Chapter 3.the Concept Of Korean Folk Dance1.pdf

Chapter III

The Concept of Korean Folk Dance Lee Byoung-ok

Chapter 3 _ The Concept of Korean Folk Dance 123

I. The Concept of Korean Folk Dance and its Classification 1. The Concept of Korean Folk Dance and the Differences of the East and the West Folk dance refers to the dance of the common people which spontaneously emerged and developed among ethnic groups and communities, reflective of the characteristics of particular regions, and representing the group’s sentiments and emotions. Folk dance is usually accompanied with the music of its own ethnic origin, refined and changed over a long period of time (Lee, 2009: 21-22). In addition, folk dance may develop in different forms and configurations according to the given social and cultural background, as well as the natural environment and natural climate. In the consideration of traditional dance which emerged, developed and was transformed according to a variety of modes of life and environments, I think the most important factors of formation of folk dance are: 1) type of work and living conditions; 2) climate; 3) geography; 4) manners and costumes; 5) historical background; 6) social elements; 7) religion; and 8) musical tradition (Jeong, 1991: 34-45; Lee, 2009a: 35-41). These factors are all interrelated and dedicated to create the uniqueness of Korean folk dance. In the classification of the traditional dance, both the East (the East Asian tradition) and the West (European tradition) usually divided the dance tradition, at large, into court dance and folk dance. However, in terms of examining the detailed contents, we can easily find differences in many aspects both in aesthetics and history of the art forms in the East and the West. As one example, the court dance of the East, unlike that of the western tradition which had developed from social dance and was used for social enjoyment and entertainment among royalty and the groups of nobility dancing together (with male and female partnering, and at times exchanging partners), grew from a ritual purpose for a nation’s peace and prosperity, as well as wishing for the longevity of the King. Here, the Eastern tradition was almost always performed by a group of professional dancers presenting the tradition for chosen audiences, namely, the King and the royal family as well as government officials and the nobility. In addition, in the East, a variety of religious ritual dance traditions have been performed and developed since pre-historic times, in contrast to the West, where such similar traditions do not seem to exist or be found. The main reason in the differences of the religious dance cultures between the West and the East can be found in, and related to, European Catholicism of the Middle Ages. Historically in Europe there existed the ritual dance traditions in worshiping multiple gods, such as Apollo and Zeus, in the ancient civilizations of Rome and Greece. However by the Middle Ages, Catholicism had become the main and central religion that dominated the cultural and political lives of the people. Roman Catholics believed that other religions were considered to be idolatry and prohibited any ritual dances of

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any sort. This is why the ritual dances have not survived and eventually disappeared in European history. Conversely for many cultures in the East including Korea, the ritual dance traditions that are related to religious beliefs such as indigenous shamanism, Buddhism and Hinduism have thrived from ancient times up to contemporary society, still being developed and performed according to different cultural and religious practices. There is also the consideration of the configurations of the West and East dance traditions that shows the distinctiveness in how they differ from one another. For example, western dances seem to focus on a variety of foot movements and leg gestures in which the positions of the feet and the knees are required to be stretched out. Eastern dances, including Korean dance, rely heavily on the movements of the upper body and gestures of the arms and hands, along with the position of the knees that are almost always slightly bent. In other words, western dance is characterized by vibrant and dynamic gestures of upward and outward movements, while the eastern dance is portrayed with the subtlety, delicacy and stillness of movements. Although there are many observable complex reasons as to why the dance traditions of the East and West are fundamentally distinctive from one another, the method of collecting food and the type of occupations have had an effect in forming the basic human movements of people living in two different climatic and geographical regions, namely, the continents of Europe and Asia. To be precise, in Europe, on one hand, the farming culture heavily relied on pastoral life that was mainly dependent on raising domestic animals. Such a pastoral-oriented life in Europe had developed from the nomadic life, moving from one place to another, finding fresh greens and grasses for semi-domesticated animals, and such moving requires laborious footwork! On the other hand, the farming tradition of Asia had long been established in a settled agricultural lifestyle to grow rice, the main source of food, which requires handling farm tools operated with hands. It is a totally plausible assumption that the subtle and delicate gestures of the arms and hands of dance of the East have come from mimicking hand movements of the work in rice fields.

Monaegi, the rice planting in Yecheon, Korea

Standing Group Dance

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2. The Classification of Korean Traditional Dance In general, Korean traditional dance is classified into two large groupings: court dance and ethnic folk dance, along with various subgenres emerging from each. Court dance (jeongjae) is subdivided into banquet dance, including dangak jeongjae (dances originally introduced from the Tang dynasty of China) and hyangak jeongjae (indigenous Korean dance), and ritual dance encompassing munmu (civil dance) and mumu (military dance). Ethnic folk dance comprises religious ritual dance (uisik chum), folk dance (minganchum-here the term is used as a sub-genre which was popular and practiced among amateur dancers of the common people), and the dances of professional artists (yeinchum). Within the category of religious ritual dance, there are sub-genres characteristically developed according to different religions, such as Buddhism and shamanism, as well as the dances of rites of passage performed to commemorate a person’s life from birth to death. Folk dance of the commoners, the dances that are related to the everyday labors of farmers and fishermen, include farmer’s band (nongak), mask dance (talchum), vocal dance (sorichum), and free style dance (heoteunchum). The dance of professional artists developed during the feudalistic society of Korea from the group of lower class male and female performers, such as female entertainers (gisaeng), adolescent male dancers (mudong), and male entertainers (gwangdae). Each group and lineage of performers developed unique professional dance genres, which are the dance of gisaeng, the dance of the skilled person (jaeinchum, meaning the dance of professionals), and the dance of shaman descendents (sindanggye chum) (Lee, 2012: 16). Classification of Korean Traditional Dance Category Court Dance

Genres Banquet Dance

Dangak Jeongjae

Heonseondo, Suyeonjang, Oyangseon, Pogurak, Yeonhwadae, etc.

Hyangak Jeongjae

Mugo, Dongdong (Abakmu), Bongraeeui, Hakmu, etc.

Ritual Dance

Ilmu Nongakchum

Dance of Common People

Munmu, Mumu Honam Nongak, Yeongnam Nongak, Utdari Nongak, etc..

Talchum

Sandae Talchum, Ogwangdae Talchum, Saja Talchum, etc..

Sorichum

Ganggangsullae, Wolwolicheongcheong, Baechigichum, etc.

Heoteunchum Buddhist Ritual Dance Folk Dance

Repertories

Sub-genres

Pungjachum (Byeongsinchum), Dongmulmobangchum, Deotbaegichum, Boridaechum, Ggaeggichum, etc. Nabichum, Barachum, Beopgochum, Tajuchum Gangsinmu (Woldochanggeomchum, Begareugichum, Bangulchum, etc.)

Ritual Dance

Shaman Ritual Dance Dance of Rites of Passage

Seseupmu (Jemulchum, Gildakgichum, Jijeonchum, etc.) Chulsanuiryechum, Dasiraegichum. Bangsangssichum, Hwigengikalchum, Hoedajichum, Dalgongchum

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Gibang tradition Folk Dance

Professional Dance

Salpurichum, Yipchum, Gutgeorichum, Nammu, Giwonmu, Geommu, etc.

Jaein tradition

Seungmu, Salpurichum, Taepyeongmu, Janggeommu, Hwarangmu, Jinsoechum, Hakchum, Hallyangmu, etc.

Sindang tradition

Dosalpurichum, Teobeollimchum, Jeseokchum, Bujeongnorichum, Jijeonchum, etc.

3. Classification and Characteristics of Korean Folk Dance The dance tradition of a hierarchical society from the feudal age has taken different forms and characteristics reflecting the traditions of the specific social class and group that were involved in creating, developing and enjoying the dances. Korean folk dance, in general, has three distinctive genres which represent the functions, characters, and occasions of performances: the dance of the commoners; religious ritual dance; and the dance of the professionals. The dance of the commoners was enjoyed by farmers and fishermen who were the main producers of food. They performed this type of dance by themselves in order to increase productivity and ease the laborious work. These include the dance of praying (chukwon chum) and dance of labor (nodong chum), and the festival dances (chukje chum) which were performed in the celebration of the many annual seasonal customs and occasions of the farming cycle. These dances have been transmitted from different regions of the Korean peninsula, and each represents distinctive regional customs and traditions. The category of the ritual dance outside of the Korean court includes those of religious ritual and the rites of passage celebrating a person’s birth, coming-of-age, wedding, funeral, etc. The religious ritual dances in Korea have been preserved, transmitted and practiced in two major religions, namely, Buddhism and shamanism. Shamanism, the indigenous religion of Korea, has existed from ancient prehistoric time to the present, and music and dance was given great weight and emphasis in its rituals (gut). Buddhism, originating in India, was introduced by way of China during the period of the Three Kingdoms in the fourth century and gradually settled and is still practiced as one of the major and influential religions in Korea. Its ritual dance tradition is still preserved today. In contrast, the ritual dance tradition of the rites of passage, common phenomena found in many cultures throughout the world, has gradually disappeared along with changes and the dissolution of the traditional society in the modern era at the turn of the twentieth century. Today, most of the dance traditions of the rites of passage are lost in Korea. For the celebrations of coming-of-age and wedding, only the ritual formats remain without dancing. In the mist of social changes, however, dance traditions, such as the dance of

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wishing and praying for the birth of a boy (gija uirye chum) and the funeral ceremony dance (jangrye uirye chum) have partially survived and are still performed today. The dance of the professionals (yein) is divided into three sub-genres according to the tradition of the dancers: the dance of the gisaeng house (gibanggye chum); the dance of the skilled person (jaeingye chum); and the dance of shaman descendents (sindanggye chum). Yein refers to a person or group of people of the professional performing arts, including female entertainers, male entertainers, and the shaman descendent performing artists, who traditionally all at the bottom of the social hierarchy. In traditional feudalistic Korean society, the group of female entertainers called gisaeng developed a variety of dance traditions and repertoires mainly for entertaining the upper class male aristocracy (yangban) at a gisaeng house (gibang). In contrast, the group of male entertainers called jaein, who belonged to Jaeincheong (the department of “talented” personnel), had developed a variety of performing arts genres, including acrobatic dances, all masculine in quality. The dance of the shaman descendents developed in relation to shamanism and its rituals during the twentieth century. Since the early twentieth century in Korea, shamanism and its ritual practices had begun to go underground and were considered as social “taboo,” mainly affected by the newly introduced Christianity, as well as adoption and adaptation of western medicine. This social change began to gradually dismiss the shamans and their families, who then began to perform their ritual traditions as “performing arts” without the function of religion. Many of the dance traditions developed by former shamans and shaman family members as professional performing artists created the dance repertoires which are still preserved today. The chart below illustrates the classification of Korean folk dance divided into three large genres, namely, dance of the commoners, religious ritual dances, and dance of the professionals.

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Comparison of Stylistic Characteristics of Three Genres of Korean Folk Dance Dance of Commoners

Ritual Dance

Professional Dance

Social Class

Common People (Farmers & Fishermen)

Religious People (Monk & Shaman)

Professional Artists (Gisaeng & Jaein)

Occupation

Amateur Dancers (Farmers & Fishermen)

Amateurs Dancers (Monk & Shaman)

Professional Performers (Entertainers)

Character

Entertaining

Ceremonial

Artistic

Transmission Methods

Among Villagers

Within the Religion

Master Artist to Student

Region

Regional & Local

Regional & Religious Sects

Larger Regions

Performance Environment

Communal

Religious Members & Local People

Specific Audience

Performance Culture

Work Dance

Ritual

Professional Entertainment

Period

Farming Cycles Harvest & New Year

Religious Festivals Designated Days

Various Occasions Requested by Patrons

Venue

Outdoor, Village Square

Sacred Place

Indoor, Room

Audience Type

Village People

Members & Locals

Aristocracy

Costume & Props

Daily Clothing & Props

Religious Attire & Props

Professional Costume & Props

Instruments

Pungmul (Percussion)

Ritual Instruments (Jing, Bara, Janggo)

Samhyeon Yukgak (Chamber Ensemble based on the Janggo)

Basic Dance Gestures

Arms & Legs

Based on Ritual Props

Upper Body, Arms & Hands

Dance Spirit and Appreciation

Ecstasy & Collective Enjoyment

Religious & Participatory

Artistic Entertainment & Appreciation

Performance Size

Mass

Individual/Mass

Individual

Purpose

Communal Unity

Prayer & Wishes

Intimacy & Leisure

Level of Dance

Simple & Repetitious

Long Period of Practice

Difficult Professional-Only

Classification

Community Unit

Rituals & Denominations

Class-Oriented

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II. The Characteristics and Forms of Dance of the Commoners (Mingan Chum) 1. Talchum (Mask Dance) Korean mask dance (talchum), a theatrical drama or group play, is a type of dance in which the performers wear a face or head mask while telling a story. The players or performers usually interact with the audience, extending the narration and dialogue in an improvisatory manner. Scholars speculate that talchum first developed in the ancient pre-historic time of the agricultural society as a village ritual with wishes for prosperity and peace, and has gradually become an entertainment genre performed on festive occasions for the villagers and gradually losing its ritualistic functions. There are several versions of talchum distinguished and preserved in the different regions of Korean peninsula, including: 1) “Sandaenori” in Seoul and the Gyeonggi province, such as Yangju and Songpa; 2) “Talchum” in the Hwanghae province, such as Bongsan, Gangnyeong and Eunyul; 3) “Yaryu” in the eastern area of the Nakdonggang River, such as Suyeong and Dongrae, part of the city of Busan; 4) “Ogwangdae” in the western area of the Nakdonggang River, such as Goseong, Tongyeong and Gasan; 5) mask dances in the regions of the eastern seaboard, such as “Gwanno noreum” from Gangneung area performed at Dano festival (the celebration for the fifth day of the fifth month of the year according to the lunar calendar), “Bukcheong sajanoreum” from the Hamgyeong province, and “Hahoe byeolsingut” from the Gyeongsang province. Talchum is essentially an outdoor play incorporating theatrical dialogue, singing and dancing, and usually an entire performance is comprised of a number of scenes of different stories and dramatic subjects. In terms of regional stylistic distinctions, the Sandae talchum of the central region is characterized by frequent use of hand gestures and its subtle and delicate dance movements in a fixed formal structure, which establishes the “prescribed” dramatic or less “improvised” body gestures. In talchum performances of the northern region, the dancers wear long sleeves attached to both hands and dance to the rhythmic accompaniment pattern called taryeong. The dance movements of this region typically illustrate strong and wild jumps, full of vibrant and animated movement. Finally, the talchum of the southern region of Gyeongsang province is characterized by two unique dance movements: deotbaegi chum, a free-style cheerful dance movement; and baegim sawi, a dance movement characterized by stepping on the ground with one foot along with the knees bent after jumping high into the air. Such excitement and exhilaration of these dance movements are reinforced by the musical accompaniment of the farmer’s percussion band (nongak) which provides an upbeat sonority marking off the strong beats and rhythmic patterns.

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Moreover, as a dramatic story-telling dance genre, talchum takes its inspiration for its storylines mainly from the lives and experiences of everyday people. Besides its ritualistic function, Korean mask dance deals with stories, which were satirical in nature, such as accusations of social immortality, the corrupt aristocracy, triangular relationship between husband, wife, and concubine, and vulgar apostate Buddhist monks--all expressed in a humorous manner. Through such idiosyncratic expressions of talchum, the feelings of optimism, humor and leisure were well imbedded in the lives of the Korean people. Talchum is truly a communal art enjoyed by everyone regardless of the social circumstances. By actively participating, performers and audience alike joined in creating the drama and thus releasing their discontent. Here people found unity and regained the vivacity and energy of life. Since the 1960s, talchum was designated as one of the National Intangible Cultural Properties, and today there are a total of thirteen repertoires that are preserved and transmitted throughout Korea.

Songpa Sandae mask dance drama, Sangjwadaemu

Lion dance in Bongsan mask dance drama

2. Nongakchum (Dance of Farmer’s Band Music) Nongak refers to both the music and dance traditionally performed by farmers for reciprocity of their labors. In its broad meaning, the term “nongak” designates not only music of a marching band comprised of primarily percussion instruments such as kkwaenggwari (small gong), jing (large gong), janggo (double headed drum), and buk (barrel drum), usually performed at village ceremonies and rituals, at work places and in open outdoor village squares called pannoreum (“pan,” meaning open space), but the term also indicates the variety of dance forms associated with the music of the band. The original function of nongak was to enhance and increase the efficiency of communal labor and group work, all while cheering to add to the amusement. Usually the nongak performances were conducted according to, and following, the yearly farming seasons and cycles, such as rice planting, weeding the rice patties and vegetable gardens, as well as holidays such as the harvest full moon festival and the New Year celebration.

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There are many types and repertoires of nongakchum according to the roles of the performers in the band: 1) Gitbal chum (flag dance) is performed by the flag bearers who dance with flags flapping in the wind; 2) Budeul sangmonori chum (dance of the twirling hat) and Soechae chum (dance of small gong) performed by the kkwaenggwari players; 3) Seoljanggo chum (dance of double headed drum) performed by the janggo players; 4) Seolbuk chum (dance of barrel drum) performed by the buk players; 5) Sogo chum (dance of hand-held small drum) performed by the dancer-drummer wearing a conical hat; 6) Chaesang chum (hat dance with a long white ribbon attached on top); 7) Japsaek chum (dance of miscellaneous characters who wear masks and dance with regional gestures); and 8) Kkotnabi chum (dance of the flowerbutterfly) performed by children who flap their sleeves or handkerchiefs. In addition, there are Jingjabi chum (dance of the large gong) and Yeoldubal sangmo chum (hat dance with a twelve-foot long ribbon attached on top), which seem to have been recently added to the canon of dance repertoires. The performance of the existing nongak has several versions according to stylistic tendencies which reflect different geographic regions and cultural boundaries. These broadly include: Gyeonggi (central), Yeongdong (eastern), Honam udo (east of the southwestern region), Honam jwado (west of the southwestern region) and Yeongnam (the southeastern region). Among them, a total of six of the sub-regional nongak have been designated as National Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 11, including Samcheonpo nongak of Jinju, Pyeongtaek nongak, Iri nongak, Gangneung nongak, Pilbong nongak of Imsil and Jansu nongak of Gurye. Also, in addition to these six sub-regional nongak, other regional performances have been designated as Regional Intangible Cultural Properties.

1) Omudongnori, Five adolescent dancers in Gyeonggi Gwangjiwon Nongak 2) Durechum, Farm work dance in Jincheon, North Chungcheong province

3. Sorichum (Vocal Dance) Sorichum refers to dancing to folk songs while working or playing in a traditional agrarian or fishing society. The dance is played and enjoyed mostly by women gathered together by lining up or

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circling around, and has been especially popular and preserved in the areas of Honam (the southwestern region) where the vocal genre and singing tradition are prominent, in comparison to other regions of the Korean peninsula. Sorichum by females are performed to celebrate festive and holiday seasons such as on the nights of the first full moon (January 15) and the harvest full moon (August 15) according to the lunar calendar. Sorichum by males, in contrast, are performed at work any time in the year. There are two major dance patterns in Sorichum: wonmu (a circle dance) with or without hand holding; and yeolmu (a line dance). The songs, which are sung while dancing, are usually improvised without any fixed text or lyrics but mostly about love between men and women. The dance has gestures and movements that symbolize daily work and a wishing for a plentiful harvest or big catches of fish. Sorichum is chiefly divided into male and female dances which are illustrated as shown below. Many male dance repertoires have been preserved in association with regional work songs found in numerous towns throughout the Korean provinces (here discussion is limited to South Korea): The “dance of weeding a field” found in Gimpo, Gyeonggi province, is a group dance with unformatted gestures, performed while farmers weed a field with a homi (a hoe with a short handle) and sing together. The “dance of picking the bracken fern” is passed down in Myeongju, Gangwon province. There the woodcutters gathered around in a graveyard on a grassy area holding hands and creating a circle while singing. The “dance of the two wooden legs of a jige (an A-frame carrier/backpack)” found in Iksan, North Jeolla province, is played among A-frame workers while resting; they sing and dance together in a circle. Here the workers hold two wooden sticks in each hand and beat the legs of the jige, which extend out a bit, much like playing a janggo (the double-headed hourglass shape drum). The “dance of the two wooden legs of a jige” is also found in Miryang, South Gyeongsang province, usually played either on the grass around a graveyard or near vegetable gardens and rice patties, and includes movements like beating a stick, flailing, and beating the two wooden legs of jige. There are many other known male Sorichum in relation to rice farming culture which are associated with different farming duties, such as mojjigi (removing the young rice plants from the seedbed), monaegi (rice planting), and gimmaegi (weeding). Female dances have also been practiced and preserved throughout the country and each geographic region has its representative traditions, such as Ganggangsullae of Jeolla province, Wolworicheongcheong of Gyeongsang province, the Baechigi and Nanani taryeong dances of the areas of the western seaboard, the dance of Dondolrari of the areas of Hamgyeong province, and Dungdanggi taryeong of Heuksando Island in south Jeolla province. Ganggangsullae, in particular, usually performed by a group of women on the night of the harvest full moon and traditionally practiced in the areas of the southwestern seaboard of south Jeolla province, is known to be one of the most popular traditions in which song and dance are well-blended together.

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With the rising of the full moon in the eastern sky, a group of women hold hands and create a circle moving clock-wise. The best singer among them stands front and provides the verse while the others follow her and sing together the refrain, the phrase, “ganggangsullae.” This circle dance and the singing continue without a break throughout their play, but upon reaching the climax, one dancer breaks from the circle and moves to the center and performs Namsaengi nori (terrapin dance). There are also gosari kkeokgi (bracken pick dance), cheongeo yeokgi (weaving dance), giwa babgi (roof tile threading dance), kkori ttagi (tale chase dance), deokseokmari (straw mat wrapping dance), munjigi nori (gate guarding dance) and silbaneul kkwegi (threading a needle dance), all of which provide more interesting variations of dance. The performance of ganggangsullae from the towns of Jindo and Haenam, in the south Jeolla province, has been designated as a National Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 8, and in 2009, it was also named a UNESCO World Heritage Cultural Property.

Bracken pick dance around graveyards

Ganggangsullae, Jindo Island

4. Heoteunchum (Free Style Dance) Heoteunchum refers to solo improvisational dance without any fixed form, which is performed in public gathering places and usually associated with, and inserted into, performances of nongak, talchum and sorichum. The dance format and gestures are therefore unique to the individual dancers. The names of the dance can vary different from region to region, and person to person. Heoteunchum, also known as makchum or heudeureojinchum (dance of loosely configured gestures), is performed without any purpose or ritual function by any random person among the participants or even from the audience. The dance can vary from individual to individual and can be at times humorous, or at other times it can present a high artistic level of gracefulness and beauty by which an individual dancer expresses his performance skill and energy. In contrast to other dance traditions of common people and farmers, which are usually designed for social and cultural solidarity, heoteunchum is considered as a dance of an individual within that social and cultural group. Heoteunchum can be divided into two types. The first type is jiyeok heoteunchum (regional

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dance), which has been preserved and transmitted in particular regions and individualized according to the taste of the dancer. The second type is mobang heoteunchum (mimicking dance), which is the dance of mimicking the gestures of a person or animals for the enjoyment of the audience. Jiyeok heoteunchum includes the dance traditions practiced in the northern areas of Hangang River, such as ttwimchum (hopping high while stepping with the foot), jillaraebichum (flicking both hands mainly above the head), beongaechum (jumping like lightening), and yangsonchum (a dance with the hands alternating palms up and down) of Hamgyeong province. In the areas of Yeongnam in the southeast, the dance repertoires include sokurichum (raising both hands as if balancing a basket on the head), mongdurichum (raising the arm and leg sideways together and putting them down in front), deotboegichum (a dance in the deotbaegi rhythmic pattern), baegimsaechum (making a large step with the foot while simultaneously bending the upper body), hongdukkaechum (making the body stiff like a cudgel and jumping up), gubulchum (bending and curving the body with a snake-like flexibility), yodongchum (shaking the entire body), and yangbanchum (with the gestures and characterizations that mimic the upper class scholars and aristocrats). In the areas of Seoul and the Gyeonggi province, the traditions include hwalgaechum (lifting wide both arms and legs), kkaeggichum (lifting the knees up and down with hand gestures), geodeureumchum (walking with an arrogant air and lifting both arms), and baechum (dancing while exposing the stomach). In Jeolla province, the dance traditions are highlighted with durechum (gestures that mimic farm work), boritdaechum (lifting the arms up and down like a doll), and eokkaechum (dance of the shoulders). Mobang heoteunchum is also found throughout the regions of Korea, either mimicking a person or animals. The dance of mimicking a person is usually done with mimicking the gestures of a “crippled” person, not in a way of ridiculing them, but rather as an expression of their pain and suffering. The dance of mimicking animals is characterized by mimicking the unique gestures of a specific animal. The dance traditions preserved and practiced in the areas of Yeongnam (the southeastern region) include the dances of the toad, stork, crane, lion, yeongno (a monster animal) and whooping crane. In the areas of Honam (the southwestern region), the dances of the frog and bear are known to exist, while in the areas of Seoul and Gyeonggi (the central region), the dances of the turtle, duck and monkey are still practiced. In the areas of North Korea, sajachum (lion dance) is known to have been preserved. A variety of repertoires of the dance mimicking a person are found throughout Korea. However, the tradition has been particularly popular in Gyeongsang province. The repertoires include the dances of a dwarf person, a stroke victim or paralyzed person, a potbellied person, an old woman bent with age, a leper, hunchback, a blind person, a person with limp, the skull dance, a person with a distorted face, a person with disabled arms, a person with a crippled foot walking like a duck, a person with stiff legs, and a bowlegged person.

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Geobugichum, Tortoise dance in Icheon

Gong Ok-jin performing Animal mimicking dance

III. The Concept and Characteristics of Ritual Dance In general, the ritual dance in Korea is divided into two types, namely, those of the rites of passage and those associated with religious ceremonies. Rites of passage refer to the rituals and ceremonies that celebrate a person’s life, from birth to death, conducted in chronological order. In other words, rituals for birth, coming-of-age, wedding and death are considered to be the four basic events in life. Religious ceremonies and rituals are connected with Shamanism, Buddhism and Confucianism, the three main religions which have been practiced. The rituals associated with each religion are still passed down from generation to generation, and music and dance play integral and intrinsic roles in these rituals (Lee, 2008: 22).

1. Dance of the Rites of Passage The term “rites of passage,” first applied by the German-born French anthropologist, Arnold van Gennep, is often used in the field of Western social anthropology in designating a series of ceremonial events of life, the turning points that one must pass from birth to death. In Korea, rites of passage are connected with life’s seven stages: 1) parents wishing to conceive a boy, 2) birth, 3) coming-of-age, 4) marriage, 5) sixtieth birthday, 6) death, and 7) memorial ceremony. Scholars speculate that the dance traditions associated with the rites of passage existed from primitive society and an ancient time, but have been gradually disappearing in contemporary society with only partial segments of the ritual structures remaining. In particular, during the period of the Joseon dynasty (1392-1910), Confucianism was adopted as the central religion and philosophy governing every facet of people’s lives and behavior. During that time, Buddhism and shamanism went underground due to the oppressive policies of the

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ruling class against other religions. And in the same way, the dance traditions of the rites of passage were gradually lost, with only ritual and ceremonial structures remaining. These social and cultural phenomena and other changes have been more evident in modern, contemporary society overgrown with the westernization. As a result, the traditional rituals associated with weddings and coming-of-age have faded away. Fortunately, some of the ritual and ceremonial forms, especially those associated with the parents’ wish to conceive a boy as well as those associated with death and funerals, have been transmitted and are still preserved today. 1) Ritual Dance Wishing for the Birth of a Child The initial rite of passage, the ritual for wishing for the birth of a child, is considered the beginning stage or starting point of a person’s life. In traditional Korean society, people believed that the generation (blood line) was carried by the male, namely, a son in the family. For parents, especially mothers, giving a birth to a son was the most important duty. Consequently, for married women without a son, there were many ways to conduct prayer rituals with the hope and wish for a son, which are known as gija. The gija ritual consists of two types: chiseong gija and jusul gija. Chiseong gija is characterized by rituals of prayer directed to certain objects or nature, such as a mountain, river, rock, tree, images of Buddha or Maitreya, all believed to have divine spirits and power. These are found in sacred places, such as famous mountains, rivers, Buddhist temples and altars dedicated to specific deities. In contrast, jusul gija is achieved by certain behaviors and the action of prayer through the “magical power” of incantation and spells. In this ritual tradition, as one of the most common behaviors, a woman possesses and keeps a certain object from a woman who recently gave a birth to a boy, such as a robe, golden string and toy ax of a newborn baby, to conceive her own son. She also takes certain medicine made of rare and precious fruits or the powder from the nose of the stone images of Maitreya (Buddha). All these actions and behaviors are usually guided by a shaman who also prays by conducting the rituals.

Gija dance in Buldomaji shaman ritual, Jejudo Island

Monk dance in Dasiraegi, Jindo Island

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2) Funeral Ritual Dance (1) Dance of Dasiraegi Dasiraegi, which means “to be born again,” is performed by the pallbearers on the night before the coffin is carried from the house. The dance is conducted to console the dead spirit and for paying one’s respects to the dead as well as wishing for a good journey to heaven. The dance can be humorous and witty, and at times even festive in character. Life is full of sadness and pain, and this dance is a message to the dead person, pleading with him to momentarily forget such pain. Among many ritual dances found in various regions throughout Korea, the dasiraegi of Jindo Island, South Jeolla province, is the best known and has been designated as a National Important Intangible Cultural Property, No. 81. The tradition maintained in Jindo is unique in that the dance is not only performed by the pallbearers; they are joined by a professional performance troupe, usually hired for a more festive and celebratory purpose. The dance of Jindo dasiraegi consists of several repertories and is often played by professionals. The story of a three-way relationship between a blind person, a married woman and a Buddhist monk is considered to be the highlight of the event. As an additional part of the performance, the professional singers from the invited troupe, who sing minyo (folk songs) and other sophisticated vocal pieces, join in bringing more fun and excitement. Other known repertories include heoteun dance, a story about a shaman and a Buddhist monk, the dance of the humpback, the dance of the blind, and another heoteun dance performed by a professional mourner while the play of pallbearers is being performed. In addition, the unique drum dance of Jindo Island is performed in the dasiraegi. (2) Hwigengichum In the funeral procession, a dancer wearing a bangsangssi mask leads the decorated bier to the graveyard while dancing with swords at the front of the line, which is called hwigengichum. Bangsangssi mask has four eyes, which has symbolic meaning and function to expel evil spirits. Upon arriving at the graveyard, the dancer conducts a symbolic ritual for expelling and chasing away evil spirits at the burial site by hitting the ground with the swords and marking the four corners of the four directions. Just before lowering the coffin into the grave, the hwigengichum dancer immediately runs away from the site without looking or turning back. He takes a different path from the one he used to enter the site at the very beginning of the ritual. People believe that otherwise the dancer could be in danger of being killed by the evil spirits.

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Bangsangssi sword dance followed by a funeral bier

Bangsangssi dance

(3) Hoedajichum The song dance, hoedaji, meaning hardening or packing the dirt on top of the coffin, follows after the coffin is buried. Here, both graveyard workers and pallbearers dance together, stepping forward with the right foot while gesturing and stretching both arms forward to clap their hands. A call and response form is used in the song. The call is given by a person who holds and plays a hand bell while others sing a response with the phrase, “eh eh eh dalgong!” 2. Types of Religious Ritual Dance 1) Shaman Ritual Dance Shamanism, which has long been central to the lives of the people in North East Asia and especially in Korea, is considered the indigenous religion in Korea that has played important roles in shaping multiple facets of Korean culture. Many scholars believe that the shaman rituals, almost always accompanied with music and dance, are thought to be the main sources that are responsible for creating and developing a great number of existing performance genres today, and as such, represent many aspects of cultural behavior and thought of the Korean people. Mudang (shamans) in Korea come to exist in two ways and are divided into two types: gangsinmu (the spiritually possessed) and seseummu (hereditary succession). Many stylistic characteristics of both music and dance and ritual structures differ from region to region. The majority of shamans found north of the Hangang River are gangsinmu (possessed). They hold intense rituals in which they dance repeatedly jumping up and down. In contrast, the large number of the shamans located south of the Hangang River, including the provinces of Gyeonggi, Chungcheong and Jeolla, are seseummu (hereditary). Their dance at rituals is more gentle and graceful in nature. As one of the most common dance gestures, the shaman slightly bends the waist and raises

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the shoulder with the arms held horizontally and gently moves the upper body and arms to right and left. Similarly, most of the shamans located in the eastern seaboard, including the provinces of Gangwon and Gyeongsang, are seseummu (hereditary). The common dance gesture of this region is to raise the arms straight above the head and sway them from side to side. All of the characteristics of the shaman dance gestures described above are fundamentally different in aesthetics and styles from those of the court dance and commoners’ folk dance tradition. In general, the ritual dance of gangsinmu begins with a section calling for spiritual power and energy. After being possessed by the spirit and entered into the spiritual state of perfect selflessness, the shaman no longer controls his or her own action. The shaman now becomes the mere mediator between omnipotent deity and the people, and through the actions of the shaman, the spirit and the power of the deity sends a message to the people. The shaman dances with gestures of madness and insanity, all the while giving prophecy and making predictions of coming events to people. In contrast, the ritual dance of seseummu is chukwonmu (dance of prayer and blessing) offered to the deity with wishes for goodness to be bestowed on the people. The ritual function of chukwonmu relies mainly on sympathizing with and connecting to the deity and praising the deity with music and dance. In doing so, the shaman delivers a message of blessing to the people. In shaman rituals, the ceremonial dances have a variety of functions, such as calling for the spirit of a deity, providing and offering blessings, sending for the deity, and expelling evil spirits. In addition, the styles and forms can all be varied depending on the individual character and personality of the deity. As part of its entertaining nature, the dance can be at times expressive, comical or delightful in order to provide vital and positive energy to people who are suffering from pain and agony. At other times the dance can be presented full of symbolic meaning and functions as a way of achieving supernatural ability and power. (1) Dance of Gangsinmu (Possessed Mudang) The dance of gangsinmu is performed when the mudang is being possessed by the deity, creating such a mental and physical state of unity between the mudang and the deity. The dance gestures of gangsinmu are characterized by jumping, fast or slow spinning, as well as random and improvised movement without a particular form. In the ritual, because the gangsinmu herself is transformed into the deity, the progression of the ritual is complex with a variety of dance functions. Once the mudang falls into a deep trance or being one in the spirit, the dance no longer belongs to her, but is controlled by the deity who now enjoys himself borrowing the body of a mudang. In other words, the main function of the dance is to please the deity, and because of that, the movement and gestures are full of dramatic expression seemingly random and free of form and structure rather than artistic in their design. Therefore, with the emphasis

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on the faithfulness and devotion to the deity, rather than on personal artistic performance and skill, the outcome of the dance can be rough and crude with irregular and unrefined gestures.

1) Kim Geum-hwa, a possessed shaman of Hwanghae province Baeyeonsingut 2) Blade riding dance in Hwanghae province Mangudaetakgut

(2) Dance of Seseummu (Hereditary Mudang) The dance of seseummu begins with the section, cheongsinmu, a call to the deity, in which the dancer uses a variety of props, such as a set of small hand bells and a fan, among others. This is followed by a series of dances that are offered to please and delight the deities. After the mudang establishes a spiritual unity with deity, she (because mudangs are usually female) begins to dance mimicking the physical gestures and emotional characteristics of the deity as a means of delivering his messages to people. Conversely, the dance also symbolizes the people’s many wishes which they hope will be heard. This is followed by a dance section called songsinmu, intended to send away the deity who was present in mundane world. However, in the dances of seseummu, outside of its religious function, its purpose as entertainment for the participants and spectators is considered an important part of the ritual. This is revealed in highly artistic ways of singing and dancing, and at times, in dramatic and theatrical forms. Additionally, the splendid dance costume of the mudang, with a full, layered dress which is seemingly unrelated to the content of the ritual, is rather ostentatious and is usually made by the mudang herself with attention to the entertainment purpose of the event. In this regard the costume does not represent the deities. In general, the seseummu(s) of the southern regions begin to learn music and dance as children from their parents, which is called “hakseup.” The dance of seseummu is emphasized in expressive and exceptional artistry in contrast to that of gangsinmu (the possessed). The female mudang (munyeo), in the seseummu tradition, sets the text of prayers according to the given rhythmic patterns in different tempi and begins to sing and dance in a slow tempo gradually moving to faster tempi. These characteristics are also found in the tradition of gangsinmu, but in the seseummu tradition the mudang does not jump up and down even though the dance is in a fast rhythmic pattern. Besides the jumping,

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there are fundamental differences between gangsinmu and seseummu. Unlike gangsinmu, seseummu does not become a mudang by going through the severe illness caused by a spirit. Also, seseummu does not acquire a shrine or place of worship.

1) Gildakkeum (prayer for the dead) in Jindo Ssitgimgut ritual 2) O Su-bok, a hereditary shaman in Gyeonggi dodanggut ritual

2) Buddhist Ritual Dance (Jakbeop) The dance performed at Buddhist rituals (je or jae) is called jakbeop or chakbokmu. While beompae refers to the chant for presenting offerings to Buddha, jakbeop does the same with physical gestures. The beauty of jakbeop is in its sublime magnificence which inspires feelings of religious devotion to Buddha. Jakbeop is divided into four kinds according to the content of the ritual and the physical movements. They are nabichum, barachum, beopgochum and tajuchum. In ancient Korea, the origin and transmission of Buddhism in relation to beompae was recorded in an epitaph located in the Ssanggyesa Temple in Hadong, South Gyeongsang province. There, the inscription is recorded that, “the Buddhist monk Jingamseonsa of Silla (57 BC - AD 935) went to Tang to learn Chinese beompae and came back to Silla and taught it to countless pupils.” However, the record in Samgukyusa (The Heritage of the Three Kingdoms) shows that, even before Jingamseonsa, the Buddhist monk Wolmyeongsa created a chant called Dosolga, which might be a beompae of Silla style. Today the Buddhist ritual Yeongsanjae, which was mainly performed in the provinces of Yeongnam, Honam and Gyeonggi, has been designated as Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 50. The name of nabichum (butterfly dance) came from the monks’ robes which are similar to a butterfly. They dance to vocal and instrumental accompaniment, hotsori and taejing among beompae repertoires, and sometimes without any accompaniment. The dance movements are characterized by their graceful and slow nature. According to its purpose, the dance is divided into fifteen smaller repertoires, including doryangge jakbeop and jeongrye jakbeop. Barachum is masculine in character and dancers hold a bara, similar to a cymbal, in both hands. The dance gestures are highlighted with

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forward and backward motions and fast rotating ones. There are six kinds of barachum, including cheonsu bara and myeong bara. Beopgochum is a type of drum dance that symbolizes the lionhearted diligence of religious practice and the state of nirvana attained through the practice. Beopgochum is usually accompanied by beompae with no fixed rhythmic pattern and divided into two kinds: beopgochum focusing on the movement to beat the drum and hongguchum focusing on the complicated rhythmic patterns to play. Tajuchum is performed in Yeongsanjae while sikdangjakbeop (the ritual of eating food) takes place, and is characterized with dance gestures that symbolize the gradual process of attaining enlightenment (the ultimate Buddha state) and entering Nirvana.

Chakbokmu (Butterfly dance) in Yeongsanjae

Cheonsubarachum (Buddhist cymbals dance) in Yeongsanjae

IV. Stylistic Characteristics of Professional Dance (Yein Chum) When discussed by Korean people, the term “folk dance” usually refers to a series of dance repertoires that are practiced by professional dancers, such as seungmu, taepyeongmu and salpurichum. In the traditional Korean society, a specific group of artists, including gisaeng (female entertainers), gwangdae (male entertainers), jaein (skilled persons) and mudang (shamans or members of a shaman family), were considered as professional musicians and dancers who had a very different lifestyle from the commoners. Some of them wandered and moved from village to village to perform at various occasions. The main occupation for them was to sing and dance and put on public acrobatic performances. Their artistic repertoires were more refined and sophisticated in comparison to those of the amateurs and common people. Therefore present-day scholars and performers all alike distinguish the professional dance genres, such as seungmu and salpurichum, fundamentally different from the genres performed and enjoyed by the common people, such as nongak (farmer’s band), talchum (mask dance) and sorichum (vocal dance) (Yi, 2009b: 113-114).

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1. Seungmu (Buddhist Monk Dance) In the context of transmission and the performance environment, seungmu was most often performed by jaein gwangdae (male entertainer) or gisaeng (female), and shared similarities in dance movement with salpurichum. The current version of seungmu originated from ritual dance at Buddhist temples and then was adapted by gwangdae and jaein, and finally was appropriated and appreciated by gisaeng as an artistic dance. The costume of seungmu reveals its relation to Buddhism. It is a robe called jangsam with long sleeves in either black or white. In the early days, the dancers wore a gray, black, or white robe, but today most of the dancers wear a white jangsam. The dancer performs peacefully, sometimes dynamically, as if he or she has been cleansed of misdeeds and has attained nirvana. The scattered lines created by the dancer with the jangsam’s sleeves represent Korean aesthetics, and the drumming on beopgo highlights the Buddhist spirit that leads the people to an ideal world. Seungmu has been designated as Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 27 and today two representative versions are transmitted: the Han Yeong-suk school and the Yi Maebang school.

Han Yeong-suk performing Seungmu

Yi Mae-bang performing Seungmu

2. Salpurichum (Dance of Exorcism) Along with seungmu, salpurichum is perhaps regarded as the most representative of all of the Korean dances. Deeply embedded with Korean sentiment and emotion, and its history and culture, it expresses the collective pathos, “han,” and passionate style and beauty, “heung.” This is because the dance is rooted in shamanism, the indigenous religion of Korea, as the name of “salpuri” suggests “expelling evil and negative energy.” The dancer, dressed in white and holding a long white silk scarf, moves to the shamanic rhythmic pattern that is also called salpuri, but the dance per se is an artistic dance without any religious function. Salpurichum is not simply a sad dance, even though the underpinning meaning and expression of

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the dance is found in deep sorrow and pathos. The dance also moves beyond poignant human emotion to a sublime world of joy and jubilation. This duality emphasizes basic human emotion and expression. There are several styles of salpurichum practiced in modern times, which depend on a dancer’s artistic tendency or the particular region of origin of the dance style. In 1990, salpurichum was designated as Important Intangible Cultural Property, No. 97, and out of many styles of the dance, two master dancers have been selected as official guardians, preserving this art form. The school of Master Yi Mae-bang is characterized by cheerfulness and femininity where every movement and gesture is tasteful and full of improvisational quality. The movements are delicate and subtle in character with shoulder and neck movements as well as many hand gestures coming toward the body, along with the eyes looking modestly low. The salpurichum of the dance school of Master Kim Suk-ja originated from the shaman ritual of Gyeonggi province and is danced to the shamanic rhythmic pattern called dosalpuri. The dancer holds a white silk scarf that is nearly two meter long. Like other schools, this dance school also emphasizes slight changes of tension and release in movement, but in comparison to other schools, it evokes a more masculine quality by the frequent use of the long silk scarf. Although she was not selected as an official preserver, Master Han Yeong-suk and her salpurichum shows the clear line of the tradition inherited from her grandfather, Master Han Seong-jun. The school is characterized by its stillness, simplicity and gracefulness, aloof without flirtatiousness.

Yi Mae-bang performing Salpurichum

Kim Suk-ja performing Dosalpuri

3. Taepyeongmu (Dance of Peace) Taepyeongmu is a dance for the peace and prosperity of the King and Queen, and the dynasty. This dance is based on the rhythmic patterns and formations of dodanggut from the Dodang shaman ritual traditionally conducted in the villages of Gyeonggi province. The instrumental accompaniment is typically samhyeon yukgak, a chamber ensemble traditionally used in shaman ritual of this region. Taepyeongmu demonstrates maturity of movement characterized by fresh and brilliant footwork

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technique-at times showing light, yet controlled movements that showcase the feelings of power and ecstasy. This dance was designated as Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 92 in 1988, and Master Gang Seon-yeong has been selected as the official preserver of the tradition.

Gang Seon-yeong performing Taepyeongmu

Jinju Geommu

4. Jinju Geommu (Jinju Sword Dance) Geommu, also called geomgimu, is a court dance performed with swords. According to historical records, it has the longest history among the court dances as it originated from Silla (57 BC - AD 935). The current version of Jinju geommu is said to have been transmitted and performed by gisaeng of the central court who came to the local government of Jinju and taught the dance to other gisaeng. The dance was designated as Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 12 in 1967, and the official preservers included the late Kim Su-ak and Seong Gye-ok, passed down to Kim Tae-yeon and Yu Yeong-hui. The dance begins with eight dancers entering the stage in a single row with the rhythmic accompaniment of dodeuri jangdan. They then make two lines, four in each line, to make four pairs. The dancers put their swords down in the width of their shoulders, and each pair dances while standing against each other’s back or putting their hands on the shoulders and waist of the partner. The dancers then separate from each other and take off the attached sleeves from their hands. They gather again in front of their swords, and after each hand holds the swords, the dancers stand up and dance with their partners. The eight dancers then rotate in a circle and make a line to finish the dance with a bow.

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5. Seungjeonmu (Victory Dance) Seungjeonmu, which consists of two separate dances, Tongyeong bukchum and Tongyeong geommu, originated from the dance that commemorated the admiral Yi Sun-sin and his victory, loyalty and reputation for virtue during the Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592. The dance is said to have buoyed the morale and fighting spirit of the soldiers, from which the dance takes its title and name. Along with bukchum, geommu was performed for soldiers on a warship by admiral Yi’s command in the town of Tongyeong, and gradually transformed into one of the folk dance repertoires, dedicating to the admiral Yi. Tongyeong bukchum is similar to the court dance, mugomu, in its formality and style. In addition to the similarity of dance props, the resemblance is evenly found in the dance formations in which the buk (a large drum) is placed in the center, and the dancers holding a pair of drum sticks beat the drum in turn. The dancers also wear the costume in four different colors: blue, red, white and black. On the contrary, the differences between the two dances are found in Tongyeong bukchum where the secondary dancers, situated in the outer circle, wear a white robe and only sing a particular song without dancing. The dancers of Tongyeong bukchum also sing after they beat the drum and they dance to unique rhythmic patterns. Tongyeong bukchum is enhanced and revealed to have more charming and gentle dance gestures in comparison to mugo. Seungjeonmu was designated as Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 21 in 1968 with Tongyeong bukchum; however, in 1987, geommu was added to the same item and now “seungjeonmu” includes both dances. Official preservers of Seungjeonmu are Han Jeongja, Eom Ok-ja and Yi Gi-suk.

Tongyeong seungjeonmu

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6. Hallyangmu (Dance of the Leisure Man) Hallyang is a term traditionally designating a male who enjoys the arts and leisure, called pungnyu. Present-day hallyangmu is a folk dance that has two different versions. One is a solo dance that expresses hallyang, a male who understands art, enjoys himself and takes pleasure in nature and life, as the dance presents a mixture of peaceful and tranquil, and dynamic and powerful movements, showing the beauty of masculinity. The other one is a group dance as a form of dance drama in which a specific dramatic character including hallyang is assigned to each individual dancer. In both versions, the dancer as a hallyang is dressed as a scholar with a hat, holding a fan, and dances flapping his long sleeves and robe. Hallyangmu in its dramatic form is usually about flirtation between the hallyang and a gisaeng. The story line shifts when a Buddhist monk interferes between them, and the story develops a triangular relationship while the monk offers a seductive dance. Being infatuated by the monk’s dance, the gisaeng betrays the hallyang, throwing herself into the arms of the monk. Having been designated as Regional Intangible Cultural Property No. 3, “Jinju Hallyangmu” of South Gyeongsang province, the dance introduces a number of characters including a musician, hallyang, a monk, a maiden (gisaeng), an innkeeper, byeolgam (a government official), a disciple of the monk, and a servant. Each of the characters dances with distinctive gestures suitable to the behavior and personality of the character wearing corresponding costume. Official preservers of the dance include Kim Deok-myeong and six others. As a solo version, “Dongrae Hallyangmu” has been designated as Regional Intangible Cultural Property No. 14, in the city of Busan. The official preservers are Mun Jang-won and Kim Jin-hong.

Jinju Hallyangmu (Group dance)

Kim Jin-hong Dongrae hallyangmu

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7. Hakchum (Dance of the Crane) Rather than being developed by an individual or a group of dancers, Dongrae hakchum is related to the regional folk traditions practiced in town of Dongrae, such as tug-of-war and yaryu, a type of play performed by professional gwangdae. Traditionally, in Dongrae, people gathered together on January 15 according to the lunar calendar, which is the day of the first full moon of the lunar year, and played a game of tug-of-war, believing that the game brings a plentiful harvest to the winning team. The whole town falls into a festive ambience during the time when the game of tug-of-war is held. After the game of tug-of-war ends and before Dongrae yaryu starts its main performance, there is a gilnori, parading around the town to enter the village square, where people perform a variety of group dances as well as individual dances including Dongrae hakchum. This is an opportunity to demonstrate one’s individual dance skill. The hakchum dancers wear white pants and jacket with a white robe, all of which are made of silk fabric that enhances the beauty of hakchum. Traditionally, a hallyang wore a white silk robe and a traditional hat made of bamboo and horsehair (Tongyeong) gat, which was considered as the best costume. In hakchum, the dancers also wear black gat (hat) on the head and a white belt decorated with tassels on the chest, and put on hemp-cord sandals. Dongrae hakchum has been designated as Regional Intangible Cultural Property, No. 3, in the city of Busan, and the official preservers include Kim Dongwon and Yu Geum-seon.

Dongrae hakchum

Kim Deok-myeong Yangsan hakchum

8. Jinju Gyobang Gutgeorichum (Gutgeori Dance of Gisaeng House in Jinju) Jinju gyobang gutgeorichum, transmitted in the gisaeng house of the regional government office in Jinju, is a type of dance performed with the rhythmic pattern of gutgeori. Gyobang denotes the department or bureau that was in charge of performing arts and the registered court (regional)

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gisaeng(s). The characteristics of the dance are enhanced with charming and calm dance movement, yet also delicate and sorrowful, woven together into the mystifying traditional dance movement of jeongjungdong (motion in stillness). The beauty of stillness and the subtle gestures gradually compel one to attain a spiritual state of perfect selflessness. Jinju gyobang gutgeorichum has been designated as Regional Intangible Cultural Property, No. 21, of South Gyeongsang province, and official preservers include Kim Su-ak, who is now deceased. With its mystical and fantasy-like quality, the dance is considered as one of the representative gyobang dances in Yeongnam area.

Kim Su-ak performing Jinju gyobang gutgeorichum

VI. Stylistic Characteristics of Korean Folk Dance In Korean folk dance, there are stylistic characteristics based on the dance movements that are related to the distinctive use of different body parts (Yi, 2009a: 96-98; Jeong, 1999: 296-300). First, there is no such thing as finger dance, but certainly fingers are used to accentuate the delicate beauty of other gestures. This subtle use of the fingers symbolizes those of the Buddha statue and the images of Buddha. It is not surprising that such expression is innate with people, considering that Korea has accepted Buddhism for thousands of years and Buddhism maintains a close connection in the lives of Korean people. Second, the dance movements of the wrist and palm verify the gestures of turning over and turning down, as well as straightening and relaxing, the hand.

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Third, there are various yet unique arm movements such as jwauchigi, yeomigi, ppurigi, eokkaemegi, duitjimjigi, and hwidolligi. It is not an exaggeration to say that the core of Korean folk dance relies heavily on arm movements and gestures. Fourth, “shoulder dance” is the most common movement found in Korean dance. Such movement is said to be developed from riding a horse, which was the main transportation for the Mongolian ethnic group as well as the ancient nation of Goguryeo (a Kingdom occupied in the north of Korean peninsula). The shoulder movement thus has been natural to adapt for dance movement of artistic expression. There are a variety of functions of the shoulder dance, which include the control of emotion, adding to amusement and joy, as well as counting the rhythmic pulse and patterns. Fifth, waist dance and hip dance are not usual and only used for specific characters, which represent a sexual expression and seductive personality for dramatic content. Such characters are miyalhalmi (grandma miya) and waejangnyeo (lady waejang) in mask dance, and fisherman in baechigichum (Tummy projecting dance) --all sexual and comical in personality. Sixth, dance gestures of the head and neck have hardly developed in Korean dance. They only appear in the mask dance in Hwanghae province as chetmeori heundeulgi (shaking head), in the Sandae mask dance in the areas of Seoul and Gyeonggi as gogaekkeudeogi (nodding) and mokdolligi (neck turning), and in dosalpurichum as daruchigi and mokjeonnori. Seventh, gestures of stepping are related to the farming culture where the farmers traditionally wore baggy pants and walked splay-footed. The stepping gesture is usually delivered in slow tempi. In gyobangmu the gisaeng dancers usually step with the heel first, while in the outdoor folk dances such as mask dance or farmer’s band, the dancers step with the toe first or directly with the sole of the foot. Eighth, the steps are based on the progression of didimsae-dodeumsae-ogeumsae (ready-movejump) or didimsae-ddwimsae (ready-jump). The types of stepping include pyeong georeum (plain step), kkaekki georeum (hopping), geodeup georeum (skipping), dugyeop georeum (double stepping), yeop georeum (side stepping), yeopchigi georeum (galloping), hwalgae georeum (swinging stepping), maemdori (circling dance), yeonpungdae (somerset dance), and other steps like mimicking the animals. Ninth, in Korean folk dance the leg and arm from the same side of the body usually move together in unison. This may have been related to farming gestures where the foot and arm go forward simultaneously to stabilize the body in a working motion, which also expresses power and control. Tenth, the basic rhythmic formations and patterns used in Korean dance are in compound triple meters, often in combination with odd-numbered beats. Triple meters in slow tempi are found in an agricultural society as the basic unit of breathing while working in the field.

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