Ùá © ä © ­ Nß « ª Ý ® bä ¯%ä ©N«R® Û#á ¯TÛ ­ Ý ® ­Û «€® ÛN á ¯ ‘Û ­ â ª®ÙÛ0ä © ­ Nß « ª Ý ®+õ ® TÛ ¯bä ¯!ªP¯ õ ªÙÛc> èê6é @ X  gå ®®Ý ­ Nß « ä ©à ánÜ Ý ¬Ôªqá à Û X €Û ª+Û Û © äpªP¯¬!ÛN á ­g¯iä ©AÝ7ååpÝ ¯ ä ©àcåpÝ ¬!á ® pä ªj ª Ý ª®ÙÛX > èê é @ æ çmÝ ¯!ª Ý ® Ûrã Ý ® ÛÛ © Û ®®à Vä © á © ä © ­ Nß « ª Ý ®#â ªÙzÛ « gß ®P® Û © ªCªÙ ®Ý7ßà Ù1Ôä ª‘ã ß ¯!ª X ÛAä ©N«€® ÛN á ¯ ‘Û ­ æZç ÙQä ¯‘ã‘ÛNá © ¯ ªÙpVá ª‘Ôä ªO¯Bãá à © €Û ª®ä « zRÛ ¬Q­öã ß ¯ª‘ä ©N«€® ÛN á ¯ Ûä © ¯!ª ® Û ©à ªÙ â á © ­ƒª®ÙzVá ª « Ùzá ©à Û¯ä © zTÛ ¬b­x¯!ª ® Û ©zà ªÙ gå ®Ý ­ hß « TÛ ¯|ªÙzÛ « Ý ®® TÛ ¯ åYÝ © ­ä ©à Ü Ý ¬Ôªqá à Û‘á «R« Ý ® ­ä ©zà ª Ý ªÙÛ gå ® ä ©N« ä å ¬!Û Ý=ë TÛ ¬ Û « ª ®®Ý ãá à © RÛ ªä « ¯RÛ ¬ ë ;ªä © ­ Nß « ª®ä Ý ©- æ  Ý © Ü„Û ® ¯RÛ ¬! â ª Ý Û ­Û «€® ÛN á ¯ ‘Û ­ æAç Ùbä ¯LãcÛ#á © ¯}ªÙzá ª}ªÙzÛ ® RÛ ¬!ÛNá ¯Û‘Û © Û ®à  ë ®®Ý ã á © ä © ­ Nß « ª Ý ®#â ªÙÛ « gß ®P® Û © ªFª®Ù ®®Ý„ßà Ù¬pä ªBã ß ¯ª X f ä © ­ Nß « ª Ý ® ‚ ¯ãá à © RÛ ªä « pRÛ ¬Q­Xã ß ¯ª^­Û «€® ÛN á ¯ Ûkä © ¯!ª ® Û ©à ªÙ â á © ­_ª®ÙzVá ª « Ùzá ©à Ûkä © zTÛ ¬b­W¯!ª ® Û ©à ªÙ ¯ TÛ ¬ ë ;ªä © ­ Nß « ‘Û ¯iá Ü Ý ¬Ôªqá à Û ­ ®®Ý„åÝ=ëp<ß ¯!ª^ªÙÛ Ý7ååYÝ ¯Ôä ª®Û åYÝ ¬‰á ® pä ª æ ÷7ß ¯ªL á ¯  ¯®á„á «¥ Û  ª Ý © ‚ ¯k ® ¯ª î á| Ý=ë  Ý ªä Ý ©  õ á ©¬ Ý X< Û « ª]ä © ã Ý ª®ä Ý © ª®Û © ­N¯ª Ý ¯ªqá|oä © ã Ý ª®ä Ý © á © Û ªÛ © ­Û ©h«  Ý=ë áBã‘ á ¯¯ª Ý݄ååYÝ ¯Û « Ùzá ©à ‘Û ¯\ä © ܄TÛ ¬ Ý « Ôä ª â Ý X< Û « ªiVá ª ® ‘Û ¯ªIªÛ © ­g¯ª Ý ¯!ª®á|‘Vá ª ® ‘Û ¯ª õ7 ­TÛ ¯ «€® ä X TÛ ¯ªÙ +Û « á © ¯!ª®á ªÛVá © ä © ­ Nß « ª Ý ® ‚ ¯fªÛ © ­Û ©h« Ž  ª Ý1Ý7ååpÝ ¯ Û « Ùzá ©à ‘Û ¯¯ä © « gß ®® Û © ªAá ¯¯ hß « Ù s1õ ¬!Û « ª ® Ý © ¯¯ã Ý Ü ä ©à

þ ž þ  '[†W$W.4* ým*$,n2')†«*†+ý[.p')†ýU$ v„üzŒ ªÙ ®Ý7ßà Ùá © ä © ­ ßN« ª Ý® ªÛ © ­ª Ý ¯!ª®á|Aä © ã Ý ªä Ý© ÛT¬ Û « ª ®Ý © ¯)᪠® ÛT¯!ªWä © á © ä © ­ ßN« ª Ý® ªÛ © ­ª Ý ¯ªqá|A᪠® ÛT¯!ª æ õ 0 åYÝ ª®Ù€Û ª®ä « á¬b¬  â á © ä © ­ ßN« ª Ý ® ¬!Û ë ªF¯Ù Ý® ª ; « ä ®P« ß äpªÛT­o[äp¬b¬mãá„ä © ª®á„ä © á « Ý© ¯!ª®á © ª ® áªÛ Ý=Ië « ßg®® Û © ªªÙ ®®Ý„ßà Ùoäpª [pä ªÙ ©Ý Ût ªÛ ®© á¬-á¯P¯äb¯!ª®á ©N« Û s

  current sustained with

the inductor short-circuited

® á « ªä « á¬p¬!_¯ å ÛNá ‡ ä ©àpâ Ù Ý +Û Ü7Û ®#â ªÙÛBá X äb¬ äpª ëìÝ ® á © ä © ­ ßN« ª Ý ® ª Ý ¯ÛR¬ ë ;´¯ ß ¯!ª®á„ä ©Z« ßg®® Û © ª[äQ¯ ® ÛNá¬!ä Ž ÛT­ Ý© ¬  [äpªٌ¯ ßå Û ®O«Ý © ­ ßN« ªä!܄Û)[ä ® Û â á¯YªÙÛk[ä ® Û ® ÛT¯äQ¯ªqá ©N« Û)ä © á ©  ©Ý® ãá¬Yä © ­ ßN« ª Ý® äb¯+Û ©݄ßà Ùjª ÝC« á ß ¯ Û «ßg®P® Û © ª ª Ý ­Û « á|¯Ü7Û ® X~ ß ä «q‡ ¬![äpªÙ ©Ý Û tª®Û ®P© á¬{¯ ݄ßg®O« Û Ý=ëUåYÝ Û ®Næ TÚÙÛ © ª®ÙÛ «Nß ®® Û © ª ªÙ ®®Ý„ßzà ÙAá © ä © ­ Nß « ª Ý ® Qä ¯[ä ©N«€® ÛN á ¯ ۑ­ â äÔª­ ®Ý7å ¯[ácÜ Ý ¬pª®á à Û Ý„åzåpÝ ¯ ä ©à ªÙÛ}­ä ® Û « ªä Ý©Ý=ë RÛ ¬!Û « ª ®®Ý © Þ Ý  â á « ªä ©à á ¯)á åYÝ +Û ® ¬ Ý á ­ æ´ © ªÙQä ¯ « Ý © ­pä ªä Ý © ªÙzÛ]ä © ­ ßN« ª Ý® äQ¯^¯®á=äQ­fª ÝX Ûr> è=Eé„}eê6é„âX Û « á ß ¯Û ªÙzÛ ® Û]bä ¯Wá © ä ©h«€® ÛNá ¯ä ©à á=ã ݄Nß © ª ݄ë Û © Û ®®à  X ÛNä ©zà ¯ª Ý ® TÛ ­rä © pä ªP¯)ãá à© ۀªä « zÛT¬b­ æ[¥)Ý ªÛ\ª®ÙÛ åYÝ ¬‰á ® äÔª Ý=ë ªÙzÛ Ü Ý ¬Ôªqá à ÛW[pä ªÙ ® Û à á ® ­_ª Ý ªÙz}Û ­ä ® Û « ªä Ý ©Ý=Më «gß ®P® Û © ª s

Energy being absorbed by the inductor from the rest of the circuit. ...

increasing current

. . . to the rest of the circuit ... increasing current 

+ 

voltage drop

-

The inductor acts as a LOAD

Ý© Ü7Û ® ¯ ÛT¬  â [ÙÛ © ª®ÙÛ « ßg®® Û © ªFª®Ù ®Ý7ßà Ù`ª®ÙÛXä © ­ ßN« ª Ý ® äb¯q­Û «R® Û#á¯ÛT­ â äÔªL­ ®®Ý„å ¯LáAÜ Ý ¬pª®á à Ûá=äQ­ä ©à ªÙzÛ ­ä ® Û « ª®ä Ý ©ZÝ=ë ÛT¬ Û « ª ®Ý © Þ Ý  â á « ªä ©à á ¯Bá åpÝ +Û ® ¯ Ý7ßg®O« Û æC´© ª®Ùäb¯ « Ý© ­äpªä Ý© ªÙÛä © ­ ßN« ª Ý® äQ¯q¯®á=äQ­ƒª ÝX Û ù}‰{ > è=Eé=}eê é=âBX Û « á ß ¯ ÛkäpªP¯¯ª Ý® Û Ý„ë Û © Û ®®à ¯äQ¯­Û «€® ÛNá¯ä ©à á ¯iäÔª ® ÛR¬!ÛNá ¯ ۑ¯+Û © Û ®à  돮Ý ãïäpªP¯[ãá à © ۀª®ä « zÛT¬b­Œª Ý ªÙzÛ ® ۑ¯ª Ý=ë ª ÙzÛ « ä ®P « ß äÔª æ\¥0Ý ®ª Û\ªÙÛ åYÝ ¬‰á ® äpª Ý=ë ªÙÛ]Ü Ý ¬pª®á à ÛW[äpªÙ ® Û à á ® ­jª Ý ª®ÙÛ}­ä ® Û « ªä Ý©A݄ë«ßN®® Û © ª æ

v„ü6

ýUl)' u .U$%&ÿþ ž *†+ý[.i&W2 Energy being released by the inductor to the rest of the circuit. ...

decreasing current

. . . to the rest of the circuit



voltage drop

+

... decreasing current inductor acts as a SOURCE ªë áj¯ Ý7ßgThe ®O« Û Ý=ë RÛ ¬!Û « ª ® ä «nåYÝ +Û ® Qä ¯^¯ ß ­g­Û © ¬#"Aá åzå ¬ ä!ÛT­Œª Ý á ©Aßg© ãá à© ÛRªä Ž ÛT­Aä © ­ ßh« ª Ý ®Nâ ªÙÛLä © ­ ßh« ª Ý ® [äb¬p¬ ä © äÔª®ä!á ¬p¬$" ® ÛT¯äQ¯ªª®ÙÛ]Þ Ý  Ý=ë ÛR¬!Û « ª ®Ý © ¯ X "Œ­ ®Ý7åå ä ©à ªÙÛ ëìß ¬p¬-Ü Ý ¬pª®á à Û Ý=ë ªÙÛq¯ Ý7ßg®P« Û æ&% ¯ «ßN®® Û © ª X Û à ä © ¯ ª Ý ä ©N«€® ÛNá ¯ Û â áf¯!ª ®®Ý©zà Û ® á © ­Z¯!ª ®®Ý©à Û ® ãá à© ÛRªä «' ÛT¬b­[äb¬b¬ X Û «R® Û#áVªۑ­ â á X ¯ Ý®X ä ©à Û © Û ®à " 돮®Ý ãЪÙzÛq¯ ݄ßg®O« Û æ

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ËnšÌ ] ^-ÐT_oØAÓ+Ñ `Aa*b ÎLÐT_SÓ[ÎEcÓ0ØcNØTb !´© ­ h ß « ª Ý ® ¯­ ÝW©Ý ªnÙzá|Ü7ÛáW¯ªqá X ¬!Û õ® ۑ¯ äQ¯!ª®á ©h« Û õ ᯠ«Ý© ­ ßN« ª Ý® ¯­ Ýzæ  Ý +Û Ü7Û ®#â ª®ÙÛ ® Ûcäb¯náW­Û 'N© äÔª®ÛãáVª®ÙÛ 7 ãVá ª®ä « á ¬ ® RÛ ¬‰Vá ªä Ý © ¯ Ùä kå X RÛ ªÛNÛ © Ü Ý ¬pª®á à Ûná © ­ « ßg®® Û © ª ëìÝ® á © ä © ­ ßh« ª Ý ®Nâ á ¯ ëìÝ ¬b¬ Ý ^¯ s "Ohm’s Law" for an inductor

¡

¡dt

ev = f L di d

Where, e v = Instantaneous voltage across the inductor

¡diL = Inductance in Henrys

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ý9ySzVN9{/Oÿþ žML-| +ýNPORQ Voltmeter (zero-center)

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A

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Inductor  current IL …

Time

Potentiometer wiper not moving

Inductor † voltage ‡

EL …

Time

ªë  Û]ã Ý Ü„Ûª®ÙÛ åpÝ ªÛ © ª®ä Ý ã‘Û€ªÛ ® [ä å Û ® ¯!¬ Ý ¬$"¯ä © ª®ÙÛ õ=ßzåzõ ­ä ® Û « ªä Ý©tâ äÔªO¯ ® ÛT¯äb¯!ª®á ©N« Û ë®®Ý ã Û © ­Œª Ý Û © ­ [äb¬p¬¯¬ Ý ¬$"­Û «€® ÛNá ¯ Û ætç ÙäQ¯tÙp᯽ªÙÛ+Û4ˆPÛ « ª Ý=ë ä ©N«R® Û#á¯ä ©zà«ßg®P® Û © ªtä © ªÙzÛ « ä ®O«ß äpª â ¯ Ý ª®ÙÛá„ãcã‘ÛRªÛ ® ä © ­ä « áVª®ä Ý © ¯Ù Ý„ß ¬Q­ X Û]ä ©N«€® ÛN á ¯ ä ©à áVª)áL¯¬ Ý  ® áªÛ p !

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Potentiometer wiper moving slowly in the "up" direction †

‹

+

Steady voltage

-

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air core (permeability = 1)

soft iron core (permeability = 600)

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For resistor-capacitor circuits:

Ú τ = RC

For resistor-inductor circuits: f

Ú τ = L R §¨’–[ær˜$ç|–›” â2㠙Δ è$è ‘ *™ ä}$˜ æä  ˜#娕³” èÀ –wçç  äy’´”稕,‘ è år”,œ,–˜ â ä  æ:ær– â 奘 â ær–>ç|—g‘ â ç|–år‘ ”Aåær” â çR˜©– â 奘éç;ž”稤^”ç ª – â å|˜©‘ ⠖ ã0a –}™µ‘æ|–ž1”uç " ª €— årC‘ år$˜ ä,š«¬^–]˜ ⠜„çR‘gžå|’–²•³” 詐 –>ç a –;œ,˜ â år‘Aæy” —)˜ ã€è$" äy’)” ⠜,–ç|‘‘ ⠔³™8å|–>æ/år’–Vå:æy” â ç|˜©– â å ” â‚ã ç|–4å:å è – 㠑³¤ ⠑³•6– æVå|˜ ª –,j š !p™w— è u‘ åqå|– 㠑 ⠔Tœær”,—’ež år’–0” ——2æ|‘”uäy’år‘år’–k' ⠔ è •³” 詐 –>粑,™^•‘ è år” œ–°” â2ã ä  æ:ær– â 娙µ‘uæ ª – ( —~‘ ⠖ â å|˜¾” è ä  æ|•>– ç]š %礨”uç[çqår”)år– ãJa –;™µu‘ ær–,že‘ â A – å|˜ ª j – ä;‘ â çqår” â å²é˜ çVå|’–'” ª ‘ ,â å‘,™/å|˜ ª –'˜×å[åy” s –w箙µ‘u曔 â" ‘ ™0å|’–wçR–•³” 詐 –>ç å|‘räy’)” ⠜,–6” a ‘  儙 x —g>– æä;– â åm™ ær‘ ª år’–;$˜ æ„çqåru” æqår˜ ⠜†•³” 詐 >– çXå|i ‘ å|’–]#˜ æ ¢µ, è å|˜ ª )” år–`E ¦ ' ⠔ è •³” 詐 –>ç]šJÈ)‘u氖;•,–>æ " å|˜ ª –ä}‘ â ç-åy” â å]/ ž å|’w– çR–·•³” èÀ w– ç ª ‘³•,– ¢ ” —),— æ|‘ ( ˜ ª )” å|– è#" A ¦ ™ x —g>– æä;– â å;ä è ‘ ç|6– æ„år? ‘ år’–;$˜ æ'–;•– â å  ” è œ,‘” è š[§¨’)– œ å|’–›2— æ|w– ä}é˜ çR–²—~6– æ ä}– â åy” œ,–²é˜ ç h ט årE – çR˜ ª — è u– p ª )” år’– ª )” år$˜ ä]” è ™µ‘ æ ª , è ”°™µ‘ æ ã 4– år6– æ ª ˜ ⠘ ⠄ 1 Û Üet/τ x 100% §¨’– è –4åqår–6æ 5 çqår” â2ã 癵‘æ‹b ,è –6æ ‚ çä;‘ â çqår” â å]že¤¥’˜éäy’Ö˜$盔,——,ær‘ ( ˜ ª ”)år– è$" ¡1š œ § ƒ¡=ƒ § ƒšX!B岘éç 㠖>æ|˜©•,– 㠙mær‘ ª ä;” è ä ,詐 ç.år–>äy’ ⠘ h –wç;ž{”³™8år–6æ ª ”)år’– ª ”)år˜$ä]” è$è#" ” ⠔ è$" ~;˜ ⠜jå|’)–”ç " ª —€å|‘uå|˜é䝔,——,ær‘”uäy’·‘,™&å|’)–„ä;˜#æ ä  ˜#宕³” èÀ –wç;š %¥™8år–6楑 ⠖år˜ ª –Eä;‘ â çqår” â å ‚ çw¤^‘uæ:å|’6‘,™år˜ ª –, ž år’–›—~–6æ ä}– â åy” œ,–®‘ ™9äy’)” ⠜–“™mær‘ ª çqår”uæqår˜ ⠜•³” 詐 –Vå|‘„' ⠔ è •4” èÀ – Percentage of change = 1 -

˜éç6p

1 Û Üe1 x 100% = 63.212% %¥™8år–6æ[åO¤^‘¦å|˜ ª –Ÿä;‘ â çqår” â å ‚ 箤^‘uæ:å|’J‘ ™Ñå|˜ ª –,žår’– —g–>æä;– â rå ”,œ,–‘ ™Päy’)” â œ –™mæ|‘ ª ³• ” 詐 –²$˜ ç>p 1-

ç-åy”Cæ:å|˜ â

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1

Üe2 x 100% = 86.466% %¥™8år–6æår– â å|˜ ª E – ä}‘ â ç-åy” â å ‚ ç^¤w‘æqår’T‘,™’år˜ ª –ž€å|’–›—~–6æ ä}– â rå ” œ–®˜éç>p 1-

1

Üe10 x 100% = 99.995% §¨’– ª ‘ æ|–å|˜ ª –Rår’)”)娗)”ç:ç|–>ç0çR˜ â ä}–Rå|’)–åær” â çR˜©– â 娔 —— è ˜éä;”)år˜À‘ ⠑ ™¯•,‘ è år”,œ,–¥™mær‘ ª år’– a ”)å:å|–6æ " žår’– è ”Cærœ,–>æ å|’)–®•³” 詐 –®‘  ™ å|’)– 㠖 ⠑ ª ˜ ⠔)år‘uæN˜ â år’–“™mæy”uä4å|˜©‘ ⠞¤¥’˜éäy’ ª ” s –>çt™µ‘æ^”Aç ª ” è#è –6æw•4” èÀ –“™µ‘uæ/å|’–¤¥’‘ è –Ž™mær”äZå|˜©‘ ⠞ ¤¥’˜éäy’ ª ” s w– çN™µ‘ 擔uœ æy” â2ã å|u‘ år” èqq¢ § ª ˜ ␠çÑår’–²™mær”äZår˜À‘ â ¦^” ——,ær‘”äy’˜ ⠜ § ž1‘uæ § }u}°—g–>æä;– â å]š + –Tä]” â ª ” s –·” ª u‘ ær– 2  ⠘À•6– æ ç|” è ™µu‘ æ ª , è ”­‘  å'‘ ™Vå|’˜éç ‘ ⠖T™µ‘ækå|’– 㠖6å|–>æ ª ˜ ⠔)år˜À‘ ⠑,™•‘ è år” œ–T” â2ã a " ª , è å|˜©— è#" ˜ ⠜kå|’)˜$ç h ” â å|˜#å "0a" å|’)– 㠘 ˆ –6ær– â ä}– a –6åO¤w–]– â å|’)–[' ⠔ è ä  æ:ær– â 奕³” 詐 –>稘 â å:æy” â ç|˜À– â åä;˜#æ ä  ˜×å ç;ž  ” â‚ã çqåru” æqår˜ â j œ ä;#˜ æ ä  #˜ 哕³” 詐 >– ç>p 1-

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Universal Time Constant Formula

ÞChange = Ý(Final-Start)

1-

1

áet/τ

Where,

ßFinal = Value of calculated variable after infinite time (its ultimate value)

àStart = Initial value of calculated variable áe = Euler’s number ( 2.7182818) ât = Time in seconds ãτ = Time constant for circuit in seconds Áe–6]å ä ² ç ” ⠔ èÀå ~;–Aå|’)–•‘ è år”,œ,–Xær˜éçR–‘ â å|’–jç|–6ær˜À–wçRær–>ç|˜éç-år‘uæ|æBä]” —)”ä}˜#å|‘uæRä}˜$æä  ˜×åç|’‘³¤ â C” åVår’– å|’)–Eäy’)” —€år–6æ`š

Switch

a –]œ,˜ â,⠘ ⠜´‘ ™

R 10 kΩ

15 V

C

100 µF

 ‘uå|–å|’)”Cå^¤^–,ä æ|–Väy’‘‘ç|˜ ⠜Eå|‘” ⠔ Àè å ~]–Ž•,‘ è åy” œ– a –wä;”  çR–å|’)”Cå^˜éç0å|’–²ç  ” â år˜×å å ä;”,—)”uä;˜×år‘uæ ç*år– â2ã å|‘°’‘ èéã ä}‘ â çqår” â å`šè è år’‘  œ’Xår’–¥™µ‘æ ª ,è ”®¤^‘uæréç«ç  ˜#å|–¥¤^– è$è ™µ‘uæ&ä  ææ|– â å`ž)å|’)–.ç-åy”Cæ:å|˜ ⠜›” â2ã°ê2⠔ è •³” 詐 –>站µ‘æ&ä  æær– â å C” ær–0”uä4å  ” è#è©å?㠖6ær˜À•– 㠙mæ|‘ ª år’–;ä]” —)”ä}˜#å|‘uæ`ä 粕,‘ è år”,œ,–ž’ç|‘ä;” è ä 2è ”Cå|˜ ⠜·•,‘ è åy” œ,– ˜é睔 ª ‘æ|– 㠘$ær–>äZå ª –6å|’‘ 㠚 §¨’–A|æ –wçR˜éç-åy” â ä;–›˜$ç § }0é  ž"” â‚ã å|’–„ä;”,—)”uä;˜×åy” â ä;–‹˜$ç § }} Õ È ¢ ª ˜$ä6æ|‘,™Î”Cæy” ã çy¦$šŽÉ1˜ â ä;–Eår’–Eår˜ ª –kä}‘ â ç-åy” â å ¢µÙ ¦ ™µ‘u“æ ” â ¿“Ç }ä ˜$æä  ˜#¨å ˜éçPrå ’–›—,ræ ‘ 㠐 äZ契 ™9ær–>ç|˜$çqår” â ä}–²” â2ã ä]” —)”ä}˜#år” â ä}–,ž¤^–²‘ a åy” ˜ ⠔•³” 詐 –²‘ ™ § çR–wä}‘ â2ã{ë

Ú τ = RC

Ú τ = (10 kΩ)(100 µF) Ú τ = 1 second

å 㠘éçäy’)”Cærœ,– ã ç-åy”)år– ¢ }²•,‘ è å çr¦}žå|’– â ¤^–ä;” Ⱀ ç|–Ñå|’)”Cåt•4” èÀ –¥‘ ™g•‘ è år”,œ,– ìp2™ år’.– ä;”,—)”uä;˜×år‘uæ9ç-åy”Cæ:å竘 ⠔Rår‘Cår” è#è©X ™µ‘uæt”¶uçqår”uæqår˜ ⠜¶“•³” 詐 –š¯§¨’– ê2⠔ è •4” èÀ –,ž ‘,™‚ä}‘  æç|–,ž³¤¥˜ è$è1a –Ñå|’)– a ”)åqår–6æ å •,‘ è åy” œ,– ¢-§ ŠŽ•,‘ è å çr¦}št±  æ ,⠘À•–6æ ç|” è ™µu‘ æ ª 2 è ”°™µu‘ æ.ä]” —)”ä}˜#å|‘æ^•‘ è år”,œ,–˜ â å|’)˜$çä;˜#æ ä  ˜#å è ‘‘é€ç è ˜©é,–Vå|’)˜$ç ë

¼«í®îŽïð«ñNòó¸ ¹ ò›¼uîŽô®ºiõ òöð÷OĆñϼ ½ ô®øeðgîŽôðtø

Î § ™

Change = (Final-Start) Change = (15 V - 0 V) É‘gž~” ™8å|–6æXœ1š ¡ŠjçR–wä}‘ ’)”4•–®˜ â ä4ær–]”çR– ã6aå"ë

1

Üet/τ 1

1-

â2ã 瓑,™w” —)— èÀå ˜ â

Change = (15 V - 0 V) 

1-

1-

et/1

œ0•‘ è år” œ–å|’2æ|‘  œ,’år’–kä è ‘ç|– ã |ç ¤¥˜×å äy’ež"‘  æVä;”,—)”uä;˜×år‘u掕‘ è år”,œ,–‹¤¥˜ è#è 1

Üe7.25/1

Change = (15 V - 0 V)(0.99929)

Change = 14.989 V ɘ â ä}–'¤^–Ÿçqår”Cæ:å|– 㠔C坔ä;”,—)”uä;˜×år‘u曕,‘ è åy” œ–°‘,™P}ˆ•‘ è åç]žå|’)˜$盘 â ä6æ|–`”uç|–‘,™ § Î)š ù„ƒù6•‘ è åç ª –]” â ç[å|’g”)勤^– ’)”4•– § Î)š „ù ƒ,ù°•,‘ è å 稔³8™ å|>– æVœš ¡uŠAç|>– ä}‘ â2ã ç]š §¨’; – çr” ª – ™µ‘ æ ª , è ”ˆ¤¥˜ è$è ¤^u‘ ær醙µu‘ æ 㠖4år–6æ ª ˜ ⠘ ⠜ä  æ:ær– â 坘 â å|’g”)åAä;˜#æ ä  ˜#å]ž år‘‘gš†É˜ â ä}–0¤^–0é ⠑³¤ å|’)”Cå ” ã $˜ çäy’)u” æ|œ– ã ä]” —)” ä}#˜ å|u‘ 殘 â ט år˜©” è#è©å u” ä4åç è ˜À閏¦ ” çR’)‘uæ:åRæ\ä}˜$æä  ˜×å`žÈå|’–jçqår”Cæ:å|˜ ⠜¦ä  ææ|– â 夥˜ è#èta –Aå|’– ª ”³ú1˜ ª  ª ë § Š6•,‘ è å ç ¢ m™ ær‘ ª år’– a )” å:å|>– æ å ¦ 㠘©•˜ 㠖 ã­aå§ }6é û¢ å|’–'‘ â,è©å ‘,——~‘ç|˜×år˜À‘ â år‘ä  ææ|– â å˜ ⠔ ª ‘ , â 岗~‘ çç|˜ ,a è – „ å|’)E – ä}$˜ æä  ט åŽC” åPå|’– a –;œ˜ â,⠘ ⠜¦ ë Starting current =

15 V 10 kΩ

Starting current = 1.5 mA

ü֖®” è ç|‘‹é ⠑³¤˜å|’)”Cå0år’– 2ê ⠔ è ä  ææ|– â åw¤¥˜ è#è~a –V~;–>æ|‘gžç|˜ â ä}–.år’–[ä;” —g”uä}˜#å|‘æq¤¥˜ è#è –;•– â å  ” è#è©å a –]’)”4•,–®”uçN” ⠑,—~– â Bæ ä;#˜ æ ä  ˜#å]ž ª –`” ⠘ ⠜kår’)”)哖]•,– â å  ” è$èÀå;⠑'– è –>ä4å:ær‘ â 祤¥˜ è$è{ý ‘³¤c˜ â å|’)–Xä}˜$æä  ˜#å]š  ‘³¤ år’)”)哤^–›é ⠑³¤ a ‘Cår’ å|’) – ç-åyC” æ:å|˜ ⠜›” â2ã°ê2⠔ è ä  æ:ær– â åq•³” 詐 –wç;ž ¤^–.ä;” ⠐ çR–¥‘  æ ,⠘À•–6æ ç|” è ™µ‘uæ ª ,è ”Rå|‘ 㠖6å|–6æ ª ˜ ⠖På|’–ä  ææ|– â åq” ™8å|–6æ œš ¡uŠAç|>– ä}‘ â2ã 稑,™9ç|¤¥˜×å äy’¦ä è ‘ç  æ|–˜ â år’–Eç|” ª –²¿“Ç ä}˜$æä  ˜#å ë 

Change = (0 mA - 1.5 mA) 1 -

1

Üe7.25/1

Change = (0 mA - 1.5 mA)(0.99929)

Change = - 1.4989 mA  u‘ å|V – å|’g)” åå|’)– ê œ  ær–²‘ a åy” ˜ ⠖ 㠙µ‘uæ.äy’)” ⠜,–˜éç ⠖;œ”)å|˜©•,–ž ⠑C套~‘ç|˜×år˜À•– Ë §¨’˜éçPå|– è#è ç  çÑår’)”)åä  æ:ær– â 奒)”ç Ø,þyÿ|þyŸ ;þyØ æy)” år’6– æår’)” ⠘ â ä6æ|–`u” ç|– ã ¤¥˜×år’Tå|’–—)”uçç|”,œ,–²‘ ™9år˜ ª –,š“ɘ â ä;–‹¤w–Aç-åy”Cæ:å|– 㠔C宔Ÿä  æ:ær– â 哑 ™ § š Š ª 苞 å|’)$˜ ç ã >– ä4ær–]” çR– ¢ æ § š Î7ù ƒ,ù ª è¦ ª –]” â çÑå|’)”C哤w–²’)”4•–V})š }} § }u™Š ª è ¢-§ š }u™Š  讦¨”³™8år–6æRœ1š ¡ŠAç|–>ä;‘ â2ã ç;š üÖ? – ä}‘ , èé㠒)”4•,–†” è ç|‘ ã 6– å|6– æ ª ˜ ⠖ ã år’? – ä;#˜ æ ä  #˜ åä  æ:ær– â åT”CåŸå|˜ ª – ƒ œ1š ¡ŠMçR–wä}‘ â2ã ç aå ç )a å:æy”uä4å|˜ ⠜Må|’)– ä;”,—)u” ä;ט åru‘ æ`ä ç•‘ è år” œ– q¢ § Îgš 7ù ƒ,ùT•,‘ è åçy¦Žm™ æ|‘ ª år’– a )” å:å|>– æ å ä 粕,‘ è år”,œ,– ¢-§ Š´•,‘ è åçy¦å|‘·‘ a år”,˜ â å|’–6•,‘ è år”,œ,– ã ær‘,—

¸ ¹ Ú ¹hËw½ õeðgî Ì ñ[î®ôŽºÍ¼»¯ò“ò“ñwô°ðc¼«îŽõ^¼»¯õî“ð÷ ½ ôø

Î § œ

u” ä6æ|‘ ç:çå|’)– § }6é  æ|–wçR˜éç-år‘uæ`žÈå|’– âJê œ  ær˜ â ¦ œ ä  æ:ær– â åVå|’,ær‘  œ,’år’–kæ|–wçR˜éçqå|‘uæ ¢ ” â2ã |å ’–'¤¥’‘ è k – ç|–6ær˜À–wçVä;˜#æ ä  ˜×å$¦ ¤¥˜#å|’­±®’ ª ä ç¥Á¯”4¤ ¢ ì ƒ b ³¿®¦$šbq˜#å|’)–6楤¨” å ž1^¤ –[ç|’‘ ,è$㠑 a år” ˜ â å|’–Eçr” ª –›” â çR^¤ –6æ ë ‡

š

I=

E R

I=

15 V - 14.989 V 10 kΩ

I = 1.065 µA

§¨’– , ⠘©•,–6æ çr” è år˜ ª –[ä}‘ â ç-åy” â åq™µ‘uæ ª 2 è ”‹” è ç|‘‹¤^‘uæré€çt¤w– è#è ™µ‘uæ^” ⠔ Àè å ]~ ˜ ⠜˜ â2㐠äZår˜À•–Rä}˜$æ ä  ˜#åç]šÁ–4å`ä ç^” —— Àè å ˜#åå|‘ ‘  æ¥;– ú” ª — è –²Á³¿Ìä}˜$æ ä  ˜#奘 â å|’)– a –]œ,˜ â,⠘ ⠜'‘ ™’å|’–Eäy’)”,—€å|–>æ ë R

Switch

1Ω 15 V

L

üH˜#|å ’£” â ç|–>ä}‘ â2ã{ë Úτ = Úτ =

˜ â2ã1 ä4år” â ä}–'‘ ™ §

’– â æ å ”

1H

â2ã  ” ç|–6ær˜À–wç[æ|–wçR˜éç-åy” â ä;– ‘ ™ §6

ž‘  æ[å|˜ ª –ä}‘ â ç-åy” â 囘$盖`ç  ” è år‘ §

L R 1H 1Ω

Ú τ = 1 second ¬^–>ä]”  ç|–.år’˜$稘é祔 ⠘ â2ã1 ä4å|˜©•,–ä}˜$æä  ˜#å]ž” â‚ã ¤^–é ⠑³¤òå|’)”C娘 â2ã1 äZå|‘æç^‘——g‘çR–[äy’)” ⠜,–˜ â ä  æ:ær– â å]ž¤^–,ä è#è ç|–4å  —6‘  æ/år˜ ª [ – ä}‘ â ç-åy” â åN™µ‘æ ª ,è ”›™µ‘uæPç-åy”Cæ:å|˜ ⠜°” â2ã ê2⠔ è •4” èÀ –>çw‘ ™ä  æ:ær– â å]šìp™¤^–Rçqår”uæqå^¤¥˜×år’Ÿå|’)–Vç|¤¥˜×å äy’ ˜ â å|’)–‘,—~– ⠗g‘ çR#˜ å|˜©‘ ⠂ž år’–Aä  ææ|– â 夥˜ è$èa ––]ç  ” è år‘;~;–>æ|‘gžÈç|‘;~]–6ær‘0˜é玑  æVçqår”uæqår˜ ⠜;ä  æær– â 宕³” 詐 –š蓙8å|–6æ å|’)–ŸçR¤¥#˜ åäy’Ö’)u” ç a –;– ârè –}™8åXä è ‘çR– 㠙µ‘拔 è ‘ ⠜;år˜ ª –,žå|’–Ÿä  ææ|– â 岤¥˜ è#è ç|–4å:å è –'‘  å[å|‘ˆ˜#åç ê2⠔ è •³” 詐 –,ž¯–]ç  ” è å|„ ‘ år’ – çR‘  æä;–Ž•‘ è år” œ– 㠘©•˜ 㠖 ãTaå å|’V – å|‘uår” è ä}˜$æä  ˜×åPær–>ç|˜$çqår” â ä}– ¢ ì ƒ b³¿Ž¦}ž‘æ § Š°” ª —2ç^˜ â å|’)–[ä]”uç|–®‘,™år’˜$ç ä}$˜ æ ä  #˜ å]š ìp™e¤^– ã >– ç|$˜ æ|– ã å|‘ ã 4– å|>– æ ª ˜ â – år’–Ž•³” 詐 –®‘ ™ ä  æ:ær– â åN)” åš Šç|>– ä}‘ â2ã ç]ž,¤^–Ž¤^‘ , èé㠔 —)— èÀå å|’)– ,⠘©•,–>æçr” è å|˜ ª –  è ” u” çPç  äy’ ë ä}‘ â çqår” â 娙µu‘ æ ª 2

Î §

ƒ

¼«í®îŽïð«ñNòó¸ ¹ ò›¼uîŽô®ºiõ òöð÷OĆñϼ ½ ô®øeðgîŽôðtø Change = (15 A - 0 A)

1-

1

Üe3.5/1

Change = (15 A - 0 A)(0.9698)

Change = 14.547 A ͘©•,– â å|’)–'™Î”uä4åå|’)”C勑  æXçqår”uæqår˜ ⠜Tä  ææ|– â 囤¨”uç[~]–6ær‘)žår’˜éç è –`”4•,–wç  狔)勔ä;˜#æ ä  ˜#åXä  æ:ær– â 囑 ™ § Îgš ŠCÎœ ” ª —2ç¥C” å š ŠXç|>– ä;‘ â2ã ç;ä år˜ ª –,š  4– å|>– æ ª ˜ ⠘ ⠜ •,‘ è år”,œ,–˜ ⠔ ⠘ â2ã1 ä4å|˜©•,–Eä;˜#æ ä  ˜#哘éç a –wç-厔ä6ä}‘ ª — è ˜éç|’– ãTaå'ê æ ç-å ê œ  ær˜ ⠜kä}˜$æ ä  ˜#åä  æær– â å ” â‚ã å|’)– â ä]” è ä , è )” år˜ ⠜•,‘ è åy” œ– ã ær‘,2— çw”uä4ær‘çç&ær–>ç|˜éç-åy” â ä;–>ç*år‘ ê‚â2ã ¤¥’)”Cå]ä ç è –;™8å0år‘ ã ær‘,—´”uä4ær‘çç9år’–®˜ â2ã1 äZå|‘æ]š üH#˜ å|’ˆ‘ â,è©å ‘ â [ – æ|w– çRé˜ çqå|u‘ 樘 ⠑  楖;ú1” ª — è  – ä;#˜ æ ä  #˜ å ¢ ’)”4•˜ ⠜'”•4” èÀ –›‘ ™ §‹ ¦}ž€å|’˜é祘éçæy”)å|’)–6樖]”ç å"ë ‡ ‡

ER = (14.547 A)(1 Ω) E = 14.547 V

É  Ra å:æy”uäZår– 㠙mær‘ ª ‘  æ a C” åqår–6æ å •,‘ è åy” œ–‘,™ § Š´•,‘ è å ç;žå|’˜éç è ]– ”4•–>ç}š Ί ´•,‘ è å盔ä4ær‘ççVå|’–6˜ â2㐠äZår‘u杔Cå å|˜ ª – ƒ )š Š„ç|–>ä}‘ â2ã ç]š ‡ ‡

EL = Ebattery - ER ‡

EL = 15 V - 14.547 V EL = 0.453 V

ì  Rí· Rµ ì ñ â

˜©•,–>æçr” è ¨§ ˜ ª –°Çw‘ â çqår” â å“È‘æ ª ,è ” ë

Universal Time Constant Formula

ÞChange = Ý(Final-Start)

1-

1

áet/τ

Where,

ì

ì

Final = Value of calculated variable after infinite time (its ultimate value)

àStart = Initial value of calculated variable áe = Euler’s number ( 2.7182818) ât = Time in seconds ãτ = Time constant for circuit in seconds §‘'” ⠔ è©å ~]–” â ¿¥ÇHu‘ æ“Á³¿ ä}˜$æä  ˜×å`ž1™µ‘ è$è ‘³¤vå|’–wçR–Eçqå|–]—2ç ë

¸ ¹ ‰¹ íHõ òcîŽô®ºiô ½ ðuõò ì -¢ §

ù

Î §

¦ ëq –6å|–>æ ª ˜ ⠖[å|’–[år˜ ª –Eä;‘ â çqår” â 娙µ‘æPå|’–Eä;˜#æ ä  ˜#å ¢ ¿“ÇI‘uæ“Á ¿Ž¦$š

ì

¢ ,¡ ¦ ë ì 㠖 â år˜ ™ å å|’–¨ç  ” â å|˜#å å å|‘ a –ä]” è ä ,è ”)år– ã0¢ ¤¥’)”)år–;•,–>æç  ” â å|˜#å å ¤¥’‘ç|–0äy’)” ⠜,–w˜$ç 㠘$ær–>äZå èÀå ‘ ——~‘ç|– ã aå å|’–ær–]”äZå|˜©•,–[ä}‘ ª g— ‘ ⠖ â å]qš È)‘uæ.ä]” —)”ä}˜#å|‘uæ ç/å|’˜é祘é祕,‘ è åy” œ,– Ô ™µ‘u楘 â2ã1 ä4å|‘uæ çÑå|’)˜$祘éçä  æ:ær– â åy}¦ š ì

¢ ¦ ëq –6å|–>æ ª ˜ ⠖[å|’–Eçqår”uæqår˜ ⠜” â2ãTê2⠔ è ³• ” Àè  –wç^™µ‘uæPår’)”)åŽç  ” â år˜×å å š ì

¢ Φ ë Ê Àè  œT” è$è å|’)–>ç|–‹•³” 詐 –>ç ¢ ȍ˜ ⠔ è {ž Éåy”Cæ:å]ž,år˜ ª –ž2år˜ ª –Aä;‘ â çqår” â åy¦^˜ â rå ‘jå|’)– ,⠘©•,–>æçr” è år˜ ª –„ä}‘ â ç-åy” ™µ‘uæ ª ,è ° ” ” â2ã çR‘ è •–Ž™µ‘æ ÿ )Ÿ³¡ þ ˜ â ç  ” â år˜×å å š ì

‚0ƒ ¨

â å

¢ ,Š ¦ ë ìp™*år’–Açqår”uæqår˜ ⠜'•4” Àè  –¤¨”uç~]–6ær‘)ž,år’– â |å ’–”äZå  ” è •4” Àè  –°”)åå|’–„çR—~–>ä;˜ ê – ã å|˜ ª –˜é玖`ç  ” è år‘Ÿå|’)– ä;” è ä 2è ”Cå|– ã äy’)” ⠜,–œ,˜©•,– âTaå å|’– ,⠘©•,–>æçr” è ™µ‘æ ª ,è ”)š¯ìp™ ⠑u]å ž” ã2ã å|’)–Eäy’)” ⠜–.rå ‘Aår’–ç-åy”Cæ:å|˜ ⠜•4” èÀ – å|‘ ê2â2㠑  哤¥’–6ær– å ‘  ä ær–”Cå]š





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Kinetic energy storage and release

§¨’é˜ çår˜ ª 0– å|’–Pä;”uæq単$篑 âXè –]•,– è œuær‘ 2 â2㠞³” è æ|–`” ã1å ª ‘³•˜ ⠜gšeìBå獖 ⠖6ærœ å ˜$çé˜ ⠖4år˜$ä ¢ ª ‘Cår˜À‘ â ¦$ž ⠑C寗~‘Cår– â å|˜¾” è ¢ ’)–;˜©œ,’åy¦}št± â ä;–N” œ” ˜ ⠘ ™¤^–0ä;‘ â ç|˜ 㠖6æÂår’–0ä]”Cæ:å]ä ç a æy” é˜ ⠜.ç å çqå|– ª år‘ a –w” ⠔ è ‘,œ,‘  ç år‘ä}˜$æä  ˜#å’ær–>ç|˜$çqår” â ä}–q” â2ã å|’)–[ä]”Cæ:å^˜#åç|– è ™år‘ a –Vå|’–²˜ â2ã1 ä4å|‘æ]ž1¤¥’)”CåÑær–>ç|˜éç-åy” â ä;–Ž•³” 詐 –²¤w‘ ,èé㠙Δuä;˜ è ˜#år”)år–Ræy” —)˜ ã æ|– è –`”uç|–®‘,™å|’)”Cå¥é˜ ⠖6å|˜éä – â 6– ærœ >å =Ŏ ”³ú1˜ ª  ª ær–>ç|˜$çqår” â ä}– ¢ ª ” ú1˜ ª  ª a ær”,é˜ ⠜†”äZår˜À‘ â ¦²¤^‘ ,èéã ç è ‘³¤ó˜×å 㠑³¤ â ç  ˜$äyé–>çqå]ž‘ ™.ä}‘  æ çR– Ë üH#˜ å|’ ª ”³ú1˜ ª  ª a æy” é˜ ⠜×u” äZår˜À‘ ⠞&år’–ä;”uæqå ¤¥˜ è#è ç  ˜éäyé èÀå œæ|˜ â2ã å|‘£”J’)” è å]ž0å|’  ç –;ú—~– â‚ã ˜ ⠜£˜×å ç é˜ ⠖6å|˜éä – â 6– ærœ å ” ç²×˜ åAç è ‘³.¤ ç 㠑³¤ ⠚0üH#˜ å|’‘  尔 âå­a ær”,é˜ ⠜·”äZå|˜©‘ ⠞å|’)–Ÿä;”Cæ:勤¥˜ è#èqa – ™mær–;–kå|‘ær‘ è$è ‘ ⠘ â2㠖 ê2⠘#å|– è©å ¢µa C” ææ|˜ ⠜ ” âå C‘ år’6– æç|‘  æ ä}w– çN‘,™m™ ær$˜ ä4å|˜©‘ â¦è ˜©é,–²” >– æ|‘ ã1å ⠔ ª ˜éä ã ær”,œ°” â2ã ær‘ è$è ˜ ⠜„ær–>ç|˜$çqår” â ä}–4¦$ž1” â2㠘#娤¥˜ è$è ’‘ èéã #˜ åçé˜ â 6– å|é˜ ä– â 6– ærœ å ™µu‘ 沔 è ‘ ⠜6—~6– ær˜À‘ 㠑,& ™ å|˜ ª –,š›Áe˜©é,–]¤¥$˜ ç|–,ž{” ⠘ â‚ã1 äZår˜À•„ – ä;#˜ æ ä  ט 岤¥˜ è$è*㠘éç:äy’)”uæ|œ–Eæy” —˜ ã€è©å ˜À™ #˜ åçær>– ç|$˜ çqår” â ä}–é˜ ç¥’˜©œ,’ˆ” â2ãTã é˜ ç:äy’gC” ærœ,R – ç è ‘³¤ èÀå ˜À™«×˜ å çæ|w– çRé˜ çqår” â ä}–$˜ ç è ‘³¤›š  è$èÀå å|’)$˜ ç^–}ú1— è ” â )” å|˜©‘ â ç|’– ã ç ª ‘ æ|– è ˜©œ,’ åw‘ â å|’)V Œ“‘—g–;™ , – ç a £Ow– äZåw‘,™ å|˜ ª V – ä;‘ â çqår” â å çw” â2ã ær>– ç|$˜ çqår” â ä}–ž” â2ã ¤¥’ å å|’) – æ|– è C” å|˜©‘ â ç|’˜©— a 4– åO¤^–;– â år’V – åO¤w‘ é˜ ç¥‘,—)—g‘ çR#˜ å|–™µu‘ æ.ä]” —)” ä}#˜ å|˜©•,–›” â‚ã ˜ â2ã1 ä4å|˜©•,E – ä;#˜ æ ä  #˜ åç]š

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R N

15 V

1

2Ω

R

2

1Ω M

L

1H

ɘ â ä}–.å|’˜éçN˜éçN” ⠘ â‚ã1 äZår˜À•–Rä;˜#æ ä  ˜#å]ž¤^–,ä è#è ç-åy”Cæ:åN‘  æ^” ⠔ èÀå ç|˜$ç aåk㠖6å|–6æ ª ˜ ⠘ ⠜Eå|’–Vç-åy”Cæ:åw” â2㠖 â2㠕³” 詐 –>ç ™µ‘uæ ÿ}OÕ P|þ;¡9. šˆ§¨’˜$çAç-år–;—£˜é狕˜#år” è$è©å ˜ ª —~‘uæ:år” â 坤¥’– ⠔ ⠔ è©åLK ˜ ⠜·˜ â2ã1 ä4å|˜©•,–;ä;˜#æ ä  ˜#åç]ž«”uç[år’–;çqår”Cæ:å|˜ ⠜†” â2㠖 â‚ã ˜ ⠜ 208)—-.XŸ; þ ä;” ⠑ â,è©åJa –6é ⠑³¤ ⠔ ™8å|–>æEå|’)–ä  æ:ær– â 坒)”ç a –;– âG㠖4år–6æ ª ˜ ⠖ ãÂË üH˜#å|’å|’–¦çR¤¥˜#åäy’u‘—g– â ¢ çqår”uæqår˜ ⠜;ä}‘ â2㠘#å|˜©‘ â ¦}ž2år’–6ær–˜é箔jå|‘Cåy” è^¢ ç|–6ær˜À–wçr¦.æ|–wçR˜éç-åy” â ä;–›‘ ™Q  ž~¤¥’˜éäy’ è ˜ ª ˜#åçå|’– ê2⠔ è ä  æ:ær– â 厘 â å|’)– ä}$˜ æ ä  #˜ åå|‘ŸŠ” ª —2ç ë ‡

I=

E R

I=

15 V 3Ω

I=5A

É‘gž a –}™µ‘æ|–Aå|’)–„ç|¤¥˜×å äy’­˜éç–;•,– â ä è ‘çR– 㠞"¤w–’)”4•,–”;ä  æ:ær– â åRå|’,ær‘  œ’år’–°˜ â2ã1 äZå|‘沑 ™ÑŠT” ª —2ç]ž ær”Cå|’–>æ å|’g” â çqåru” æqår˜ ⠜0™mær‘ ªSR ” ª —2粔u箘 â å|’–—,ær–;•˜©‘  箘 â‚ã1 äZår‘u沖}ú” ª — è –šüH˜#å|’?å|’)–„ç|¤¥˜×å äy’?ä è ‘çR– ãk¢ år’– ê2⠔ è ä}‘ â2ã #˜ å|˜©‘ â ¦}ž å|’– § ær–>ç|˜éç-år‘uæN˜éçÑçR’‘æqår– 㠔ä4ær‘çç ¢Îaå —)”ç:ç|– ã ¦$ž¤¥’˜$äy’¦äy’)” ⠜,–>ç&å|’–[ä}˜$æ ä  ˜#å]ä ç&år‘Cåy” è æ|–wçR˜éç-åy” â ä;– å|‘Ÿ¡  štüH#˜ å|¦ ’ å|’)E – çR¤¥#˜ åäyT ’ ä è ‘ ç|– ã ž år’– ê2⠔ è •³” 詐 –™µ‘uæ.ä  æ:ær– â åPå|’2æ|‘  œ,’å|’–›˜ â2ã1 äZå|‘楤w‘ ,èéã år’– âˆa – ë

š

‡

I=

E R

I=

15 V 2Ω

I = 7.5 A

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Ρ 

É‘gž år’–0˜ â2ã1 ä4å|‘u氘 â år’˜éçXä}˜$æ ä  ˜#坒)”狔ç-åy”Cæ:å|˜ ⠜ä  æ:ær– â 勑 ™Š·” ª —2狔 â‚ã ” ⠖ â2㠘 ⠜?ä  ææ|– â 勑 ™Rœš Š ” ª —2ç]šqɘ â ä}–å|’–¶)å|˜ ª ˜ ⠜¶›¤¥˜ è#è år”,é,–®— è ”ä}– 㐠æ|˜ ⠜Xå|’–å|˜ ª –å|’)”Cå0år’–Rç|¤¥˜#åäy’0˜éç0ä è ‘çR– 㠔 â2ã ¿.ٓ˜éç0ç|’‘æqår– 㠗)”ç-å`ž)¤^– ⠖;– ã å|‘;ä]” è ä ,è ”)år–›‘  æ.å|˜ ª –Aä}‘ â ç-åy” â 哙mær‘ ª Á9ز” â‚ã ¿RØ ëR§ Œ“– â æ å㠘©•˜ 㠖 ã·aå ¡  žg‘uæ ÙYX § u¡ ç|>– ä}‘ â2㠚üH˜×år’Ÿår’–>ç|–Ž•³” 詐 –wç;ž¤^–ä;” â ä;” è ä ,è ”Cå|–“¤¥’g”)娤¥˜ è$è ’g” ——~– â år‘Eår’–Vä  ææ|– â åw‘³•,–6æ&å|˜ ª –šq§¨’–Ž•‘ è år”,œ,– u” ä6æ|‘ ç:ç’år’–“˜ â2ã1 ä4å|u‘ æN¤¥˜ è$èa  – ä;” è ä , è ”Cå|– ãaå ª ,è å|˜©— èÀå ˜ ⠜år’–.ä  æær– â å aå ¡ ¢ år‘”Cææ|˜©•,–¨”)å*år’–“•‘ è år” œ–^”ä4ær‘çç å|’)T – ¡  ær>– ç|$˜ çqå|‘ æy¦}9ž å|’– â ç a å:æyu” ä4å|˜ ⠍ œ år’))” å m™ ær‘ ª § Š†•,‘ è å çEårr ‘ ç|–;–´¤¥’)”)å`ä ç è –}™8å]škìp™ å ‘  ær–]” è ˜ K –jår’)”)åkå|’)– •,‘ è åy” œ–‹u” ä4ær‘ ççår’–˜ â2ã1 äZå|‘ æVçqåru” æqå çŽC” å[Š'•‘ è åç ¢ ¤¥’– â å|’)A – ç|¤¥×˜ å äy’†$˜ ç ê æ ç-å[ä è ‘ ç|– ã ¦“” â2ãã >– ä;” å ç.å|‘ R •,‘ è å ç ‘³•,>– æ9å|˜ ª –,ž å ‘  ä]” ⠔ è ç|‘  çR– år’>– ç|– ê œ  ær>– 站µ‘ æ/ç-åyC” æ:å|˜ â Lœ ³– â2㠘 ⠜²•³” 詐 w– çq˜ â å|’–“œ– â >– ær” è ™µu‘ æ ª , è ”›” â‚ãjã 6– ær˜À•– å|’)E – ç|” ª [ – ær>– ç , è åç ë Change = (7.5 A - 5 A)

1-

1

Üet/0.5

Calculating current

. . . or . . .

Change = (0 V - 5 V)

1-

1

Üet/0.5

Calculating voltage

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R

Switch N

1

2 kΩ

20 V

R

_

R2



500 Ω

C

100 µF

3

3 kΩ

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R1 2 kΩ

20 V

R2

Thevenin = 1.8182 V voltage

500 Ω

R3 3 kΩ

R1

R2

R3

7.273

1.818

10.909

I

3.636m

3.636m

3.636m

3.636m

R

2k

500

3k

5.5k

E

c

N

b

Total N

b

20 a

Volts Amps Ohms

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“„ ‘³¤›ž^er‘d|‘ h©•,–Ž™µ‘ m¨‘  m¥§¨’–]•,–qg˜kg€m|–7dR˜4drer”6g`l}–,ž¤^–|g)–;–qpe|‘–h©˜ ª ˜jg)”6e|–›”6hjh"—g‘³¤^–mdR‘  m5l}–qdw˜jger’–²‘ mr˜Àœ˜kg)” h }˜  ˜keŽ”6g9pzl;” hjl  h¾”0e|–omr–qd|˜jdrer” g9l}–²” dDd|–;–qg´™…m|‘ ª e|’–h©‘”nper–m ª ˜kg)” hjd ë l jm5l

Switch (closed)

R1 2 kΩ R2

500 Ω

Thevenin resistance = 454.545 Ω

R3 3 kΩ

RThevenin = R2 // (R1 -- R3) †

RThevenin = 500 Ω // (2 kΩ + 3 kΩ) †

RThevenin = 454.545 Ω

¿¥–;æ‡pOmy”4¤¥˜jgœ‘  mtl}˜jml  ˜keŽ” d¥” §¨’–;•–g˜jg´–]ç  ˜©•4” hÀ–qg^e]ž¤^–²œ,–eer’˜jd ë Switch

RThevenin 454.545 Ω

EThevenin 1.8182 V

ˆ

C

100 µF

±  mie|˜ ª –$l;‘ g9drer” gnew™µ‘ mie|’˜4dl}˜jml  ˜kew¤¥˜jhkh‰u~–®–`ç  ”6hŠe|‘}e|’–²§¨’–;•–g˜jgmr–qd|˜4dfey”6g9l;–De|˜ ª –qdie|’–ol;”,—)” l;˜xey”6g9l;– ¢µÙ`X “¿ Ǩ¦}šüH˜xer’&e|’–‹” ug‘³•–®•³” h  –7d;ž1¤^–Il;” hjl  h¾”0e|– ë Ú τ = RC

Ú τ = (454.545 Ω)(100 µF)

Ú τ = 45.4545 milliseconds „“‘³¤›žw¤w–Bl]”6g‹d|‘ h©•,–T™µ‘ m'•‘ hker”,œ,–ˆ” lmr‘ndd}e|’–Œl]” —)”nl}˜ke|‘ mp1˜jm|–7lPeh å ¤¥˜ke|’Ñ  m  g˜©•,–m5dr”6he|˜ ª Œ – l}‘ g`dfey”6g^e ™µ‘ m ª  h©”)šÁ– e]ä dl;6” h4l  h©6” e|–¥™µn‘ m^”›•³ ” h  –®‘ v™  R›ª k˜ hjhÀ4˜ d|q– l}n‘ g9p>d]š¬^7– l;”  dRD– er’˜4dw˜4dN”;l;”,—)” l;˜xer˜À•–¥™µ‘ m ª  h¾” ž¤w–ä hjh‰dR–e ‘  mtl;6” h4l  h©6” e|˜© ‘ g9d  —´™µ ‘ m¥• ‘ hker”,œ,– ë

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ˆ

ˆ

Change = (Final - Start)

Change = (1.8182 V - 0 V) ˆ

1

Üet/τ

1-

1-

1

Üe60m/45.4545m

ˆ

Change = (1.8182 V)(0.73286) Change = 1.3325 V

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+ + +

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4*

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4+ 4* * H* * + 1+ 1*H* +

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-

+

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¨ ¼5­Ÿ¯`¿ ´ µr¶^« ¯ À9Â^«^à ©vµr¶^ÄL«nÀ9Â^«Š© ¯ µ ° ¶L«nÀ9Â^«Š© ° µr«^¶ ­ À9Â^«Š© ÃQµ ´^´>­ À9Â^«Š© » µrÃ^¶LÄnÀ9Â^«Š© ¶Qµ »^»L­ À9Â^«Š©

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¨ ¼5°`¿ ´ µr¶L« ¯ À>Â^«Là ©~µr¶LÄL«nÀ>Â^«‰© ¯ µ ° ¶L«nÀ>Â^«‰© ° µr«L¶ ­ À>Â^«‰© ÃWµ ´L´>­ À>Â^«‰© » µrÃL¶LÄnÀ>Â^«‰© ¶Wµ »L»L­ À>Â^«‰©

+1+ 1* f* + u*

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