British Forum For Ethnomusicology

British Forum for Ethnomusicology

Mystical Numbers and Manchu Traditional Music: A Consideration of the Relationship between Shamanic Thought and Musical Ideas Author(s): Lisha Li Source: British Journal of Ethnomusicology, Vol. 2 (1993), pp. 99-115 Published by: British Forum for Ethnomusicology Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3060752 Accessed: 01/10/2009 12:49 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=bfe. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

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VOL. 2

BRITISH JOURNAL OFETHNOMUSICOLOGY

1993

Mystical numbers and Manchu traditional music: A considerationof the relationshipbetween shamanicthoughtandmusical ideas Lisha Li This paper examines the significance of certain mystical numbers which are frequently

used in Manchumusicandmusicalperformances. It suggeststhatthesenumbers,which relateto shamanism,play an importantrole in structuring musicalpattemsandmusical performancesin correspondencewith cultural patterns and behaviour. It also argues that

shamanicthoughtpermeatesManchumusicalideasconcerningcreatingandperforming music, but that these ideas are also relatedto the individual'spersonaland social background.This paperconsiders only those musical ideas that are particularlyassociated with shamanicmystical odd numbers.

1 Introduction The Manchu form one of the largest minority groups in China. They were the ruling people during the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), the last dynasty in China. The Manchu originated in Manchuriaand now live in many areas of China, particularlyin the north. The Chinese language began to be widely used by Manchu people only from the beginning of this century. Manchu folk songs collected so far can be classifiedlinguisticallyinto threecategories:1. Manchu;2. Chinese; 3. a mixtureof Manchuand Chinese. The musical difference between the first and second categories is quite large. Some of the songs with Chinese lyrics are very similar to Chinese folk songs. Generallyspeaking, however, the first category of Manchu folk songs have retained more of their own musical characteristics.Of those Manchu songs known to me, 75% belong to the first category.Thereforethe analysisin this paperis basedon the first categoryof folk

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BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology, vol.2 (1993)

songs,1 as these are assumedto be more distinctivelyManchu,and on types of instrumentalmusic which are also generally considered more traditional.The paperdeals first with the questionof the significanceof certainmysticalnumbers in shamanismand Manchu shamanisticrituals. It then points to a relationship between shamanisticand musical thoughtthrougha detailedexaminationof how the mysticalodd numbersrelateto the music andits performance.

2 Mysticalnumbersand shamanism Odd numbersare very importantin many aspects of the indigenous cultures of North Asia (Li 1992). The cosmological levels and the gods often appearin odd numbers.Odd numbersare also used in many othercontexts. Most importantly for this paper, certain odd numbers play a very important role in Manchu shamanicrituals. According to Manchushamanism,there are three regions of the cosmos with three levels in each. The upperregion is called the "light region", inhabitedby Abukaanduli2(the God of the Sky), the gods of the stars,the sun and thunder, the God of Fire, ancestorgods and othernaturegods, includinganimaland plant gods. The middleregion is the humanworld,inhabitedby man, animalsand other beings. The lower region, the "darkregion",is inhabitedby Banaji (the God of the Ground),other gods such as the gods of night, Omosi mama (the God for Descendants,and variousevil spiritsanddemons. This cosmologicalconceptionis reflectedin manyManchumyths and in ritual texts of variousclans. In some clans the upperregion, the sky, is furtherdivided into five, seven, or nine levels. The cosmology of most otherindigenouspeoples in North Asia also divides the universe into three cosmic regions (Eliade 1964:259-79),althoughthe detailsmay be slightlydifferent.The levels of the sky are always odd-numbered,althoughthe division may vary from one ethnic group to another(for examplessee Li 1992). In many Manchuclans, from the earliesttimes three Cosmic Goddesses have been worshipped.An image of the threeearliestCosmic Goddesses, theirlinked bodies standinginside a case representingthe cosmos, was found by the Chinese anthropologistFu Yuguangin the 1960s being worshippedamongstthe Manchu Namuduluclan in the Hunchunareaof centralManchuria.The Goddesses were made of wood, while the cosmos was made of a piece of birchskin with a pattern representingthe cosmic tree (illustratedin Li 1992:fig. 7). This reflects not only the Manchu and their ancestors' early polytheistic non-hierarchicalconception lThe sourcesof the folk songswhichI analysedforwritingthispaperare:the originalmaterials of my fieldworkcarriedoutduring1980-86,1990and1991;all songswithManchutextsin The Collection of ChineseFolk Music, Vol.2 of the Jilin Provincevolumes (Li et al. 1987); and some

othersongsfromunpublished volumesof LiaoningandHeilongjiang provinces. 2 Throughout this paperI use the Chinesepinyin romanization systemfor both Chineseand Manchu.BothManchuandChineselanguagesareusedby theManchupeople.Mostpeoplecan only speakChinese.It is sometimesdifficultto distinguishwhetheroriginallya wordbelonged to Manchuor Chinese.

Li:MysticalnumbersandManchutraditionalmusic

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concerninggods but also their conceptionof odd numbersin relationshipto the gods. During my fieldwork in the Ning'an area of Heilongjiangprovince in 1990, I discovered several illustrations of the three Goddesses drawn by different generationsof the Zang clan in differentperiods.Successive generationsbuilt on the work of those precedingthem, copying the basic threefigures of the central themewhile addingdetailsof dressand otherdecorationin contemporaryfashion. On the latercopies the figures are sittinginside a house and one of the figureshas become a man. There are also other idols and symbols, created in increasing numbersby different generationsof the clan. However, it is interestingto note that the total numberof figures worshippedin differentperiods is always odd. This characteristicfeature demonstratesthat although Manchu concepts concerninggods has changedwith the changefroma hunting,nomadicway of life to a more settledexistence basedon arablefarmingandfrom a female-dominantto a male-dominantsocial life, the significance of mystic odd numbersremains the same from generationto generation. In contemporaryshamanicrituals, representationsof gods in most clans are made of pieces of cloth which are placed on the altar.Accordingto the time at which the rituals are held for differentgods, Manchuclassify their home gods3 into three types: morninggods, afternoongods and night gods. The total number of gods invoked by the same ritual is often odd. Figure 14 is a view of a home ceremony held by the Yiergenjueluoclan in Ning'an in 1990. Seven representationsof afternoongods areplacedon the altar.Two shamansin frontof the altar are singingritualsongs for the gods. Just as there are odd numbersof gods, the sacrificial food is also prepared accordingto a system of odd numbers.Each pig sacrificedin the ceremonyis cut into several partsin an odd number;aftercooking, the partsare re-assembledin the originalshape. As for souls, the Manchu conceive of the soul as being composed of three elements that are given to childrenby Omosi mama:the "truesoul", which may be compared with "consciousness"and which cannot leave the body without causing death; the "soul that precedes",which may temporarilyleave the body duringdreamsand soul loss, andwhichreturnsto Omosi mamaafterdeathso that she may give it to anotherchild; and the "externalsoul", which returnsto Ilmun Han in the underworldafterdeath,afterwhich it may be reincarnatedinto another personor animal(Shirokogoroff1935:207-26).The Hezhenalso believe thatman 3 Therearetwo majorkindsof Manchushamanicceremony.Oneis the jiaji (homeceremonyor tamedceremony)whichis held mainlyindoorsfor the homegods (mainlyancestorgods),for which the home shamansperform.The otherkind is the yeji (wild ceremonyor untamed

ceremony) which is held mainly outdoorsfor the wild gods (mainly animal gods) and hero gods; in this the main shaman (who can be possessed by gods while he or she is in a trance) and the assistantshaman(who deals with the possessed main shaman)play the most importantrole Each ceremony consists of several ritualswhich are held for differentkinds of gods. 4 The photographwas takenby the author.

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BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology, vol.2 (1993)

has three souls: the or6n (the soul of life), given by the God of Life, which will leave the body after death;the hani (the soul of thinking),which can leave the body temporarilyduring sleep and communicatewith spirits or souls of others; andthefajaak (the soul of rebirth),given by the God of Rebirth,which will leave the body afterdeathandenteranothernew-bornbody (Ling 1934:102-3). Duringthe process of traininga new shaman,the learnershouldprojecther or his soul, in trance,at least three times into the differentregions of the cosmos. Only when the learneris able to do this can she or he become a shaman. An experiencedshamancan projectheror his soul moreoften andinto more levels of the cosmos: five, seven or nine times and five, seven or nine levels, dependingon technique. Odd numbersalso appearin many other cases among different groups, for examplein the design of shamaniccostumesanddrums(see Dolgikh 1978 for the Nganasanshamanicdrumsandcostumes,Czaplicka1914 for some othertribesin Siberia and Li 1992 for the Manchu drums). It is not difficult to see the significance of certain numberssuch as 3, 5, 7 and 9 which are related to the cosmos levels. Many shamans whom I met in Manchuria stated that these numbersare cosmic numbers.The explanationreflects the strong influence of shamaniccosmology on people.

Gods",heldbythe Fig. 1 A Manchuritualof "sacrificeto theAfternoon claninNing'an,Manchuria, 1990 Yiergenjuelo

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Even numbersare not used very often, but they have meaningsas well. They are usually linked with the middle and lower regions of the cosmos but not the upper region. In particular,in some cases they are related to evil spirits. For example(Eliade 1964: 277): Among the Buryat the numberof gods is three times as great: ninety-nine good gods in the southwestregions and forty-fourevil ones in the northeastern.

Since odd numbersare used more frequentlythan even ones and have more significance in Manchu music, discussion in this paper concerns odd numbers only. The aim here is to demonstratehow these mystic numbersembodyreligious thought and play an active role in structuringmusical patterns and musical performancesin correspondencewith culturalpatternsandbehaviour.

3 Rhythmicpatternswithodd numbersof accents Certainrhythmicpatternswith odd numbersof accentsare used very frequentlyin Manchushamanicdrumming(Li 1992). These patternsare called by the people themselves "One-accented Patterns","Old Three-accented Patterns", "Fiveaccented Patterns","Seven-accentedPatterns"and "Nine-accented Patterns". Examples of these patterns are shown in figure 2. The two important characteristicsof these patternsare that the total numberof accents in each is always an odd number, and that all other patterns shown in figure 5 are the combinations of the "Old Three-accented Patterns"plus the "One-accented Patterns".These particularrhythmpatternsare used in many clans which I have visited. Many shamansandpeople can clearlydistinguishthem. The "OldThreeaccentedPatterns",in particular,areused in every ceremonyof differentclans. Obviously,these patternsare carefullydesignedbased on certainodd numbers even for each minimal unit. The purposeof the formationcan be seen clearly if we examine their particularmeaningsand functionsin rituals.According to the explanationof some old shamanswhom I met duringfieldwork,5the "OldThreeaccentedPatterns"are used to worshipthe gods, the "Five-accentedPatterns"are used to communicatethe intentionof the gods to the people, the "Seven-accented Patterns"are used to drive away demonsandthe "Nine-accentedPatterns"are for dealing with all living beings in different regions of the cosmos, i.e. humans, gods, demons etc. On the other hand, the "One-accentedPatterns"are usually used betweenotherdrummingpatternsto representa transitionbetween different regions of the cosmos or differentspirits.

5 Explanations are especially from Fu Yingren, a home shaman of Fucha clan in Ning'an, Heilongjiang province; and from Yang Shicang, a main shaman of Nimacha clan, and Guang Yungang, a home shamanof Guaerjiaclan, both in Jiutai,Jilin province. (The lattertwo shamans

died a few yearsago.) They also explainedthe meaningsof the threepositionsof drumming (section 5).

Fig. 2 Typical rhythmicpatterns of drumming in Manchu rituals. (Collected by the auth , indicates forms of the Old Three-accented 1982-92; after Li 1992.) The notation I Patterns appearing in other patterns. The Old Three-accented Patterns 2

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Li:MysticalnumbersandManchutraditionalmusic

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All these drumming patterns are related to the cosmology of Manchu shamanism,in which the cosmos has nine levels dividedinto threeregions. Gods, humansand demons are thoughtto live in differentlevels (see section 2). Just as the drumis the symbol of a vehicle used for the shamanicjourney,so its rhythms, in association with other elements of the drum such as its appearanceand the methodsof drumming(see section 5), can enable the shamanto contactdifferent beings in differentlevels of the cosmos. It is clearthatthe idea of creationbehindthese rhythmicpatternsis limitedand supportedby the shamaniccosmological thoughtbehind the mystic numbers.It also shows the conceptions of Manchupeople concerning the capacity of their music to influence other beings in the cosmos. They believe that different rhythmsusing the mystical numberscan transmitdifferentmeaningsto different listenersin differentregions of the cosmos.6 These particularrhythmicpatterns,related to shamanic cosmology, are not only the foundationof the drumrhythmsthemselves, but also among the most importantrhythmic components of Manchu shamanic songs, and even of all Manchu traditionalmusic. According to my analysis, in about 80% of the first categoryof Manchufolk songs (includingshamanicsongs)7the rhythmicpatterns are related to the patterns shown in figure 2, especially to the "Old Threeaccented Patterns".The rhythms of certain songs, especially in the pieces for which the drumis also played, are similarto the drumrhythm(fig. 3), sometimes being the same as the rhythmof the drumbeats(fig. 4), and this suggests thatthe mystical numbershave a significance in forming the rhythms not only of the drum but also of the songs. This enables the songs and the drum, working togetherin rituals,to transmitmeaningsbetweenthe differentworlds. Figure5 is anotherexampleof Manchushamanicsong. The song begins with a repeated"OldThree-accentedPattern";this is similarto the rhythmicpatternsof the drumshown in figure 2, in which every patternstartsor finishes with an "Old Three-accentedPattern".This may show the influenceof the drumpatternson the rhythms of songs. This phenomenonalso appearsin the music of some other peoples, for example, in a song of the Lamut,MaritimeTungus(see Li 1992, ex. 8). The explanationis thatthe drumand its rhythmsused in shamanicritualsplay a role more importantthanmereaccompanimentbecausethey are associatedwith mysticalodd numbersand shamanicjourneys.

6Some of the rhythmicpatternsused in the ritualsof other peoples in North Asia have similaritiesto those of the Manchu.This may supportthe hypothesisthat religiousmystical numbersplayan important rolein formingrhythmicpatternsin Manchupractice.Forexamples see Li 1992. 7 See Section 1 and footnote 1 for the sources of the folk songs that I analysed.The same sources were used for figures 8, 9 and 10.

.

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BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology, vol.2 (1993)

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Fig. 3 Extractfrom Manchushamanicsong of Fucha clan in Ning'an, Manchuria(recordedby the authorin 1990; afterLi 1992) Song

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Figures 6 and 7 provide some evidence that the odd-numberedrhythmsalso appear in non-religious music. This may show that even for creating secular music, mysticalnumbersmay have potentialinfluenceon people's musical ideas althoughthe religious meaningsand functionsmay be lost or changed.We shall not discuss whetherreligious music influences secular music or the other way round. Even if these particularrhythmicpatternsoriginatefrom secular music (though this is not likely, since their meaningsand functions seem to show that they were createdfor theirparticularreligious purposes),it still can be said that the mysticalnumbershave a stronginfluenceon people's chosen musicalpatterns and ideas of formingreligiousmusic for religiouspurposes.

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Fig. 6 Manchufolksong, "Thesongfrom the descendants"(Shi and Li 1990) 2

1

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Fig. 7 Qing Dynastycourtmusic: "Qinglongdance music"(Shi and Li 1990) 1

2

3

4

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In contrast to the preferencefor odd numbersin Manchu,some even numbers play a very importantrole in traditionalChineseculture,in which two, eight, ten etc. are the most preferredauspiciousnumbers.This contrastmay resultfrom the different practices of ancient Taoist philosophical thought-yin and yang, the bagua (EightTrigrams)etc. which formthe basis of the divinationrecordedin the Chineseclassic Yijing(Book of Changes).Althoughin both Manchushamanistic thoughtand Chineseancientphilosophicalthoughtcertaineven and odd numbers both have significance, the preferrednumbers in practice are different. For example, Yin is relatedto the odd numberswhich are very importantin theory, but the even numberswhich are relatedto Yang are actually emphasisedin the practiceof society in laterperiods.This may be becauseof the preferencefor the Yang principle (related to males) which began at an early period in the maledominatedChinesesociety. In contrastto Manchuritualsin whichparticularodd-number-accented patterns are used, particulareven-number-accented patternsare used in those Chinesefolk ritualsin Manchuriawhose forms are similarto those of the Manchufolk rituals. These patterns also have their own names-"Four-accented Patterns","SixaccentedPatterns","Eight-accentedPatterns"etc.-and play an importantrole in rituals. The contrasts between rhythmic patterns based on odd and on even numbers may reflect ethnic contrasts, namely the desire to be deliberately differentfrom one's neighbours.They also supportthe suggestionthatparticular symbolic numbersassociated with religious thoughtcan affect people's chosen musicalpatternsand musicalideas.

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vol.2 (1993) BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

4 Melodies withthree dominantnotes8 No Manchu notation has been found. Nowadays the Chinese numbernotation system is used. Manchumusic is based on the pentatonicsystem. There are five modes in music, Kung, Shang, Chiao, Chih, and Yu (these are the equivalentof do re mi sol la), and seven notes in each mode, kung,shang, chiao, pien-chih,yu andpien-kung (these are the equivalent of do re mi fa sol la ti). The fa and ti appearrarelyin music. The kung note plays the most importantrole in the Kung mode, the shang note plays the most importantrole in the Shangmode and so on. The modes most frequentlyused are the Kung and the Shang modes. The Yu mode and the Chiaomode are also used, while the Chihmode is rarelyused. An importantcharacteristicof the melodies of Manchutraditionalmusic is that each piece of music usuallyconsists of threedominantnotes plus a few subsidiary notes. Some pieces consist of threenotes only. For example,figure4 is formedby only three notes, whereasfigure 3 is constitutedof do re mi plus sol. There are interestingcharacteristicsin both figures 3 and 4: first, the rhythmicpatternsof the two songs are almost the same as those of the drum, and the positions of accents of the melody are the same as those of the Old Three-accentedPattern used in each song (three accents within each bar);second, the melodies employ basically only three differentnotes. This may demonstratethat the odd number threeplays an importantrole in melodies of the songs (pitches and rhythm)as it does in the rhythmsof drumming. The melodies have also meaningsassociatedwith the mysticalnumberthreein Manchu shamanicrituals. For example, the songs sung in rituals are normally used to contactgods and spiritsanddo not have muchto do with drivingaway the demons. With regardto the meaningof drumming,underwhich the "OldThreeaccented Patterns"have more to do with respecting the gods, this may explain why only the numberthree is emphasizedin songs. Many chanting songs are related to the names of differentgods and spirits. The shamaninvites gods and sings theirnames. Songs of this kindnormallyconsist of a melody with only three notes and a repeatedOld Three-accentedPattern.Thus the mysticalnumberthree has significancein both the melody andthe rhythm. Figure8 shows the typicalscales or note sequencesdistributedin each mode as used in Manchu traditionalmusic. This is summarisedfrom most songs of the first category of Manchufolk songs.9It also indicatesthe positions of the three dominantnotes in each note sequenceto show how the numberthree appearsin the note and scale systemof Manchufolk music.For example,figure 3 belongs to the Kung mode because the kung (do) note plays the most importantrole in the song. The note sequenceis 1, 2, 3, 5 (do re mi sol), but the dominantnotes are 1, 2, 3 (do re mi).

8 "Dominantnotes" refers to the notes which are used most frequentlyand are normallystressed. 9 No musical instruments are used in shamanic ceremonies except percussion. The characteristicsof other types of music including instrumentalmusic (for an example see fig. 7) are very similarto those of the first category of folk songs.

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Figure 9 summarisesthe percentagesof different songs with three different dominantnotes in the first categoryof folk songs. If we make a sequenceof these three-notegroups by the naturalorderin pitch, the orderin frequency of these groupsused in the songs is as in figure 10. Thereseems to be an extension from inside to outside. This may show the importanceof the three notes do re mi. In addition, 80% of the songs which only use three notes consist of do re mi. ShamanYang Shicang explained that the chantingsongs with do re mi are the basic kind of shamanic song. Just as the "Old Three-accentedPatterns"play a more importantrole in the rhythmicsystem (even its name is differentfrom other patterns), so the three notes do re mi may play a more importantrole in the melodic system thanotherdominantnotes. This phenomenon also appearsin the use of pitch in figure 8. Most of the sequencesin figure 8 seem to be enlargedfromthe dominantnotes by one or two notes either lower or higher. This makes the melodic range of these songs very narrow.In other words, the narrowmelodic range of these songs is caused by he emphasising the dominant notes which relate to the mystical numberthree. It suggests that the limitationin the use of notes and the melodic style indicates a relationshipbetween the melodic creationof Manchutraditionalmusic and the indigenousManchureligion, shamanism. Moreoverin considerationof the meaningsof the rhythmicpatternswhich are related to the Manchu shamanic cosmology, the situation shown in figure 10 reminds one of the Manchucosmology in which there are three regions of the cosmos with threelevels in each (see section 2). If the do re mi three-notegroup symbolises the threeregions of the cosmos, in each of the regions there are three levels which may be symbolised by one other three-note group. However, I cannot make a definitive statement:furtherresearchand fieldwork are needed, especially concerningindigenousexplanations. My analysis is an attemptto point out that the forms of melodies and scales which emphasise differentgroups of three dominantnotes (especially do re mi) have a melodic basis limitedby the mysticalnumberthree.Mysticalnumbersplay an importantrole in formingnot only the rhythmicpatternsof Manchutraditional music but also its melodicpatterns. Figure 11 is one of a few more complex pieces which I did not include in the numericalanalysis for Figs. 8 and 9 because it has three types of key and mode change (summarisedin figure 12). The emphasis is placed on three dominant notes in differentkeys and modes with a gradualmelodic progressionto a higher range.This shows the Manchuconceptionsconcerningcomplicatednotes, modes and key system, but the arrangementof the song purposefullyemphasises the groupsof threedominantnotes. It also supportsthe point thatthe idea of creation is limitedand supportedby the mystic numberthree.

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BritishJournalofEthnomusicology, vol.2 (1993)

Fig. 8 Pitch material used in modes of Manchufolksongs (see note on following page)

notes 3 notes

4 notes

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Li:MysticalnumbersandManchutraditionalmusic

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Note to Figs. 8 and 9: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 = do remi fa sol la si = kung,shang,chiao,pien-chih,chih,yu,pien-kung. Thenoteswithdirectionsignsmeantheyareslightlyhigherin pitch. Noteswithdotsareanoctavelower. notesarethedominantnotesof the songs.In all casesthedominantnotesof a Theunderlined songcomprisea three-notegroup(doremi, remi sol, mi sol la, sol la do, la do re). Theproblemis thata minorthirdplusa majorsecondcanbe writtenas eithermi sol la or la do re in a differentkey andmode.Forexample,a songconstituted by thethreenotesE, G andA, wheretheE playsthemostimportant role,canbelongto the Chiaomodeas mi sol la in C major, andcanalsobelongto theYu modeas la do re in G major.Thenotesremi sol (la)on the Shang mode,C majorkey arealso sol la do (re)on the Chihmode,G majorkey. I haveputeachsong consistingof thistypeof notegroupintotwo differentmodesrespectivelyin figure 8 andI treat themin the sameway for the statisticsof the frequencyof songswith differentdominantnote groupsin figure 9. Becauseof thiskindof song,thetotalnumberof songsin thenextdiagramis 12 pieces morethanthe actualnumberof songs.These 12 pieces increasethe numberof the songswithre mi sol, sol la do andla do re,mi sol la as dominantnotes.Butthe frequencyof use of do remi dominantnotesin songsis stillin thefirstposition.

Fig. 10

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vol.2 (1993) BritishJournalofEthnomusicology,

112

Fig. 11 Shamanic ritual song of Shiteli clan: a song for Anba Manni (hero god of the Shiteli clan)

The sequence of notes used in the song. The position of three dominant notes

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5 Musicalperformancesrelatedto the odd numbers Mystical odd numbersnot only play a dynamic role in Manchumusic but also have a great significance in performancesin which the music is presented.For example, the special ways of drummingand singing in shamanic rituals are relatedto the mysticalnumberthree. Accordingto the Manchushamans(see footnote 5 for names), there are three importantkinds of drummingwith particularnames used in Manchu shamanic ceremonies(Li 1992). Each of themhas a particularmeaning: 1. "Drummingon the higher road".The drumis beaten towardsthe sky and held higher thanthe player's head to contactthe gods who live in the sky, using only the "OldThree-accentedPatterns". 2. "Drummingon the middle road".The drumis held in frontof the player's chest to contact the gods who have come to the ritual place or to pass the gods' intention to people. To contact the gods who have come to the ritual, the "Old

Three-accented Patterns" arealso usedandtheplayershouldrespectthe altar. To passthe gods' intentionto the people,the "Five-accented Patterns"should be used. 3. "Drumming on the lowerroad".The drumis held in a lowerpositionandis beatentowardsthe groundto driveawaydemons,usingthe "Seven-accented Patterns". on themiddleroad",however,is themostcommonstyle "Drumming in ceremonies(fig. 1).

It is obvious that "drummingon the three roads"is based on shamanicideas: differenttypes of beings live in the threeregions of the cosmos; the threeregions are connectedwith one another;the shamanis a mediumbetweenpeople and the other world, who can pass the gods' messages to people and can also travel to different regions of the cosmos. The term "road"used by the shamans also embodies the Manchuconceptionconcerningthe ways in which shamanscontact the other world. There are differentroads for the shamanto travel to different

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regions of the cosmos through the shamanic journey with the shaman's vehicle, the drum. The shaman assumes different expressional modes of performance and moves the drum into different positions for dealing with gods, people and demons from different regions of the cosmos (Li 1992). This shows the shamanic attitude towards different beings of the cosmos and the conceptions of the Manchu people concerning other beings in the cosmos. The Manchu believe that gods and demons also have senses and can give and receive information during the shaman's performance. These conceptions are all related to the shamanistic idea that everything in the cosmos has a soul or spirit. Associated with the three ways of drumming, there are also three ways of singing: 1. In singing the special kind of chanting songs involving the names of the gods, the shaman adopts a kneeling position in a secretive manner and sings very weakly to avoid the song being heardby others. As explained by Fu Yongji, a home shamanof Fucha clan in Ning'an, "It is disrespectfulto read the sacred names of gods loudly. We shouldreadthem inside the heart." 2. In singing the songs which are especially for the gods living far away, such as the God of the Sky who lives in the sky and Goddess of the earth who lives underthe earth,the shamanadopts a very solemn manner(in a sitting position inside the room for the EarthGod and a standingposition outside the room for the Sky God) and sings very loudly to make surethatthe gods can hear. 3. In singing the songs for the gods who have come to the altar,the shamanstands in frontof the altarand sings with normalvolume in a relaxedmanner. Both the ways of drumming and the ways of singing demonstrate the importance of the musical performance. The meaning and the function of music which is related to the mystical numbers can only be presented and fulfilled through a significant musical performance which is also related to the mystic number. Some other examples demonstrate that musical performance is also related to certain other mystical numbers. For example, some short pieces of shamanic songs used in ritual are repeated an odd number of times-three, five, seven, nine or more. Before singing songs to different gods, shamans must make a "drumsalute" to the particular gods to whom they will sing: several shamans beat drums simultaneously an odd number of times towards the altar). All examples analysed in this section can support the point that shamanic thought lives behind the relationship between shamanic odd numbers and the musical performance. 6 Conclusion The shamanic mystical odd numbers are embodied in different aspects of Manchu traditional music, especially in the shamanic music and musical performances analysed in the paper. For example, the odd-numbered rhythmic patterns which are the foundation of the Manchu rhythmic system; the odd-numbered dominant notes which are the basis of the Manchu melodic system; the odd-numbered

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drumming positions, odd-numbered ways of singing, odd number of times which the songs are sung and so on are the fundamental forms of Manchu musical performance. According to the result of detailed analysis of Manchu music and musical performances, especially of those in shamanic rituals, and in consideration of the explanations of the people themselves, this paper suggests that certain mystical odd numbers play an essential role in Manchu traditional musical patterns and in the creating and performing of music, in accordance with Manchu cultural patterns and behaviour. Mystical odd numbers also have great significance in creating and transmitting meanings between different worlds. The paper also argues that behind the relationship between the mystical odd numbers and the forms of music and musical performance, shamanic thought permeates people's musical ideas.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am gratefulto my supervisorsDr. H. LaRue,Dr. H. Morphyand Dr. C. Humphreyfor their academic help on my DPhil study which is related to this paper; to Oxford University, St. Hugh's College and all other trustsfor their scholarshipswhich enabled me to do my research and fieldwork; to all the shamansand other informantswhom I met, for theirgreathelp in providingvaluableevidence for this study;and to Dr. C. Pegg andProfessorG. Staryfor theiruseful suggestions.

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