Cit Project Research Paper

Andrew Welsh Dr. Mary Wearn Senior Project

How to Get High-Schoolers to Listen to What They Don’t Want to Hear: A Case Study Involving Digital Media, Electrical Circuits, and a Resistant Audience There is an epidemic in the scientific community – an astoundingly low supply of physicists to fulfill the demands of new and existing research areas, and there is an even greater shortage of qualified and dedicated high-school Physics teachers. In 2006, the University System of Georgia produced a mere 67 graduates from four-year Physics programs, and only three qualified high school Physics teachers (University System of Georgia 1). At the same time, the world is meeting with some very serious problems that require the attention of well-educated scientists and engineers. We face a looming energy crisis as we burn through a finite supply of fossil fuels. At the same time, the costs of those fuels continue to rise, and we are dumping more and more wastes into the environment every day. Those are just some of the problems, and there are many more, along with the laundry list of technological developments, innovations, and inventions that affect our communication, entertainment and leisure pursuits, which we would never think of abandoning. This study will identify tools to help this county’s scholastic and research enterprises in science. My goal is to apply proven media methods to science education in order to capture a teenage audience and increase student interest and long-term participation in Physics studies. Specifically, this study seeks to identify and design remedies for the weaknesses in the science curricula of modern high-school education systems with the hope that these systems will in-turn produce more incoming college Physics and Physics Education majors. © Andrew Welsh, 2009

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Why Teenagers are the Most Promising Target Demographic The impact of a shortage of science professionals is most visible in the undesirably low numbers of new college graduates who have completed science and science education programs in this state. There are several possible reasons that could explain this: 1) students decide to change their major to a different area of interest after realizing the true nature of post-secondary scientific academia; 2) students fail and either drop out or change majors to an easier track; 3) students never chose or never intended to choose a science major in the first place. Each one of these situations begins with either inadequate or ineffective presentation of science curriculums in high school classes. Students at the high school level are old enough to begin forming their own beliefs and values and are already setting goals for their rapidly-accelerating lives. Therein lies the perfect opportunity to attract more human resources to the sciences: fresh, young and talented minds who are eager to explore the world, to foster and succeed in their relished pursuits. Consumer companies have long opportunistically exploited teen potentiality, seeking brand loyalty with the teenage consumer group, knowing that teenagers who consistently purchase a certain brand are much more likely to continue to purchase the same brand as adults (Zollo 16). The objective, then, must be for education professionals to cultivate science studies into one of those relished pursuits of high-school students -- to brand science in an appealing way -- so that these students will continue working in scientific disciplines. In order to accomplish this feat, educators must, like consumer companies, understand and exploit the unique needs of today’s generation of teenagers as students. Every generation of teenager who is alive today has grown up in the computer age, and generations to come will likely enjoy the same luxuries. The effects of technology on the inner-workings of our society are tremendous, some to such an extent that many younger adults can scarcely recall a time when limitless information was not just a mouse-click away, when people had to plan meetings and © Andrew Welsh, 2009

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outings carefully because they may or may not have access to a land-line telephone wherever they went. Marc Prensky, a pioneer of technological teaching methods, describes modern students as “digital natives - ‘native speakers’ of the digital language of computers, video games, and the Internet,” (Prensky 1). In his article “Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants,” Prensky argues that, as a result of growing up with so much technology, “today’s students think and process information fundamentally differently from their predecessors,” (1). Prensky’s claim points to the fact that preceding generations of students who did not grow up with technology, or “digital immigrants,” represent a majority of the current educator population (1); he writes, quite bluntly, that “today’s teachers have to learn to communicate in the language and style of their students (Prensky 4). Now, the students don’t speak a literal different language per say, so what does Prensky mean when he says that modern students think and learn differently? -- that they use a different style of communicating than their teachers? I believe that the communication breakdown is more than just generational friction: it is a combination of the phenomenon that Prensky has observed and the effects of this culture’s ubiquitous consumerism that has, perhaps with no one’s intention, transformed the classroom exchange into something other than just academic enrichment.

Why Media Studies are an Effective Way to Analyze Science Education for Digital Natives In order to accurately assess high-school science education’s weaknesses, though, this research must take a new approach. Simply determining that students are not interested in science subjects is not enough. We must understand why. We must address the shortcomings of the educational approaches that cause the students to become disinterested. Most often, science education has been evaluated with traditional teaching rubrics. However, the educational needs of modern students in our country, which are constantly evolving in relationship to our © Andrew Welsh, 2009

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technologies, are more successfully examined as modern consumer media forms rather than as traditional education forms. Media studies, which analyze the relationship between media and culture, can provide a way to analyze and improve current pedagogical practices in Science to address the specific needs of digital natives. In the sense we think of media, a medium is a form of information exchange. If the science courses in which students are enrolled exist to transfer information between instructors and students, then, for the purposes of this study, they are subject to the same evaluations that any more traditional media forms will be. One particular facet of media studies that can be used to analyze teens and science education explores the ways in which media’s basic action, or mode of transmission, affect the experience of interacting with a medium. And, since we live in the “information age,” there is virtually no limit to the amount, type, or context of information that can transmit across a medium except for the constraints inherent in the medium itself. Dissecting the effects of a particular medium can often be a difficult task nowadays due to the sheer volume of information available and the speed with which we can access that information. However, those qualities about our media reveal that we value speed and efficiency when accessing information; even, perhaps, that we demand instant gratification. Marshall McLuhan said, quite simply, that “the medium is the message” (McLuhan 38). In other words, the aspects of a particular medium carry more insight about both the transmitter and the recipient of the information than the information does regarding its subject. The same can be said for educational dynamics: the way a teacher chooses to teach, and all the attributes of the actual exchange have more to do with the relationship of the teacher to the students than the relationship of the teacher to the materials he or she is teaching. Another useful theory from the discipline of media studies is that media and culture reflexively produce and reproduce each other. In other words, our cultural values have driven the © Andrew Welsh, 2009

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development and spread of media, at the same time the content in media carries a message that spreads the same values. The media – broadcast television, music, blogs and web-pages, movies, radio, books, etc. - are where many people now get their ideas about politics, fashion, even society. Digital media forms are advancing with each generation, and today’s digital natives live in a world that is so saturated with those forms that using them is becoming second nature for the teens. The media are responsible for producing the images of personal identity that teenagers subscribe to, and more often than not, science is not included in those images as a desirable aspiration. In addition, technology is becoming a vital part of the way the teenagers gather and interpret information, and serves as the basis for their understanding and application of many different types of communication. Through this project, then, I hope to determine if the media forms and techniques that teenagers use to assimilate and cultivate their cultural images can also be used to sell students on Physics; and to demonstrate how using these media in science classes can help to provide a richer learning experience for students in all high-school science subjects.

The Medium and Message of Traditional Science Education: A Media Studies Analysis In Consuming Kids, Susan Linn extends McLuhan’s theory, observing that “…All media content reflects and communicates the values of those in control of that particular medium” (Linn 175). Janice Radway’s analysis Reading the Romance, a study of the social values and effects of romance novels, illustrates the phenomenon Linn identifies. Radway concludes that a possible effect on women who read romance novels is the unconscious reaffirmation of and submission to patriarchy as a result of reading the patriarchal values written into the framework of such stories (493). So, to better understand why science education fails to engage and interest high school students, we can also apply Linn’s theory by looking at the implied (social) values espoused in the traditional methods of teaching science. © Andrew Welsh, 2009

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Generally, the science classroom dynamic establishes that the teacher is in charge of the situation, both the gatekeeper to knowledge and the authority/empowered figure of the situation. The underlying value this classroom configuration transmits is to unquestionably submit to authority, to buy in to whatever message is being sold. Such an arrangement seems to invite teenagers, who are particular notorious for rebellious attitudes, to approach “hard sciences” with, at the least, skepticism, if not outright stand-offish-ness. In fact, the more our technologies progress, the bigger authoritative role science assumes in our society. Thomas Gieryn observes that “ ‘science’ often stands metonymically for credibility, for legitimate knowledge, for reliable and useful predictions, for a trustable reality… If ‘science’ says so, we are more often than not inclined to believe it or act on it” (1). It shouldn’t be surprising, then, that such a broad realm of academia, which is arranged around a system of “laws” and strict order, is met with resistance at a high-school level. The message that often comes across in the class is that, science, having been established by prior generations, is the “ultimate authority;” that it should not be questioned; it must be regarded with respect and reverence; it reserves no room for playful exploration. These transmitted cultural values teach high-school students that science is more about doing serious work than actually accomplishing something enjoyable, that science is something bland for old people to do and not something engaging for teenagers to enjoy. Connecting McLuhan’s and Linn’s theories of the cultural values of media with Prensky’s theory of the digital native, let us examine the logistics of a science lesson. Traditionally, the teacher stands in front of the class, lecturing, writing on a chalkboard or dry erase board. The students take notes; they may work on problems that the teacher has written on the board, or read and work problems from a textbook. The “laws” and formulae and theories of science are generally presented as absolutes. Unlike language arts and socials studies classes, in which © Andrew Welsh, 2009

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exploration and interpretation techniques are the focus, science class leaves no real room for interpretation or debate between students and teachers. When performing lab “experiments,” the students are actually told what effects they should be trying to achieve, and they are given an already-formulated procedure to achieve those effects; they must often repeat the experiment or suffer grade penalties if they do not produce the “desired results.” These teaching practices in science classrooms are the methods of Prensky’s “digital immigrants” – the computer illiterate, or at least computer uncomfortable, who prefer the original media like written text – and they don’t appeal to teenagers, not necessarily because the information is outdated, but because the presentation of the information is outdated; it belongs to the teachers, not the students (Prensky 2-3). This can suggest to teenagers that their preferred methods of obtaining and learning information are unimportant and inappropriate in a scientific arena. Indeed, the traditional science classroom has largely failed to exploit the channels of communication to which today’s teenagers are naturally attracted: modern-style television programming, video games, P2P (person-to-person) internet chatting and sharing, radio broadcasts (and contemporary podcasts), blogs and wikis, etc. Teen marketing expert Peter Zollo observes that “teens are not only big media users, they're also big media fans, and their avid consumption of media helps to nationalize the teen experience, connecting teens through common images and expressions” (66). What Zollo means is that today, teens identify themselves as users of media, such as television and interactive internet platforms; that teenagers feel not necessarily that these media belong to no one else, but that they definitely belong to teenagers, and that a now natural part of being a teenager is using digital technology. Traditional methods of teaching science, which ignore teen-focused media, appear to alienate students from the scientific community, which is ironic and unfortunate because so much of scientific work nowadays involves technology. © Andrew Welsh, 2009

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Moreover, the relationship between students and media goes beyond just identification. In fact the pervasive use of communication technologies such as computers, the internet, cell phones and video games has changed the way students learn and interact with their world, and the traditional science classroom has been slow to adapt to this fact. Recently, web browsing, both on computers and on cell phones, along with video games have emerged on television’s coattails to catch teenagers’ interests, and all of these activities involve a highly interactive experience with information, as opposed to reading a textbook or passively listening to a classroom lecture, which can seem rather unidirectional. Computers and the Internet have made information available almost instantaneously, and they have the potential to create very different techniques for acquiring knowledge and to generate new expectations about learning. Prensky elaborates on this sentiment: Digital Natives are used to receiving information really fast. They like to parallel process and multi-task. They prefer their graphics before their text rather than the opposite. They prefer random access (like hypertext). They function best when networked. They thrive on instant gratification and frequent rewards. They prefer “games” to serious work (2). High-school aged students feel that they should be using media to receive information, otherwise they are disconnected or disadvantaged -- they aren’t connecting with their peers, and they aren’t using the most efficient means of information processing. Most of the functions that media facilitate, such as hypertext searching, viewing multiple documents in different browser windows and chatting, are impossible to do with a textbook, or the classroom dynamic does not readily provide for them (consider students quietly listening to the teacher lecturing for an hour, or studying under the threat of earning a bad grade rather than receiving a tangible benefit from hard work). Fundamentally, the traditional communication style of a science class is not © Andrew Welsh, 2009

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compatible with the everyday “cultural” ways teenagers are accustomed to learning and processing information. Teenagers are apt to decode messages that science class sends on many levels, including the message of science education’s intent. To analyze these messages, consider Raymond Williams’ study of the experience of watching television in “Programming as Sequence or Flow.” He examines the pervasive addition of commercial advertisement to every aspect of television programming, from the traditional time-space between feature programs (234), to “interruptions” that occur during the program itself (235). Williams concludes that watching television is no longer about evening entertainment, but rather buying and selling products, transforming the living room into an individualized consumer realm. Unfortunately, the structure of science education sends similar messages in the same way, and the messages do not appeal to high-school students’ values. Zollo notes that teenagers have developed highly-refined consumer skills, that they “are more brand conscious today than ever before” (24), and if they don't accept the message coming across through the advertisement, “they can quickly reject not only the message but also the messenger” (6). In the science classroom, the message comes across as an order rather than an appealing option, and the messenger can manifest not only as the educator, but also the academic subject. What’s more is that because science teachers’ quality/success are often measured by the grades that their students earn rather than assessments of their own abilities. Students can often perceive such evaluation criteria as a lack of concern for their own quality of learning experience. In contrast, teenagers want to have fun, socialize, and learn about themselves as they grow into their lives. According to Zollo, “among teen's top 10 favorite things about school, all but one are extracurricular,” and “no more than 12 percent of (his teenage study sample) liked teachers, classes, grades, and tests,” which are actually among their strongest dislikes about © Andrew Welsh, 2009

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school (266-67). Thus, science subjects, which are centered around teachers' lectures, practice problems, and grades carry the message that pursuing science and math has no benefit for the students, who are more likely to throw the baby out with the bathwater and dismiss scientific work as personally fruitless burden rather than spend time shaping them into appealing and gratifying long-term pursuits. In addition to the flawed means of transmission of science education, the traditional classroom has also flagged in the “message” arena by failing to dislodge cultural myths surrounding science and math, myths that stigmatize these subjects in student populations and can account for much of teenage students’ resistance to science. Stereotypes of the scientist persona, describing what scientists looks like and how they behave in social settings, are pervasive in United States culture. According to Sandra Laursen, scientists are commonly imagined as “white, male, and middle aged;” they are seen as “‘geeks’ or ‘nerds,’ ‘book-smart’ but lacking social skills;” they are usually envisioned “wearing glasses, lab coats, and pocket protectors, and having eccentric hair styles;” they are believed to “work indoors or alone, surrounded by equipment or ideas but not other people” (Laursen 1). So, not only do the techniques used to teach science turn teenage consumers off from buying the science product, but the product itself appears to them to be something very undesirable! Teenagers’ primary concerns in high-school involve socializing, and Zollo explains that “the quality of ‘coolness’ is of paramount importance” (26), that “status and image drive teen hierarchy” (136) to the point at which appearance becomes the number one credential (202). Buying into the stereotype of the un-cool, unattractive, asocial scientist, teenagers, then, decide fairly easily that an interest in science is of no use to them. Put simply, our stereotype of a scientist is rather unattractive, and “the reason why these students have such profound stereotypes of scientists and are less than enthusiastic about science's impact on society is simple—the lack of exposure they receive © Andrew Welsh, 2009

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during their pre-college education” (Farber 1).

The Solution: Changing the Medium and Message of Science Education Students in American high schools have come of age in a consumer country. Having been bred as consumers from the cradle, today’s teenagers are, not surprisingly, becoming the most advertisement-targeted consumer demographic, and there are a variety of factors that make them more influential in the national economy each year. Companies have realized the purchasing power that teens wield, over $140 billion annually and growing, and retailers have begun to devote massive amounts of marketing capital to research and advertisements aimed at establishing brand loyalty from a surprisingly early age (Zollo 7). Advertising obviously works on teenagers, so advertising and marketing theory can provide educators with techniques to better tailor science subjects to a teenage market. And, by viewing students as “consumers” rather than “pupils” we can begin to devise marketing strategies that will entice and engage students in scientific disciplines. Teenage students cannot help but evaluate their education the same way that they evaluate the products they purchase, so science needs to cater to their fundamental need in order to reach them as consumers. Through his digital native discourse, Prensky expresses that teenagers need to use media technologies in order to be fully engaged. They use media for a variety of tasks -- communicating, information gathering, entertaining themselves, purchasing, etc. They prefer using technology, and, though there is no substitute for written work and a teacher’s lessons, the use of technology itself can help make science education a more teenagecentered experience. Since high-school aged students are so inclined and proficient when using multimedia technologies, and since they possess honed consumer skills, the most suitable way to utilize technology in science education is to implement it as a hands-on utility for teenagers to © Andrew Welsh, 2009

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create their own learning experiences in which they can take the liberty to determine the most appropriate way to meet their educational needs and goals. Specifically, interactive and incorporative multimedia that are conducive to collaboration will prove most helpful in educating teens: demonstrative videos that incorporate auditory and possibly even textual expressions with visual aids; web utilities such as pages that students themselves can design; blogs and forums on which students can interact and cultivate relevant discourses; digitized data that students can manipulate, transport, and share amongst each-other. Matthew Kearney describes this type of proposition in terms of established constructivist educational theories: Constructivist learning theory emphasises that learners construct their own knowledge, strongly influenced by what they already know. Social constructivists view learning as an inherently social process, using peer discussions as an opportunity to share alternative viewpoints, to challenge others’ ideas and help develop alternative points of view. Over the past decade, the field of educational technology has endorsed constructivism as a suitable referent for the development and meaningful use of appropriate software in education. Examples in science include the constructivist use of multimedia such as video-based laboratories and student multimedia authoring, microcomputer-based laboratories (MBLs) and microworlds (2). According to Kearney, the foundations for effectively placing technology in the hands of students already exist in these educational theories and pedagogical practices. Simply by putting the students themselves at the head of the projects, educators can overcome several of the points of contention with teenagers: teens’ naturally questioning/rebellious attitudes, and their feelings of alienation from a sciences. Communications specialists Allison Davis and Paul Brown state that “the key principle of getting and holding attention is to focus on the audience -- to help your © Andrew Welsh, 2009

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audience solve a problem, meet a need, and answer a question” (22). By shifting the focus and allowing the students to direct their own media projects, students will be empowered to negotiate their own learning experiences instead of being bound to teacher-centered science classes. The students can engage themselves in understanding scientific theory and pondering experiments; they can be junior scientists, and thus become a part of the scientific community; they can freely discuss and explore science in their native digital language. Kearney explains that, “in making their own multimedia students improve their self-confidence by planning, producing and sharing productions in a cooperative learning environment,” and they can therefore feel more empowered and even welcomed in a scientific discipline after learning to view themselves as competent with scientific research and information (4-5). Providing this type of exposure to teens can also help dispel their myths about scientists and scientific work. First, it will provide teens with the opportunity to spend enough time researching and exploring scientific disciplines to realize that the traditional “mad scientist” is not what real-life scientists look like. Over a little time, they perhaps may begin to assimilate scientist identity into their own culture when they observe more people, especially students like themselves, involved in similar research. The more freedom they have to collaborate with peers, and the more they observe the social processes involved in scientific research, the more they will see that science is not a solitary and isolative field, and that quite often socializing with a scientific reference can be as much fun as extracurricular activities. Ultimately, teenagers working on their own scientific studies using digital media will begin to incorporate science studies into their expectations of their “teenage experience.” Realistically, the goal is not to make a scientist out of every high school student; but rather make science a more personalized, engaging and even enjoyable component of their academic undertaking.

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Putting the Theory into Practice: My Technology Project For the technology component of this study, I applied these educational theories to two media forms that are popular among teenagers: digital video and web pages. The first component, the digital video, takes the shape of a student-crafted documentary/reality-style expose, a teen “video-journal” of sorts. Since teenagers are as eager to learn about themselves as they are to learn about their friends, they naturally will feel inclined to showcase their developing talents and passions. I scripted the video in this manner with the supposition that this type of project would be used as part of his class’s lessons on electricity. In this short video I produced, a fictional student named Jordan Spencer describes his passion for playing guitar as it relates to his academic work in a high school Physics class. Through the video’s dialogue, Jordan gives a concise, yet thorough explanation of the mechanics of an electrical circuit. Though the film is not a true documentary --although Jordan doesn’t really exist and a teen didn’t really produce the video-- my project demonstrates how a real media based science project might take shape. Notably, the video juxtaposes the student’s “real-life” interests -- his love of guitar -- with his scientific pursuits. Grounding an abstract concept like the inner workings of an electrical circuit in a real-life application like a guitar amplifier, this type of project would allow the student audience to identify with the subject of the video on a more personal level; Jordan’s digital media exploration of his own interest in electricity makes the scientific values more accessible and appealing to the demographic that the lesson targets. Jordan, the engaging and appealing teenager at the heart of the project, helps to convince his peers that science is “cool.” There are educational benefits for the student who makes the project in addition to the project’s science appeal for the student audience. A demonstrative video would provide a student in Jordan’s situation with the opportunity to conduct first-hand research on a concept such as electricity, and to practice a thorough understanding of all the related scientific principles in © Andrew Welsh, 2009

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order to achieve the fluency required to explain and demonstrate a subject like electricity as part of a class lecture. By researching and presenting science subjects to classmates, students will gain a deeper understanding and relationship with scientific concepts as they apply to individual interests, such as playing guitar; they will in turn develop a sense of confidence and ownership of the subjects they present through their own work on their projects. And, by capitalizing on the personal aspects of these projects, science educators can shift students’ learning motivations from grades and tests to personal accomplishment and a communal scientific discourse that connects the students with their peers. To add another dimension to the project as an option available to students who want to do something other than or in addition to a demonstrational video, I uploaded the video to YouTube and have displayed it on a Googlepages site, which I also created as a simulation of work done by the character from the video. I chose Googlepages as a host because there are no costs to create a site, no knowledge of domain and browser hosting required to begin creating pages and adding content, and a relatively high degree of utility available to incorporate multimedia. The steps required to build a site with Googlepages are essentially as easy as putting together a linked PowerPoint presentation, thus bypassing resources and training required to teach students how to build a site from scratch. Students also have the option to link to each others’ works, collaborate on wiki-projects, and make researching a science subject an interactive and creative undertaking through activities like blogging.

Conclusions There are problems in the presentation of high-school science education that contribute to a collective lack of enthusiasm for science among teenage students. Those problems arise from dated teaching methods that do not address the technological needs of modern students, who © Andrew Welsh, 2009

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speak a “digital language;” they are amplified through the dynamic of most science classes, in which the teacher is situated as the center of the learning and the students’ personal experiences are situated as a second or even third priority; they are fortified by an emphasis on grades and already-found knowledge; they are exacerbated by alienating and undesirable stereotypes of scientists and scientific work. A reasonable solution, then, is to re-arrange the dynamics of science lessons so that the students -- their educational needs, and their personal experiences with scientific concepts -- are the top priority of science classes. A good way to accomplish such a task is to address the aspect of today’s students that distinguishes them from previous generations of “book learners” - a natural aptitude for technology. By allowing students to use technology to produce scientific projects, and to control the parameters of those projects within the scope of a specific science topic to address, educators can serve students’ needs to use technologies such as the internet, digital video, and digital communications in order to gather and process information, as well as their inclination to collaborate with each other, with the hopes that teenagers in high school science classes will begin to see the global importance and the personal benefits of working in scientific disciplines.

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Bibliography 1. Brown, Paul and Alison Davis. Your Attention, Please. Avon, Massachusetts: Adams Media, 2006. 2. Farber, Steven and Jamie Shaefer. “Breaking Down the Stereotypes of Science by Recruiting Young Scientists.” PLoS Biology. 12 October 2004. 2 April 2009. http://www.library.cornell.edu/resrch/citmanage/mla#articleonline 3. Kearney, Matthew. “Using Digital Video to Enhance Authentic Technology-Mediated Learning in Science Classrooms.” UTS:Education Matthew Kearney Homepage. July 2002. 3 April 2009. http://www.ed-dev.uts.edu.au/personal/mkearney/homepage/acrobats/acec.PDF 4. Laursen, Sandra. “Crazy Research Going On! Public Conceptions of Science and Scientists.” Education Outreach Program. April 2008. 2 April 2009. http://cires.colorado.edu/education/k12/TibetOutwardUpward/images/viewsOfScienceHa ndoutv2.PDF 5. Linn, Susan. Consuming Kids: The Hostile Takeover of Childhood. New York, New York:

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The New Press, 2004. 6. McLuhan, Marshall. “The Medium is the Message.” Media Studies: A Reader. Ed Paul Marris and Sue Thornham. 2nd ed. Washington Square, New York: New York University Press, 2000. 38-43. 7. Prensky, Marc. “Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants.” Marc Prensky Homepage. October 2001. 3 April 2009. http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20-

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%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigrants%20-%20Part1.PDF 8. Radway, Janice. “Reading the Romance.” Media Studies: A Reader. Ed.Paul Marris and Sue Thornham. 2nd ed. Washington Square, New York: New York University Press, 2000. 492-502. 9. University System of Georgia. Math+Science=Success. Atlanta: USG, 2007. 10. Williams, Raymond. "Programming as Sequence or Flow." Media Studies: A Reader. Ed.Paul Marris and Sue Thornham. 2nd ed. Washington Square, New York: New York University Press, 2000. 231-37. 11. Zollo, Peter. Wise Up to Teens. 2nd ed. Ithaca, New York: New strategist Publications, Inc., 1999.

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