Chapter 7 & Chapter 8 Test Preperation

Chapter 7 1. Cognition is the mental processes that are involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using information and that include sensation, perception, imagery, concept formation, reasoning, decision making, problem solving, and language. 2. Concept is a mental category used to represent a class or group of objects, people, organizations, events, situations, or relations that share common characteristics or attributes. 3. A Formal Concept is a concept that is clearly defined by a set of rules, a formal definition, or a classification system; also known as an artificial concept. 4. A Natural Concept is a concept acquired not from a definition but through everyday perceptions and experiences; also known as a fuzzy concept. 5. A Prototype is an example that embodies the most common and typical features of a concept. 6. Exemplars are the individual instances, or examples, of a concept that are stored in memory from personal experience. 7. Decision Making is the process of considering alternatives and choosing among them. 8. Heuristics is a rule of thumb that is derived from experience and used in decision making and problem solving, even though there is no guarantee of its accuracy or usefulness. 9. Availability Heuristic is a cognitive rule of thumb that says that the probability of an event or the importance assigned to it is based on its availability in memory. 10. Representativeness Heuristic is a thinking strategy based on how closely a new object or situation is judged to resemble or match an existing prototype of that object or situation. 11. Problem Solving is thoughts and actions required to achieve a desired goal that is not readily attainable. 12. Mental Set is the tendency to apply a familiar strategy to the solution of a problem without carefully considering the special requirements of that problem. 13. Functional Fixedness is the failure to use familiar objects in novel ways to solve problems because of a tendency to view objects only in terms of their customary functions. 14. Language is a means of communicating thoughts and feelings, using a system of socially shared but arbitrary symbols (sounds, signs, or written symbols) arranged according to rules of grammar. 15. Phonemes are the smallest units of sound in spoken language. 16. Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language. 17. Semantics is the meaning or the study of meaning derived from morphemes, words, and sentences. 18. Syntax is the aspect of grammar that specifies the rules for arranging and combining words to form phrases and sentences.

19. Pragmatics is the patterns of intonation and social roles associated with language. 20. Intelligence is an individual’s ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome, obstacles through mental effort. 21. Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind are:  Linguistic Intelligence: The ability to use language both as an aid to thinking and in communication.  Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: The ability to think logically and to solve mathematical problems.  Spatial Intelligence: The ability to use images that represent spatial relations (for example, imagining whether a new sofa will fit in your living room).  Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: The ability to learn and execute physical movements.  Musical Intelligence: Sensitivity to and understanding of pitch, rhythm, and other aspects of music.  Interpersonal Intelligence: The ability to communicate and engage in effective social relationships with others.  Intrapersonal Intelligence: The ability to understand oneself.  Naturalistic Intelligence: The ability to identify patterns in nature and to determine how individual objects or beings fit into them. 22. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence is Sternberg’s theory that there are three types of intelligence:  Componential (Analytical): Mental abilities most closely related to success on traditional IQ and achievement tests.  Experiential (Creative): Creative thinking and problem solving.  and Contextual (Practical): Practical intelligence or “street smarts”. 23. Reliability is the ability of a test to yield nearly the same score when the same people are tested and then retested on the same test or an alternative form of the test. 24. Validity is the ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure. 25. Standardization is the establishing of norms for comparing the scores of people who will take a test in the future; administering tests using a prescribed procedure. 26. Norms are standards based on the range of test scores of a large group of people who are selected to provide the bases of comparison for those who take the test later. 27. Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is an index of intelligence, originally derived by dividing mental age by chronological age and then multiplying by 100, but now derived by comparing an individual’s score with scores of others of the same age. 28. When a large number of test scores are compiled, they are typically distributed in a normal (bell-shaped) curve. On the Wechsler scales, the average, or mean,

IQ score is set at 100. About 68% of the scores fall between 15 IQ points (1 Standard Deviation) above and below 100 (from 85 to 115), and about 95.5% of the scores fall between 30 IQ points (2 Standard Deviations) above and below 100 (from 70 to 130). The Range is from 55 to 145. 29. Creativity is the ability to produce original, appropriate and valuable ideas and/or solutions to problems. For the most part, creative ideas that come to conscious awareness have been incubating for some time. Most experts agree that genuine creativity “is an accomplishment born of intensive study, long reflection, persistence and interest”. 30. Divergent Thinking is the ability to produce multiple ideas, answers, or solutions to a problem for which there is no agreed-on solution. Chapter 8 1. Developmental Psychology (Psychologist) is the study of (or a person who studies) how humans grow, develop, and change throughout the lifespan. 2. Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development include:  Sensorimotor Stage (age birth to 2 years): Infants experience the world through their senses, actions, and body movements. At the end of this stage, toddlers develop the concept of object permanence and can mentally represent objects in their absence.  Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years): Children are able to represent objects and events mentally with words and images. They can engage in imaginary play (pretend), using one object to represent another. Their thinking is dominated by their perceptions, and they are unable to consider more than one dimension of an object at the same time (centration). Their thinking is egocentric; that is, they fail to consider the perspective of others.  Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 or 12 years): Children at this stage become able to think logically in concrete situations. They acquire the concepts of conservation and reversibility, can order objects in a series, and can classify them according to multiple dimensions.  Formal Operational Stage (11 or 12 years and beyond): At this stage, adolescents learn to think logically in abstract situations, learn to test hypotheses systematically, and become interested in the world of ideas. Not all people attain full operational thinking. 3. Object Permanence is the realization that objects continue to exist, even when they can no longer be perceived. 4. Conservation is the concept that a given quantity of matter remains the same despite being rearranged or changed in appearance, as long as nothing is added or taken away. 5. Reversibility is the realization that any change in the shape, position, or order of matter can be reversed mentally. 6. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development are classified into three levels, with each level having two stages:

 Preconventional Level: Kohlberg’s lowest level of moral development, in which moral reasoning is based on the physical consequences of an act; “right” is whatever avoids punishment or gains a reward.  Conventional Level: Kohlberg’s second level of moral development, in which right and wrong are based on the internalized standards of others; “right” is whatever helps or is approved of by others, or whatever is consistent with the laws of society.  Postconventional Level: Kohlberg’s highest level of moral development, in which moral reasoning involves weighing moral alternatives; “right” is whatever furthers basic human rights. 7. Psychosocial Stages are Erikson’s eight developmental stages for the entire lifespan; each is defined by a conflict that must be resolved satisfactorily for healthy personality development to occur. 8. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development include:  Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1 year): Infants learn to trust or mistrust depending on the degree and regularity of care, love, and affection provided by parents or caregivers.  Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1 to 3 years): Children learn to express their will and independence, to exercise some control, and to make choices. If not, they experience shame and doubt.  Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 6 years): Children begin to initiate activities, to plan and undertake tasks, and to enjoy developing motor and other abilities. If not allowed to initiate or if made to feel stupid and considered a nuisance, they may develop a sense of guilt.  Industry vs. Inferiority (6 years to puberty): Children develop industriousness and feel pride in accomplishing tasks, making things, and doing things. If not encouraged or if rebuffed by parents and teachers, they may develop a sense of inferiority.  Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence): Adolescence must make the transition from childhood to adulthood, establish an identity, develop a sense of self, and consider a future occupational identity. Otherwise, role confusion can result.  Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood): Young Adults must develop intimacy – the ability to share with, care for, and commit themselves to another person. Avoiding intimacy brings a sense of isolation and loneliness.  Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood): Middle-aged people must find some way of contributing to the development of the next generation. Failing this, they may become self-absorbed and emotionally impoverished and reach a point of stagnation.  Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood): Individuals review their lives, and if they are satisfied and feel a sense of accomplishment, they will experience ego integrity. If dissatisfied, they may sink into despair. 9. Prenatal Development is the development from conception to birth.

10. Zygote is the cell that results from the union of a sperm and an ovum. This stage is known as the Period of the Zygote. 11. Embryo us the developing human organism during the period (week 3 through week 8) when the major systems, organs, and structures of the body develop. This stage is known as the Period of the Embryo. 12. Fetus is the developing human organism during the period (week 9 until birth) when rapid growth and further development of the structures, organs, and systems of the body occur. This final stage is known as the Period of the Fetus. 13. Attachment is the strong affectionate bond a child forms with the mother or primary caregiver. 14. Authoritarian Parents are parents who make arbitrary rules, expect unquestioned obedience from their children, punish transgressions (often physically), and value obedience to authority. Parents using this parenting style tend to be uncommunicative, unresponsive, and somewhat distant, and Baumrind (1967) found preschool children disciplined in this manner to be withdrawn, anxious, and unhappy. The authoritarian style has been associated with low intellectual performance and lack of social skills, especially in boys. 15. Authoritative Parents are parents who set high but realistic standards, reason with the child, enforce limits, and encourage open communication and independence. Authoritative parents are generally warm, nurturing, supportive, and responsive, and they show respect for their children and their opinions. Their children are more mature, happy, self-reliant, self-controlled, assertive, socially competent, and responsible than their peers. The authoritative parenting style is associated with higher academic performance, independence, higher self-esteem, and internalized moral standards in middle childhood and adolescence. 16. Permissive Parents are parents who make few rules or demands and allow children to make their own decisions and control their own behavior. Children raised in this manner are the most immature, impulsive, and dependent, and they seem to be the least self-controlled and self-reliant. Permissive parents also come in the indifferent, unconcerned, uninvolved variety. This parenting style is associated with drinking problems, promiscuous sex, delinquent behavior, and poor academic performance in adolescence. 17. Crystallized Intelligence has aspects of intelligence, including verbal ability and accumulated knowledge that tend to increase over the lifespan. 18. Fluid Intelligence has aspects of intelligence involving abstract reasoning and mental flexibility, which peak in the early twenties and decline slowly as people age.