Easing The Strain: Understanding Brain Drain And Where Policy Can Respond

EasingtheStrain: Understandingbraindrainand wherepolicycanrespond DevelopmentontheMoveWorkingPaper3 byLauraChappell,LoicSanchezandJaideepShah

May2009 ©ipprandGDN2009

GlobalDevelopmentNetworkandInstituteforPublicPolicyResearch

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GDNandippr|EasingtheStrain:Understandingbraindrainandwherepolicycanrespond

Contents AboutGDN ......................................................................................................................................... 3 Aboutippr ............................................................................................................................................ 3 Abouttheauthors................................................................................................................................ 3 Acknowledgements.............................................................................................................................. 3 Executivesummary .............................................................................................................................. 4 1.Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 5 2.Whatdrivesbraindrain? ................................................................................................................. 8 3.Toreturnornot?............................................................................................................................ 14 4.Atypologyoffactorsdrivingbraindrain....................................................................................... 16 5.Conclusionsandpolicyimplications .............................................................................................. 17 References......................................................................................................................................... 19

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GDNandippr|EasingtheStrain:Understandingbraindrainandwherepolicycanrespond

AboutGDN GDN,basedinDelhi,strivestopromotehomegrownexpertiseindevelopmentresearch.Ithelps researchersfromthedevelopingandtransitioncountriestogeneratenewknowledgeinthesocial sciencesandbuildresearchexcellence,shareresearchoutput,data,andexperiencesacrossregionsas wellastoapplyresearchtopolicyandinformpolicymakers. GDNistheworld’slargestnetworkofresearchersandpolicyinstitutionsdedicatedtopromotingpolicyrelevantresearchforthepurposesofdevelopment.GDNhassignificantexperienceworkingon migrationissuesthroughdesigningandimplementingglobalresearchprojectsthatemphasize developingcountryperspectivesonmigration. www.gdnet.org

Aboutippr TheInstituteforPublicPolicyResearch(ippr)istheUK’sleadingprogressivethinktank,producing cutting-edgeresearchandinnovativepolicyideasforajust,democraticandsustainableworld. Since1988,wehavebeenattheforefrontofprogressivedebateandpolicymakingintheUK.Through ourindependentresearchandanalysiswedefinenewagendasforchangeandprovidepractical solutionstochallengesacrossthefullrangeofpublicpolicyissues. WithofficesinbothLondonandNewcastle,weensureouroutlookisasbroad-basedaspossible, whileourinternationalandmigrationteamsandclimatechangeprogrammeextendourpartnerships andinfluencebeyondtheUK,givingusatrulyworld-classreputationforhighqualityresearch. ippr,30-32SouthamptonStreet,LondonWC2E7RA.Tel:+44(0)2074706100E:[email protected] www.ippr.org.RegisteredCharityNo.800065 ThispaperwasfirstpublishedinMay2009.©ipprandGDN2009

Abouttheauthors LauraChappell isaResearchFellowintheMigrationandEqualitiesteamatippr.SheholdsaBAfrom theUniversityofOxford,andanMScwithdistinctionfromtheSchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies, UniversityofLondon.ShepreviouslyworkedatthePacificIslandsForumSecretariatandforthe LiberalDemocratResearchandPolicyUnit. LoicSanchez isaconsultantatGDN,workingontheDevelopmentontheMoveproject.Hehasan MAinAnthropologyfromtheUniversityofCopenhagenwithaspecialisationinMigrationStudiesand hasseveralyears’experienceworkingonglobaldevelopmentprojects. JaideepShahwasaResearchAssistantatippr.Jaideephasanundergraduatedegreefromthe LondonSchoolofEconomicsandapostgraduatedegreefromOxfordUniversity,andpreviously workedasaresearchassistantattheCentreoftheStudyforAfricanEconomies,OxfordUniversity.

Acknowledgements TheauthorsareverygratefultoDhananjayanSriskandarjahforprovidingtheoriginalimpetusforthis paper,andtoTimFinchandCareyOppenheimforcommentsduringthedraftingprocess.Wearealso gratefultoGeorginaKyriacouforherassistancewithpublication. TheDevelopmentontheMove projecthasbeengenerouslyfundedbyaninternationalgroupof donors,comprisingtheAustralianAgencyforInternationalDevelopment,theAustrianMinistryof Finance,theFinnishMinistryofForeignAffairs,theLuxembourgMinistryofFinance,theNorwegian AgencyforDevelopmentCooperation,theSpanishMinistryofForeignAffairs,andtheUK DepartmentforInternationalDevelopment.Weareverygratefulfortheirsupport. Theviewsexpressedinthispaperarethoseoftheauthorsonly.

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GDNandippr|EasingtheStrain:Understandingbraindrainandwherepolicycanrespond

Executivesummary Itisclearthatmanycountriesacrosstheglobeareincreasinglyseekingtoattracthighlyskilled migrants,withtrendslookingsettocontinuedespitetheglobaldownturn.Thiscompetitionforhighly skilledworkersisprovokingconcernsabout‘braindrain’. Thereisevidencethatathighlevels‘braindrain’becomes‘brainstrain’–itstartstodamagea country’sdevelopment.Thereforeitisimportanttounderstandthefactorsthatcausebraindrainin ordertoseewhetherandhowpolicymakersmightinterveneinordertopre-emptthephenomenon. ipprandGDN,aspartoftheir‘DevelopmentontheMove’project,haveattemptedtosynthesisethe resultsofanumberofsurveysofmigrantsandpeopleintendingtomigrate,inordertodevelopa typologyoffactorsdrivingbraindrain. Analysisofthesurveysshowsthattherearefivecategoriesofcommonfactors,acrossdifferent groupsofskilledmigrantsanddifferentcontexts,drivingthedesiretomigrate:wages;employment; professionaldevelopment;networksandsocio-economicandpoliticalconditionsinthehomecountry. Ofcourse,theyarenotofequalimportancetoallmigrantsandpotentialmigrants. Wagedifferentialsemergeasperhapsthemostimportantcauseofbraindrain,notablyforstudents whoareintertiaryeducationandthoseworkinginskilledprofessionswherethewagedifferential betweencountriesisverywideandwhereskillsareeasilytransferableacrosscountries(suchashealth workers). Employmentopportunitiesaregivenvaryingpriorityaccordingtohowfarthemigranthasprogressed inhis/hercareer.Studentsclosetograduatingaremorelikelytogiveemploymentasaveryhigh priorityformigratingcomparedwithskilledmigrantswhoarealreadyqualifiedorhavebeenworking forsometime. Professionaldevelopmentisakeyfactorinfluencingthedecisiontomoveforskilledmigrantswho arealreadyinworkintheirhomecountry.Thisisbecauseoftheperceptionthatopportunitiesfor trainingandfacilitiesarebetterinrichercountries.Inmanycasesthesemigrantswillmoveonly temporarily,returningtotheirhomelandoncetheyhavegainedtheexperiencetheysought. Networksareimportant,bothofsocialandprofessionalcontacts.Theycanbeasourceofinspiration orfacilitation,aswellasaconcretereasonformoving.Networkscanbesignificantindetermining bothsomeone’sdecisiontoleaveinthefirstplaceandtheirdecisiontoreturn. Difficultsocio-economicandpoliticalconditions inthehomecountry–suchaspoliticalinstability, highprevalenceofviolenceandcrimeorriskstohealth–mightencouragesomeonetomove.Where peoplearemoresatisfiedwiththeircountry,migrationisseenasamoretemporaryoption. Thedecisionoverwhetherornottoreturn isalsocomplex.Shouldtheoriginalreasonsfor departuredecreaseinsignificancethismightpromptamovetoreturnhome.Butgenerally, substantialchangesathomearelikelytobenecessarytoenticepeopleback.Themigrant’sintentions ondeparturealsoappeartomatter,andplaysomepartinthedurationofthestayabroad.Anda senseofbelongingtoone’shomecountry,desiretobeclosetofamilyandadutytoserveone’s countryarealsopowerfulmotivatingfactorsforreturn. Shouldbraindrainappeartobedamagingacountry’sdevelopment,policymakerscanlook tointervene toretainhighlyskilledworkersand/orenticethemback.Thismightbedonefor examplebyofferingregulartrainingtoprofessionalssuchasdoctorswhoparticularlyvaluethe trainingopportunitiesabroad.Mentorshipsbysenioremployeesinthehomecountrycanalso encouragecareerdevelopmentwithoutpeoplehavingtomigrate.Andanotherresponseistostressto migrantsthepositiverolethattheycanpotentiallyplayinthedevelopmentoftheirhomeland,and, conversely,tomakemigrantsmoreawareofsomeofthesocialcostsofmigration,informingthemso theycanevaluatetherightcourseofactionforthemandtheirhousehold. Braindrainislikelytocontinuegiventheabilityofdevelopedcountriestopayhigherwages.Butin caseswherebraindrainisbecomingbrainstrain,developingcountriescouldatleastpartiallystemthe flowbydesigningbraindrainpreventionstrategiesaroundthespecificmotivationsdrivingdifferent groupsofpeopletoleave.

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GDNandippr|EasingtheStrain:Understandingbraindrainandwherepolicycanrespond

Introduction Internationalmigrationhasbeenahighlyvisibleandpotentaspectoftheglobalisingworldoverthe lastfewdecades.In2000,thetotalnumberofpeopleresidinginacountrydifferenttotheircountry ofbirthwasestimatedat175million,approximately3percentoftheworld’spopulation.Thisis doublethefigureofthe1970s(Tanner2005).Thereisalsoincreasingevidencetosuggestthatthe educationalstructureofinternationalmigrationisbecomingmoreandmorebiasedtowards‘skilled’ labour1 (Commanderetal 2002)–provokingconcernsabout‘braindrain’. Whilethecurrentglobaleconomicdownturnmayhavechangedorevenslowedthemovementof highlyskilledworkerstosomedegree,mostforecastssuggestthattheglobaleconomywillstartto getbackontrackin2010(forexample,IMF2009).Intheabsenceofanyunforeseeneconomic events,orradicalchangestothemanagementofourglobalsystem,thisimpliesthatglobalmigration patternswillnotberadicallyalteredinthelongrunbyrecentevents.Thestageissetforbraindrainto continue. However,whilebraindrainmaybeaprominentconcernofpolicymakersitisnotnecessarilyaproblem fordevelopment.Thismaysoundcounterintuitivebutifhighlyskilledpeoplemigrate,andmigrationis somethingpeopleaspiretodo,thenthismayincreaseincentivestoobtainskillsinthefirstplace.In otherwords,theneteffectofbraindrainmightnotbefewerskilledpeopleinthecountry,butmore. Someofthelatestevidence(ChandandClemens2008onFiji)showsthis‘braingain’takingplace. Butotherevidencesuggeststhatthedepartureofthehighlyskilledisaproblemwhenitreacheshigh levels.Whenveryhighproportionsofpeopleareleaving‘braindrain’becomes‘brainstrain’andstarts todamageacountry’sdevelopment(Beineetal 2006,Sriskandarajah2005).Thissuggeststhatin certaincasespolicymakersmaywishto‘stemtheflow’.However,whileweknowafairamountabout trendsinbraindrain,westilllackanuancedunderstandingoftheforcesthatdriveit.Thislimits policymakers’abilitiestoknowhowtoshapeiteffectively. Surveysaskingmigrantswhytheymoved,orpotentialmigrantswhytheyintendtomove,havebeen conductedinanumberofdifferentcontextsandcountriesaroundtheworld.(Itshouldbenotedthat fewnationalstatisticsofficescollectinformationaboutmigrants’motivationalfactors:thesurveysthat doaregenerallyadhoc effortsbyacademicsornon-governmentalorganisations.)Thesesurveyshave thepotentialtoaddmuchtoourknowledgeofwhatdrivesbraindrain,buttherehassofarbeenlittle attempttosynthesisethefindings.Thispaperseekstodoexactlythat,bringingtogethertheresults ofthesesurveystodevelopatypologyofthevariousmotivationalfactorsdrivingbraindrain,aswell asunderstandingthevariouscontextsinwhichtheyapply. Weseethisasanimportantpartofourlargerbodyofworkonmigrationanddevelopment,aproject named‘DevelopmentontheMove:MeasuringandOptimisingMigration’sEconomicandSocial Impacts’.DevelopmentontheMoveseekstodevelopfresh,innovativeandworkablepolicy instrumentstomaximisemigration’sdevelopmentcontributionsandminimiseitsnegativeeffects. Giventhatbraindrainis–alongwithremittances–theaspectofmigrationthatattractsthegreatest attentionfrompolicymakers,lookingathowitcanbemoreeffectivelyaddressedisimperative.We believethatunderstandingthemotivationalfactorsdrivingemigrationcanhelppolicymakerstofind therightpolicyinstrumentstopre-emptbraindrainwhererelevant.Thispapershouldalsobehelpful inidentifyingwhatlooksunlikelytowork,sothatpreciousdevelopmentresourcesarenotexpended onpoliciesthathavelittlehopeofsuccess.

1.Althoughthereisnoconsensusonthedefinitionofthehighlyskilled,anaccepteddefinitionisto assumethemtohaveatertiaryeducationalqualificationorequivalentskillsacquiredthroughwork experience.

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Methodology Inrecentyears,economistshaveusedregressiontechniquestounderstandhowmacroandmicro characteristicsofacountrymightdeterminethedegreeofbraindrainthatoccurs.Alargebodyofthis analysishassupportedtraditionaleconomictheoriesofmigration,whichpointtofactorssuchaswage differentials,countrysizeandlevelofeconomicdevelopmentascausingbraindrain(Beineetal 2006).However,whiletheseprovideinsightintothegeneralconditionsthatcouldpotentiallyleadto braindrain,theirweaknesseslieinnotbeingabletoprovideamorenuancedunderstandingofthe differentmotivationsbehindskilledmigrants’decisiontoemigrate,someofwhichwillhavegreater importancethanothersdependingonthecharacteristicsofthemigrantinvolved. Surveysareabletoaddressthisproblemsincetheydirectlyaskindividualsabouttheirmigratory intentions.Bycomparingindividuals’responses,wecandrawoutwhichfactorsareofgreatest importanceacrossallrespondents,aswellasexaminethemicrocharacteristics(suchasskilllevelor age)andmacrocharacteristics(suchasthepoliticaloreconomicenvironmentthattheyarelivingin) thatmightdistinguishonesub-groupofrespondentsfromanother. Thispaperdrawsontwotypesofsurveysinparticular.(SeeTable1,p7,forsomekeydetailsabout thesurveysweconsulted.)First,weexaminesurveysthataskpeoplewhohavemigratedwhytheydid so.Thestrengthofthesesurveysisthattheyconsiderthatanindividualshouldbethebestjudgeof whyheorsheactedinaparticularway.Althoughpeoplemaynotalwaysbeawareoforreportallthe nuancesandsubtletiesbehindtheiractions,webelievethisassumptiontobeisvalidinmost circumstances. Thesecondkindofsurveyweuseisthosethataskpeoplewhoareintendingtomigratewhatthe reasonsarebehindtheirintentions.However,thevalueofsurveyslikethisreliesonintentionsbeing usefulpredictorsoffuturebehaviour.Theoretically,thegapbetweenintentiontomigrateandactual migrationcanbewide,especiallywherecostsofmigrationarelarge.Forexample,migrationfroma poorcountryintheglobalSouthtoarichercountryintheNorthislikelytobeanexpensiveprocess sinceprospectivemigrantsmustfindthefinancialresourcestomigrateacrossgeographicallylarge distancesaswellaspassthrough(orsteparound)immigrationsystems.Thediscrepancybetweenthe intentiontomigrateandthepracticalstepsneededforactualmigrationisapparent;inonesurveyof theintentionsofstudents,youngresearchersandteachingstaffinMacedonia,55.9percentof respondentssaidthattheywereconsideringemigrationwhileonly10.2percentwereintheactual planningstages(Verica2003). Nonetheless,researchshowsthatanintentiontomigrateisastrongindicatorforhowweexpectthe individualtoactinthenear-tolong-termfuture.Socialpsychologistsarefairlyconfidantaboutthe closecorrelationbetweenintentionandactions(Dalenetal 2003).Moreover,whilenotallthosewho saytheyintendtomigratewillmove,intentionsurveysnotonlywarnpolicymakersofalikelyfuture scenarioiftheyfailtoactbutalsohelpthemtoidentify‘triggerpoints’wherepolicyinterventionwill havethegreatestimpact. Usingtheinformationfromthesurveysoutlinedinthetableoverleaf,weask:

•Whatarethekeymotivationsthatpotentialmigrantsaswellasmigrantsandreturnmigrants mentionasreasonsformigrating? Wechallengethegeneralassumptionthatthewagedifferentialsbetweendevelopedanddeveloping countriesareenoughtoexplainmigrationandthuslookintonon-economic,aswellaseconomic, issuesthatmaytriggerpeople’sdecisiontomove.

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GDNandippr|EasingtheStrain:Understandingbraindrainandwherepolicycanrespond

Table1.Keydetailsaboutthesurveys Nameandauthorofstudy

Countries

Year

Populationsurveyed

MigrationofHighlyEducatedand SkilledPersonsfortheRepublicof Macedonia(Verica2003)

Macedonia

2003

Students/youngresearchersand teachingstaff

PushandPullFactorsofInternational Migration(Schoorletal 2000)

Senegal,Ghana,Morocco, Egypt,Turkey

2000

Skilledandhighlyskilledmigrants

OutofAfrica:WhatDrivesthe PressuretoEmigrate? (Dalenetal 2003)

Senegal,Morocco,Ghana, Egypt

2003

Youngeducatedmales

SkilledHealthProfessionals’ Migration(Chikanda2004)

Zimbabwe

2004

Skilledhealthprofessionals

MigrationIntentionsofHealth CareProfessionals(Vörketal 2004)

Estonia

2003

Highlyskilledhealthworkers

MedicalBrainDrain(Kangasniemietal) Developingworld,various

2004

Highlyskilledhealthworkers

MigrationofHighlySkilled Indians(Khadria2004)

India

2004

HighlyskilledITandhealth workers

PhysicianMigration(Astoretal 2005)

Colombia,Nigeria,India, Pakistan,Philippines

2005

Physicians

BrainDrainfromTurkey (GüngörandTansel2007)

Turkey

2006

Highlyskilledstudents

SouthernAfricanMigration Project(SAMP)(Crushetal 2005)

15countries,membersofthe SouthernAfricaDevelopment Community

2005

Highlyskilled

Note:Thesamplesizeofthesurveysrangesfromsmall(forexample,103individuals)tolarge(oneofoursurveysincludes 7,359individuals).

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2.Whatdrivesbraindrain? Ourexaminationofthesurveydataavailableshowsthediversityinmotivationsbehindskilled migrants’intentionstomove.Indeed,eachindividual’sdecisiontomovewillalwaysdependtosome extentoncircumstancesuniquetothem.Nonetheless,itispossibletodrawoutfivecategoriesof commonfactors,acrossdifferentgroupsofskilledmigrantsanddifferentcontexts,drivingintentions tomigrate:

•Wages •Employment •Professionaldevelopment •Networks •Socio-economicandpoliticalconditionsinthehomecountry. Thefirstthreeofthesereasonsformigrationareclearly‘economic’(withthelastfactorincluding someeconomicaspectstoo).Thisfitswithwhatweknowaboutmotivationformigrationmore generally.AsdiscussedintheIntroduction,itiswithintheframeworkofaglobalisingeconomythat migrationhasaccelerated;andcross-countryeconometricworkhasshowntheimportanceofa numberofeconomicfactors,includingwagedifferentials,indrivingmigrationandbraindrain. Thesurveydataalsoconcurswiththeimportanceofeconomicfactors.Forexample,inamulticountrysurvey(Schoorletal 2000)respondentsfromfivemigrant-sendingcountrieswereaskedthe question‘Doyouintendtoemigrate?’andiftheyrespondedpositivelywereaskedtogiveareason forthisintention.Inallthesendingcountries(Senegal,Ghana,Morocco,EgyptandTurkey)thevast majorityofpotentialmigrantsgaveeconomicreasonsasmotivatingfactors.Theseweredefinedas factors‘relatingtowork,employmentorlackofit,jobimprovement,betterincomeorahighstandard ofliving’(Schoorletal 2000:74).Similarly,datafromthefirstDevelopmentontheMovesurveyin Jamaicafoundthatearninghigherwages,gainingstableemploymentandbeingabletosaveand remitwerethemajormotivatingfactorsbehinddeparture(LucasandChappell2009). Inthispaperwetrytomovetheanalysisforwardtounderstandtheforcesmotivatinghighlyskilled movementinparticular,aswellasthecircumstancesunderwhichcertainkindsofmotivationsare important,andwhetherparticularsub-groupsofmigrantshaveparticularkindsofmotivations. Analysisofthebraindrainsurveystellsusthattheabovefivefactorsarenotofequalimportanceto allpotentialskilledmigrants:thereisconsiderabledifferenceinthepriorityranking,withtherank typicallydependingonfirstlytheskillandprofessionofthemigrant,andsecondlyhowfarthe individualhasprogressedinhis/hercareer. Belowwelookateachofthefivemotivatingfactorsinturn.

Wages Wagedifferentialsemergeasperhapsthemostimportantcauseofbraindraininourcomparisonof surveyevidence.However,wagesarenotofequalimportancetoallmigrants. Certaingroupsofskilledpersonsparticularlyhighlightwagesasadeterminingfactorintheirdesireto emigrate,notablystudentswhoareintertiaryeducationandthoseworkinginskilledprofessions wherethewagedifferentialbetweencountriesisverywideandwhereskillsareeasilytransferable acrosscountries(suchashealthworkers).Forexample,onesurveyofsciencestudentsintheirfinal yearofstudiesinMacedoniafoundthattheopportunitytoearnmorewasthetopmotivefor students’desiretoemigrate(Verica2003).Inaddition,asurveyofmigrationintentionsoffinalyear studentsinsixSouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunity(SADC)countries,foundthatinBotswana andSwaziland,higherremunerationwasthemostimportanteconomicreason,whileinNamibiaitwas thesecondmostimportantreasonforwantingtomigrate(Crushetal 2005). Severalsurveysthathavebeenconductedamongprofessionalsinthehealthsectorpointtohigher incomeasadefinitivemotivatingfactor.Forexample,inasurveyofphysicianmigrationacross

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GDNandippr|EasingtheStrain:Understandingbraindrainandwherepolicycanrespond

Colombia,Nigeria,India,PakistanandthePhilippines90.8percentofallrespondentsrateddesirefor higherincomeasahighlysignificantmotivatingfactorindecidingwhethertoemigrate(Astoretal 2005).Severalother,smallerscale,studiesamonghealthprofessionalshavesupportedthisfinding. Forexample,studiesinterviewingreturneddoctorsandnursesinIndiafoundbetterincomeprospects overseasasasignificantreasondrivingtheintentiontogoabroad,withnursesstatingitasthemost importantreason(Khadria2004).InasurveyofhealthprofessionalsinZimbabwe51percentof respondentsgavehigherpayasareasonforemigration(Awasesetal 2004). RecentresearchonPolishandBulgariannaturalscientistsbasedinGermanyandtheUKshowsimilar findings(Figure1). Figure1.Main reasonsfor migratingamong Polishand Bulgarian-born naturalscientists basedintheUK andGermany Source:WillisShattucketal 2008

Whyistheopportunitytoearnmoresuchapriorityforhighlyskilledandstudentmigrants?The highlyskilledworkinginprofessionssuchashealthandIThaveskillsthatareeasilytransferableandit isfeasibleforthemtomovedirectlyintohighwagepositionsintheirdestinationcountry(whereas migrantswhoseskillsetsarenotastransferablemayhavedifficultyaccessingthehighlypaidwork associatedwiththeirprofession,atleastinitially).Inthehealthsectorthisisaidedbytheactive recruitmentofmigrantsbydevelopedcountriestoaddressskillshortages.Forexample,aboutonein threeofthe71,000hospitalmedicalstaffworkingintheUK’sNationalHealthServicein2002 obtainedtheirprimarymedicalqualificationinanothercountry(DepartmentofHealth2003). Studentsappeartobemotivatedtomigrateparticularlybecauseoftheopportunitytoearnmore.This maybeforthefairlymundanereasonthathavinglivedonalowincomewhilestudyingmanyarekeen toenjoyabetterstandardofliving.However,takingadifferentperspective,seeingstudentsprioritise wagesasamotivatingfactorformigrationisveryimportant.Thisisbecausestudentshavejust become‘brains’,havingjustgainedahighlevelofskillsandknowledgethroughtheirstudies.Their ‘new-brain’statusmakesstudentsafairlyuniquegroupbecausenoneofthemhavepreviouslyhad theopportunitytoparticipateinthebraindrain.Incontrastanysurveyofprofessionalsintheir countryoforigin(sayforexample,doctorsinIndia)cannotbetakentorepresentallprofessionals fromthatcountry(Indiandoctors)becauseitisverylikelythatsomeofthegrouphavealreadyleft (andareworkingintheUK,USandsoon).Thismeansthatsurveysofprofessionalsonlygiveuspart ofthepictureastowhythehighlyskilledleave,whereassurveysofstudents,noneofwhomhave previouslyhadthechancetoparticipateinbraindrain,allowustolookmorewidelyatthemotivations ofthehighlyskilled.Thefactthatwagesemergeasakeyfactorforstudentsthereforeshowsthe importanceofthisfactoroverallinmotivatingbraindrain.

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Employment Turningtothesecondeconomicfactor,employment,itbecomesclearthattheprioritygivento employmentopportunitiesbyskilledmigrantsasareasonforgoingabroadvariesstronglyaccording tohowfarthemigranthasprogressedinhisorhercareer.Thesurveysshowthatthosewhoare studentsandareclosetograduatingaremorelikelytogiveemploymentasaveryhighpriorityfor migratingcomparedwithskilledmigrantswhoarealreadyqualifiedorhavebeenworkingforsome time.Forexample,theSAMPsurveyrevealsthatthedesiretobeinemploymentorhavejobsecurity followscloselybehindhigherincomeopportunitiesasareasonforemigratinginallthecountriesin thesurvey,andisthemostimportantreasongivenbystudentsinLesothoandNamibia. Thereissomeevidencetosuggestthatstudentswhohavebeentraininginhighlyspecialisedfields arenotwillingtocompromisetheirdesiretoworkinajobthatisrelatedspecificallytotheirfieldof study.Inthisvein,theintentionsurveyofscienceandengineeringstudentslivinginMacedoniagave ‘theopportunitytoworkinone’seducationfield’ratherthanjobsecurityinitselfasthesecondmost importantmotivatingfactor(Verica2003). Forskilledmigrantswhoarealreadyqualified,employmentorjobsecurityitselfdoesnotfigure prominentlyasareasonformovingabroad.Forexample,inKhadria’sstudy(2004),only11percent ofreturnITprofessionalsinBangaloregavesecuringemploymentasareasonforgoingabroad.Inthe samestudy,nursesanddoctorsrankedemploymentasthesixthandseventhprioritiesrespectivelyas motivationsforout-migration.Onthewhole,skilledmigrantswhoarealreadyworkingsaythatthe othereconomicandnon-economicfactorsidentifiedinthispaperaremoreimportantthan employmentopportunitiesintheirreasonsformoving. Thisfindingisprobablyexplainedbytwoissues.Firstly,theresultshouldberelativelyunsurprising sinceskilledmigrants,especiallythoseworkinginthehealthsector,arelesslikelytosufferfrom unemploymentintheircountriesoforiginsincetheirskillswillbeingreatdemand.Thereforetheir reasonsformigratingarelikelytolieelsewhere. Inaddition,theremayalsobesomemethodologicalbiasintheresult.Asmanyofthesurveysare carriedoutwithprofessionals,thegroupbeingexaminedarethehighlyskilledwhoarealsoin employmentintheirchosenprofession.Asaresultmostsurveysdonotincludethehighlyskilledwho foronereasonoranotherarenotinworkthatutilisestheirskills(forexample,duetohigh unemploymentandcompetitionforjobsinthecountryoforigin,orthecuttingofgovernment budgetswhichmeantherearenofundstoemploynurses–forexample–whohavealreadybeen trained).Therearetwocaveatstothispotentialbias,however.First,thesizeofthegroupofpeople whoareskilledbutnotinskilledemploymentisnotclear.Forexample,onesurveyofoverseasdoctors workingintheUKfoundthatonly10percenthadexperiencedunemploymentintheirhomecountry, apercentagereducingto4percentifconsideringonlydoctorsfromlow-incomecountries.This findingledtotheconclusionthatit‘seemsunlikelythatmigrantdoctorsareleavingtheirhome countrybecauseofunemployment’(Kangasniemietal 2003:8).Moreover,forourpurposesthis secondgroupareoflessinterest.‘Braindrain’ismostproblematicwhenitturnsinto‘brainstrain’– whenacountrywouldliketoemploymoreskilledpeoplebutdoesnothavethemavailable (Sriskandarajah2005).Losingsomeofasurplusofskilledlabourthroughmigrationpresentslessofa problem.

Professionaldevelopment Sowhatsortsofreasons,otherthanhigherwages,motivateaskilledmigrantwhoisalreadyinwork intheirhomecountrytomigrate?Onekeyfactorseemstobetoaccessexperiencesthatwillallow themtodevelopprofessionally–tolearnandadvancetheircareers.Thereisaperceptionthatricher countriesoffersuperiortrainingfacilitiesandworkexperience.Groupsmakingaparticularpriorityof professionaldevelopmentfactorstendtobeeitheryoungprofessionalswhohaverecentlyfinished theireducationorthosewhohavemadesomecareerprogressbutnowwanttoadvancefurtherby gettingbettertrainingandmorevariedexperience. Forexample,IndianITprofessionalsrankgainingexperienceasthetopmotivatingfactorforgoing abroad–37outof45respondentsagreedthat‘knowledgeandskillsgainedoverseasthroughhigher

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educationandonthejobtrainingarehighlyusefulforcurrentjobsinBangalore’(Khadria2004; Kangasniemietal 2003)–andIndiandoctorsrankhighereducationasthemostimportantdraw. Justunder75percentofdoctorssaidthattheyareplanningtogoabroadto‘getjobswithbetter trainingopportunities’andjustover40percentsaidthattheirpurposeforgoingabroadwasto get‘medicalexperiencenoteasilyavailableinIndia’(Khadria2004).IntheMacedoniansurvey 45.6percentofyoungscientificresearchersandteachingstaffinterviewedsaidthattheywould liketogoabroadforprofessionaladvancementandeducation(Verica2003). Thesemigrantsbelievethatbyundergoingworkexperienceorprofessionaltraininginmore developedcountries,therewillbehigherreturnsfromworkingforemployersbackhome.For example,Khadria(2004)findsthatthemajorityofIndiandoctorsinterviewedconsiderbeing educatedintheUnitedStatesortheUnitedKingdomtofacilitatefastercareergrowthinIndiain comparisonwithIndian-educateddoctorswhodonothaveWesternqualificationsorwork experience. Thestateoftheworkingenvironmentandfacilitiesandemployees’well-beingarealsomentioned ascontributingtothedesiretomigrate.Accesstothelatesttechnology,forexample,remainsa criticalmotivationalfactorforskilledmigrantsforwhomsuccessandefficiencyintheirwork dependsonthis;thisincludesprofessionalsworkingwithinthehealth,science,engineeringandIT sectors. ThestudyinMacedoniarevealedhowyoungscientistsandscienceteachersrankedhavingpoor facilitiesathomeforscientificworkandpoorresourcesforscienceandtechnicalinformation higherthanincomeremunerationasreasonsforintendingtoemigrate(Verica2003).Thefivecountrystudyquestionnaireonphysicianmigration(Astoretal 2005)foundthat74percentof thoseinterviewedhighlightedthedesireforincreasedaccesstoenhancedtechnology,equipment andhealthfacilitiesintheirworkingenvironmentasthesecondmostimportantreasonfor intentiontomigrate,followingcloselybehindincomeremuneration.Acorollaryofthisisthat87 percentoftherespondentsbelievedthatimprovingphysicians’workingconditionsintheirhome countriescouldalsohelpdetermigration. Similarly,inZimbabwe,whereeconomicfactorsfigureprominentlyforskilledhealthpersonnelas reasonstogoabroad,includingaperceptionthatwageswillbehigherelsewhere,thestateofthe workingenvironmentwithinthehealthindustryisthenextbiggestpriority.Thisisconsideredto bepoorinZimbabwebecauseofalackofresourcesandfacilitieswithinthehealthcaresystemof thecountry,workloadsbeingtooheavy,andtherebeinginsufficientopportunitiesforpromotion andself-improvement.Whenhealthpersonnelwereaskedwhatfactorswouldencouragetheir retentioninthecountry,thesecorrespondedstronglytotheinitialreasonsgivenforleaving: bettersalaries(77percent)andbetterfringebenefits(71percent)andalsomorereasonable workloads(59.7percent)andimprovedfacilitiesandresources(64percent)(Chikanda2004). Perceptionsoffuturecareerprospectsarealsofoundtobeimportantindeterminingthestrength ofdesireforpermanentversustemporaryemigration.InIndia,forexample,themajorityof prospectivenurseswantedtosettledownpermanentlyabroad(Khadria2004).Whilethe settlementofclosefamilyandfriendsabroadislikelytohavecontributedtothisdecision,the surveyalsofoundthatIndiannursesdidnotperceivetheircareerprospectstobebrightintheir homecountry.Incontrast,Indiandoctors,whodidperceivetangiblecareerprogressinIndia,were moreinclinedtogoabroadtemporarily,returningaftergainingtheirmedicalexperienceoverseas. ITprofessionalreturneesinthecityofBangaloresaidthatthemostimportantreasonforreturning toIndia,afterfactorsrelatingtofamily,was‘recognitionofIndiaasanemergingITpowerinthe world’andspecificallybecauseBangaloreisincreasinglyseenasthe‘corridorfortheinternational mobilityofITprofessionals’.MoreandmoreITprofessionalsarewillingtobuildacareerthere (Khadria2004). Thegroupofissuesaroundprofessionaldevelopment,includingaccesstotraining,development opportunitiesandbetterworkingenvironments,isthusshowntobeimportanttomanyskilled migrants.

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Theroleofnetworks Thereisalong-standingbeliefthatnetworksprovidechannelsthroughwhichtheinternational migrationprocesstakesplace(Vertovec2002).Theimportanceofnetworksasdriversofinternational migrationwashighlightedbyTilly(1990)inhishistoricalanalysisofimmigrationtotheUnitedStates; hesaidthatitis‘networks’,not‘individuals’or‘households’,thatmigrateandthatthesebecome ‘self-sustaining’(Vertovec2002:2).Socialnetworkshavebeenfoundtobeessentialinhelping potentialmigrantsfindaccesstobasicservicesandjobopportunitiesaswellasinpresentingthe emotionalandpsychologicalsupportnormallyprovidedbyfamilyathome. Severalofthesurveysweexaminedhighlighttheimportanceofnetworksinshapingintentionsto leaveaswellastoreturnhome.Buttheimportanceofthisfactorvariesacrossdifferentskilled migrants.Thereisalsovariationinthetypeofnetworksusedbyskilledmigrants. Thetwomaintypesofnetworksthatstronglyemergeintheanalysisarenetworksoffamily/friends andnetworksofcolleaguesororganisations.Withineachtherearedifferentforcesatplayintermsof influencingaskilledmigrant’sintentiontoemigrateversustheirintentiontoreturnhomeonce abroad. Inthecaseofintentiontoemigrate,networksoffamily/friendsandofcolleaguesareimportantbut appeartoplayaslightlydifferentroletotheeconomic-relatedfactorsdiscussedaboveinpromoting migration.Whilesomepeoplemighthaveaconcretereasonformoving,forothersnetworksbecome aninspiration–somethingthatmakesthepersonrealisethattheycouldmigrate,andforothersthey areafacilitatingfactor,somethingthatmakesapossibilityintoareality. Forexample,Khadria(2004)investigatedsourcesofinspirationformigrationaswellasreasonsfor moving.InhiscasestudyofIndiandoctorsandnursesfriendsoverseasweregivenasthemost importantsourceofinspirationforintendedout-migration,afterself-motivation.ForIndiannurses, however,thethirdmostimportantsourceofinspirationisfamilywhereasforIndiandoctors,itwasthe networkofcolleagues.Inadditiontothesenetworksasasourceofinspiration25percentofIndian nursesgavethefactofhavingrelativeslivinginthehostcountryasamotivatingfactorforgoing abroad,ratherthanjustasourceofinspiration. Theroleoffamilynetworksininspiringorsanctioningtheintentiontomigrateisclearlyvisibleamong highlyeducatedstudentsinSub-SaharanAfrica.ForexampleinLesotho,nearlyhalfofthestudents (47percent)indicatedthattheirfamilieswouldencouragethemtoleaveLesotho,whileonlyathird saidthattheirfamilieswoulddiscouragethem.Butregardlessofwhetherthefamilyputsupobstacles orencouragesemigration,themajorityofstudents(70percent)saidthattheultimatedecisionwasin theirhandsandonly10percentsaidthatthedecisionwouldbemadebytheirspouseorparents. FortheITprofessionalsinBangalorewhohadrecentlyreturnedfromabroad,networksofcolleagues andorganisationshadsimilarlybeentheprimesourceofinspirationtoemigrate(Khadria2004).This outcomestemsfromtheactiveroleplayedbyemployersinencouragingandfacilitatingITemployees tosecurejobsorprojectassignmentsabroadforafixedperiodoftime.Almosthalfoftherespondents statedthattheywentabroadforthisreason. Inthecaseoftheintentiontoreturnhome,networksoffamilyandfriendsareapowerfulinfluence onskilledmigrantstodoso,andnetworksofcolleagues,too,areasignificantpullfactorforsome skilledmigrants.InthecaseofIndianITprofessionals,familywasgivenasthemostimportantfactor incomingback.Onerespondent,forexample,saidthat‘hisparentsweregettingolderandnobody wastheretolookaftertheminIndia’(Khadria2004:11).Moreover,severalsurveysthatquestioned skilledmigrantsabouttheirintentionsofreturninghomeproducedfamilyastheprincipalreason.For example,oneinvestigationofTurkishstudents’returnintentionsindicatedthathavingfamilysupport stronglyencouragesreturntoTurkey(IZA2006). ThesefindingscomplementVertovec’sunderstandingthatnetworks‘utilizedbymigrantsvary considerablydependingonlocalhistoriesofmigration,nationalconditionsandcommunalsocioculturaltraits’(2002:3).Moreover,itisevidentthattrans-nationalnetworksmaybeoneofthe definitivefactorsinthedecisiontomoveeithertemporarilyorpermanentlyabroad.

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Socio-economicandpoliticalconditions Itmayseemoddtoexaminetheoverarchingpoliticaleconomicandsocialconditionsinacountryasa separatevariable.Butthesurveysrevealthatparticularcircumstancesorconditionsaffectinga countrydoinfluenceanindividual’sintentiontomigrate.Thisbecomesapparentfromtheemphasis migrantsplaceonsocial,politicalandeconomicproblemsintheirdiscussionsofwhytheyleft,or intendtoleave. Forexample,thepoliticalinstabilityintheFormerYugoslavRepublicofMacedoniawasrepeatedly mentionedbystudents,teachingstaffandresearchersasamotivationtoemigrate(Verica2003). Sincethe1990s,Macedoniahassufferedfrompersistentlyhighunemployment(at21percent)as wellaspoliticalinstabilityfromitsrefugeecrisisandthemilitaryconflictthatoccurredin2001.These havehadadiscernibleimpactonemigration.In1994,aboutthreequartersofeconomics,medical, mathematicsandnaturalsciencesstudentswereconsideringleavingthecountry.In2003,thisfigure hadrisento87percentofeconomicsandmedicalstudentsand79percentofmathsandnatural sciencesstudents. OnesurveyofmigrationintentionsamongSouthAfricanhealthprofessionalsfoundthat38percent ofrespondentsgaveviolenceandcrime/lackofpersonalsafetyascommonreasonstoemigrate (WorldHealthOrganisation2004).InsomeotherAfricancountries,theriskofcontractingHIVfigures moreprominentlyasareasonforleaving.Forexample,intheSAMPsurvey,almosthalfofthe studentsinterviewedinNamibiaindicatedthattheprevalencerateofHIV/AIDSmightinfluencethem tomove(Crushetal 2005).InUgandaandSenegal,85percentand70percentrespectivelyof healthphysicianssurveyedworriedaboutcontractingHIVthroughwork-relatedincidents(Awaseset al 2004).Interestingly,inZimbabwe,wheretheprevalencerateissaidtobehigherthaninNamibia andoneofthehighestinSouthernAfrica,HIV/AIDSisnotexplicitlymentionedasareasonto migrateineithertheSAMPortheWHOsurvey.Thismightreflecttheproblemofsocialstigma–HIV israrelyspokenofthere–oritmaybebecausesocioeconomicconditionsinZimbabweare deterioratingsosignificantlythattheyhavebecomethenumberonereasonforleaving,otherfactors fadingintothebackground(Awasesetal 2004). Respondents’perceptionsofprospectsintheirhomecountriesrelativetoothercountries,particularly inrelationtothestateoftheeconomy,arealsosignificantlycorrelatedwithmigrants’intentionto stayabroadforacertainperiodoftime.Forexample,theSAMPsurveyofLesothoindicatesa widespreadbeliefthattheeconomicconditionsofthecountryarenotgoingtoimprove.Thishasled to75percentofstudentsbelievingthatthosewhohaveleftLesothopermanentlyarebetteroffthan whentheywereinLesotho–asentimentthatislikelytohaveincreasedthelevelofemigrationfrom thecountry.Incomparison,theNamibiasurveyfoundthatonly27percentand22percentof respondentsweredissatisfiedwiththeirowncircumstancesandnationaleconomicconditions respectively,whichislikelytopartiallyexplainwhyeventheminoritywhowouldliketoemigrateseeit asonlyatemporaryoption(Crushetal 2005). Inthenextsectionwetakeupthequestionofwhymigrantsreturn,andtherelativeroleofimproving homecountryprospects.

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3.Toreturnornot? Whileinthepastbraindrainmighthavebeenseenasafeatureofpermanentdeparture,inrecent yearstherehasbeenarecognitionthatskilledmigrationisnotalwaysforeverandthatpeopleoften return,ormovebackandforthbetweendifferentdestinations.Thishasbeentermed‘brain circulation’. Thedecisionoverwhetherornottoreturnis,again,complex,andpreviousresearchhasshownitto becorrelatedtoavarietyoffactors(Finchetal 2009forthcoming).Theinsightwecangainthrough ourcomparisonofsurveydataistwofold. Firstly,itseemslikelythatmanymigrantswhodepartedforthereasonsgivenabove–pay, employment,professionaldevelopment,networksandthepoliticalandeconomicclimateathome– mightconsiderreturningshouldtheoriginalreasonsfordeparturedecreaseinsignificance.For example,ifnewgraduateswereleavingacountryinpartbecauseemploymentopportunitiesthere werepoor(asmanyhavedoneinPolandinrecentyears,goingtotheUKandIrelandamongother destinations[Pollardetal 2008]),thenasubstantialincreaseinemploymentopportunitiesintheir countryoforiginmightencouragethemtoreturn. Ofsignificancetothisfirstpointisthatrelativeperformancematters–negativetrendsinonecountry willnotnecessarilycausemigrantstodepartifproblemsareemergingeverywhere.Thisispartofwhat makespredictingwhatwillhappentomigrationoverthenextyearorsocomplex,giventhecurrent economiccrisiswhichisbeingexperiencedworldwide.Somemigrantswillbemakingcomparisons betweenmorethanthetwoplacesfromwhichtheyhavemovedfromandto,astheymightbe consideringmovingontootherplaceswhereopportunitiescouldbebetter.Andwhilesomemigrants mightbemobileandabletoliveinmanypotentialdestinations,migrantsarealsopeople,whomake livesforthemselvesandinvestthemselvesinaplace.Somarginaldifferencesinwagesorslight improvementsinprofessionalopportunitiesareunlikelytobemajormotivationalfactorsformoving. Formostmigrantsthedifferenceneedstobeworthmovingfor,takingintoaccountalltheattendant costs.Thereforesubstantialchangesinacountry’swages,employment,professionaldevelopment, networksandpoliticalandeconomicenvironmentarelikelytobenecessarytoenticelargenumbersof migrantstoreturn. Secondly,thereareadditionalfactorsthatareimportantindeterminingwhetheraskilledmigrant returns,includinghavingintentionstoreturnbeforegoingabroad,andthedegreeofattachmentor feelingofbelongingtoone’scountry. Thereissomeevidencetosuggestthatintentionsthatamigranthasatthetimeofmigratingare importantdeterminantsoftheactualtimetheyspendabroad.Ofcourse,weneedtobecautiousin inferringthiskindofcausalityaswhileskilledmigrantsareabroad,theircircumstances,ambitionsand perceptionsaresubjecttochangeandthereisnoguaranteethatpriorreturnintentionswilldictate actualreturn.Nonetheless,someevidencesuggeststhatintentionsdomatter.Surveyevidencefrom Jamaica(whichexaminesallmigrants,notjustthehighlyskilled[LucasandChappell2007])shows thatasignificantpercentageofmigrantsreturnedtotheirhomelandhavingachievedacertaingoal theyhadsetthemselvesbeforemigrating(forexample,undertakingaparticularjoborsavingacertain amountofmoney). Havinganattachmentorsenseofbelongingtoone’shomecountrycanbeapowerfulmotivating factorforreturn.Kangasniemietal (2004)findthatdoctorsfromlow-incomecountriesaremorelikely tointendtoreturnhomethandoctorsfromhigh-incomecountries,with50percentoftheformer intendingtodoso.Themostcommonreasonsgivenforthiswerethedesiretobeclosetofamilyand adutytoservetheircountry.Thisisapromisingoutcomesinceitshowsasenseofcommonsolidarity andaspirationtobuildanddeveloptheirrespectivecountries. Thehighdegreeofattachmenttothehomecountryamongskilledmigrantsisalsowitnessedinother moremicro-scalesurveys.OneintentionsurveycarriedoutinMacedoniafoundthatmostofthe peopleinterviewedsaidtheywouldliketogoabroadtemporarilybutnotpermanently.Ofstudents

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surveyed,30.8percentsaidtheywouldgoabroadtemporarilyforemploymentorprofessional advancementwithonly12.5percentsayingtheywouldemigratepermanently(Verica2003).In Namibia,theSAMPsurveyrecordedanexceptionaldegreeofattachmenttowardsthecountryamong students,with94percentexhibitingastrongdesiretohelpdevelopNamibiainthefuture(Crushet al 2005).Onlyaminorityofstudentsexpressedthewishtoemigratepermanently.Moststudentsalso indicatedthattheyarenotreadytobecomepermanentcitizensoftheirdestinationand38percent ofstudentssaidtheywouldbeveryunwillingtogiveuptheirhomeinNamibiafulltime.

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4.Atypologyoffactorsdrivingbraindrain Havingexploredtherolesofvariousfactorsindrivingbraindrainandencouragingbraincirculation,in Table2belowwebringthesetogetherintoabasictypology.Aswellashighlightingkeyfactors,it showswhichfactorsaremostimportantforwhichtypesofmigrants,lookingatage,professional experienceandskillset,andthecharacteristicsofthecountriestheycomefrom.

Table2.Typologyoffactors Motivationalfactor

Ofparticularrelevancetowhichmigrants?

EMIGRATION Incomeremuneration: Totakeadvantageofhigherwages indestinationcountry.Especiallyimportantwhereskillsare easilytransferablebetweencountries.

Studentsintertiaryeducation;skilledprofessionalsin sectorssuchashealthandIT.

Employment:Tosecureemploymentorattainjobsecurity. Incertaincases,migrantsareunwillingtocompromiseon gainingemploymentwithinthespecificfieldtheyhave trainedin.

Studentsintertiaryeducationandnewlygraduated professionals.

Professionaldevelopment:Toadvanceone’scareerby gainingworkexperience,trainingandaccesstothebest facilitiesandtechnologies.

Newlygraduatedprofessionalsandpeoplewhohave progressedsomewhatintheircareer(e.g.ITprofessionals, doctorsandnurses).

Personalandprofessionalnetworks: Thesearesometimesa concretereasontomove(e.g.tojoinfamily)butoften theyactasan‘inspirationalfactor’,orasfacilitators.

Keytohighlyskilledandseniorprofessionals.Alsobenefit newlygraduatedprofessionalsandstudents.

Nationalpoliticalandeconomiccircumstancesinthe homeland: Thesemattertothemigrantaboveandbeyond thedirectimpactstheyhaveontheiropportunities.

Newlygraduatedprofessionalswithoutawell-rooted network.

RETURN MIGRATION Generalimprovementofthesituationinthehomeland (e.g.economic,political): Thepushfactorthatbroughtthe migranttodeparthasdeclinedinsignificance.

Relevanttomost.

Feelingofbelongingtoone’scultureandsociety:Some migrants’highdegreeofattachmenttowards,andtheir desiretodevelop,theircountrymakesthemwanttoreturn.

Peoplefromlow-incomecountries,whotendtofeela greatsenseofcommitmenttotheircountry’s development;youngprofessionalsandstudentswithout familytiesinthereceivingcountry.

Onlyintendedtoleaveforshortperiod,usuallytoachieve aspecificobjective: Thuswillreturnafterworkingouta contractoroncereachesagoal(e.g.mortgageinvestment, paytuitionfeesorsetupabusinessinthehomeland).

Highlyskilledmigrants(e.g.consultants)holdingashorttermcontract;thosewholeavefamilyincludingspouses andchildrenbehind;entrepreneurs.

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5.Conclusionsandpolicyimplications Braindrainisnotalwaysapolicyproblem.Indeedinsomecasesthedepartureofthehighlyskilled maypromoteeducation,increasetheskilllevelofthepopulationandhelp,nothinderdevelopment. However,whereitisproblematic,policymakersareseekinga‘magicbullet’,atooltostemtheflow. Ourresearchsuggeststhatthissearchisfutile.Giventhenatureofthefactorsthathavebeenshown toencouragebraindrain,therecanbenooverarching‘solution’tothephenomenon.Indeed,our analysissuggeststhattheimportanceofwagedifferentialsinparticularindrivingbraindrainmean thatdevelopingcountrieswillnotbeabletostemtheflow,atleastnotinitsentirety.Doingsowould necessitatepayingwagesthataremuchmorecomparablewiththoseonofferinmajordestination countries,whichistooexpensiveanoption,andperhapsundesirableonothergrounds(suchasthe goalofachievingequitybetweendomesticwageearners). Ourexaminationrevealedthatifthereisconcernaboutthestrainsbroughtaboutbythedepartureof aspecificgroupsuchasdoctorsorstudents,itmaybepossibletousetailor-madeinterventionsto addressthespecificmotivationsthatcausemembersofthisgrouptoleave.Forexample,ourresearch suggeststhatonewayofreducingtheincentiveforinternationalmigrationamongdoctorswouldbe toofferthemregulartrainingopportunities. AnothermorespecificexampleisthecaseoftheSingaporeanlawfirmscurrentlyengagedinatug-ofwarcompetitiontoretainyounglawyers.Eachyear,onlyabout180lawstudentsgraduatefromthe NationalUniversityofSingapore.Thisalreadylownumberisaggravatedbytheoverwhelming tendencyamongyounglawyerswhohavefiveyearsorlessofworkexperiencetoleavethecountry forfirmsbasedoverseas(InternationalFinancialLawReview2008).Awareofthefactthathigher wagesarenottheonlywayofkeepingtheyounggenerationathome,theSingaporeanfirmsoffer theiryoungestrecruitsextraperkssuchasgymmemberships,socialandsportingevents,massage therapists,stress-managementworkshops,laundryfacilities,clothingandsmartphones.However,this isagroupofhigh-skilledworkerswhogreatlyvaluecareerdevelopment.Thusprobablyamore significantinitiativeistheprovisionofmentorshipfromaseniorlawyer.Usingthissameidea,global firmsofferinginternationalexposuretotheiremployeesareamongthemostsuccessfulintheir attempttoretainyounglawyers.Mentorshipinthesecasesappearstobeasuccessfulandcostefficientsolution. Forthosewhohavealreadymigrated,thedesiretobeclosetotheirrelativesaswellasthedutyto servetheircountryremainpowerfulmotivatingfactorsforreturn.Sendingcountriescantrytodevelop thesetiestoencouragepeopleback.Onepositiveresponsetobraindrainmightbetothinkof creativewaystoengageemigrantsinanongoingrelationship,stressingthepositiverolethattheycan potentiallyplayinthedevelopmentoftheirhomeland,anddeveloping,wherepossible,acontinuing senseofsocialandculturalengagement(seeThomas-Hopeetal 2009,forexample,whorecommend suchanapproachinJamaica).Thiscouldbepartofthewiderstrategiesofdiasporaengagementthat manydevelopingcountriesaredevelopingatpresent. Countriescouldalsoensuremigrantsaremoreawareofsomeofthesocialcostsofmigration;for example,childrenleftbehindaremorelikelytoperformpoorlyinschool,engageinviolentbehaviour, andexperiencedelinquencyandpsychologicalproblems(UNESCAP2008).2 Somenationsalreadydo thisbyprovidingpre-departureinformationcourses.Makingmigrantsawareofthesepotential impactswouldnotonlyhelpthemtopreparespecificstrategiestoavoidthemwhiletheyareaway, butmayalsoencouragethemtoreturn.Sucheducationalmaterialsneedtobecarefullydesigned, however,toavoidusingguiltasastrategytomitigatebraindrain.Thefocusshouldinsteadbeon informingmigrantssotheyarebetterabletoevaluatetherightcourseofactionforthemandtheir household.

2.ThisphenomenonwasalsocorroboratedbysomeofthefinaldiscussionsattheGlobalForumon MigrationandDevelopment,2008

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Giventhatthepoliticalandsocio-economicsituationofthehomelandisanotherfrequentlycited reasonformigrating,improvementsinthespecificareasinquestionarelikelytoattractpeopleback. Overall,giventhatinternationalcompetitionforhighlyskilledworkersdrivesbraindrain,and developedcountriesareabletopaymuchbetterwagestohighlyskilledworkers,braindrainislikely tocontinue.However,ifitcanbeascertainedwhichkindsofworkersarecausingthegreatest‘strain’ tothecountrybydeparting,strategiescanbedesignedthatmeetthespecificmotivationsofthat group.Inthiswaydevelopingcountriesmaybeabletoatleastpartiallystemtheflowandmitigate someofthemostnegativeimpactsofbraindrain.

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