Collections Of Figures And Theories

The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc OB formulas........................................................................................................................................3 Approach Technical/Human............................................................................................................3 The broad picture:.......................................................................................................................3 Scientific management................................................................................................................3 Business environment:................................................................................................................4 Motivation.......................................................................................................................................4 Personality theories.....................................................................................................................4 Distinction between process/content and cognitive/behavioural traditions................................5 Expectancy theory (Vroom; Porter & Lawler)............................................................................6 Goal theory (Locke) ..................................................................................................................6 Equity theory (Adams)................................................................................................................6 Hackman and Oldham’s work design model...............................................................................7 Management & Leadership.............................................................................................................8 Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles....................................................................................................8 Ohio State Studies.......................................................................................................................8 McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y............................................................................................9 Blake & Mouton..........................................................................................................................9 Quinn’s HRM model.................................................................................................................10 Situational theories :..................................................................................................................10 Vroom & Yetton’s contingency model......................................................................................11 Hersey & Blanchard’s situational leadership model.................................................................11 Human Resources Management....................................................................................................12 The four roles in HR management............................................................................................12 The Psychological Contract......................................................................................................12 The types of psychological contract .........................................................................................13 The Michigan model.................................................................................................................13 The Harvard model....................................................................................................................13 The Rutgers model....................................................................................................................13 The Warwick model..................................................................................................................14 The Bath model.........................................................................................................................14 Groups and teams......................................................................................................................14 Different types of groups...........................................................................................................14 Stages of group and team developement.......................................................................................15 Bass and Ryterband...................................................................................................................15 Woodcock..................................................................................................................................16 Tuckman....................................................................................................................................16 Belbin’s team roles....................................................................................................................17 Teams........................................................................................................................................17 Conflicts:...................................................................................................................................18 Consequences of competition....................................................................................................18 Reactions...................................................................................................................................18 Social networks:........................................................................................................................19 Casciaro & Lobo.......................................................................................................................19 Likeability ................................................................................................................................19 .......................................................................................................................................................19 Organisation structure:..................................................................................................................20 Centralisation............................................................................................................................20 Differentiation:..........................................................................................................................20

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc Integration:................................................................................................................................20 Functional structure ..................................................................................................................21 Divisional structure...................................................................................................................21 Matrix structure.........................................................................................................................21 Influences on structure?............................................................................................................22 Greiner:......................................................................................................................................22 Phases of growth.......................................................................................................................23 Culture...........................................................................................................................................23 Manifestations of culture...........................................................................................................24 Three levels of culture. .............................................................................................................24 National culture ............................................................................................................................25 Hofstede....................................................................................................................................25

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

OB formulas Approach Technical/Human The broad picture: 1900-1930 Management and organization theory Assumptions about human nature Role of management Focus of managerial control

1930-1960 1960s

Classical school/ Human rational approach relations Economic person Social person

Human resources

Self actualizing person Control employee Creating a Motivation behavior good of all ’climate’ employees Plan and organize Well-being Challenof ging jobs employees

1970-2000 Contingency view Complex person Facilitate employee development Selfmanagement

Scientific management •

•

•

Frederich Taylor o Clear distinction between planning a job o Jobs should be standardised and simplified o Each worker should conduct a minimum of movements  Was the ’Father’ to mass production techniques Frank Gilbreth o ’Father’ of time and motion methodologies o Suggested reductions in working day, brief rest periods, experimented with lighting conditions, music, canteen facilities – have workers complex needs? Henry Gantt o Introduced detailed instruction cards o Developed new payment systems, combining basic and bonus schemes

Hawthorne studies by Chester Barnard • • •

It was the attention that the control group of workers received which contributed to productivity improvements Human needs = complex Workers in groups were able to influence the level of their output – via social pressures they could control output 3

The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc •

Workers did not necessarily seek to maximise production in order to receive enhanced bonuses – social pressures stronger than managerial concerns o motivation o group work o leadership/management o the informal organisation

Business environment:

Motivation Personality theories Nomothetic approach (personalities are fixed, determined by heredity, and connot be significantly influenced by environment)





Trait theories − Identification of types of personality − Prediction of behaviour Humanistic approach − Development of the individual − How people perceive themselves

Idiographic approach (individuals have unique characteristics, but personality can be moulded and both personality and behaviour are influenced by environment) 



Psychodynamic theory − Freud: personality developed by parental relationships and the effects of various types of trauma Jung’s personality theory − 4 dimensions of personality − Used by Myers to develop the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator – basis for personality testing

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

Distinction between process/content and cognitive/behavioural traditions

The following are different theories which are alike: Maslow: Self-actualization

Aldefer’s Growth

Self-esteem Relatedness Esteem of others Security Physiological needs

Existence

McClelland

Herzberg

He claimed humans are controlled by 3 things: − Need for Achievement

Hygiene – context factors: • company policy • Remuneration: pay • Relationship with peers/subordinates • Status/promotion • Job security Motivators – content factors

− Need for Power − Need for Affiliation

• • • • • •

Sense of achievement Recognition The work itself Responsibility Advancement Personal growth

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

Expectancy theory (Vroom; Porter & Lawler) • • •

Humans act according to their conscious expectations that a particular behaviour will lead to specific desirable goals Recognises that individuals differ: that we are all unlikely to value the same outcomes equally Consequences (management): o Important that rewards are actually valued o The reward system should reflect that high performance/desired behaviour also leads to better rewards

Goal theory (Locke) • •

Similariteis with the expectancy approach ’Goal theory proposes that both motivation and performance will be high if individuals are set specific goals which are challenging, but accepted, and where feedback is given on performance.’ (Brooks, page 52)

Equity theory (Adams) 

 

3 components in Adams’s model: − Inputs (the effort an individual makes) − Outputs (intrinsic and extrinsic rewards) − Comparison with others Insight into the relationship between rewards and the likely satisfaction individuals gain from them The level of satisfaction and potential motivation resulting from an individual’s receiving a reward cannot be considered in isolation.

Indvidual Input Comparison of others input  Indvidual Output Comparison of others output

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

Hackman and Oldham’s work design model

The model Job dimensions

Psychological states

Outcomes

Skill variety Task identity Task significance

Experienced meaningsfulness at work

Higher motivation

Autonomy Feedback

㌌㏒ 좈 琰茞 ᓀ Ü Responsibility

Higher quality Higher satisfaction

Knowledge of actual activities/results

Lower absenteeism and turnover Jobs that will have the five characteristics will have a high motivational potential. A person’s qualifications, growth needs, and general job satisfaction will modify the result.

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

Management & Leadership Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles Interpersonal roles  Figurehead  Leader  Liaison Information processing roles  Monitor  Disseminator)  Spokesperson Decision-making roles  Entrepreneur  Disturbance handler  Ressource allocator  Negotiator

Conclusion:  Managers do not spend most of their time planning, organising, coordinating and controlling – as we thought they did…  They have many different – and equal important – tasks/roles, and their everyday life is characterized by many interruptions and short term decisions

Management vs leadership Management:  Short focus  Stability  Do things right  Problem solving  Systems and structure  Authority  Control  Transactional

Leadership:  Long focus  Change  Do the right things  Problem identification  People  Influence  Trust  Transformaitonal

Ohio State Studies Consideration

High

Low

Less emphasis is placed on structuring employee tasks while the leader concentrates on satisfying employee needs and wants

The leader provides a lot of guidance about how tasks can be completed while being highly considerate of the employee needs and wants

The leader fails to provide necessary structure and demonstrates little consideration for employee needs and wants

Primary emphasis is placed on structuring employee tasks while the leader demonstrates little consideration for employee needs and wants

Low

High Initiating structure 8

The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y − Leaders and managers could be differentiated from one another according to their attitudes and assumptions about human natur − Theory X leaders consider subordinates to be lazy, reluctant to assume responsibility and lacking in ambition – should be controlled and directed − Theory Y leaders assumes that individuals align themselves with organisational goals – require little control and direction

Blake & Mouton − Suggest that a manager’s style can be identified and mapped according to the ’people’ and ’task’ orientation

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

Quinn’s HRM model

Situational theories : Fiedler Characteristics of the situation or context

Leadermember relations: poor/good Task structure: structured/ unstructured Power position: weak/strong Situation favourability Most effective leader orientation

1 G

2 G

3 G

4 G

5 P

6 P

7 P

8 P

S

S

U

U

S

S

U

U

S

W

S

W

S

W

S

W

Highly favourable situation

Average situational favourability

Highly unfavourable situation

Task oriented

Relationship oriented

Task oriented

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

Vroom & Yetton’s contingency model

Hersey & Blanchard’s situational leadership model

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

Human Resources Management Hard HRM: 

A human ressource management perspective which emphasizes the full utilzation of employees in a formal, calculating and dispassionate manner, to be treated in a manner similar to any other resources available to the organization



Leadership: task-oriented style

Soft HRM:  A human ressource management perspective which emphasizes the need to develop the potential and resourcefulness of employees in order to encourage commitement and high performance in pursuit of shared organizational goals 

Leadership: people-oriented style.

The four roles in HR management

The Psychological Contract If this contract is broken this happens:  Low job satisfaction  Poor performance  High staff turnover  Feelings of anger and betrayal  Erosion of trust

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

The types of psychological contract

The Michigan model   

People should be managed like any other resource Personnel policies must match, or be aligned with, the organization’s strategy Problems:  Narrow focus on aspects of HRM  Ignores context

The Harvard model     

Best known and most widely cited Influential in Britain and continental Europe As the Michigan model: Personnel policies must match, or be aligned with, the organization’s strategy Considers a wider range of factors than the Michigan model Problems: − Precise nature of causal links remains vague…

The Rutgers model 





Identify 12 contrasting employee behaviours − Some of these are appropriate for an organization strategy that involves cost reduction (cf. McGregor, Theory X) − Others are appropriate for an organization strategy that involves innovation (cf. McGregor, Theory y) Establish organization strategy and required employee behaviours – next step is to determine HR practices appropriate for encouraging those behaviours − HR manager is offered 5 practice ’menus’ If the organization’s strategy changes, then it may be necessary to adjust some of the menu items

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

The Warwick model  

Extension of the Harvard model The model has 5 elements 1) HRM content 2) Outer context 3) Inner context 4) HRM context 5) Business strategy context

The Bath model  



Attempts to explain how HR policies are linked to performance (the so-called’black box’ problem) Case-study research: focuses on the underlying processes through which HR policies influence employee behaviour and performance To perform beyond the minimum requirements of a job: − Ability − Motivation − Opportunity

Groups and teams 

Groups: (page 84) − Schein: a group is any number of people · Who interact with one another · Who are psychologically aware of one another · Who perceive themselves to be a group



Teams: (page 84) − Katzenbach: a team is a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable.’ − Self-directed teams (pages 8587) − Self-managed teams (pages 8587)

Different types of groups Formal groups:  Are established in a planned way either permanently or temporarily. Their purpose is to help solve problems derived from the goals of the organization

Informal groups:  Are spontaneously created. They can be aimed at problem-solving purposes, but more often fulfill the group member’s pychological needs

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc Formal groups help:  To solve complex tasks  To produce creative ideas  To coordinate across departments  To increase decision-making ability  To facilitate implementation  To ease socialization and training

Informal groups help:  To fulfill affiliation needs  To develop and maintain a common identity  To establish and test social reality  To reduce fear and insecurity  To accomplish tasks

Stages of group and team developement Bass and Ryterband

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

Woodcock

Tuckman

Remember Adjourning is in Tuckman 1

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

Belbin’s team roles

Teams High performing team  In order to develop high performing teams, it is necessary that the team is thinking ’we’ instead of ’I’  Cooperation in the group characterized by: − Trust – to the other members of the team − Loyalty – to the decisions made − Initiative – to carry out decisions − Responsibility – work and cooperation − Reliability – in all situations − Energy - everybody must contribute − Respect – we are all different − Commitment - results − Evaluation - improvement

Group think  Even in a strongly cohesive group, pressure is placed on members to fall into line and conform to the group norms  Groupthink: ’a mode of thinking in which people engage when they are deeply involved in a cohesive group, in which strivings for unanimity override motivations to realistically appraise alternative courses of action.  Symptoms of groupthink: − Groups feels invulnerable; excessive optimism − Those who oppose the group are ’stupid’, corrupt and weak − Pressure is applied to anyone who opposes the prevailing mood of the group − Silence is taken as consent − Members of the group censor themselves if they feel they are deviating from the group norms

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

Conflicts: Intra-group (in the group):  Extreme personalities in the same group/team  The members compete about (limited) ressources  Some members are ’free riders

Consequences of competition Intra-group:      

Increased loyalty within group, no disagreement Increased formalisation Focus on the job/task (and not social activities) Acceptance of ’one taking the control’ Increased structure/organized Members must conform to the group norms

Reactions Winner reactions:    

Increased group solidarity More focus on social aspects (having a nice time) Increased interest in the individual member: situation and problems No focus on experiences/ single-loop learning  Meaning they “know” they are good enough and face the risk that they might just stop trying.

Inter-group (between groups):  Some competition between groups are fine  But necessary with the ’right balance’ between friendly competition and cooperation between the groups  Competition between groups in an organisation: leads to greater motivation and is only a good thing? − Need to be aware of potential consequences

Inter-group:   

Identification of ’enemies’ ’We’ and ’the others’ Strong selective perception and single loop-learning

Loser reactions:     

’It is not our fault’; question the result Who to blame? The group seems to break up Some groups try to work their way out of the problems Douple-loop learning  Meaning they are ”broken” they have to rethink everything and start from scratch.

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

Social networks: Casciaro & Lobo • • •

Organisations are designed to ensure that people interact in ways necessary to get their jobs done Offer insights into how people choose those they work with Informal relationships are important

Likeability

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

Organisation structure: Centralisation Centralisation: Advantage: decision are more likely to be consistent and jobs at lower levels should be simplified because important decision are removed Disadvantage: slows down the pace of decision making, employees can feel that they have little responsibility /feel that they are not important

Formalisation: Formalisation is the tendency of an organisation to create and impose written rules and procedures for working (Brooks, page 182) E.g. job descriptions, staff manuals

Span of control: Span of control refers to the number of employees that report directly to a manager (Brooks, page 183) Number of subordinates reporting directly to a manager is commonly 10-12 As the span of control increases so does the problem of control and coordination

Differentiation:  

Vertical differentiation is the extent to which an organisation structure comprises different levels of authority’ (Brooks, page 182) An organisation with many reporting levels in its hierarchy and which is organised into many diferent product/service areas whould be highly differentiated

Integration: 

The extent to which different levels in the hierarchy are coordinated (vertical integration) and the extent to which coordination occurs acress functional areas (horizontal integration)

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

Functional structure

Divisional structure

Matrix structure

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

Influences on structure?

Size

ICT

Business Environment

Structure

Strategy

Technology

Greiner:

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

Phases of growth

Flexibility Creativity  phase

Leadership­ crisis

Collaboration­

Delegation­

phase

phase

Autonomy crisis

Direction­ phase

Red tape­ crisis

Control­

     ???? crisis

crisis

Coordination­

Stability

phase

(Greiner, 1972)

Culture

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

Manifestations of culture Artifacts and creations Words, logo, gestures, dress-code, jargon, pictures, etc which are manifestations of the organisational culture Heroes Real or imaginary persons, who posses highly valued characteristics of a culture, and thus serve as models for behaviour (founders) Myths and stories Real events or ’urban legends’ replicated among employees that carry the essence of the organisational culture and its values Rituals Collective activities (ways of greeting, social ceremonies) considered essential within the culture

Three levels of culture.

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The headers are the lectures, thus approach… lecture 1 Motivation lecture 2 etc

National culture

Hofstede 

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

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Four cultural dimensions emerged from his data: − Power distance − Individualism/collectivism − Uncertainty avoidance − Masculinity/femininity Power distance − Power distance represents the social distance between people of different rank or position Individualism / collectivism − Individualism reflects the extent to which an individual relies on a group (a collectivist approach) or takes the individual initiative in making decisions, solving problems and engaging in productive activity Masculinity / femininity − Masculinity is one of the more complex variables introduced by Hofstede. It reflects values which are widely considered to be more ’masculine’, such as assertiveness, competitiveness and results orientation, whereas ’feminine’ values can be seen to be cooperative and to show greater awareness of feelings and equal opportunities Uncertainty avoidance − Uncertainty avoidance essentially reflects porole’s attitudes to ambiguity in a ociety or country

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