Cn - Session 4 And 5 Catalan Nationalism Up To Transition

Session 4 & 5: Catalan Nationalism through Transition to Democracy ► Catalan

Nationalism in Comparative Perspective ► IES

Barcelona ► FALL 2007 PROGRAM

► ►

Instructor: Andrew Davis e-mail: [email protected] 1

19 century context th

► Politics ► Society ► Economy

2

Political Integration of Catalonia into Spain (partial) ►

Last remnants of institutional autonomy removed after Bourbon takeover and Nueva Planta decrees, 1716.

►

Catalonia is now officially part of ‘Spain’ in every sense. Economically, this ties Catalonia more deeply to Spain, how?

►

Catalonia is allowed into the empire, and enjoys protected markets

►

Peripheral bourgeoisie dependent on the centre, as they needed the protected markets of empire to survive. So Catalan interests in Madrid were 3 powerful lobbies, not burgeoning separatist movements.

Industrial Revolution Catalonia ► During

the nineteenth century, Catalonia moves away from traditional manufacturing to modern industry. ► Slow and gradual until 1840, but after the First Carlist War, growth became spectacular. ► The Catalan textile industry was most important. ► Early factory conditions are poor, migration from countryside is socially traumatic. 4

Integration into a frail system ► Forty-three

pronunciamientos between 1814 and 1923, 11 of which were successful. ► Many liberal constitutions (1812, 1820, 1836-1837, 1854 and 1868-1869) but little chance of success or stability 5

The beginning of nationalism ►

Industrial revolution is on in Catalonia, positive growth, poor conditions, dependent on central government assistance. State is only minimally functional. What are your interests, concerns at this time?

3)

Textile owner in Barcelona Factory worker in Barcelona Politician from Madrid Politician from Barcelona

4) 5) 6)

6

Typology of Political Regionalism (Catalanism) ► Conversi

argues that there are four:

► Cultural

revivalists ► Progressive federalists ► Anti-Bourbon traditionalists ► Industrial Bourgeoisie

7

The Renaixença ►

Early 19th century romantic revivalist movement in Catalan language and culture, akin to the Galician Renaixensa or the Occitan Félibrige movements.

►

This movement ended a period of Catalan cultural decline commonly known as Decadència dating from the Nueva Planta decrees, which suppressed Catalonia's traditional institutions, privileges, and fueros

►

Aimed for the full restoration of Catalan as a language of culture, not only through the promotion of various forms of art, theatre and literature in this language, but also attempting to establish a normative standard for the language, something 8 however not fully accomplished until the first

9

Catalanisme starts as cultural phenomenon ► Renaixença

– response to the disruption and violence brought about by modernization.

► The

past becomes an escape route to avoid confronting the problems of modernity – this involves a historicist reconstruction of an idealized past, focusing on the middle ages.

► How

will this affect political nationalism when it emerges later – how? 10

Political Catalanism ► When

Catalanism becomes political, there is already a historiography built up, fruit of the Renaixença

► In

other words, they had a pre-existing definition of Catalan identity to work with, already completed by cultural revivalists.

► But

how to ‘use’ the history moving forward was the site of controversy… 11

Catalan bourgeoisie ► The

most critical group in Catalonia They had bought into Spain as part of an imperial project. ► Were not inherently Catalan nationalists. ► Much of the Catalan middle class still depended on trade with Cuba and the Philippines, and on protectionist trade measures. 12

Bourgeoisie interests ► The

bourgeoisie in Catalonia was the only one to have interests in industry in Spain. ► Because of growth, there was a growing contrast between industrial Catalonia and Spain, which was more agricultural. ► They pressed for protectionist economic measures that would reduce the competition of products from

13

Carlism in Catalonia ► Carlism

was a social and political movement that formed in support of Carlos María Isidro, the brother of Fernando VII. Reaction by traditional rural society against the secular, centralist and modernizing efforts of liberal and republican regimes. ► The movement drew all those nostalgic for absolutism, as well as farmers and peasants badly affected by liberal measures. ► The Catalan Carlists, of whom there were many in the inland areas and in the Pyrenees, defended a reactionary traditionalism with return to local-self rule under the king. 14

Carlism in Catalonia II ► There

were three Carlist wars on Catalan soil: the Seven Years' War of 1833-40, the War of the Matiners (one of the warring factions) of 1846-49 and the third Carlist War (1872-76).

► In

Catalonia, Carlists were supported by the Church, because they supported traditional values, including staunch Catholicism 15

Catalan Federalism ► Federalism

in Spain was a ‘Catalan project’ – administration needed to be reformed and decentralized. Wanted to ‘fix’ Spain ► Catalan bourgeoisie would regenerate Spain from a politically resurgent Catalonia – they would show Spain the way, imposing their model on ‘backward’ Spain. ► They believed that federalism would regenerate all the Spanish regions. But it was REPUBLICAN and LAIQUE. ► Francesc Pi i Maragall – Las nacionalidades (1877) 16

Catalanisme – Broad Church but intellectual by nature ►3

main sources – all believed in autonomy for Catalonia. What do you see as the difference?

► Carlism

– return to the past ► Moderate and conservative Catalanism - not fully democratic, and represented the Catalan industrial bourgeoisie. ► Republican federalists - more democratic, individualist and linked to the budding worker movements, whose intellectual leader was Francisco Pi i Maragall. 17

The first Catalan Political Party ► Bourgeoisie

founds Lliga de Catalunya (1887) and becomes Lliga Regionalista to contest the Spanish elections of 1901, affirming that if elected they would ‘by all legal means to achieved the autonomy of the Catalan people within the Spanish state’. ► This breaks the grip of the two-party system in Spain (Conservatives and Liberals), and the corrupt turno pacifico. Dominates Catalan politics until 1931, and led by industrialists. 18

The Regionalist League ► The

Lliga Regionalista, or Regionalist League, represented moderate, socially conservative Catalanism that expressed the concerns of part of the industrial bourgeoisie, farm landowners and the middle class. ► Its political aims included self-government for Catalonia that would ensure that the country was modernised, and it sought to intervene in the affairs of the Spanish government in a pragmatic way that would lead to modernisation.

19

Enric Prat de la Riba ► Leader

of the Lliga - Important figure in Catalan nationalism - he went farther than most. Declares Catalonia a nation as part of a Spanish state but….

► ‘Catalonia’s

mission was to modernize Spain, unite the Iberian peninsula, and then establish a new empire that would civilize the backward peoples of the world’ ► Lliga more regionalist than nationalist, sought to assert Catalan interests to modernize Spain by shifting political power to the industrial bourgeoisie of the periphery.

20

Importance of Lliga ► They

broke up the broken and corrupt system of liberals and conservatives (known as the restoration monarchy) – at least in Catalonia ► Positive effects – broke the cycle of corruption and false democracy

21

‘Bases de Manresa’ ► In

1892, it was published by the Unió Catalanista, and meant to create a big-tent Catalan nationalist grouping. Headed by Prat de la Riba, and included members of Lliga and many others, they defined Catalonia in truly nationalist terms. ► Prat de la Riba defines Spain as simply a political entity, the state, while Catalonia was the nation to which they were proud members. ► They called for powers in taxation, coinage, legislative and executive authority, civil, penal and mercantile legislation, regional army and police units, education, and the return of the more traditional political 22

The Reaction from Madrid ► Closure

of Newspapers ► Prevention of meeting ► Closing of clubs and societies ► These policies legitimized the nationalists. ► Final

straw which confirms nationalist feeling comes in 1898. What happened?

23

Crisis in Cuba and the Philippines ► The

entry in 1898 of the United States into Spain's war against the pro-independence fighters in Cuba and the Philippines resulted in Spain's loss of its last colonies. ► The economic consequences of the disappearance of safe colonial markets were also severe. In Catalonia, the defeat raised a new awareness amongst the industrial bourgeoisie and was the definitive starting point for political Catalanism. 24

Desastre del ’98 – Loss of Empire ► No

longer the imperial ties to help Catalan business – Bourgeoisie exasperated ► Petit bourgeoisie – shop owners, equally as affected ► Factories close, wages depressed – Catalan workers affected ► What reaction does this engender?

25

Political Catalanism I ► The

loss of the Cuban and Philippine colonial markets finally pushed the Catalan industrial middle class into political action. ► The economic effects consolidate affection among workers for various combinations of socialism, anarchism, republicanism and federalism. 26

Two Basic Principles of Catalanisme ► Rejection

of a centralized Spanish state, and the pushing for a decentralized one. Convert other regions and nationalities to their decentralized caused. ► The hecho diferencial (fet diferencial). The acceptance that Catalonia has specific characteristics, different from those of Spain - language, private law, culture, common history, and general cultural characteristics.

27

But they are different ‘nationalisms’ ► The

peasant nationalism – consequence of modernization and failure of Spanish state to adapt unable to establish universal education, offer national symbols or rituals. ► Textile magnate – reacting to loss of empire, assisting Catalan business. This Catalan nationalism still about how to ‘fix’ Spain.

28

Magazine ‘Cu-cut!’ uses the army as butt of a joke

29

Central Government’s Reaction: The Law of Jurisdictions ► In

1906 the Law of Jurisdictions was passed, which stated that offenses against the army or any national symbols would be prosecuted in a military tribunal.

► By

March 1907, the autonomists had been compelled to join forces against the central gov’t, which gave the military authorities the power to try by courts martial all civilian acts inimical to the army. 30

Political Catalanism II ► In

1906, the Lliga joined a broad coalition that was nationalist in outlook and which brought together diverse, even contradictory, political forces in the Solidaritat Catalana (Catalan Solidarity). ► The Lliga’s pragmatic politics combined nationalist feeling with the firm decision to intervene in the governing of the Spanish state. ► The Catalan electoral map changed dramatically: the dynastic parties were pushed aside and the political field was divided up between the Lliga Regionalista and the republican parties.

31

Alejandro Lerroux and Lerrouxism ► Alejandro

Lerroux (1864-1949), the leader of the Radical Republican Party, combined verbal and anti-clerical radicalism that was close to the politics of revolution with a political approach that was pro-Spanish. ► In 1905, he championed the army and was the enemy of Catalan Solidarity. His confused and demagogic discourse impressed the working and middle classes in Barcelona. His electoral strategy and brilliant public speaking turned the sector of republicans that he led into a modern party of the masses. 32

Alejandro Lerroux and Lerrouxism II ► Bitterly

anticlerical republican and ‘proletarian’ anti-Catalanist. ► Attracted the Barcelona poor with food cooperatives, mutual benefits, day and evening classes, and inexpensive theatrical productions. ► Why was anarchism so popular in Barcelona? 33

Alejandro Lerroux 1864-1949

34

► It

was the first Spanish city to industrialize, and thus the first to experience the social upheaval that had occurred earlier in other parts of Europe.

► Thus,

unrest in Spain first appears in Barcelona 35

Barcelona – anarchist haven ► Bourgeoisie

was made of conservatives, who were also nationalists – banding together politically to lobby central government for protectionism and other assistance. ► Because they were increasingly unable to prevail against central government – they took an increasingly intractable stance towards their workers. ► Central gov’t doesn’t bother to intervene until social unrest gets out of control – often repression is harsh, and the cycle repeats itself. 36

Seeds of Revolt ► On

May 15, 1909 the Rusinol factory in the Ter valley was closed down, and 800 workers were discharged. The lockout was the opening blow in another campaign to lower wages throughout the textile industry. ► It was against this background of mounting crisis in Barcelona that the Maura ministry, on July 11, announced a call-up of military reserves for active duty in Morocco.

37

Spanish Africa

38

Setmana Tragica (the Tragic Week) 1909 ► Barcelona

revolts - the week of July 26 to August 1, a largely spontaneous uprising which lead to five days of shooting, looting, murders, bombs and barricades. ► Hundreds of demonstrators were killed in the streets while protesting against the military service system and factory closures ► anarchists and radical republicans burned 21 churches and 40 convents (not uncommon for anti-Catholic ideologues in Spain for past 100 years) 39

Catalanisme arrives to the Popular Classes ► Soledarietat

Catalana, the umbrella group which brought the Lliga together with other Catalan forces, falls apart. ► Lliga supports subsequent repression and begins to lose support w/i working class because of it. ► The revolt of the Setmana Tragica turns political Catalanisme from a movement of elites, to one which was popularized across class lines.

40

Reaction of Bourgeoisie ► Bourgeoisie

becomes mistrustful of electoral methods and drifted toward political subterfuge or the use of direct action. The industrial bourgeoisie returned to its old practice of making behind-the-scene deals. ► The inner paralysis of these classes increasingly tended to paralyze the entire constitutional system, restricting political life to maneuvers within the government.

41

Central government’s role ► This

re-stitched up political system, which conservative Catalanism went along with (The Lliga would eventually lose its primacy by cooperating with Primo dictatorship) opens the way for other ideological proposals. Most importantly:

► First

group pushing for outright independence – Estat Català, led by Francesc Macià in 1922. ► Beginning of left-wing Catalanisme 42

Conservative Concession - The Mancomunitat ► The

Mancomunitat de Catalunya was officially constituted on 6 April 1914. ► The Mancomunitat was a federation of the four provincial Catalan councils and, although it was a strictly administrative institution, it was a recognition by the Spanish state of the character and unity of Catalonia. ► It was the first self-governing body since 1716. With it, the Catalan language returned to an official sphere of influence. Enric Prat de la Riba became the Mancomunitat’s first president. 43

Mancommunitat encourages further Catalanisme noucentisme ► Pompeu

Fabra – standardizes Catalan (1913-1932) ► Institut d’Estudis Catalans (1907) ► Catalan National Library (1914) ► Increased focus on education ► But central government still influential… 44

By way of comparison Bourbon’s Social Institutions Regulating the Arts and Sciences: ► Royal

Academy of Language (1714) ► Royal Academy of History (1738) ► Royal Academy of Fine Arts (1744) ► Royal Academy of Medicine and Surgery (1737) 45

Summary of late Restoration Monarchy (1902-1923) ► Between

1902-23, 34 different governments ► All attempts to reform corrupt system fail ► High class tension over Morocco and industrial relations ► In 1923, due to this instability, and following longstanding tradition, Miguel Primo de Rivera pushes another pronunciamiento. Initially strongly supported. 46

Primo Dictatorship 1923-30 ► In

order to solve the ‘problem of the nation’, the military Captain General of Catalonia, Miguel Primo de Rivera (1870-1930), proclaimed himself dictator of Spain in 1923, with the authorization of the king. 

47

Primo Dictatorship 1923-30 ► Establishes

a Military Directory (although two years later he becomes a government of civil politicians) and suspends the civil Constitution.  ► The Dictatorship welcomed with enthusiasm by almost everybody (including the King, and the Lliga Regionalista in CAT).  ► It was also initially successful in restoring public order. 48

Primo Dictatorship 1923-30 ► Public

work projects: railroads, highways, marshes, ports and reforestation, thus ending the jobs crisis.  ► Also the Banco de Crédito Industrial and the Banco de Crédito Local were established, stimulated the small businesses and savings.  49

Primo Dictatorship 1923-30 ► The

system of collection of taxes improves ► The national budget is balanced. ► Simultaneously, general Primo de Rivera manages to pacify the north of Morocco after two years military (1925-1927).  50

Primo Dictatorship 1923-30 ► BUT

- All this is coming on top of a culturally homogenizing, restrictive and authoritarian government. ► Country needed reforms, but he relied on Church and Military. ► Despite the advances of the Dictatorship, the intellectuals, liberal and the revolutionaries complained the persistent suppression of constitutional guarantees 51

Effects in Catalonia ► Catalan

flag and language and banned ► Catalanist organizations dissolved, meetings prohibited ► Centralization of Spanish curriculum ► Dissolves the Mancommunitat (1925) ► Changed street names ► Banned language’s use on shops ► Becomes a model for Franco later on… 52

Primo Dictatorship 1923-30 ► The

Great Depression of 1929 ended the prosperity of the Directory (now public neither happy with social reforms or economy) ► King Alfonso XIII, fearing the future of the monarchy, rescinds his support of the dictator and, subsequently, Primo de Rivera is forced to resign his position in 1930.  53

Pact of San Sebastian ► The

Pact of San Sebastián (1930) united the liberal politicians (republican moderate) and to the revolutionary extremists (socialist and anarchists) to overthrow the Bourbon monarchy and to exile King Alfonso XIII.

54

Second Republic (1931-1936) In the elections of April of 1931, although the monarchic parties obtained a great majority in the rural countryside, the coalition of republican and socialist parties won in the cities and Catalonia.  ► The new government declares a Spanish Federal Republic (1931-1936) ► In order to avoid a civil war, the King leaves the country on the April 14th 1931 for France. The King dies later in Rome in 1941. ►

55

The Second Republic (19319) ► Estado

Integral - establishes a state structure somewhere between unitary and federal models

► It

did not attempt another federal structure, not acceptable to the monarchists of varying stripes; nor did it attempt a unitary one, the uniformity of relations between center and periphery could not be acceptable

56

Catalan nationalism – from right to left ► March

1931 - Disparate left-wing Catalan nationalist parties join together to form Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya (Catalan Republican Left, ERC), led by Francesc Macià. Esquerra replaces Lliga as the most important party because the Lliga collaborated with the dictatorship. ► Primo’s dictatorship had shattered confidence BOTH in Spain and in the right, including the Lliga. This connection is reinforced under Franco.

57

14 April 1931 ► The

municipal elections of 12 April 1931, the first to be held since the dictatorship, gave an ample victory to the left wing. On 14 April, Francesc Macià proclaimed the Catalan Republic from the Palau de la Generalitat. ► That same day, the Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed in Madrid. Under pressure from the provisional government of the Spanish Republic, Macià agreed to turn his proposal for a Catalan Republic into an autonomous governing body, the Generalitat de Catalunya.

58

Repercussions for Catalonia ► September,

1932, the Catalans got their local government body ‘back’, the Generalitat (via a statute of autonomy) after having been absent since Philip V, as well as linguistic autonomy, and some tax-raising powers ► Statute of Autonomy (estatut) approved ► Symbols and language restored

59

The Statute of SelfGovernment ► The

Statute of Núria was approved by 99% of those who voted (75% of those on the electoral roll) in a referendum held on 2 August 1931. ► The statute defined Catalonia as a autonomous region within the Spanish republic and gave wide powers to the Generalitat. Parliamentary processes at the Spanish Cortes cut back the initial proposal. 60

2nd Republic and autonomous instability ► 1933,

right-wing group wins Spanish elections, while Catalonia stays left. Central government interference provokes Lluis Companys (the head of Generalitat, Macia had died) to declare a ‘Catalan Republic’ in 1934. ► Last only a few hours, but Generalitat suspended and Catalan leaders jailed ► The Popular Front government, elected in 1936, restored the Generalitat and was hailed in Catalonia 61

Spanish Civil War ► On

18 and 19 July 1936, the military insurrection that had begun in Africa spread throughout the garrisons based on the Peninsula, though the results were uneven. ► In the cities of Catalonia, the public order forces and anarcho-syndicalist militants put a halt to the insurrection. 62

63

Catalonia during the Civil War ► During

the Civil War, the Government of the Generalitat, which remained loyal to the Republic, organised the citizens' defence. When Franco's troops entered Barcelona, Lluis Companys (President of the Generalitat) went into exile in France. ► On 23 December 1938, Franco's army began its final offensive against Catalonia. The republican army withdrew to avoid a disorderly retreat. 64

The End of the War ► Thousands

of civilians made their way to the French border. On 26 January 1939, Franco's troops entered Barcelona. On 9 February, Franco's troops reached Pertús (the border town w/ France). On 1 April 1939, the war came to an end.

► Companys

was arrested there by the Gestapo in France, he was extradited to Madrid. On 3 October 1940, he was moved to Montjuïc Castle in Barcelona and executed by a firing squad the next day.

65

Fall of the 2nd Republic and Franco ► Conservative

belief that it was liberal democracy that had brought national disunity. ► These were ‘dangerous’ decentralizing policies ► The patria was threatened, and following long-standing Spanish tradition, the military would insert itself into the situation to exert a measure of stability. This was the basis for which the justification of the interventions of both Primo and Franco was

66

Franco Dictatorship 1939 - 1975 ► In

the end, the Franco dictatorship succeeded in quieting regional dissension and creating a straightjacketed unity of the state through repression, attempting to propagate the idea of a uni-national, and unicultural Spain.

67

Economic and Social Repression ► The

post-war years were characterized by adversity - rationing, the black market, fuel restrictions and industrial stagnation - that arose from the regime's policy of selfsufficiency and interventionism. ► Attempts were made to break up the economic fabric of Catalonia, and Catalan companies were discriminated against in the supply of raw materials and energy. ► Borders closed economically - autarky 68

Repercussions II ► At

home, the Francoist army of occupation and the leaders of the "Nuevo Estado" (New State) began to seek revenge. The repression was extremely severe. All the Catalan symbols were harshly suppressed while a new set of fascistic imperial symbols was imposed. ► Some 150,000 of the Catalans who remained in Catalonia were imprisoned in concentration camps; 4,000 of them were shot.

69

Cultural Repression ► ►

► ► ►

The Catalan language was restricted to use in private. Signs, the media, monuments and other symbols of the Catalan identity were dismantled or put at the service of the pro-Spanish nationalist discourse. Publishing in the Catalan language was outlawed and could only be done clandestinely. The history of the country was removed from text books and school curricula. The leading cultural institutions were closed down or operated illegally in insecure circumstances. 70

The Resistance ► From

the outset, small groups of citizens opposed the new regime. ► The FNC (National Front of Catalonia), the CNT and the POUM (Workers' Party of Marxist Unification) organised resistance networks. ► BUT…when it became evident that the allies would take no action against Franco, the resistance collapsed and the repression grew harsher.

71

1939-1959 – Civil War to the Technocratic Era ► Spain

governed by traditionalist Spanish Catholic nationalist regime ► Obsession with ‘national unity’ – Calvo Soltelo ‘I’d prefer a Red Spain to a broken Spain’. ► A totalitarian system which attempted to control the totality of civil culture 72

Economy under Franco ► Important

year 1959 – Franco shuffles his cabinet, gets rid of the Falangists and Carlists, and brings in Opus Dei technocrats. Economy had been faltering and might have threatened the regime if he continued.

► What

do you know about Opus Dei? 73

Opus Dei was founded by a Roman Catholic priest, Josemaría Escrivá, on 2 October 1928 in Madrid, Spain

► Opus

Dei is an organization within the Roman Catholic church. As such, it ultimately shares the overall theology of the Catholic Church. Opus Dei does place special emphasis on certain aspects of Catholic doctrine. Critics of Opus Dei have argued that it is cult-like, secretive, and highly controlling. Supporters dispute these allegations. Opus Dei stresses the importance of labor, and places great value

74

Economy under Opus ► They

implemented a Stabilisation plan, which would remove the last vestiges of autarky, implementing a capitalist economy and creating growth. ► From 1963 – Spain experiences the ‘milagro económico’. Concentrated in the Basque Country and Catalonia.

75

Growth and Catalonia ► Catalonia

went through unprecedented economic growth. The consolidation of industrial diversification turned Catalan industry into the principal provider of goods for the Spanish market. ► This expansion took place without any type of urban planning nor the slightest degree of democratic control over the economy. Urban chaos and the lack of a basic infrastructure were common in the large cities and the tourist areas on the coast.

76

Immigration in Catalonia People living in Catalonia People born in Catalonia as % of total population

1910 94,56

1920 85,8

1930 80,3

1940 80,9

1970 62,5

1981 63,8

People born outside Catalonia as % of total population

5,44

14,2

19,7

19,1

37,5

36,2

77

Catalan culture late Franco period ► Modest

revival of both language and culture ► Language restrictions eased ► Exiled intellectuals allowed to return ► Cultural gatherings allowed ► More sensitive subjects such as history taught clandestinely ► Jordi Pujol – Catalan activist, ‘fer pais’. ► All of this is tightly controlled, and censored, but not ‘erased’, as it had been in the first years…

78

The Assembly of Catalonia ►

►

►

The Assembly of Catalonia (Assamblea de Catalunya) was set up on 7 November 1971 and, as an anti-Franco platform, it led popular demonstrations right through to the early years of the democratic transition. Its program included liberty, amnesty, the Statute of Self-government as the first step towards selfdetermination, and co-ordination with the democratic struggle taking place elsewhere in Spain. The assembly was made up of political parties, trade unions, professional associations, local and district democratic assemblies, residents' associations and a large number of intellectuals and individuals with no particular affiliations. 79

Inclusive Catalan nationalism ► Two

most powerful political forces lateFranco period  Communists (PSUC)  Catholic Nationalists (led by Jordi Pujol)

► What

joined them?

 Social question (integration of immigrants)  National question (particularly language rights)

► The

‘bridge’ across the ideology gap was defense of Catalan culture, identity and interests. 80

Franco dies – November 1975 ► As

I wrote in an earlier slide: the Franco dictatorship succeeded in quieting regional dissension and creating a straight-jacketed unity of the state through repression’

► What

happened when the lid was taken off? 81