Creation Epic And Gilgamesh

Caro Kingston Gilgamesh and the Akkadian Creation Epic- study guide Background information - Sumerians: invented writing: cuneiform - civilization between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers, surrounded by arid desert - the area is a hostile environment, gods are not benevolent - the flooding that brings fertility can also bring salt water from the sea = disaster - city states centered around temple life. ex: temple of Ishtar Key dates 4th millennium B.C.E – beginning of civilization is Mesopotamia ~ 2700 B.C.E. (possible up to a couple hundred years earlier – life of Gilgamesh ~ 2500 B.C.E. - Akkadian Creation Epic and Gilgamesh (were written down?) 1928 + 1930- The epic of Gilgamesh is published for the first time since it was lost Main ideas/ points Akkadian Creation Epic - was sung at the new year, essential to crop growth - biological model of gods coming into being - gods descend from Apsu, god of fresh water and Tiamat, godess of salt water - argumentative gods - chaos and war - nature is fundamentally hostile - humans are made, by Maku from the body of Tiamat, the vanquished god - humans are made to be slaves of gods - shared nature with gods since they are made from the divine Gilgamesh Important themes: - friendship (this is the tragedy of life, without it, there is no sadness but then again there is no room for happiness either) - immortality: 1. through deeds being remembered 2. through living for ever - divine justice - nature vs. man vs. the divine Gilgamesh: 2/3 divine, 1/3 human Enkidu: 1/3 human - Enkidu is created to balance Gilgamesh and restore order of the city - natures rejects Enkidu after he has lain with harlot, Enkidu grew weak because he had gained human nature and wisdom - Enkidu challenges Gilgamesh and then they become friends and natural order is restored - journey to the forest to fight and vanquish Humbaba - wrath of the gods, death of Enkidu - Gilgamesh's search for Utnapishtim and eternal life - return, to Uruk Important quotes: Akkadian Creation Epic "When on high the heaven had not been named, Firm ground below had not been called by name, Naught but the primordial Apsu, their begetter, (and) Mummu-Tiamat, she who bore them all, their waters commingling as a single body" (19) ""Blood I will mass and cause bones to be. I will establish a savage, 'man' shall be his name. Verily, savage man I will create. He shall be charged with the service of the gods, That they might be at ease!""(23) gods names: Lahmu, Lahamu, Anshar, Kishar, Anu, Nudmimmud, Anshar, Marduk, Ea, Damkina

Caro Kingston Gilgamesh "Enkidu has grown weak, for wisdom was in him and the thoughts of man were in his heart." (64) "When two go together each will protect himself and his companion and if they fall they leave and enduring name" (77) the prophetic dreams: 77 – 79 "because they have killed the Bull of Heaven, and because they have killed Humbaba who guarded the Ceder Mountain one of the two must die" (89) "How can I rest, how can I be at peace? Despair is in my heart. What my brother is now, that shall I be when I am dead" (97) "There is no permanence. Do we build a house to stand for ever…?" (106-7) "Urshananbi, climb up on to the wall of Uruk, inspect its foundation terrace, and examine well the brickwork; see if it is not of burnt bricks; and did not the seven wise men lay these foundations? One third of the whole is city, one third is garden, and one third is field with the precinct of the goddess Ishtar. These parts and the precinct are all of Uruk." Comedy? This shit ain’t funny! o o

Leopard (represents Upper Hell), lion (violent, intentional sins), she-wolf (perversion of reason, malicious, very intentional) Cowardice --- > Hopelessness ---- > Carelessness (Leopard) ----- > Violence (Lion and She-Wolf)

Inferno: Vestibule: o land of the apathetic o neither good nor bad o never made a choice o Celestine V Limbo: first circle o un-baptized and virtuous pagans (people born before the time of Christ) o Virgil -- Averroes -- Avicenna – Homer – Horace --- Ovid, --- Lucan ---- Socrates --- Aristotle --- Saladin (all Pagan philosophers) o Judged by Minos o Suffering only in absence of hope. o Crosses the River Acheron Second Circle: Upper Hell – Incontinence – the Sins of the Leopard o The Lustful o Paolo and Francesca – Dido – Cleopatra – o Blown around by a warm breeze Third Circle: o The Gluttonous o Ciacco, called “The Pig” o Forced into vile slush by freezing rain, black snow, hail Fourth Circle: o The Hoarders and Spend-Thrifts o Each group pushes against each other (back and forth, pulling and thrusting) o Plutus guards it

Caro Kingston Fifth Circle o The Wrathful o In River Styx o Wrathful fight each other on the ground; the Sullen are lying in the mud and can’t talk. o Phlegyas transports them – sees Filippo Argenti. Sixth Circle: City of Dis o Heretics are trapped in flaming tombs o Followers of Epicurus Seventh Circle: Houses the Violent o Phlegethon: violent against people and property. Drown in a river of boiling blood --- The centaur Nessus guides them. o Wood of Suicides: violence against self --- torn at by harpies --- Pier delle Vigne o Abominable Sand: violence against God (blasphemers), violence against Nature (sodomites), violence against order (usurers) ---- Brunetto Latini --- Iacopo Rusticucci Eighth Circle: conscious fraud or treachery o Seducers and pimps o Perverted Amor o Lying to achieve aims. Ninth Circle: o Flatters (hurts the community) Pit of Hell: o Narrative is hard to understand o Giants: o Nimrod o Ephialtes o Antaeus o Frozen Lake o Caïna: Traitors to Family --- frozen in ice up to necks o Antenora: Traitors to Country o Ptolomæa: Traitors to Guests o Judecca: Traitors to Lord o Climbs out of the worm (or dragon. But probably worm)

Purgatory – Whoohoo! What a party! o o

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Arrive @ 5 AM on Easter Sunday Theological Virtues: o Charity (Mary) --- > o Hope (Beatrice) o Faith (Lucy) All about re-birth – magpies and singing. Bring your will into alignment with what you truly want (God) Cato = committed suicide when Caesar become Emperor of Rome, because he didn’t want to see the downfall and destruction of Republic. If not a pagan would have been a Philosopher King. o Wife Marcia is in Limbo. Subtle criticism of his o Exemplified Cardinal Virtues:  Temperance  Prudence  Justice

Caro Kingston  Courage Ante-Purgatory: o The Excommunicate: Been kicked out of the church. Detention for 30 times period of contumacy. o The Late Repentant: The Indolent, the Unshriven, and the Preoccupied. Detention for period equal to that of earthly life. o Peter’s Gate: exactly between the two poles. Middle of the mountain. Both sides of the horizon. Angel has two keys of St Peter (Purgatorio IX ):, silver (remorse) and gold (reconciliation) to open the gate. Draws seven Ps on his forehead: Peccata (means “wounds”) o Step One: white marble. Confession. o Step Two: Colour darker than purple. Contrition. o Step Three: Blood red. Satisfaction. o Threshold: Diamond o Cornice One: Pride (Carry heavy stones) --- Love of Neighbour’s Harm o Cornice Two: Envy (Sealed eyes) --- Love of Neighbour’s Harm o Cornice Three: Wrath (Smoke) --- Love of Neighbour’s Harm o Cornice Four: Sloth (Running) (Love Defective) o As moon rises, darkens light of four starts --- Moon = natural reason, Stars = cardinal virtues o Cornice Five: Avarice/Greed (Prostration) (Excessive Love of Secondary Good) o Statius: o Cornice Six: Gluttony (Starvation) (Excessive Love of Secondary Good) o Cornice Seven: Lust (Fire) (Excessive Love of Secondary Good) o Three Guides = Statius, Beatrix, Virgil. o Earthly Paradise/Eden: o Matilda. Frolicking. First person that they see. o Beatrice flies in on a griffin – big fuckin’ allegory. True nature in the reflection in her eyes. Can only see eagle and lion separately. Symbolic of Christ. ---- > Jesus is all man and all God. o Garden of Eden and Limbo are identical in quality of life. Paradiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiise. o

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Structure of Paradise comes from Pseudo-Dionysius.

o Circle of Moon: People who have abandoned their vows. Piccarda. Mark of Cain --- > heaven, but not perfect. Can be in shadow of the earth therefore not perfect. Empress Constance.

o Circle of Mercury: People who did good out of desire for fame. Justinian. o Circle of Venus: Who did good out of love, but were deficient in the virtue of temperance. o Circle of Sun: Is that of souls of the wise, who embody prudence. St. Thomas Aquinas. St. Bonaventure. o o o o o o

o First Ring: Dominicans (Thomas Aquinas) o Second Ring: Franciscans (Bonaventure) Circle of Mars: Souls who fought for Christianity, and who embody fortitude Circle of Jupiter: Souls who personified justice, Circle of Saturn: that of the contemplatives, who embody temperance. Beatrice Fixed Spheres of Stars: sphere of the Church Triumphant. He is tested on faith by Saint Peter, hope by Saint James, and love by Saint John the Evangelist. Visions of Christ and of the Virgin Mary Premium Mobile: Land of Angels. Dante sees God as a point of light surrounded by nine rings of angels, and is told about the creation of the universe. Empyrean: Here the souls of all the believers form the petals of an enormous rose. Beatrice leaves him – theology has reached its limits. God appears as three equally large circles within each other representing the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit.

MIDTERM EXAMINATION STUDY SHEET Section I: Ancient World Egypt: • Hell (located on west where sun sets) is symbol of rebirth: recurring archetype of herohellrebornhero: hero who dies + reborn= fundamental to self-knowledge

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Pharaoh = earthly incarnation of sun god Ra/Khepri (bringing all life into being), as a King, General, High Priest + mediator between gods and humans Men came into being from tears of eyes of Khepri Nun: primeval ocean, surrounded world/universe Human life at mercy of natural existence: exp of nature = exp divinity Egyptian language: naming is part of the essence: naming a child=revelation of gods Words important because had power to effect changes: “I have made him non-existent: his name is not” ([M5] 5). Ritual destruction of name. Also creation by utterance Sun = life + death  cyclical unity, confirmed by Nile Gods die too, not distinctly human, ex: sun dies every daydeath gives way to life, DEATH=HOMECOMING (not like Gilgamesh who tries to prevent death) Moral dimension: weighing of the heartnow one had to prove worthiness Osiris the dead associate with him, call on him (b/c he was mythical king murdered by brother set and brought to life by sister and wife Isis, with help of Anubis)

Epic of Gilgamesh • Sumerians were first literate inhabitants of Mesopotamia (beginning of written tradition), theirs is language of oldest tablets from Nippur which relate to Gilgamesh. • No one read Gligamesh after 612BC until 1872 • Ziggurat pyramid= example of Egyptian and Mesopotamian overlap • 2750BCE = traditional date for kingship of Gilgamesh, King of Uruk, southern portion of Meso, called Sumeria (Akkadian is the next Semitic nation that will later conquer) • Tablets in Niniveh, Assyrian library that was sacked in year 312 • Theme: About someone who LOOKED DEATH IN THE FACE, he saw the deep! QUEST for oneself, pilgrimage, hardships (kills bull of heaven and Humbaba, keeper of forest) • Ninsun, mother, refered to as “one of the wise gods” • Enkidu “brave companion who rescues his friend in necessity” (67), compared to a meteor of stuff of Anu, and an axe. Innocent of mankind but finds his humanity, even though discovering self = weakness in soul that doesn’t allow you to act “Enkidu was grown weak for wisdom was in him, and the thoughts of man were in his heart” • Enkidu’s death and Gilgamesh’s journey is for the greater glory of Uruk, through his death and G’s sorrow city is ennobled • Enlil: god of the air, “power in action” (24) • Anu: Lord of the firmament (108) • Shamash: god of______, helps/protects/favours Gilgamesh, gives restless heart to G (74) • Ishtar: goddess of love and war, causes chaos, bitter rage (87) • Utnapishtim: man survived deluge, granted eternal bliss in land of Dilmun, by gods • Lugulbanda: his father? • Dreams: regarded as prophecies: favour or disfavour to gods, “for the dream has shown that the misery comes at last to the healthy man, the end of life is sorrow” (93). • Other themes: friendship, self/other (second self), grief & death= quest of transformation, where realize weakness and recognize importance of morality. The Bible • Biblical Godmonotheistic, no parents/spouse, no divine rivals/friends, not part of nature but transcends natural world • “I am who I am”Yahweh (yhwh) hwh = “become”: futural, non fixity & unpredictability • “you cannot see my face; for man shall not see me and live...Behold there is a place by me where you shall stand upon the rock and while my glory passes by...i will cover you with my hand” (exodus 33:19-21) : intrinsic nature is inaccessible and intolerable to man but his ethical intentions can be glimpsed by humans • “He saw that all was good” (Genesis): goodness refers to created world, in beginning God is talking but not to explain, more to enact: POWER OF WORD TO CREATE, TO SPEAK LIGHT INTO BEING • Genesis produced in 9th century BCE (9th-6th C, whole Bible made) • Order of creation: moves in ascending order from lesser creatures to higher creatures: 1)Light (day and night) 2)Heaven(firmament) 3) Earth/land, sea, vegetation 4)Sun, moon, stars 5)water/sea life and birds 6)land animals and man 7)rested “blessed the seventh day and hallowed it”

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Man: “Let us make man in our image (Hebrew word selem= true reality of things), after our likeness and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea...” (Gen.1.26). In a way creation is like a prelude to creation of man (chap 2: second account creation>garden of Eden) • What sets us apart: our apprehension, power of intellect, naming animals=supreme intellectual act • “When you eat of it your eyes will be opened and you will be like God, knowing good and evil”(Gen 3.5) • “Then the eyes of both were opened and they knew they were naked” (3:7) • “Who told you that you were naked?” (Gen 3.11)now see nakedness in terms of good and bad (value judgements) • Being able to know truth does not make you like God, it shows how far fallen from grace EXODUS: focus shifts from creation of universe to origin of nation, national epic • 1) account of enslavement 2)liberation by God 3)march of ppl to Mnt Sinai • Waterassociated with Egypt, Dryness1st encounter with God (Mt. Horeb), burning bush • Revelation of law: knowledge in form of ethical commandments • Moses = Masha (Hebrew) “drawn from water”, has staff turns into serpent • Pharaoh’s magicians magic is major component of Egyptian life “harden his heart”Hebrew= encourage, Pharaoh’s will there just allowed to persist (by God) Plagues: 1) Nile river into blood 2)frogs 3)lice/gnats 4)plague on cattle to die 5)burning rash 6) hail & fire flashing 7)locust 8) 9) 3day darkness/eclipse 10) death of first-born Go’shen= land where ppl of Israel lived, safe from plagues 10 COMMANDMENTS: most clear sign of God’s love (no love of God outside justice) 1 I am the Lord your God 2 You shall have no other gods before me + You shall not make for yourself an idol 3 You shall not make wrongful use of the name of your God 4 Remember the Sabbath and keep it holy 5 Honour your father and mother 6 You shall not kill/murder 7 You shall not commit adultery 8 You shall not steal 9 You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour 10 You shall not covet your neighbour’s house, wife, manservant, ox, ass etc ASCLEPIUS • Remember STOICs: recognize that fate = only true good, resistance = pain (e.g. Dido, rejects fate, surrenders will to passion, follows fortune/consumed by irrational elements in soul) • Stoics: Your will is will of Rome/ Good of the empirefate good for the ppl on top (Kings, intellectuals) not appealing to common pplfate = oppression • Civic religion for formality but common ppl wanted gods of cosmos (not empire), worship to suit daily lives Cults: • Offered salvationfreedom from fate • Individuals have inner divinity: purpose of the Mysteries is to awaken this divinity • Tended to eastern gods, gods of aura of mystery (Jews, hindus, Greeks, Egyptians): Isis, Osiris o Osiris suffering relatable to human suffering, Isis death & rebirth appealing to emotions • Ptolemy introduces Library of Alexandria (fusion of cultures and religions) • ****RITUAL IDENTIFICATION WITH GODSdeath & rebirth (Christian baptism) • Philosophy + religion, reason + revelation big problem b/c we can’t ascend God must reveal himself • Secretive: lest the presence and interference of the many profane this most reverent discourse (43) Holy Book of Hermes Addressed to Asclepius [M14] • Written before 1st and 2nd century in Roman-Egypt • Hermes: guide to secret of rebirth, invokes powers of stars, transmits secret wisdom to disciples o Patron of all cult sciences, associated with word of God (like JC), in renaissance 15th C, seen as pre-Christian prophet almost equal to Moses • Divine discourse in realm of divine inspirationHermes is vessel for divine word Subject of Discourse: Unity of All Things

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“all are of one or all are one, for they are linked so that they cannot be separated from the other”(43) Human soul immortal, all have “same quality”, soul = universal + particular o In God all things are contained in unity but through creation we become particular o Creation: self-unfolding of the divine (multiplicity): “...god a continuous influence carries through the world and through the soul of all kinds (44) , “All things that depend from above are divided into forms” (44) Forms & Kinds • God is supreme [absolute transcendent good “His will is all goodness” + “he is nameless or rather all-named” (48) • “Kind is the entirety while the form is a smaller part” (44) : Kinds produce the Forms o “Thus the kind made up of gods will produce from itself the forms of gods” (44) o Another form of kind which is without soulinanimate: plants, trees, rocks etc • This produces hierarchy of gods! (God’s transcendence = intermediary gods Chain of Relationships Matter    Hierarchy of Ementations     Supreme God (pure potentiality) Humans (divine intellect + body) •

Notion of Dignity of Human • We have deity within, WE ARE MEDIATORS, WE ARE STAGED BTWN TWO EXTREMETIES o He has put us... place in the middle...to cherish those beneath him and be cherished by those above him(45) o Mediators b/c we have 1)reason, soul, spirit, consciousness and 2) body/material part (45) • We fashion temples and gods, advancing toward god by making gods strong (48) • Human consciousness is infinite (closet image to God): “Mankind knows himself and knows the world” (45) o Ancient sense of self-knowledge: IN KNOWING YOURSELF YOU KNOW UNIVERSE, humans more divine than universe b/c we comprehend it! • To attain salvation must remember own divinity: o “Always mindful of its nature of origin, humanity persists in imitating divinity, representing gods in semblance of its own features”(49) o And “ discharge and release from worldly...loosing the bonds of mortality so that god may restore us” (46) Rituals: • Performance of ritual = participating in divine p. 51 [38] gods mix of plants, stones, etc, spirits invoked into them • 2 ways of worship: 1) material form for visible gods 2) transcendent form for Supreme God Secret Dialogue of Hermes Trismegistus...to his son Tat on being born again and on the promise to be silent • “[the womb] is the wisdom of understanding in silence” (53)in quietude see spiritual realities of mind o Passive state!: “cannot be taught” (53) only received • Once we transcend cosmic order “zodiacal circle” (56) minds in tune with divine power Rebirth: • Rebirth in mind “I went outside of myself...I have been born in mind” (54) • “Whoever through mercy has attained this godly rebirth and has forsaken his bodily sensation recognizes himself as constituted of the intelligible and rejoices” (55) o Recognition of own omnipresence through consciousness: been blocked by irrational torments of matter. 54 o “I no longer picture things with the sight of my eyes...I am in heaven, in earth, in water, in air...” (55) PURIFICATION!!! • Rebirth by recog. 12 irrational torments and expelling them o Ignorance, grief, incontinence, lust, injustice, greed, deceit, envy, treachery, anger, recklessness, malice • Hymn of rebirth (after being purified)p.55+ THOMAS AQUINAS Background Info: • Gothic structure is kind of risk taking: balance of opposing forces (stone building, walls of glass) • Opposition holds up structure like: secular sacred + sacred secular both pull and hold each other up • Universities built out of working through a “sic et non” (yes and no) o Abelard posits SIC ET NON  fundamental to new system of opposition o All positions of authority (e.g. Bible, philosophical texts) submitted forth to address both sides of argument

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Hellenistic worldArabic world (interested in technology and philosophy)Latin (in Palermo): there universities spring up: Thomas Aquinas learns Aristotle as commentated by Arabs • Aquinas: search for philosophy and wisdom: philosophy had to prove what religion believes Thomas Aquinas (aka: The Great Ox)[Selection M8] • Summa Theologica 3 parts: Part, questions, articles • Part 1: Question 1: Any other sciences besides philosophy needed? Philo. Complete b/c includes God o Response: scripture provides knowledge that surpasses reason. This knowledge necessary for SALVATION: “man directed to God, as to an end that surpasses the grasp of reason” (182) • Aquinas follows Maimonides: ppl should begin with philosophy (fit for our mind), then in recognizing limits revelation can occur STRUCTURE OF LATIN WEST: Two Sources of Knowledge: • 1) Natural light of reason  NATURE • 2)Natural light of prophecy GRACE Two Types of Theology: • 1) Philosophy: teaches material things • 2) Prophecy: teaches what reason doesn’t understand through revelation • Foundation of secular knowing: known by nature & distinguished by time through scriptural rev. Essential Point: • Arts and sciences ARE REAL, demonstrate real truths BUT reason must understand there are SOME TRUTHS IT CANNOT KNOW & CANNOT BE DEMONSTRATED unless through revelation (so philosophy determines things that can’t be known through demonstration) • Scripture noblest of sciences: doesn’t need other sciences, but we do b/c “defect of our intelligence” (184) o “This science can in a sense depend upon the philosophical science, not as though it stood in need of them, but only in order to make its teaching clearer...as handmaidens” (184) Existence of God (3 parts concern: God/Deo, Humans, Christ) • God = pure existence, pure actuality simplicity: the ONE:God has no body, scripture talks in metaphors o P. 190, God can’t be body b/c body is potentiality that actualizes when animated, God is actuality Active Intellect (is soul a body?) • Soul is NOT A BODY b/c “we must premise that the soul is defined as the first principle of life” (191) o Soul is what animates, SOUL IS A FORM for body o Soul = form = act Hylomorphism: everything composed of matter and soul o Body = matter = potential • Soul is subsistent only if soul performs activity that does not depend on body: o Soul has NOUS, intellect: “the principle of intellectual operation which we call soul, is a principle both incorporeal and subsistent” If P.I.O contained a body, would be unable to know all bodies 192 . Is there Active Intellect • In order to understand concepts you need active intellect that changes sensible into intelligible o You can see (senses) human as flesh, bone, colours, but can’t see concept of “human” o “We must...assign on the part of intellect some power to make things actually intelligible, by abstraction of the species from material conditions” (194-195) Is Active/Agent Intellect in Soul? • Intellect is not like external sunlight shining into us, it is like light in us received when souls stamped by God’s form of thinking which allows us to become human (in image of God) • There are many active intellects as there are men: “but if the active intellect is something belonging to soul, as one of its powers, we are bound to say that there are as many AI’s as there are souls” (197) Neoplatonic (Agent Intellect belongs to every living soul) understanding of Aristotle: treats whole concern of Hellenistic period (individual destiny, moral conscience, responsibility, liberty) o “Wherefore, all men enjoy in common this power which is the principle of this action: and this power is the active intellect. But there is no need for it to be identical in all...thus possession by all men in common of the first principles proves the unity of separate intellect” (197) AL-FARABI Hellenism transmitted to Islam (through Al-Farabi)

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CRUCIAL: translation of Hebrew scriptures into Greek (200 BCE) Translation of culture and language reached climax in Philo Judeas of Alexandria (20BCE-50 CE) Philo makes Moses the perfect philosopher king, “living the law”, Moses like Plato • BIG EVENT: 7th & 8th century, Islamic empire conquers Africa, France, Greece etc, Umayyad Caliphate, assimilate Greek and Persian culture • *661CE Umayyad capital moved from Medina (Arabian Peninsula) to Damascus (Byzantine Christian capital) Islam turns to Hellenic world e.g. copy, modify Greco-roman architectural decorative forms • 750CE: Abbasid successors move East to create own Muslim Holy City: Baghdad: massive translation project occurs • CRUCIAL: medium through which Islam received Hellenic view: Christians Al-Farabi Selection M4 • Nature of the FIRST: Pure being, formless being, not activity in relation to matter. Has no cause of existence Has NO PURPOSE, NOAIM b/c if it did, fulfilling its purpose would be its cause of being. o Pure intellect: thinks own essence/ own object of thought. (pg 59) • Emanations come from First: they are pure substances (intellects: separate from matter), ask go down rank emanations become less perfect (more division= less perfection) p. 68 • Names are applied equivocally. God is perfect so doesn’t need additions (63): names denote excellence World Above Moon: Separate Intellects (incorporeal) • Separate intellects that emanate from the First and create spheres which they produce and govern • Everything below the first thinks the First and itself (like reasoning) p.64-65 • 11th emanation: Agent Intellect: stands in relation to us • Below moon things have matter and form (no longer pure intellect or separate entities) p.66 o World of becoming operates by motion (start, stop), not self-sufficient. Dependent on self-sufficient motion of the eternal celestial bodies Political Realm: Reason • Human reasoning: disposition of matter that can become “potentially intellect” o Start off with material mind but can potentially think immaterial • Can’t intellectualize ourselves 11th emanation: AGENT INTELLECT, outside us, give us “imprints”, gives us intelligible p.73 o “in need of something else which transfers from potentiality to...make them actual” (73) • Intelligibles give us happiness, voluntary action, how we become aware of good and evil (74) Relation of Subordination • Way the individual works in relation to cosmos is way city should work in relation to ruler o Ex: family is not self-sufficient: works for city • Like Plato: 3 classes: Ruling class, Second class (intellectuals?), third class aka everyone else (5.77) Ruler of City • Ruler requires conditions: right capacities, right habit of will, completely educated, philosophy (moral+intellect) pg. 78 • Turned himself to philosophical contemplation to reach good, mind conformed to intellect above • Fully developed prophetic side, language of religion o Without religion cannot persuade city to be rational o Through religious language gives ppl rational religion, true religion (intellect of divine quality 80) o “he is the Imam” (11.80) • Political leader + religious leader o Platonic republic has become universal state • Leader should rule universal state under universal religion (sort of Constantine’s plan) MOSES MAIMONIDES Background Info: • Jewish author, 1135-1204, born in Cordoba Spain, • Spain comes out of Islamic rule, travels to Africa, Egypt (Cairo) works with royal Islamic elite • Spiritual and political leader of the Jewish, Guide of the Perplexed written in 1190 (in Arabic) • Fundamental question of GofP: relation of human capacity to come to understand reality + revelation of God found in Holy Books to men o Argues: one can deduce from philosophy world of nature in Torah • Philosophy necessary to grasp fundamentals of faith, religion and God

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“divine science cannot become actual except after a study of natural science” 100-101. Must begin with God’s creation, then move to his incoporeality Selection M6 • World (all that is) = one world, finite sphere divided into: 1)heavenly realm 2)worldly realm • Geocentric universe (stationary stars move around earth)—Aristotle’s On the Heavens • Body: celestial body that holds within holds motion of planets o Planets have diff. nature than earthly b/c of perfect circular motion, eternal, unchanging like God o 5th body comprises the heavens and the spheres Sublunary world governed by earth, fire, air, water • Form: what gives shape, essence, character, ACTUALITY o Fundamental: directedness, determinedness, definiteness: presence of thinking in matter • Matter: what is unformed, without definition: POTENTIALITY • Elements: not prime matter, already have their type of form • Whatever on earth (intelligence, regulation) has origin above b/c prime matter can’t do anything itself • Motion of elements isn’t natural: ex: earth only moves to centre if taken violently out of place • Elements mix to create life: fifth body forces circular motion into the elements” o Circular relationship btwn elements reflects perfect higher circularity (look at pic in notes) Soul • Heavens imbue lower realities with soul (heavens move perfectly circular thus: have soul M5p.86 o “Every motion existing in the world has as its 1st principle the motion of the heaven, and every soul existing in the beings endowed with souls that are in the world has as its principle the soul of the heaven” (M5. P.88) Analogy • World is a kind of politic: must have governor 5th element rules all o Analogous to human body: unity of human body crucial for continued existence o However, human heart “profits” from other limbs/organs but “there is nothing like this in the universal being” (93). • Possibility of intelligent action: result of ordered action, unity (92) • However, intellect not separate from body but God does no subsist in the world: SEPARATENESS o “For the governance and the providence of Him...accompany the world as a whole in such a way that the manner and true reality of this accompaniment are hidden from us; the faculties of human beings are inadequate to understand this(94) Torah Speaketh in the language of the sons of man (107) • Necessary b/c only way we can understand God • Speaks in metaphors when dealing with corporeality of God • Need to examine parables externally: “Their external meaning contains wisdom that is useful in many respects, among which is the welfare of human societies, as is shown by the external meaning of Proverbs and of similar sayings” (104) • Parables: some of the each word has a meaning, for others parable as whole contain meaning • What has been taught had been known but had been forgotten b/c of pagans etc (112) • Mutakallimun: adopted Christianity from Muslims but instead of conforming to premises that existed, they made religion conform to their “truth”: universe in terms of their opinion (115) o Loathes Mutkallimun’s position. Believes: (as Themisius says) “ that which exists does not conform to the various opinions, but rather the correct opinions conform to that which exists” (116) • Uses method of demonstration o “For according to me the correct way, which is the method of demonstration about which there can be no doubt, is to establish the existence and the oneness of the deity and the negation of corporeality through the methods of the philosophers...” (117-18) Eternity of the World (3 positions) Prophecy: “Know that the true reality and quiddity of prophecy consists in its being an overflow overflowing from God...through the intermediation of the Active Intellect, toward the rational faculty...and thereafter toward the imaginative faculty” (137) Genesis “In the beginning of God’s creating the heavens and the earth... God said, ‘Let there be light,’ and there was

Caro Kingston light. God saw that the light was good, and God separated between the light and the darkness...” (Genesis 1:1-3). Chapters 1-4 God creates light and then separates it from darkness and calls them day and night. He creates the heavens and the waters underneath, then separating the waters with land. Next comes vegetation and fruits. He creates light in the sky in the form of the sun and the moon. He creates creatures, blessing them and commanding them to be fruitful and multiply. God creates man in His image, leaving him dominion over the creatures, also commanding him to be fruitful and multiply. Finally, on the 7th day, God rests, thus creating rest. God commands Adam not to eat from the tree of knowledge. God decides that it is not good that Adam is alone and so He creates Eve, the woman, from one of Adam’s ribs. (Side note - In hebrew, Adam simply means Man. Adamah means earth and Dam means blood.)The cunning snake tricks Eve into eating from the tree of knowledge who in turn tempts Adam into eating the fruit as well. Their eyes are opened and they realize that they are naked and sew clothes to cover themselves. As punishment, the snake is doomed to crawl on his belly for all eternity to eat the dust of the earth. Eve will suffer tremendously in childbearing and Adam must not suffer in his work to make ends meat (or bread). Both Adam and Eve are banished from the garden of Eden. Eve has two sons; Cain and Abel. Cain offers fruit of the ground to God brought certain animals from his flock. God favours Abel and this annoys Cain and he murders Abel. When God asks Cain where his brother is, Cain responds, “I do not know. Am I my brother’s keeper?” God punishes Cain by putting a mark on him so that he may wander the earth for a really long time and no one will kill him. Exodus All of Jacob’s sons (Rueben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Benjamin, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, and Joseph) and their households settle in Egypt. Pharaoh fears them and enslaves them. He commands that every son must be killed by being thrown into the river. Moses is born and is brought up by Pharaoh’s daughter. Moses one day sees a task master beating an Israelite and he murders the task master. He runs away to Midian where he becomes a shepherd. While doing the shepherdy thing one day he meets the famous burning bush which is actually God. God commands Moses to lead the children of Israel out of Egypt. Moses goes back to Egypt to ask Pharoah to free the children of Israel. God hardens Pharaoh’s heart and so he says no. (Note that this does not means that God was using Pharaoh as a puppet so as to have an excuse to plague Egypt. Pharoah to would have chosen not the let Israel go anyway, God just ensured this decision.) Go plagues Egypt 10 times; blood, frogs, lice, flies/beasts, pestilence, boils, storm, locusts, darkness, and death of the first born. The children of Israel are freed from Egypt, Moses splits the Red Sea with his magic staff, and they all wander the desert until they come to Mount Sinai. They receive the Torah/Bible, which is what the entire story of Exodus is leading up to. FYP MIDTERM NOTES: LUKE AND ROMANS Context Christ is born into the days of the Roman Empire, but the culture of the Mediterranean area around is mainly Greek, i.e. Hellenistic. The religion in most of the empire is based upon tradition of local and family gods, but there is a confidence (from the Hellenic philosophy) that truth exists, and is accessible by every man. There is a problem of how to relate the individual to the universal – Hellenistic, Roman and Jewish problem. Luke was a physician who often traveled with Paul, and like Paul he was not one of the Apostles. Paul’s conversion happened after the death of Christ, when Paul – who was a very learned, pious Jew – was persecuting the early Christians. Paul wrote his book to the church in Rome sometime after his conversion 35 Luke Summary - John the Baptist is born, Mary is visited by an angel foretelling the birth of Jesus - 6 or 4 BCE Jesus is born in Bethlehem - John the Baptist prepares the way by prophesying in the desert - Jesus is tempted by Satan in the desert for “40 days and 40 nights” (4:1-13) - Jesus begins his earthly ministry around 26 CE, preaching in synagogues, healing people, driving out evil spirits, and calling disciples to him - Jesus calls 12 apostles: Simon Peter, Andrew, James, John, Philip, Bartholomew, Matthew, Thomas, James son of Alphaeus, Simon called the Zealot, Judas son of James, and Judas Iscariot

Caro Kingston - the famous Sermon on the Mount (6:17-49) - Jesus continues teaching, prophesying his own death in hidden language, using parables to teach the people and his disciples - the teachers of the law and chief priests conspire with Judas to arrest Jesus - Pilate, the Roman official, finds no fault in Jesus, and hands him over to the people - Jesus is crucified upon a cross, he is seen alive upon the third day by the women who followed him, two followers upon the road, and then his disciples - after instructing the disciples about how to carry on, Jesus is taken up into heaven Interpretative notes - John the Baptist is the greatest human being, alternatively the least of heavenly beings - with the changing of John’s name in Luke 1, there is a new sense of individuality: echoed later by Christ, that it is who follows Jesus, not those who are in his family, who belong with him - Jesus is called the Son of God: Christians believe him to both fully God and fully man, bridging the gap between the two - Sermon on the Mount an overturning of old rules, for new absolutes – called a “changing of the guard” (A. Johnston, FYP lecture) - the good contained in Jesus’ parables are like Plato’s good: one can see the good, but one requires knowledge to understand: “His disciples asked him what this parable meant. HE said, “the Knowledge of the secrets of the kingdom of God has been given to you, but to others I speak in parables, so that ‘though seeing, they may not see; though hearing, they may not understand.’” (8:9-10) - in Jesus, there is a unity between the absolute human person and absolute divine - explanation of the parable of the empty house (see quotations below): if you hear the words of Jesus and ‘clean your house’ but do not bother to fill it with the good, the bad will come back even worse than before. Quotations “If anyone would come after me, he must deny himself and take up his cross daily and follow me. For whoever wants to save his life will lose it, but whoever loses his life for me will save it. What good is it for a man to gain the whole world, and yet lose or forfeit his very self?” (9:23-25) “’Let the dead bury their own dead, but you go and proclaim the kingdom of God.’” (9:60) “When an evil spirit comes out of a man, it goes through arid places seeking rest and does not find it. Then it says, ‘I will return to the house I left.’ When it arrives, it finds the house swept clean and put in order. Then is goes and takes seven other spirits more wicked than itself, and they go in and live there. And the final condition of that man is worse than the first.” (11:24-26) “You are witnesses of these things. I am going to send you what my Father has promised; but stay in the city until you have been clothed with power from on high.” (24:48-49) Romans Summary - Paul writes to the Romans to encourage them in their faith - he reviews the sinful nature of men, who are cursed by the fall of Adam and Eve - although men know of God, they refuse to glorify him, and become lost in the darkness of human wisdom - although it was originally put in place to give life, the law now condemns man, illuminating his sinfulness - God desires to save his people, and sends Jesus to offer means of salvation - through faith, men can gain the righteousness that they lose by the law - the law still has a purpose, that is, to throw sin into sharp relief - God’s grace covers men’s sin, so that they might take part in the inheritance of Christ, which is eternal life - out of gratitude for this gift from God, believers choose to stop sinning and live by God’s commands – not because they must, but because they choose to - Paul reveals his continued struggle with sin, trying to put to death the “old self” and put on the “new self” Interpretation - by this explanation, the doing of good works does not gain salvation, but salvation is purely a gift of God’s grace - the buying of indulgences in the Catholic church in the Medieval Ages is not supported by Paul’s letters - to Paul, nothing has changed about the world, but in a sense, everything has changed Quotation recognition themes Paul often discusses the law, and man’s changing relation to it. He speaks about how grace replaces the law, and the new righteousness men gain through Christ, or God’s grace. Key words to look for are “righteousness”, “grace”, “the law”, and “sin”. Quotations

Caro Kingston “For in the gospel a righteousness from God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith from first to last, just as it is written: ‘The righteous will live by faith.’” (1:17) “This righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe. There is no difference, for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God, and are justified freely by his grace through the redemption that came by Christ Jesus.” (3:22-23) “The law was added so that the trespass might increase. But where sin increased, grace increased all the more, so that, just as sin reigned in death, so also grace might reign through righteousness to bring eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord.” (5:20-21) “For what I want to do I do not do, but what I hate I do. And if I do what I do not want to do, I agree that the law is good…For I have the desire to do what is good, but I cannot carry it out. For what I do is not the good I want to do; no, the evil I do not want to do – this I keep on doing.” (7:18b-19) “And he who searches our hearts knows the mind of the Spirit, because the Spirit intercedes for the saints in accordance with God’s will. And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him, who have been called according to his purpose.” (8:27-28) “No, in all these things we are more than conquerors through him who loved us. For I am convinced that neither death, nor life, neither angels nor demons, neither the present nor the future, nor any powers, neither height nor depth, nor anything else in all creation, will be able to separate us from the love of God that is in Christ Jesus our Lord.” (8:37-39) Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle – 4th century BCE Pg 63 Two different types of art and action: -Those necessary for another end -Those that are ends in themselves. Pg. 66 Three different types of life: -most vulgar type, identify good w/ pleasure -those with superior refinement, indentify good w/ honour = the end of political life -contemplative life What is the universal good? Pg 71 – “human good turns out to be activity of soul in accordance with virtue.” Pg 77 – Virtues must be present in moderation. They are destroyed by excess and defect Pg. 79 – Agent must -have knowledge - choose the acts and for their own sakes - proceed from a firm and unchangeable character Pg. 80 VIRTUES ARE STATES OF CHARACTER. Pg. 81 Virtues = what is both intermediate and best Pg. 83 Happiness is -the end of human nature, -self sufficient -activity in accordance with highest virtue highest virtue = reason. Through contemplation, happiness achieved. Pg. 89 “The philosopher will more than any other be happy.” Quotes, in order of appearance Pg. 65 “Every art and every inquiry, and similarly every action and pursuit, is thought to aim at some good; and for this reason the good has rightly been declared to be that at which all things aim.”

Caro Kingston “…a young man is not a proper hearer of lectures on political science; for he is inexperienced in the actions that occur in life, but its discussions start from these and are about these, and, further, since he tends to follow his passions, his study will be vain and unprofitable, because the end aimed at is not knowledge but action.” Pg. 66 “…the mass of mankind are quite slavish in their tastes, preferring a life suitable to beasts.” Pg 67 “the life of money making is one undertaken under compulsion, and wealth is evidently not the good we are seeking; for it is merely useful and for the sake of something else.” “…the term ‘good’ is used both in the category of substance and in that of quality and in that of relation, and that which is per se i.s. substance, is prior in nature to the relative…so that there could not be a common Idea set over all these goods.” Pg. 69 “Now we call that which is in itself worthy of pursuit more final than that which is worthy of pursuit for the sake of something else, and that which is never desirable for the sake of something else more final than the things that are desirable both in themselves and for the sake of that other thing, and therefore we call final without qualification that which is always desirable in itself and never for the sake of something else. Now such a thing happiness, above all else, is held to be.” Pg. 71 “Human good turns out to be activity of soul in accordance with virtue, and if there are more than one virtue, in accordance with the best and most complete.…But we must add “in a complete life.” “Now of first principles we see some by induction, some by perception, some by a certain habituation…but each set of principles we must try to investigate in the natural way, and we must take pains to state them definitely, since they have a great influence on what follows. For the beginning is thought to be more than half of the whole, and many questions we ask are cleared up by it.” Pg. 73 “The virtue we must study is human virtue; for the good we were seeking was human good and the happiness human happiness. By human virtue we mean no that of the body but that of the soul.” “One element in the soul is irrational and one had a rational principle. “ Pg. 75 “…some of the virtues are intellectual and others moral, philosophic wisdom and understanding and practical wisdom being intellectual, liberality and temperance moral.” “Virtue…two kinds, intellectual and moral…Intellectual virtue in the main owes its birth and growth to teaching, while moral virtue comes about as a result of habit.” “…the man who flies from and fears everything and does not stand his ground against anything becomes a coward, and the man who fears nothing at all but goes to meet every danger becomes rash….temperance and courage, then, are destroyed by excess and defect, and preserved by the mean.” “Moral excellence is concerned with pleasures and pains; it is on account of the pleasure that we do bad things, and on account of the pain that we abstain from noble ones…..if the virtues are concerned with actions and passions, and every passion and every action is accompanied by pleasure and pain, for this reason also virtue will be concerned with pleasures and pains.” Pg 78-79 “Virtue and Vice are concerned with…three objects of choice and three of avoidance, the noble, the advantageous and the pleasant, and their contraries, the base, the injurious, the painful” “whole concern both of virtue and of political science if with pleasures and pains; for the man who uses these well will be good, he who uses them badly bad.” “we must become just by doing just acts…temperate by doing temperate acts” “the agent…in the first place he must have knowledge, secondly, choose the acts, and choose them for their own sakes, and thirdly his actions must proceed from a firm and unchangeable character….most people do not do thesem but take refuge in theory and think they are being philosophers and will become good in this way.” Pg 80-81 “neither the virtues not the vices are passions, because we are not called good or bad on the ground of our passions.” “they (virtues) are not faculties…we have the faculties by nature, but we are not made good or bad by nature.” “Virtues are…STATES OF CHARACTER….Every virtue or excellence both brings into good condition the thing of which it is the excellence and makes the work of that thing be done well….The virtue of man also will be the state of character which makes a man good and which makes him do his own work well.” “A master of any art avoids excess and defect, but seeks the intermediate and chooses this – the intermediate not in the object but relatively to us.” “Virtue is more exact and better than any art…must hace the quality of aiming at the intermediate.” “To feel (fear, confidence, appetite, anger, pity) at the right times, with reference to the right objects, towards the right people, with the right motive, and in the right way, is what is borth intermediate and best, and this is the characteristic of virtue.” Pg. 82

Caro Kingston “Virtue, then, is a state of character concerned with choice, lying in a mean i.e. the mean relative to us, this being determined by a rational principle…the man of practical wisdom would determine it.” Pg. 83 “happiness …this is what we state the end of human nature to be….Some activities necessary, desirable for the sake of something else… others are so in themselves. …happiness does not lack anything, but is self-sufficient.” Pg. 84 - 85 “Happiness does not lie in amusement.” “The happy life is thought to be virtuous; now a virtuous life requires exertion, and does not consist in amusement…Serious things are better than laughable things and those connected with amusement.” “If happiness is an activity in accordance with virtue…should be in accordance with the highest virtue.” (Reason) “Firstly, (Reason) is the best, secondly, it is the most continuous…The activity of philosophic wisdom is admittedly the pleasantest of virtuous activities.” Pg. 86 A beautiful passage: “we must not follow those who advise us…to think of human things, and, being mortal, of mortal things, but must, so far as we can, make ourselves immortal, and strain every nerve to live in accordance with the best thing in us.” Pg. 87 “The Will or the deed more essential” ? Pg. 88 “One will also need external prosperity” BUT, “self-sufficiency and action do not involve excess, and we can do noble acts without ruling earth and sea.” “He who exercises his reason and cultivates it seems to be both in the best state of mind and most dear to the Gods….The philosopher will more than any other be happy.” PAUL’S LETTERS TO THE ROMANS Background Info: • Born in Tarsus to Jewish family, Roman citizen • 35C.E. on road to Damascus (Assyria) converts to Christianity, prior to this: persecuted jews • Dedicated as apostle (ambassador): spread gospel (good news)\ Letter addressed to: • New Christian churches in conflict: gentile (non-Jews), should they practice/convert to Judaism? o Should they practise dietary restrictions? Circumcision? Multiple meanings of justice: • For Hebrews it is salvation: exodus • God’s righteousness o Righteousness displayed through goodness and judgement 3 Movements in Argument:1 1) Crisis before human being: • Humans held captive by sin o Worshipping idols, homosexuality (perversion of nature b/c goodness of nature continues through relationship between man and woman) o Passing judgement on others: “for in passing judgment upon him you condemn yourself” (2:1) o Crucial: yes Jews have special relationship with God, but still must answer to judgement of God • Sin = death o “for the wages of sin is death” (6:23) Fulfillment has to INWARD! Circumcision of Heart • “For he is not a real Jew who is one outwardly, nor is true circumcision something external and physical. He is a real Jew who is one inwardly and real circumcision is a matter of the heart spiritual not literal” (2:28) Law • Gift from God but because we read it literally: becomes power of sin o “Yet if it had not been for the law, I should not have known sin” (7:7) • Law is good but is not the resolution to crisis • Remember: real law is spiritual (inwardness) o “we know that the law is spiritual; but I am carnal sold under sin” (7:14)

Caro Kingston 2) Resolution: • Sin entered world through man, righteousness enters world through man: Jesus Christ • Christ is revelation of God’s righteousness and grace: o “But now the righteousness of God has been manifested apart from law... the righteousness of God through faith in Jesus Christ for all who believe” (3:21-22) • God does punish but does not fall on perpetuator: Christ as final sacrifice: took all sins of the world o “...since all have sinned and fall short of glory of God, they are justified by his grace as a gift through redemption which is in Jesus Christ...” (3:22-24) • Jesus dies but rises: ppl also take part in rising: o “But if Christ is in you, although your bodies are dead because of sin, your spirits are alive because of righteousness” (8:11) Faith • In faith you can participate in this reality • Trusting in God’s goodness in way that sins have been dealt with + resurrection (humans under grace) o Before sin = being outside of grace: through self-will: self-righteousness o Now slave to righteousness: from fleshspiritual o Inward transformation through faith: impossible not to do good • Spiritual law: laws not a set of external rules, law within 3) Paul’s implications of how God acts: • Nothing can separate us from the love of God o If 1 in sin with Adam, than 1 in God through mediator Christ Plato People + Arguments: • Cephalus – to be just is to pay your debts (monetarily and otherwise) • Polemarchus – it is better to seem just than to actually be just o Help your friends, hinder your enemies • Thrasymachus – Sophist o Right is the interest of the strong o Those with the most power should dictate justice and law • Glaucon - re-iterates the argument of Thrasymachus o Justice is a necessary evil that constrains humans so as to avoid greater evils o Benefit of justice is merely what is garnered from being just, not justness itself. Justice: • Justice is gained through natural harmony and specialization. • For an individual this means harmony between: o Intellect/Reason o Spirit o Appetite Where the Intellect/Reason is the ruler of the other two parts of the human soul • In the Republic this means harmony between: o The Guardians (Philosopher Kings; the order-ers of the city) (Gold) o The Auxiliaries (Military, Police, etc; the protectors of the city) (Silver) o The Producers (Blacksmiths, Shoe-makers, Farmers, etc) (Bronze/Iron) Forms: • A form of something is the universal-ness of particular things (table-ness of a table) o Forms of Beauty, Truth, Justice right below Form of the Good. Dialectic: • Pure thought, rational argument. It is critical of all assumptions and attempts to go beyond them. • It is thought without anything except the forms, and is attempting to find the form of the Good. (The Good is the ultimate end of all knowledge) Sun, Line, Cave • Sun: Visible World Intelligible World

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o

The Sun Source of growth and light Which gives: o Visibility to objects of sense o Power of seeing to the eye The Cave:

The Good Source of reality and truth Which gives: o Intelligibility to objects of thought o Power of knowing to the mind

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o o

The Line:

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Once the Good is attained, it is the duty of the enlightened philosopher to descend once again to the bottom of the cave to attempt to educate those looking at the shadows on the wall. The Waves/Three Problems o Problem of Women: all are held in common, marriage is abolished, copulation and procreation through rigged festivals. o Problem of Children: again, all are held in common, the family unit is abolished and all children are the children of all people of the community, all people are siblings. o Problem of Feasibility of the Republic State: there must be a philosopher king in power for the state to come into being, would take a lot of work and loyalty on the part of the citizens Imperfect Societies: (the natural degradation of the Republic) o Timarchy – honour-driven – it has the same aspirations as the Republic, but without the structure and the unified striving towards the Good, and the good of the city (parallels Dialectic on the Line) o Oligarchy – amount of wealth dictates amount of power (necessary appetite). Wealth is not the focus of the community but merely a way to decide on power. This society focuses on material, “sensible/rational” things and parallels with Mathematical Reason from the Line. It has no metaphysical aspirations, but is not yet “corrupt” as it has some unity within it as a community (all focused on similar goals). o Democracy – freedom of everyone politically and individually (unnecessary appetites). Everyone’s focus is on his or her own individual needs and WANTS. These selfish desires cause people to step on each other’s toes, there is NO unity of community. o Tyranny – a public champion rises to restore lawfulness after anarchy of democracy, takes absolute power, creates a personal guard, and oppresses everyone. Art and Poetry: o Lies about the gods – makes them seem imperfect, human and changeable o

Caro Kingston Is an image of an image and is therefore even further from the truth and the Good than reality itself Appeals to the baser natures of the soul, appetite and spirit, rational characters are not the heroes. Encourages inappropriate behaviour in readers. Myth of Er: o A warrior named Er is seemingly killed, but comes back to life on his funeral pyre, and tells his story. He was sent to heaven, and made to watch all that happens there so that he can return to earth and report what he saw. For 1000 years, people are either rewarded in heaven or punished in hell for the sins or good deeds of their life. They are then brought together in a common area and made to choose their next life, either animal or human. The life that they choose will determine whether they are rewarded or punished in the next cycle. Only those who were philosophical while alive realize that to choose a just life means another stint in heaven next time they die. Everyone else hurtles between happiness and misery with every cycle because if they had had a poor life they choose a decadent life that is unjust and end up poor again. They then drink of the river Lethe, (river of forgetting) and the just and philosophical know enough not to drink a lot, so they’ll remember some of the story in the next life, helping them be just and wise again. o This illustrates Plato’s point that the enlightened should “come back down into the cave” and educate people on things they are yet unable to see for themselves. o o

3Architecture Byzantine (before 6th cent) Iconographic - images 2D and flat - this encourages the viewer to ‘go beyond’ the image to the meanings

Romanesque (6th to 10th cent) Similar iconography from Byzantine architecture

Form: - a box with a dome on top

Form: - very heavy, fortress-like, thick walls - columns everywhere - floor-plan shaped like a cross

Examples: -San Vitale -Hagia Sophia -Ravenna

Light: -dark, not a lot of windows.

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Gothic (12th to 16th cent) -Very lifelike iconography o -Connection between religious figures and viewers – starting of a personal relationship to God -many Trinitarian design elements Form: -exceedingly light, “floaty” -open and airy construction, enabled by flying buttresses -walls were highly ornamented to make them seem not to be made of stone, weightless. Light: -very bright, -stained glass windows

Setting: -wilderness Points of Interest: -everything was highly compartmentalized because of the pillars -several small chapels fitting only a few people in each cathedral -this means it was a highly individual, mediated religion

Setting: -in towns and cities Points of Interest: o -the open space encourages a unity within the religion -incorporation of pagan and historical figures (Roman soldier, Pythagoras) -humanity of God popular -Mary as Jesus equal/mediator between him and humans

Examples: -Aachen Cathedral -Sainte-Foi Abbey

NeoPlatonism: -the 7 liberal arts depicted on Chartes Cathedral Examples: -St Denis Cathedral -Chartres Cathedral -St Chapelle

Hagia Sophia^

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Chartes ^ (Gothic) Al Farabi

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Romanesque ^

Caro Kingston (900’s / 10th century) • Founder of Arabic philosophy • Semi-Peripatetic (Aristotelian), but mainly Neo-Platonist. • Monotheistic • The philosophical, religious and political are distinguished but not separate • The First Cause = God/the Good. (its substance is intellect, and justice) EVERYTHING that exists has its source in the First, is less perfect as a things rank gets further from the First, until a level of imperfection is reached (just beyond the Moon ie: Earth) where matter is necessary. A thing with no perfection at all lacks existence. • The aim of existence is union with the divine • Al-Farabi’s aim is to describe the just order of the cosmos and the human and the city.

•

Hierarchy and justice and order enable happiness. (mediation between man and the First) The perfection of the First Cause emanates from it to the things below it. The First thought itself and created the Second, the Second contemplated itself and the First and created the Third, and so on. The cosmos, the human (as soul and as body), the city, and nature are images of the First. In each hierarchy there is a first. (the heart of the body, the ruler of a city, the First of the cosmos, etc)

•

Emanation: from the First to the Heavenly Bodies, to the Natural World, to Humans, to Animals, to Plants, to Minerals, to the Elements, to the Prime Matter. Platonic in its need for harmony and order to create justice. No Form without Matter, no Matter without Form Each entity thinks its own existence and thinks the First -> gains perfection through thinking the First. To be evil is an act of choice. First does NOT require the rest of existence to exist, nor does it need rest of existence to be the most perfect. Within a hierarchy, those above help those below to attain a higher rank. Intellects: o Passive = matter without form o Active = The First/God o Acquired = when the divine motivates the Passive Intellect (mediates Passive and Active)

• • • •

• • • • • • •

Society: o To attain perfection: a) people to supply needs of community b) a community of contributors • Smallest kind of community with unity and perfection = the city. • Ruler must be best of all men (predisposed to rule, acquired attitude + habit, prophetic knowledge) philosophy is necessary in the perfect city • Ignorant City = very similar to Plato’s democracy. It is divisible and parts are unnecessary. They know all the same things as the Perfect City but they choose to act basely and evilly. Quotation Identification Initiation Inauguration Interrogation Plotinus, The Eneeads. o Capitalizes: Divine, Supreme, One, First, Soul, Intellectual-Principle --- Mind/Nous. Iamblichus, De Mysteriis. o o Dionysius the Pseudo Areopagite, The Mystical Theology. o Capitalizes: Cause o Lots of use of first person. o Talks about angels a lot. Al-Farabi, The Perfect State. o Capitalizes: First Existent, First Cause, Cause, o Lower case: king, heart, o

Caro Kingston Moses Maimonides, Guide of the Perplexed o Use of the first person. o “may His name be exalted” o Use of italics o Mention of Mutakallimun o o Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica. o First Article, Objections, On the contrary, I answer that, Reply, etc. o o Aristotle, Metaphysics. o Wednesday, September 24th, 2008 Aristotle, Metaphysics (M11) - Plato said: o Science corresponds to what is, is in favour of disentanglement of science from poetry and myth o Science depends on distinction between knower and the known, the objective and the subjective o Science lies between the soul and the forms o Ancient myths and poems lack distinction - Parmenides said: o Things change into what they are not (ex: water  wood, food  flesh) o What underlies nature is not a natural thing o Natural beings are corruptible - Forms vs. nature o Relation between forms and things are expressed metaphorically o Natural world can be explained only in negative sense, explained away - Seemed to Aristotle that Plato had given up on nature - P. 23 “Above all one . . . to sensible things” - How can the forms influence motion if they are pure and transcendent? - P. 23 “They help in . . . share in them” - P. 24 “And to say . . . to the ideas.” - Plato said that the relation between forms and natural beings can only be expressed through analogy/metaphor, not through a scientific account, Aristotle disagrees - P. 24 “Again, it would . . . exist apart.” - Aristotle tries to keep Plato’s idea of the forms but tries to explain change with forms as the cause Aristotle, Physics (M12) Chapter 1 - P. 25 “Each has in . . . decay, or alteration.” - Natural beings have motion and rest - Three types of motion: o Change in place o Growth and decay o Alteration, a change in quality - For example, a plant takes root (change in place), grows, and changes when properly nourished (alteration) - These changes are natural and belong to the plant intrinsically, due to the principles of motion and rest - Artificial objects do not have this principal of motion (ex: a chair) - Not the chair, but the wood it is made of moves downward because of its downward tendency (wood comes from earth) - P. 25 “A bed, on . . . such, it has.”

Caro Kingston -

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Artificial and natural beings are all made up of the four elements Tendencies of motion of the four elements: o Earth: down o Fire: up o Water: down (settles over the earth) o Air: up (not as powerful as fire) To be living means to have motion other than that due to the elements P. 25 “Nature, then, is . . . has a nature.”

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P. 27 “That is one . . . a thing’s account.” P. 27 “The form has . . . just in possibility.” Without form matter is dead P. 27 “Further, men come . . . beds from beds.

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Plato’s forms are motionless and separated from motion, and explain motion only in a negative sense Aristotle wants a more direct explanation of natural motion

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Plato said that the motion of natural being is falling away from true reality, and is defective Aristotle said that motion expresses the very substance of natural being, and is the essence of true reality The form of natural beings makes natural beings (Aristotle) Aristotle flattens Plato’s line To Plato every moment of motion is a loss of identity

Chapter 2 - Aristotle criticizes those such as Plato and his followers who think about ideas - Forms cannot be separated from reality - Physics and math are different because in physics natural forms cannot be thought of as separate from matter -

Aristotle rejects reincarnation because the human soul is always with human matter The soul is so connected to the body that the soul vanishes when the body dies (no afterlife) As a species humanity is immortal, though individual humans live and die

Chapter 3 - Four causes of natural beings: 1. Material cause (matter) 2. Formal cause (the form, the soul, the species) 3. Moving cause/ efficient cause (primary source of change or coming to rest) 4. Final cause (that which something is for) -

P. 34 “Plainly, then, these . . . about them all.” P. 34 “The last three . . . form as these.” Form and matter are really the only two causes, the others fall under form

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Father contains the form of human with him, and the form is realised with the mother’s womb Parents and children are of the same form

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Causes and form are different within art More externality Artificial forms cannot reproduce and need humans to create them A craftsperson has a form in their mind and makes something of it

Chapter 8 - Natural beings are for innate purpose - P. 35 “Why should we . . . comes of necessity.” - P. 35 “What, then, is . . . but by coincidence.” -

Both the products of art and of nature are guided by intelligence Natural intelligence is internal

Caro Kingston -

P. 36 “The point is . . . not by mind.” Forms of things must explain motion

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God is pure self-thinking divine intellect that thinks the forms of nature God is a self-conscious union of all forms God itself is the final cause

- Like Plato, Aristotle grounds science in speculative theology - Science of purpose, pure quality of the divine - Aristotle distinguishes the contemplative life from the practical life - For Plato virtue is tied to dialectical good of the will - For Aristotle the metaphysical good of God is not the same as practical, ethical good - A particular good is not the good of the divine Thursday, September 11th, 2008- A Presocratics Reader -Philosophy: the attempt through human thinking to attain a perfect understanding of reality. This involves self-conscious reflection (lecture definition, also defines in the handbook). -Presocratic period was late 7th century BCE- early 5th century BCE The Milesians (p. 9-16) Thales: born approximately 625 BCE, once fell into a well while gazing upward doing astronomy, predicted eclipse of sun in 585 BC. - All is water, the Earth rests on water - P. 11 #3 - P. 10 #2 Anaximander: born approximately 611 BCE, was a student/follower of Thales, said to have been the first person to construct map of the world. - Stuff out of which everything comes cannot be water, for something as definite as water cannot become everything else - First principle is not an element - Original material of the cosmos is indefinite or boundless and is in motion, and as a result of motion something that gives rise to the opposites hot and cold is separated off from it - Hot takes the form of fire ( becomes heavenly bodies), cold is dark mist (becomes air and earth) - Everything finite contains opposition, so thinking on the finite world must unite opposites - P. 12 #6 - P. 12 #7 Anaximenes: younger associate or student of Anaximander. - Aer: dense mist indefinite enough to produce the other things in the cosmos - Anaximander’s indefinite was to vague, unclear - Improved theories of Thales and Anaximander by explaining in his account how aer is transformed into everything else - Finer aer = fire - Condensed aer = wind  cloud  water  earth  stone - Change comes through motion - Without motion aer is as bare a notion as Thales’s of water - P. 14 #6 Pythagoras and Pythagoreanism (p. 18-22) Pythagoras: born approximately 570 BCE on island of Samos (eastern Agean) to a gem cutter/engraver father left Samos in approximately 530 BCE for Egypt and Babylonia to escape rule of tyrant Polycrates, eventually settled in Croton (Southern Italy), founded city based on philosophy, religion, and politics, twenty years later was driven out by uprising against Pythagorean influence, starved to death in a temple in Metapontum where he had taken sanctuary. - probably founded the doctrine of transmigration of souls - Discovered math in Egypt and Babylon

Caro Kingston -

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Began ancient Greek fascination with math Ratios governing the scale (C major in example) 81:64 = (9:8)², not 5:4 Whole tone derived from two perfect fifths: (3:2)²/2 = 9:8 Number as an object of thought is a reality that governs life All numbers are either odd or even Square of each number adds corresponding odd number to previous square “Human,” to be identified as a thought must be defined as one unity, but is also unlimited Why not say that thinking is the unchanging, the eternal? P. 9 “The story goes . . . are interested in” (Thales could make money and silenced critics). P. 21 #13 P. 21 #11 P. 21 #12

Parmenides (p. 44-49) Parmenides: born approximately 515 BCE, a student of Xenophanes “but did not follow him,” associated with Pythagoreans but also rejected their theories, wrote poem in Homeric hexameters with many Homeric images in it - Thought and knowledge can only be about what is, for what is not is unthinkable - Rejects “beliefs of the mortals” (based on sense experience) - Genuine being: What is must be whole, complete, unchanging (cannot come to be, pass away, or undergo qualitative change), and one - Thinking has no end/beginning - Cannot say that what is cannot be - “I am not” cannot be thought; if you are, in no sense can you not be - The demand of thinking bars the consideration of change from philosophy itself - Change of what is into anything else cannot be thought - The one must exist, for we can think it - All thinking must be unlimited and indefinite for nothing finite can be thought about (does not matter from human standpoint, is strictly true for pure thinking) - Al strict truths are illusions - Finite things change, become, so they cannot be real - Our thinking cannot know that change, attempting to know particular things is like stepping in the same river twice (can’t be done) - All finite, particular things perish. Everything finite, the whole of the material world, comes to nothing - Being is, not being is not - Involves transcending realities and a different definition of existance - P. 45 #2 “Come now . . . completely unlearnable.” - P. 46 #6 “That which is . . . nothing to be.” - P. 46 #3 The Pluralists: Anaxagoras and Empedocles (p. 53-57, 61-68) Anaxagoras: from Clazomenae, Ionia, born approximately 500 BC, shares interest in cosmos with other Ionian presocratics but has awareness of Parmenides’s metaphysical implications, an associate of Athenian politician Pericles (Anaxagoras live in Athens for about thirty years), predicted fall of meteorite at Aegospotami n 467, said that the sun was fiery stone not god, prosecuted for impiety around 450 BCE convicted and exiled from Athens to Lampascus (near Troy, northern Ionia) where he died is 428 BCE - Envisioned an original cosmic state in which “all things were together,” except mind, which was said to know and control all things. At a time which mind chooses it sets the original mixture into rotation, separating things out and recombining them to produce the world we perceive through our senses. - Seeds in the original mixture - Change is simply the reorganization, mixing of the seeds - Mind governs the mixing of the seeds - What is cannot be other than what it is - P. 55 #4 These things being . . . of all things”

Caro Kingston Empedocles: Born around 492 BCE in Acragas, Sicily, was an active politician who supported democracy over oligarchy despite aristocratic family connections, a medical man, claimed magical powers for himself, did miraculous things, was exiled, probably died in the Peloponnese, wrote in verse, poem addressed to Pausanius (said to have been his lover) - Original pure state from which humans have fallen but may return through a process of purification - Six basic entities: Earth, Water, Air, Fire (these four later called “elements” by Aristotle), Love, and Strife ( these two are Empedocles’s two motive forces) - Earth, Air, Fire, and Water are mixed together by Love and pulled apart by Strife, resulting in the world as we perceive it General Pluralist Views - The many things, in order to be thought, have to be seen according to the one - The one is true and the true is in the one but the one must be in the many - Insisted on grasping the many, grasping change Atomists: Leucippus and Democritus (p. 80-83) Leucippus: the first atomist, hardly anything known about him, existence denied by Epicurus, was teacher of Democritus. Democritus: Born around 460 BCE, born in Abdera, Thrace, Northern Greece but travelled through ancient world - Greek “atomos” means “uncuttable” - Infinite number of atoms, each uniform, eternal, and unchangeable ( a genuine being- Parmenides) - Individual atoms differ from each other only in shape and size - Atoms move in a void, emptiness (void identified with “not-being”) - Nothing, not- being (the void) was real, not just the negation of what is - Void allowed atoms to move and come together without melding into one another - Responsible for all aspects of the sensible world - What looks like passing away and coming to be is only alteration and rearrangement of atoms

Is there a thinking which is possible that contains all that is within itself?

Milesians

Pluralists Atomists

Thales: water Anaximander: indefinite (motion gives rise to opposites hot and cold) Anaximenes: aer Pythagoras: number Parmenides: thought Anaxagoras: seeds Empedocles: love and strife Leucippus and Democritus: atoms

Caro Kingston The Ancient World: Summaries and Other Bullshit Epic of Gilgamesh: o

Written: In ~2500 BCE. o o

o

o o

o

o o o

Discovered: Mid-1800s CE. Know most from the library of the Assyrian King. Story of Giglamesh. o B ook

One: Enkidu is “tamed” by noble, divine prostitute. Challenges Gilgamesh. G finds out via dream that Enkidu is coming, will be his brother, other-half, etc. Ninsun created Enkidu for him. Wrestles, is homoerotic. Are BFF. Book Two: Gilgamesh goes to get cedar for his temple. Must destroy Humbabba, who guards the cedar wood. Enkidu is like, “Uh…. Fuck that shit.” Gets permission. Humbabba gets owned. Book Three: Goddess Ishtar has a girl-boner for Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh disses her for being a bad lover, cause she’s kind of a man-eater. She’s RE-JECTED. Cries to her daddy. She sets the Bull of Heaven on Gilgamesh, cause she’s PMSing. They kill the Bull. She is double-scorned. One of them has to die – cause a dream said so. Enkidu is a bitch about it. Dies. Gilgamesh is mad depressed. Does the sacrifices and bullshit. Book Four: Is weary of life, scared of death. Goes an a quest for immortal life. Off to find Utmapishtim, who has everlasting life. There are trials. Siduri, maker of wine, is like, “what up?” and he’s like, “*emo*”, She’s like, “enjoy life while you’re here, you’re never gonna live forever, so get over it. But… there’s the ferryman. So do what you want.” Gilgamesh builds a raft to get across. Finds him. Whines. Utmapishtim: there is no permanence. STORY OF THE FLOOD! YAY! Book Five: There’s a flood. Book Six: G tries to stay awake for 6 days and seven nights. Sent home, Gigly gets new clothes and all that jazz. It’s pretty sweet. Utma tells him a secrete: there’s a plant that will maintain youth forevah. Gigly finds it, but a snake steals it. Engraves the story on a stone. Book Seven: He dies.

Bible: o

Exodus and Genesis are written by Moses.

Caro Kingston o

Days of Creation: 1. Created Earth: void, dark, icky. “Let there be light.” Created Day and Night. Heavens and Earth. LIGHT AND DARK 2. Water separation by heavens. Heavens separate earth and water. 3. Makes seas and land. Vegetation, plants, seeds, fruit, etc. 4. Makes sun, moon, stars. 5. Creates every living creature that moves. Water animals and bird animals. Be fruitful and multiply. 6. Earth animals. Make man in our image, in our likeness. Be fruitful and multiply. 7. Chills.

o

Ten Plagues 1. Nile into Blood 2. Lots of Frogs 3. Gnats/Fleas/Lice 4. Swarms of Flies 5. Pestilence on Cattle 6. Incurable boils 7. Storm (fire and hail) 8. Locusts 9. Darkness 10. Death of Firstborn

o

Ten Commandments 1. You shall have no other gods before me 2. You shall not make for yourself an idol 3. You shall not make wrongful use of the name of your God (Take the name of the lord in vain) 4. Remember the Sabbath and keep it holy 5. Honour your father and mother 6. You shall not murder 7. You shall not commit adultery 8. You shall not steal 9. You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour 10. You shall not covet your neighbour’s house/wife.

o o

800 BCE: Homer Order of Events: o Raid on the Kikones (with a hat) – the one with the pillaging and they fight back and get owned. o Lotus Eaters -- make you forget o Cyclops – Polyphemus – anger Poseidon. o Aelous – King of the Winds – gets winds – on the way, jealous crew releases bag o’ winds – blown off course – returns to ask for help – is bitched out. o Laistrygonians – cannibals o Circe – ish teh secks – turn them into pigs – tries to seduce him --- Odysseus has an antidote or something – yells at Circe, makes them change them back --- sex for a year – tells him how to get to underworld. o Underworld – chats with Teireseous (don’t eat cattle!) – sees him mum (it’s sad) – dead women – chats with Achilles. o Goes back to Circe --- tells him how to get passed the trials o Sirens – earwax o Kharybdis (whirlool) – Skylla (cave monster) o Helios’ Cattle = big storm and shit o Stranded on Agigia with Calyso – 7 years later: o Zeus sends Apollo to get him

The Odyssey:

Caro Kingston

o

o

o

o Finds the Phaiakians – send them home. o Pretends to be a begger o Goes home o People who find out who he is: Telemachus, Euricleia, allies, Penelope, Laertes Family: o Son: Telemachus o Wife: Penelope o Father: Laertes o Dog: Argos o Penny’s Dad: Icarius o Mother: Anticlea o Grandfather: Autoclyus o Swineherd: Eumaios Other dudes: o Awful Goatherd: Melanthos o Antinous: Badass suitor o Eurmakhos : Badass suitor o Themeus = Minstral (spared, with the whole bard thing..) o Medon the Herald. (spared) o Philoetius = Cowherd. Telemachia: o Mentor = Athena. It’s a long story. o Goes to Pilos – Nestor (the wise, ancient one) o Menalaos and Helen – Sparta o Home! Yay! o Takes Epstrotis with him Thursday Classes

Epic of Gilgamesh: o o o o

o o o

Written: In ~2500 BCE. Discovered: Mid-1800s CE. Know most from the library of the Assyrian King. Story of Giglamesh. o Book One: Enkidu is “tamed” by noble, divine prostitute. Challenges Gilgamesh. G finds out via dream that Enkidu is coming, will be his brother, other-half, etc. Wrestles, is homoerotic. Are BFF. Harlot tames Enkidu, humanizes him. o Book Two: Gilgamesh goes to get cedar for his temple. Must destroy Humbabba, who guards the cedar wood. Enkidu is like, “Uh…. Fuck that shit.” Gets permission. Humbabba gets owned. o Book Three: Goddess Ishtar has a girl-boner for Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh disses her for being a bad lover, cause she’s kind of a man-eater. She’s RE-JECTED. Cries to her daddy. She sets the Bull of Heaven on Gilgamesh, cause she’s PMSing. They kill the Bull. She is double-scorned. One of them has to die – cause a dream said so. Enkidu is a bitch about it. Dies. Gilgamesh is mad depressed. Does the sacrifices and bullshit. o Book Four: Is weary of life, scared of death. Goes an a quest for immortal life. Off to find Utnapishtim, who has everlasting life. There are trials. Siduri, maker of wine, is like, “what up?” and he’s like, “*emo*”, She’s like, “enjoy life while you’re here, you’re never gonna live forever, so get over it. But… there’s the ferryman. So do what you want.” Gilgamesh builds a raft to get across. Finds him. Whines. Utnapishtim: there is no permanence. STORY OF THE FLOOD! YAY! o Book Five: There’s a flood. o Book Six: G tries to stay awake for 6 days and seven nights. Sent home, Gigly gets new clothes and all that jazz. It’s pretty sweet. Utma tells him a secrete: there’s a plant that will maintain youth forevah. Gigly finds it, but a snake steals it. Engraves the story on a stone. o Book Seven: He dies. Product of Goddess Ninsun and Man – 2/3 Men, 1/3 God. King of Uruk. Anu -- > Father of the Gods, Ishtar’s Daddy. Aruru -- > Created Enkidu.

Caro Kingston Aristotle’s Ethics: o Parts of the Soul: o Nutritive: digesting, growing, reproducing (unimportant) o Appetitive: desires, passions o Thinking: purely rational. o Habits: your actions determine your nature --- > doing virtuous acts makes you a virtuous person. o Learn by doing, not by “reading” o Excess and Defect. o Humans cannot know the Good totally. o Happiness, therefore, must be some form of contemplation. --- > Thinking is the closest people can get to the Good. Paul’s Letter to the Romans: (Creeds, Definition of Chalcedon --- > Christ as Holy Trinity, etc.) o All salvation through grace --- > o Doesn’t matter if you’re a gentile or a Jew --- > God will know if you are true and good, etc. o The Law is incomplete, brings out the worst --- > should know something is wrong, not be forbidden to do it by a Law. Dionysius: o Mystical: o Celestial: hierarchy of angles (intellectual, powerful being) o Ecclesiastical: hierarchy in the church. o Affirmation and Negation: things are one thing, because they’re not something else. God --- > you have to negate and affirm everything in order to define God. Islamic and Christian Art and Architecture: Byzantine Iconographic o images 2D and flat

Romanesque Siniliar iconography from Byzantine architecture.

o o

o Form: o

Form: a box with a dome on top.

o Very heavy, fortresso o

like, thick walls. Columns everywhere Floor-plan shaped like a cross.

Light:

o Dark, not a lot of windows. Setting: o wilderness

Form: o o

o

Gothic Life-like iconography. Connection between religious figures and viewers – starting of a personal relationship to God Many Trinitarian design elements Exceedingly light, “floaty” Open and airy construction, enabled by flying buttresses Walls were highly ornamented to make them seem not to be made of stone, weightless.

Light: o Very bright o Stained glass windows. Setting: o in towns and cities

Caro Kingston Points of Interest: o everything was compartmentalized because of the illars o several cmall chapels fitting only a few people in each cathedral o this means it was a highly individual, mediated religion.

Points of Interest: o the open space encourages a unity within the religion o Incorporation of pagan and historical figures (Roman soldier, Pythagoras) o Humanity of God as popular o Mary as Jesus equal/mediator between him and humans.