Properly controlled, composting can be a highly suitable option for diverting MSW from landfill.
By Surendra Kumar, Shashi and Salman Zafar The composting process is a complex interaction between the waste and the microorganisms within the waste. The microorganisms that carry out this process fall into three groups: bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes. Actinomycetes are a form of fungilike bacteria that break down organic matter. The first stage of the biological activity is the consumption of easily available sugars by bacteria, which causes a fast rise in temperature. The second stage involves bacteria and actinomycetes that cause cellulose breakdown. The last stage is concerned with the breakdown of the tougher lignins by fungi. Central solutions are exemplified by lowcost composting without forced aeration, and technologically more advanced systems with forced aeration and temperature feedback. Central composting plants are capable of handling more than 100,000 tons of biodegradable waste per year, but typically the plant size is about 10,000 to 30,000 tons per year. Biodegradable wastes must be separated prior to composting: Only pure foodwaste, garden waste, wood chips, and to some extent paper are suitable for producing goodquality compost.
The composting plants consist of some or all of the following technical units: bag openers, magnetic and/or ballistic separators, screeners (sieves), shredders, mixing and homogenization equipment, turning equipment, irrigation systems, aeration systems, draining systems, biofilters, scrubbers, control systems, and steering systems. The composting process occurs when biodegradable waste is piled together with a structure allowing for oxygen diffusion and with a dry matter content suiting microbial growth. The temperature of the biomass increases due to the microbial activity and the insulation properties of the piled material. The temperature often reaches 65 degrees C to 75 degrees C within a few days and then declines slowly. This high temperature hastens the elimination of pathogens and weed seeds. Composting Strategies The methodology of composting can be categorized into three major segments—aerobic composting, anaerobic composting, and vermicomposting.
In anaerobic composting, the organic matter is decomposed in the absence of air. Organic matter may be collected in pits and covered with a thick layer of soil and left undisturbed six to eight months. The compost so formed may not be completely converted and may include aggregated masses. Aerobic composting, the processes by which organic wastes are converted into compost or manure in presence of air, may be of
different types. The most common is the Heap Method, where organic matter needs to be divided into three different types and to be placed in a heap one over the other, covered by a thin layer of soil or dry leaves. This heap needs to be mixed every week, and it takes about three weeks for conversion to take place.
In the Pit Method the same process as above is done but in pits specially constructed/dug out for this purpose. Mixing has to be done every 15 days, and there is no fixed time in which the compost may be ready (depends on soil moisture, climate, level of organic material, etc.). The Berkley Method uses a laborintensive technique and has precise requirements of the material to be composted. Easily biodegradable materials, such as grass, vegetable matter, etc., are mixed with animal matter in the ratio of 2:1. This is piled and mixed at regular intervals. Compost is usually ready in 15 days. Vermicomposting involves use of earthworms as natural and versatile bioreactors for the process of conversion. Vermicomposting is done in specially designed pits where earthworm culture also needs to be done. As compared to above, this is a much more precisionbased option and requires overseeing of work by an expert. It is also a more expensive option (O&M costs especially are high). However, unlike the above two options, it is a completely odorless process making it a preferred solution in residential areas. It also has an extremely high rate of conversion, so quality of the end product is very high with rich macro and micronutrients. The end product also has the advantage that it can be dried and stored safely for a longer period of time. Composting Systems The traditional turned aerobic windrow method of composting is the predominant method of composting used within the United Kingdom. However, for the composting of nongreen municipal solid waste and commercial waste, it is not necessarily the most appropriate method to use. Within the identification of aerobic and anaerobic systems, five main methods are as follows: l
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Turned/static aerobic windrow composting—aerobic and biological; Static piles—aerobic and biological; Invessel aerobic windrow composting—aerobic and biological; Mechanical breakdown—nonbiological; Anaerobic digestion—anaerobic and biological.
The turned aerobic windrow composting, invessel aerobic composting, and static piles may be considered conventional methods of composting. Static windrow composting is a newer idea still being tested that allows aerobic composting to take place without the need for turning. The mechanical breakdown approach is a more radical attempt to produce a lowcost useable product from nongreen municipal solid waste and commercial waste but within the current legislation. Anaerobic digestion is a novel approach adopted from the treatment of wastewater sludge to stabilize the waste materials before they are finally composted using a more conventional method. Aerobic Windrows Aerobic windrow composting is the least technologically advanced and the oldest form of controlled composting. To be fully successful when composting nongreen municipal solid waste and commercial waste the method relies heavily on operator experience and the quality of the onsite management procedures. Research into the different systems highlighted open turned aerobic windrow composting as the lowestcost system to both set up and operate. Turned Windrows The operation of turned aerobic facilities can take place either in the open or under cover. This factor influences the time taken for the materials to compost, the investment required for the site and
the materials to compost, the investment required for the site and the importance of environmental issues such as odor and leachate. Levels of mechanization will also vary. The most basic method is to use frontend loaders and conventional agricultural machinery. This helps keep capital investment at a minimum. The alternative is to go for a more sophisticated system, which involves permanent windrow bays, and machinery that turns the windrow in situ by traveling along the bay wall. This system is more expensive to both install and operate but can be more effective at ensuring a good turn, and mix of the windrow is achieved every time. Static Windrows Static windrowing can be undertaken in one of two ways. Air is artificially blown into the windrow—this requires that an aeration system be present. An accelerator can be added to the windrow, which speeds up the process and enables it to remain aerated. Both of these systems can be undertaken either open or enclosed. Static windrow composting works in the following manner: 1.) Feedstock material arrives onsite and is either normally shredded or macerated. This helps remove moisture and reduce particle size. 2.) Feedstock material containing the correct ratio of carbon and nitrogen is mixed together and formed into windrows. The size of the windrow will depend on space available and the composition of the material. 3.) Either air is blown into the windrow or an accelerator is added. After the windrow has reached the required time temperature profile, it is removed for maturation. A number of merits can be seen from using aerobic windrow systems. One primary advantage is the low level of capital investment required to set up the facility and the low level of maintenance cost required. This does increase if the system is housed in a building and uses the more advanced windrow turning systems. Even so, turned aerobic windrowing is the lowestcost option. Another advantage is that the levels of technology involved are fairly low and standard equipment can be used. This helps keep costs low and ensure that operator familiarity with equipment is rapid. There are several disadvantages with aerobic windrow composting, though. If the system is outside, there is lack of control over the environmental conditions (e.g., rain, temperature, wind direction). These conditions, if outside the optimal, have a negative impact on the composting operation. The time required for composting may increase if the weather is cold or wet or turning cannot be conducted due to wind direction. This will then add strain to other areas of the facility and may result in additional costs to the facility. As conditions cannot be controlled and if the system is outside, there is a greater potential for the formation of malodors. The formation and dispersion of malodors can be very damaging to the reputation of a facility and lead to its closure. The use of static windrows can help alleviate the problem with odor, as the windrow is not turned. However, any malodor production is still able to vent directly to the atmosphere if the windrow is uncovered. Problems may also arise if the windrow turns anaerobic; there will be little provision for effectively treating it and returning it to an aerobic state. InVessel Composting Invessel composting uses slightly more advanced technologies than open windrows to ensure that the materials are composted effectively under more controlled conditions. Invessel systems work in broadly the following way: (1) Feedstock materials arrive onsite and are shredded and mixed to ensure that they contain the correct ration of carbon and nitrogen. (2) The mixed feedstock materials are placed into the vessel. Conditions are controlled by altering the flow of air into and out of the system. Any malodors are removed as air is drawn out of the system. (3) Monitoring takes place and the airflow is altered accordingly. (4) The compost is removed and sent for maturation.
The systems used tend to be of box designs. The differences exist in how the boxes are loaded and emptied and in how the airflow is monitored and controlled into the units. Invessel composting can be classified into three categories: vertical, horizontal, and rotating composting reactors. Vertical composting reactors are generally over 4 meters (yards) high and can be housed in silos or other large structures. Organic material is typically fed into the reactor at the top through a distribution mechanism and flows by gravity to an unloading mechanism at the bottom. Process control is usually by pressure induced aeration, where the airflow is opposite to the downward materials flow. The height of these reactors makes process control difficult due to the high rates of airflow required per unit of distribution surface area. Neither temperature nor oxygen can be maintained at optimal levels throughout the reactors, leading to zones of nonoptimal activity. Some manufacturers have minimized these difficulties by enhanced air distribution and collection systems, including changing the airflow direction from vertical to horizontal between alternating sets of inflow and exhaust pipes. As with static pile composting, a stable porous structure is important in vertical reactors, which usually lack internal mixing. Tall vertical reactors have been successfully used in the sludge composting industry where uniform feedstock and porous amendments can minimize these difficulties in process control but are rarely used for heterogeneous materials like municipal solid waste. Horizontal composting reactors avoid the high temperature, oxygen, and moisture gradients of vertical reactors by maintaining a short airflow pathway (Figure 3). They come in a wide range of configurations, including static and agitated, pressure, and/or vacuuminduced aeration. Agitated systems usually use the turning process to move material through the system in a continuous mode, while static systems require a loading and unloading mechanism. Materials handling equipment may also shred to a certain degree, exposing new surfaces for decomposition, but excessive shredding may also reduce porosity. Aeration systems are usually set in the floor of the reactor and may use temperature and/or oxygen as control variables. Systems with agitation and bed depths less than 2 to 3 meters (yards) appear effective in dealing with the heterogeneity of municipal solid waste. Horizontal and vertical reactors are commonly referred to as in vessel systems as differentiated from open systems such as windrows and static piles. Because of the higher capital and operation costs associated with these contained systems, residence time in the reactors is rarely adequate for the production of mature compost. Instead, invessel composting technologies are often used to help get the material through the early stages of composting when odors and process control are most critical, and the material is then moved into a windrow or static pile system for the later stages of decomposition and curing. Rotating drum composting reactors take the tradeoff between reactor cost and compost residence time to an even further extreme than the horizontal or vertical invessel systems. These reactors (sometimes called digesters) retain the material for only a few hours or days. While the tumbling action can help homogenize and shred materials, the short residence time usually means the processing is more physical than biological. While rotating drums can play an important role in municipal solid waste composting, they are normally followed by other biological processing, which may include invessel, static pile, and/or windrow systems. The main advantages of using invessel systems for the composting of nongreen municipal solid waste and commercial waste are: l
Improved process control is achieved, as the systems are “invessel.” The environmental conditions, such as moisture content of the mixture, temperature, and fresh air inflow/outflow, can be controlled and altered to ensure that the process remains within optimal conditions for composting.
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composting. Malodor problems will not cause an environmental risk. Even if malodor is produced within the invessel unit, it is scrubbed and treated before it is released into the atmosphere. Because the conditions are much more controlled, there will be fewer instances of malodor formation to begin with. Small footprints are required to install and operate the in vessel units, meaning that they can be sited in locations such as the factory yard to treat commercial waste at the site of production. Controlled environmental conditions and lack of malodor mean that the units potentially can be sited near residential or commercial zones reducing transport costs.
The main disadvantages associated with the use of invessel systems are: l
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High capital investment is required for the purchase of the system. The systems require a higher level of maintenance leading to higher costs than turned aerobic windrows. Each unit is limited in its throughput. If the quantity of incoming feedstock increases, there is little operational flexibility; more units would need to be purchased. This makes it difficult for the system to achieve true economies of scale.
Static Piles Static piles can be shaped much like windrows or in an elongated pile or bed. The essential difference is in the name; static piles are not mechanically agitated. Once constructed by conveyor, loader, or truck, the piles remain in place until the decomposition slows. The lack of agitation requires the maintenance of adequate porosity over an extended period of time. When composting fine materials like sludge, a coarse stable substrate such as wood chips is often incorporated in the mix. Inert materials or slowly degrading cellulosic substrates like cardboard or leaves may help supply that stable porous structure in municipal solid waste, but this needs to be considered in the preprocessing system design. Process control is normally through pressure and/or vacuum induced aeration, with either temperature or oxygen as the control variable. Blower piping can be temporary plastic or metal in a bed of coarse material at the base of the pile, or recessed into the composting pad under perforated plates. Piles are often covered with a layer of wood chips or mature compost to insulate the active compost from ambient temperatures and/or provide some odor treatment. Both windrows and static piles are often outside and exposed to weather but can be covered with a roof to minimize the impacts of weather and provide an opportunity for odor capture and treatment. There are two methods of aerated static pile composting with one being an active aerated pile and the other being a passively aerated pile. The active aerated method we have already discussed. The passively aerated system is the exact same design, with the exception of the air system. The pipe ends are left open on either side. Air flows into the pipes and through the pile because of the chimney effect created as hot air rises upward out of the pile. Advantages of aerated static pile composting include: l l l l l
Ability to control oxygen and temperature levels in the pile; No mechanical turning required; Reduced odors and rodents; Can be carried out indoors or outdoors; Quicker than windrow method.
Disadvantages to aerated static pile composting include: l l l
Must screen and then chip coarse material No ability to manage moisture level Plugged pipes leading to more maintenance and reduced efficiency
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Higher capital cost than windrow
Mechanical Breakdown This system operates significantly differently from the turned windrow and invessel systems already mentioned. It is a newer approach to process large volumes of nongreen municipal solid and commercial wastes costeffectively. The system is mechanical in its operation with no encouragement of the biological element associated with normal composting. The system uses proven technology and allows rapid processing of large volumes of material. There are, however, question marks over the quality of the final product and its usage. This type of system works in the following basic way: l
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Feedstock materials can be screened at the start to remove very large and some inorganic fractions of material. The feedstock material is passed through a set of either grinders or hammers to break down its particle size mechanically. The processed materials can be screened again to remove further inorganic materials such as metals before being transported for application to land.
This is a new approach for the treatment of nongreen municipal solid waste and commercial waste within the UK and departs from other more conventional systems being employed by some organizations. The main advantage with this system is that it enables large volumes of nongreen municipal waste and commercial waste to be processed rapidly and costeffectively. The main disadvantages with this system are: l
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The process itself does not stabilize or treat other than mechanically the materials passing through. No temperature increase is seen to reduce pathogens or viable seeds; It does not really meet the legislation as a suitable treatment method contained in the Landfill Directive or the proposed Biowaste Directive in the UK.
Composting Advantages The main advantages of composting include: l
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Possible simple, durable, and cheap technology (except some invessel facilities); Approximately 40% to 50% of mass (weight) recovered for plant growth; Maximum recovery of the nutrients required for lowinput farming systems (i.e., phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, and micronutrients); Production of humic substances, beneficial microorganisms, and slowrelease nitrogen required for landscape gardening and horticulture; Eliminates weeds and pathogens in the waste material; Possible good opportunities of process control (except at most facilities without forced aeration); Can achieve a good working environment (e.g., pressurized operating cabins with filters).
Disadvantages Among composting’s drawbacks are to be found: l
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Requires source separation of municipal solid waste, including continuous information to waste generators Must develop and maintain market for the compost products Periodical emission of odorous compounds, especially when treating municipal solid waste Loss of 20% to 40% of nitrogen as ammonia, loss of 40% to 60% of carbon as carbon dioxide Potential vector problems (seagulls, rats, flies) when treating
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municipal solid waste Skilled staff needed when treating
Some of the common problems encountered in composting systems include: l
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Waste must be separated into degradable and non degradable. Some wastes are not suitable for composting because they contain significant quantities of heavy metals, paper, and plastics. Some plants are complex and difficult to maintain. If mechanized, it involves relatively highcapital investment and recurring maintenance and operating costs. In some cases, the market for compost is inadequate in the immediate vicinity, thereby increasing transportation cost.
Composting Costs Composting costs include site acquisition and development, regulatory compliance, facility operations, and marketing of the finished product. Additional requirements may include land for buffers around the compost facility, site preparation, and handling equipment such as shredders, screens, conveyors, and turners. Facilities and practice to control odors, leachate, and runoff are a critical part of any compost operation. The cost of constructing and operating a windrow composting facility will vary from one location to another. The operating costs depend on the volume of material processed. The use of additional feed materials, such as paper and mixed municipal solid waste, will require additional capital investment and materials processing labor. The capital costs of windrow or aerated piles are lower than in vessel composting configuration. However, costs increase markedly when cover is required to control odors. In general, costs of windrow systems are the lowest compared to the other two techniques. The invessel system is more costly than other methods, mainly with respect to capital expenditures. In addition, it is more mechanized and more equipment maintenance is necessary; however, it tends to be less laborintensive. Environmental Impacts Composting can be used as fertilizer for agricultural soils. This practice can be extremely important in order to decrease the amounts of chemical fertilizers used. Composting practices emit into the atmosphere different gases: greenhouse gases, volatile organic compounds, and odors. In soils and water systems the major concerns are due to deposition of salts and heavy metals. Air Pollution: The main issues are releases of different greenhouse gases (volatile organic compounds, carbon dioxide, and methane) and odors (ammonia, hydrogen sulfide). Volatile organic compounds increase the level of smog (tropospheric ozone), which can modify the temperature structure of the atmosphere, leading to climate changes. The emissions of volatile organic compounds depend on the temperature, aeration, and biological activity in the compost. The greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane trap thermal energy that comes to the atmosphere, raising the global temperature of the Earth. The contribution of greenhouse gases from composting to global warming is low because this practice is not yet widespread. Enclosed composting facilities have biofilters that remove odor emissions. Soil Pollution: Pollution of soils is mainly due to the addition of salts, heavy metals, and different organic compounds. They change the properties of the soil and can be toxic for the vegetation. Some metals are present in composted soils in higher
concentrations than in agricultural soil (e.g. lead, zinc, and copper), which can lead to the impairment of crops. If the bioavailability is high, these compounds can cause contamination in the whole food chain. The form in which the metal is found determines the bioavailability. Some soils are much more susceptible to contamination than others. The biodegradable waste used for composting must be free of contamination. If not, the end product will also be contaminated. The contamination will be passed on to the soil where the compost is added. Water Pollution: The main pollutants of the water systems are caused by washout processes of soils treated with compost. Therefore, the contamination of water systems includes heavy metals, different organic compounds (e.g., phenols, PAHs, PCBs, etc.,) and salts (e.g., nitrate, ammonium, etc.). Conclusions Composting is an attractive treatment method: l
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It is a simple lowcost technology, although processing methods can be deployed to encourage the composting process. As a familiar process, it is unlikely to meet significant public opposition during the planning process. Almost onethird of the waste tonnage is lost to carbon dioxide and water through the composting process. The resulting compost material can be put to beneficial use on land.
A successful municipal solid waste composting plant must be designed with strict attention to the finished compost; product specifications will determine requirements for both the incoming refuse feedstock and the physical and biological processes employed. Low contaminant levels will be essential if municipal solid waste composting is to live up to its potential and recycle organic wastes. MSW Surendra Kumar, Shashi and Salman Zafar are with the Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, Uttaranchal, India. MSW May/June 2006
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