British Forum For Ethnomusicology

British Forum for Ethnomusicology

Contemporary Recital Solos for the Chinese Two-Stringed Fiddle erhu Author(s): Jonathan Stock Source: British Journal of Ethnomusicology, Vol. 1 (1992), pp. 55-88 Published by: British Forum for Ethnomusicology Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3060727 Accessed: 01/10/2009 12:42 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=bfe. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

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VOL.1

1992

OFEHNOMUSICOLOGY BRIISH JOURNAL

solos Contemporaryrecital Chinese two-stringed fiddle

for erhu

the

JonathanStock Music for the Chinesetwo-stringedfiddle erhufalls into severalmajorcategories:traditional ensemble music, ballad and opera accompaniments and newly written pieces by conservatory-trainedcomposers for modernizedforms of traditionalChinese instruments. This essay focuses on the thirdcategory,examiningthe growthof a large repertoryof solos for the erhu over the past seventy years.It takes accountof politicaland social changewithin China, the impact of Western music and the continuing influence of traditionalstyles of Chinese music.

1 Introduction This paper considers the solo recital repertory of the Chinese two-stringed fiddle erhu, a musical corpus which now has a historyof approximatelyseventy years.1 This repertoryis eclectic, comprising folk music arrangementsand adaptations,composed solos by a large numberof Chinese composers and erhu players and even a few pieces by foreign composers.2In recent years a number of Westernpieces and film themes have also been arrangedfor erhu. The music of this relatively recent recital repertory contrasts with the more traditional repertoriesof the instrumentin the accompanimentof regional opera,in recreational amateurensemble music and in street comer begging, although it has adoptedmuch musical materialfrom each of these sources. Although confined to an examinationof solos for the erhu, much of what shall be describedbelow 1 The provision by the British Council-China State Education Commission of a one-year scholarshipfor researchon this subject between September 1989 and July 1990 at the Shanghai Conservatoryof Music is gratefullyacknowledged. 2 Foreign pieces include the early solos with orchestralaccompanimentNocturneand Concubine's Song by Aaron Avshalomov (1894-1965) (DLH-11 n.d.), the Double Concerto for Di and Erhu by Sir JohnManduell(Linfair61015 1987), JarradPowell's GendingErhu for erhu with gamelan accompaniment(Powell 1987) and HattoriKoh-ichi's Concerto(Hong Kong 1988:13). Although some of these pieces have been recorded, foreign-writtenworks remain peripheralto the solo repertoryof the erhu.

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BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology, vol. 1 (1992)

is paralleledin similar music for other Chinese traditionalinstruments,such as the four-stringed,pear-shapedlute pipa or the bambooflute dizi. The erhu is a vertically-playedspike-fiddlewith a historyin Chinaof perhaps a thousand years. The hexagonal snakeskin-facedsound-box rests on the left thigh during seated performance,3the left-hand fingers stop the strings as required and the right hand operates the bow. The bow hair is fed between the strings, and the right fingertips are used to push it against one string or the other. (Performanceof both strings at once is rare.) There is no fingerboard and so pizzicato, having little resonance,is rarelyused. The stringsare generally tuned a fifth apart,most often to d' and a', which allows an effective range of two and a half octaves, up to a"'. In the main, the contemporarysolo recital repertoryof the erhu has been written by conservatory-trainedperformer-composers.During the following discussion of the works of these musicians, I will examine three factors influencing theirmusical choices: political movementswithin China;theirtrainingin and knowledge of Westernmusic; and their understandingof traditionalforms of music-makingin China.The resultingsolo repertorywill be shown to be just as sensitive to the variouscontextsin which it is encapsulatedas is any unwritten musical genre. These contexts will first be briefly discussed; then the music itself will be considered. The latter account has for convenience of handling been divided into a numberof chronologicalperiods. However, stylistic change has been gradualthroughoutthe last seventy years and did not occur abruptlyat the boundsof each period.4 The majorityof solos examined in this article are for unaccompaniederhu, but solos with dulcimeryangqin accompanimentare also common. The practice of using a piano to support the erhu dates back to the 1930s but remains contentious,some musiciansobjectingto the combinationof Chinese and Western instruments.5A small numberof pieces are played with orchestralaccompaniment.Erhu playershave felt free to add theirown accompanimentsto music originally intendedfor unaccompaniederhu and have also arrangedand modified earliercompositions;many popularpieces thereforenow exist in a number of versions.

3 Standingperformancesare rare,since the left hand must then hold up the instrumentas well as stop the strings. Although the body of the instrumentmay be attachedto the player's coat with a cord, left-hand mobility is decreased. Pieces intended to be performed standing, such as the traditionalprocessionalpiece XingJie, employ a narrowrangethatobviatesthe need to changeleft handposition. 4 Furtherinformationon composition and music-makingin modem Chinamay be gleaned from Jiang Jing's (1991) rathervacuous account of the influence of traditional Chinese music on "professionalinstrumentalcomposition"and fromMao Yurun's(1991) unbalancedbut interesting accountof music underMao. 5 Wu Zhimin (pers. comm. 15/vi/90) cites Wu Bochao as the first composer to write erhu solos with piano accompaniment(see also Miao et al. 1985:409).

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2 Contexts shaping the creation of erhu solos in modern China These contexts are musical,culturaland physical.The formerincludesthe traditionalstyles in whichthe erhu has beenandis employed;otherformsof Chinesemusicknownto erhuplayers;andthe educationof thesemusiciansin musictheoryandpractice,whetherWesternor Chinese.Theculturalcontextof erhuperformance includesaspectssuchas: theorganisation andemploymentof musicians;socialmovementsin whichmusiciansfigure;andtheexpectationsof audiences,performers,composersand the politiciansand bureaucratswho controlrecitalsandrecordingin China.The lattertwo media,plus publishing and musiceducation,are the primarymeans throughwhich the repertoryis propagated.The physicalcontextof erhu-playingis a criticalone, since the construction of theinstrument as well as the shapeandcapabilitiesof thehuman bodyhavea markedinfluenceon musicfor erhu,as indeedfor anyinstrument (see, for example,Baily 1977). Throughoutits thousand-yearhistory in China, the erhu has fulfilled a numberof musicalroles.6Themostprominent of thesehavebeen,as mentioned above,as a tool in the handsof the typicalbeggar,as a memberof various ensemblegenressuch as Jiangnansizhu,andas an heterophonicinstrumental in manyformsof Chineseregionaldrama.Examples instrument accompaniment of the repertoryof a street musicianhave been analysedelsewhere(Stock 1993b). In general, while these players may sometimeshave constructed relativelycomplex improvisations,it is likely that much of their repertory wouldhaveconsistedof instrumental renditionsof localfolksongs,opera,ballad music. singingor instrumental instrumental ensemblemusicin manypartsof Chinahas also Heterophonic employedthe erhu.In suchensembles,the erhuplayerwas expectedto be able to producean idiomaticversionsuitableto his instrumentof whicheverfolk compositionthe groupdecidedto play.Musiciansneeded,therefore,to be able to transposenotesthatlay beyondthe reachof theirhandor the rangeof their ornamentation in stringsintotheirreachandto be ableto improviseappropriate This music was normallyrecreational,playedby a small group performance. for theirown pleasure,althoughit mayalso havebeenperformedat weddings andfunerals.Witzleben(1987) gives an overviewof contemporary practicein one suchregionalensemble. The use of the fiddlein Chineseoperadatesbackat leasttwo hundredyears. At one time, operastyles in which the melodicaccompaniment instrumental were morenumerous, groupwas led by a bamboofluteor pluckedinstrument but now the fiddle is the most commonleadinginstrument.Many different formsof fiddleareemployed,suchas the small,high-pitched jinghuin Beijing operaand the wooden-facedresonatorbanhu in manynorthernbangziqiang operastyles. Operaticfiddleplayers,if leadingthe accompaniment ensemble, 6 The development of the instrumentitself and its use in Chinese antiquityis discussed in Stock (1991, 1993a). See also Picken 1965, Zhong 1989.

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BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology, vol. 1 (1992)

had not only to follow the melodic lines of the singers but also to create introductionsand interludesduringperformance. Those who have composed recital solos for the erhu have been aware of all this music and have often been accomplishedperformersin one or more of these styles. They have thus brought their experience of traditionalstyles of erhu music into theirsolo pieces. These musicianshave generallybeen well-educated, often trained in music conservatories and employed there or in professional music ensembles. Although traditional music is studied in Chinese conservatories, the influence of Western classical music and associated educational methods is dominant. The majority of conservatory-trainederhu players and composers from the 1930s onwards have thus been familiar with compositional techniques of Western music (such as functional harmonyand counterpoint),use notationand possess a large technical vocabularyof musical terms,many of which are translationsof Westernconcepts. Conservatoriesprovide the training ground for professional performersof erhu solos, many of whom graduateto work in state-runensembles or possibly in a conservatorythemselves. Conservatoriesalso trainand employ a numberof professional composers and provide the facilities in which the performanceof erhu solos can take place, both informally in pupils' lessons and formally in recitals. Solos may also be heard outside the conservatories;for example, the Shanghai National Orchestraemploys the soloist Min Huifen to perform a numberof solo items in many of their public concerts. Broadcastingcompanies may also arrangeconcerts at which these solos are performed,and recording companiesissue a considerablenumberof recordingsof this kind of music. The activities of all these bodies are overseen by Government(Communist Party)officials, whose responsibilitiesinclude ensuringthat the correctpolitical line is maintainedin all art works. The influence of Governmentofficials on the creation and transmission of erhu music is, and has been, pronounced.The guidingpolicy since Mao's Yan'anTalks of 1942 (implementedgraduallyas the Communistsincreasedtheirinfluenceand power acrossthe mainland)have been those of Socialist Realism and of "artservingpolitics".Socialist Realism,which is derived from a long traditionof both Western and Chinese philosophy,7in Chinahas been an imprecise,often reinterpretedideology in which art is called upon to give a positive reflection of life, especially the lives of the "workers, peasants and soldiers". Through the portrayalof an idolized, positive hero's triumphover adversity (a Romanticideal) the audience experiences entertainment, educationand social encouragement.Proletarianculture is seen as being the ultimatestep in an evolutionarychain precededby bourgeoisand feudal art. This has led to a style of Chinese music which is Nationalistin characterusing elements of Romanticharmonyand form, Russian orchestrationand, occasionally, Impressionismas well as indigenousfeaturessuch as folksong themes.This 7 See, for example,the writingsof PlatoandConfuciuson the placeof art,especiallymusic,in society. A generalarticleconcernedwith this subjectis Perris(1983) while Kraus(1983) provides a valuablycontrastingperspective.

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style is controlled by the prevailing interpretationof culturalpolicy and, supposedly, refreshed by continual interchange with the people. The policy of Socialist Realism has been applied without break in modem China, although there have been periods of fluctuatingstringency,the tightest being the Cultural Revolutionwhen only a handfulof majorworks were permittedto be broadcast or performed. As far as the erhu is concerned, its status as a folk instrumenthas generally been advantageous,althoughat times politicianshave become suspiciousof those who spend much of their working lives recreatingpre-Communistart forms, such as traditionalmusic. As a result, many recently composed works have Socialist titles and/orprogrammes:concepts such as bumperharvests,the "liberation" of Taiwan and the sorrows of pre-Communistsociety are well represented in the erhu repertory.Socialist themes have also often been appendedto works completed before 1949. Some of these themes are created by the attachment of an appropriatetitle or printedprogrammenotes, while others are suggested in the music itself by quotationfrom revolutionarysongs or folk tunes with which the audienceis assumedto be familiarand can thus make the desired associations.Whateverthe form of programme,compositionsmust be passed by a PartyCommitteebefore theirperformanceis permitted(Mao 1991:122). The melodic style of these solos is shaped by erhu players' performance techniquesand conceptionof music. To give one example, on the erhu thereare different left-handfingering patternsfor music writtenin different modes. The use of ciphernotation(in which "1"represents"do","2" is "re"etc. in whatever mode is specified) as the principalform of musical notationin erhu music over the last fifty years has caused an association between this notation and modal fingering patterns. Looking at a score written in relative cipher notation, players have a good idea of which fingers to use for each note as well as of the sound of the melody itself. They thus preferusing cipher notationto staff notation, since the latter emphasizes absolute pitch and is less suggestive of traditional fingering patterns. Traditional erhu ornamentationis also based very much on these fingering patterns and on possible changes of hand position, which may occur frequentlysince the left handcan only cover a range of about one octave on the strings from any one position. The instrument has also changed throughoutthis century.In the 1950s most players switched from using silk stringsto steel ones, a change thatgave the erhu a brightertone, more stable intonationand a more reliable upper register. Different materials, sizes and shapes of soundbox have been experimentedwith and the constructiveprocess centralisedin a numberof large factories.8 Many contexts thus feed into the creation and performanceof contemporary erhu solos. Composers may combine their experience of training in Western styles with their knowledge of other erhu pieces or traditionalChinese music. Erhu players bring with them a technique founded upon modal fingering patterns evolved in the traditional repertory of the instrument as well as a 8 For a more detaileddescriptionof the constructionof an erhu, see Stock 1993a.

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vol. 1 (1992) BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

theoreticalgrasp of many Westernmusical techniques.Politicianshave for their partstressedthe functionof music and musiciansin Socialist China.

3 Solo music up to 1940 The earliest solos played on the erhu appearto have been individual renditions of folk music, theatricalmelodies, regionalensemble pieces and the creationsof the streetmusiciansthat so annoyedLaloy (1909:78). Apartfrom its functionas a begging or leisure instrument amongst the populace at large, sufficiently simple for van Gulik (1969:2) to note: "Anyonewith an ear for music may, in a month or so, become a tolerably efficient performeron the erh-hu,"the twostringed fiddle was also employed by certain market vendors, short musical phrases being performedin imitationof the spoken tonal contour of the prices of the wares (Chen Haiyu pers. comm. 7/iii/90). In ensemble genres each instrumentalistmay occasionally perform a brief passage alone, and extended solos may occur during the accompaniment of dramatic genres. With the exception of the largely unquantifiablenew compositionscreatedeither by individuals at leisure or at work on street corners, however, none of these traditional forms are solo compositionsper se. More accurately,the most substantial of these may be termed solo renditions of music intended for group performance. Jiang Tianyi's (1922) collection of huqinmusic (huqin being a generic term for Chinese fiddles) is perhapstypical of this early repertory,consisting of ensemble music, folk songs and operaticexcerpts. It was the new social and musical contexts of early republican China that encouraged the creation and transmission of solo pieces. These solos, like Western art music compositions, have become primarily identified as the individual works of one of a series of specialist composers, whose perceived musical intentions are recreated by a formally-trained soloist from (the memorisationof) a notated score. This performanceis typically presented to a quiet and attentiveaudienceseated in a concerthall. The first musicianto write music of this kind for the erhu was Liu Tianhua.He startedto compose in 1915 (Liu 1985:6), at aboutthe same time as he took up the erhu. His ten solos were finalised between 1918 and 1932, althoughsome sketches predatethis period.9 They were taughtto Liu's students(such as Chen Zhenduoand Jiang Fengzhi), performedby Liu at universityand public concertsand published.Some of them were recordedin 1931 (Yu 1985:30). It was the increase in the use of notation and publication,as well as Liu's activities as a university lecturer and national music reformer, that disseminated his pieces widely. Since they appearedin notation and were taught in a formal classroom context to educated music students, few attempts at modification have been made, although accompani-

9 Yu (1985:33-44) has analysed the best known of these compositions, Bing Zhong Yin, and differentrecordingshave been discussedby Liu (1988:196-201).

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ments for piano or yangqin have been freely added.10Similarly, the music's identification with Liu Tianhua has been maintained, rather than gradually acquiringassociation with succeeding generationsof erhu players, as may have happenedin the past with the transmissionof idiosyncraticversions throughthe oral-auralteaching process, and as would appear to have happened with the traditionalpieces Liu taught. One of these traditionalpieces, Autumn Moon Overthe Han Palace, will be examinedbelow. Liu's musical interests were cosmopolitan. At school he participatedin a military band, and he later studied erhu, pipa, qin, sanxian, violin, kunqu and composition.He also collected, transcribedand publishedoperatic,religious and folk ensemble music as well as composing solos and studies for erhu and pipa. However, his compositionalstyle was conservative:althoughseveral of his solos extend aspects of erhu technique,these extensionsare unlikely to be regardedas radical musical change as defined by Blacking (1977:6-7). The ten erhu solos are all fairly brief (from approximatelytwo minutesforty-five seconds to seven minutes)and have descriptivetitles, for instanceMarchof Brightnessand Birds Singing in the DesertedMountains.Although there is some modal variety, all ten pieces utilise eitherdo-sol or sol-re relativestringtunings.Absolute pitch is set at d' and a' in all cases. Althoughthe fourthand seventh degrees of each mode are more carefully used thanthe others,it would be an over-simplification to describeLiu's solos as basicallypentatonic.Modulationis only foundin a few of the pieces and, with the exception of the subdominantpassages in March of Brightness, is achieved by alteringtonal emphasisfrom one pitch to anotherof the same scale; thus the fourthsection of Red FlickeringCandle gives cadential weight to G in contrastto the remainderof the piece's reliance upon E. Accidentals (sharpenedlower auxiliaryand leading notes) are found only in a few pieces. Structureis sectional, each new passage either presentingfresh material or varying previously stated themes, sometimes at a new tempo. Otherpossible unifying techniquesinclude the partialor full recapitulationof an earliersection (especially towards the end of a piece) and the use of "organically"related cadentialpatternsin differentsections as shown in figure 1. In this example, the cadences from Reciting During Leisure have been arrangedand classified into two relatedgroups,CadencePatternA and Cadence PatternB. Each cadence is headedby its barnumber.Section numbersare taken from a recent edition of Liu's score (Liu 1985:43-4).1 As is apparent,every cadence in this piece is related directly to several others and indirectly to the remainder.Because these cadences do not in most instances repeat exactly the

10 Liu Tianhua also taughthis pupils traditionalpieces (Cao Anhe, pers. comm. 6/v/90). These included folk pieces such as Hua Huanle, Fragrant Wind(a version of ZhonghuaLiuban), The BuddhistTriad and arrangementsof classical seven-stringedzither qin and pipa pieces including AutumnMoon Over the Han Palace (1929) (Zhang 1989:22, Jiang andJiang 1989:30). 11The majorityof music examples quotedin this accountare transnotationsof materialoriginally published in cipher notation. One exception is the quotation from Tan Dun's solo (figure 13), derived from a hand-writtenscore using staff notation.

Fig. 1 Related cadential patterns in Liu Tianhua's Reciting During Leisure

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BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology, vol. I (1992)

same musical material, I have preferred to describe them as "organically" relatedratherthan the stricteralternativeof "motivically"related. Liu Tianhua seems to have been well aware of the traditional creative methods used by folk musicians. However, his education and employment led him to compose with pen and paperratherthan throughexperimenationwith an erhu in his hands. Although some of Liu's pieces share related material (compare, for example, Festival Night and Moonlit Night), his use of such material is both less pervasive and less subtle than in the traditionally-based repertoryof the street musician Abing, for example (see Stock 1993b). Repetition is often exact, and variationis the deliberatealterationof previously stated rhythmicor melodic patterns. One piece which illustratesanotherside of the early solo erhu repertoryis AutumnMoon Over the Han Palace. This composition is normallyassociated with the name of Jiang Fengzhi, one of Liu Tianhua'spupils. Described as an "ancientpiece", this arrangementwas derived from a traditional solo of the same name for pipa (Ye 1983:243).12 Figure 2 sets the beginning of Ye's transcription(p.244) of the pipa melody (source not stated) under the parallel passage from JiangFengzhi's erhuversion(JiangandJiang 1989:79). As Ye points out (1983:243), the erhu melody is a metrical two-fold expansionof the original(althoughthe expansionis often less thanregular).The relationshipof the erhu version to the pipa score is similar in concept to that between expanded and original forms of traditionaloperatic and instrumental ensemblepieces. Certainelements of Jiang Fengzhi's personalstyle standout in his version of this composition. For instance, figure 3 compares one area of irregular expansionfrom Jiang's version (Jiangand Jiang 1989:79) with parallelpassages from Chen Zhenduo's (1951:29) erhu arrangementand Ye Dong's (1983:245) transcription.13 This kind of irregularexpansionis not confined only to arrangementsof old pieces, but also occurs in arrangementsof folk music popular during this period. Figure 4 comparestwo versions of a passage from Fragrant Wind;the upper is Jiang Fengzhi's (Jiang and Jiang 1989:83-4), the lower that of Chen Zhenduo(1951:26). Although both versions are framedin the same metrical units (and both are headedby slow tempo markings),Jiang's arrangementgenerallyalots two beats to materialcovered by Chen in one, allowing the former to incorporatemore ornamentation,such as the accented passing note F# (la) in the fourth bar of figure 4. Differences between separateperformers'solo realisationsof the same traditional pieces tend to be of this order: structureis normally similar but degree of ornamentationand exact metricalarrangementvariable. 12 Both Ye and Jiang (see e.g. Jiang and Jiang 1989:30) mention the influence of the Cantonese piece ThreePools MirroringtheMoon as well. 13Chen Zhenduo's arrangementof this piece dates from 1930 (Chen 1951:29).

recitalsolosfor theerhu Stock:Contemporary

65

Fig. 2 AutumnMoon Over the Han Palace, versionsfor erhu and pipa. The pipapart was originallynotateda minorthirdlower. N.B. Chinesenotationalsymbols,where differentfrom Westernones, are transliteratedand explainedin the Glossary. Very slo

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BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology, vol.1 (1992)

Fig. 4 Twoplayers' versionsof the traditionalpiece FragrantWind.Articulationand ornamentationmarksare omitted.Theshadedarea enclosesone beat whichhas the same metricvalue in bothversions.

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Both Jiang Fengzhi and Chen Zhenduo composed, arrangedand published solo material for erhu during this period and later. Another pupil of Liu Tianhuaactive in southernChinafrom the 1930s onwardswas Lu Xiutang.His Yearning for the Homeland (1933) has been influential, as has his later composition Village Song (1945) (Miao et al. 1985:247). These pieces (Lu 1961:2-4,7-9) are, similarly to those of Liu Tianhua, composed of relatively brief, contrasting sections. Lu also encouraged other players to expand the recital repertory,such as his pupil Wang Yi (Wang Yi, pers. comm. 4/v/90). Solo music of the period up to 1940 was usually short and descriptive in nature. A colourful, possibly poetic title was given to all original pieces, but programmaticelements of a specific natureremainedrare. A formal structure comprisinga succession of brief and distinctpartswas characteristic.Generally, technical requirementswere close to or based upon those employed by folk musicians, and no accompanimentwas called for. Composers of erhu music were invariablyperformersthemselves.

5 Solo music from 1940 to 1965 Solo pieces acquirednew dimensions of both medium and content during the early 1940s. Ciphernotation,devised by Cheve in France, was introducedinto Chinese music educationby way of Japanand is first seen togetherwith a more traditional Chinese system of relative pitch notation called gongchepu in publicationssuch as Fang (1938) and on its own in ChenZhenduo'serhu method of 1941.14Its use was a reflection of the efforts of musicians from the second decade of the twentieth century onwards to introduce their newly composed repertoryand traditionalarrangementsto a wider, musically literate public. As the conservatory system was expanded, demand for appropriate teaching materials followed and teaching staff began to produce studies and methods. Music composed during this period was accorded a more overt political symbolism, in line with the increasing dominance of communism in China. 14Chen's methodwas entitledHow to learn the erhu (Zhang 1989:22).

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Values of patriotismand proletarianismwere stressed in the titles, programmes and themes of all genres, including erhu music. For example, Liu Tianhua's youngerbrotherLiu Beimao entitled a 1954 compositionThe Sun Shines on the Motherland's Border Territories which "describesthe post-liberationlives of complete happinessof the minoritypeoples inhabitingthe Motherland'sborder territories, and their song to the People's Sun-Chairman Mao and the CommunistParty"(Liu 1957:34). Extra-musicalimagery of this kind could be suggested either by a title or programmeor throughassociationby the use of folksong themes, revolutionary song melodies and musical cliches, such as the imitation of the sound of horse racing to represent Mongols and others from the grasslands of the north and west. In the case of Liu Beimao's above-mentionedcomposition,Section I is said to depict the "happy situation of song and dance and the joyous, energetic flavour of the lives of the grasslandlabouringpeople as the sun graduallyrises. The central Section II adopts some banhu expressive techniquesto set off this atmosphere"(Liu 1957:34-5). The banhu is a kind of two-stringedfiddle upon which the snakeskin facing has been substituted with a wooden board. By "expressivetechniques",Liu refers principally to the high-registerdescending glissandi shown with a diagonal line. Sections I and II may be seen in figure 5 (Liu 1957:16-7). WhetherLiu's programmeis effectively portrayedby this music is questionable, especially since Section III of this ternaryform structureis an exact repeat of Section I (i.e. the grassland sunrise over scenes of merriment).From this period onwards,however, the use of some kind of politically appropriatejustification for even the most innocuous of pieces became usual, and many such programmesare widely accepted as musically valid by contemporaryChinese musicians.

This composition maintains the sectional characterof earlier erhu recital pieces. It is typically short in durationand intendedfor unaccompaniederhu. Liu Beimao's solos, however, use relativestringtuningsand modes not found in Liu Tianhua'spieces, and, reflectingthe educationalinterestsof theircomposer, aim to provide a series of pieces which fill the void between Liu Tianhua's relativelysimple studiesand his ten morecomplicatedsolos (Liu 1957:i). As mentioned above, the conscious use of folk music extracts in composed erhu solos is also found during this period. An example of this is offered by Wang Yi's compositionBumperHarvest of 1953. The first section of this piece is modelled on the sounds of chuida [wind and percussionensemble] music; the second employs a haozi [work song] concernedwith the lifting up of river silt; and the third includes the depiction of village luogu15[percussionensemble] music. Section II and part of Section III are shown in figure 6 (Anon. 1957:23).

15 Wang Yi, pers. comm. 4/v/90.

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BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology, vol. I (1992)

Fig. S Openingof Liu Beimao's The Sun Shines on the Motherland'sBorder Territories Vigourous and joyful

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recitalsolosfor theerhu Stock:Contemporary

69

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Influentialat this time was the mid-1950s arrangementby Zeng Xun of the Mongol folksong Pulling the Camel (Zhang et al. 1987:24). Parallel to Liu Beimao's incorporation of banhu techniques in The Sun Shines on the Motherland'sBorder Territories,Zeng Xun mentions(Zhanget al. 1987:24) use of Mongolian horse-head fiddle matouqin ornamentalfingering techniques. Pulling the Camel is anotherpiece in which the erhu is associated with the Northernand Westernminorities.Typical of such music, in its performancethe strings are taken as the relative pitches la and mi, in place of the more usual do-sol and sol-re relative tunings (compare,for example, the la-mi Section II of figure 5 with the do-sol music of figure 6). As mentioned above, a change of relativetuningis accompaniedby an alterationof mode, fingeringand ornamental patterns. Other pieces written in a similar vein include Huang Haihuai's Horse Race of 1964 and, more recently, such works as Piao Dongsheng's On the Grassland,Wang GuotongandLi Xiuqi's Galloping on the

70

vol. 1 (1992) BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

Thousand-Mile Grassland, Zeng Jiaqing's Herding Horses (1977) and Chen Yaoxing's Galloping Warhorses(see later).16The depiction of regional styles, especially but not exclusively those attributedto the northwest,has since this period become a popular ingredient in modem erhu music (and, to a lesser extent, in solo and ensemblepieces for otherinstruments). One aspect of this popularitymay be the enjoyment of virtuosic technical display. The adoptionof steel stringsin the 1950s improvedtone qualityin passages requiringfast or short bowing (Zhang et al. 1987:24). Also, since more studentswere undergoingformal trainingin music conservatories,performance standardsrose and playersbegan to createmusic thatshowed off theirnew technical capabilities.Thus, music with a festival programmeof some kind was not only politically advisable but engendered greater opportunity for popular display. Zhang Shao discusses (1989:33-4) the importance of the erhu competition held in Shanghai in 1963.17 Analysing the repertory performed by the 29 finalists, he totals 22 new compositions, twelve arrangementsof regional folk and operaticmusic, seven solos from the previous period (chiefly those of Liu Tianhua) and one classical arrangement.This reflects the increasingly diverse origin of material performed on the erhu during this period. Unfortunately, Zhangdoes not clearly distinguishbetween the formertwo categoriesin his list, describing, for example, Huang Haihuai's version of the northeasternpiece River Waters(originallyarrangedfrom local folk music into a solo for shuangguan [doublereed pipe] in the 1950s) as a "newcomposition"(1989:34). A general broadeningof the repertorytook place throughoutthe 1950s and early 1960s. Increaseduse of publicationand the sale of recordingsbroughtfolk material such as the transcribedsolos of the street musicians Abing and Sun Wenminginto the handsof many musicians,and allowed those from otherparts of the countryto learn somethingof differentregional styles of performance. Music performedby 1965 ranged from solo versions of traditionalregional instrumental material such as the Jiangnan sizhu piece Zhonghua Liuban, through folk arrangementsarrangementslike River Waters and classical ones such as the seven-stringedzither qin piece Three Variations on Yang Guan, through pieces with an input of some folk elements like Bumper Harvest, throughthose with a folk setting as in Horse Race to the solos of Liu Tianhua and more recent composers. Many of these pieces were short and sectional in structure,latter sections either offering contrast with or variation of previous themes. Yangqin accompanimentswere commonly added in performanceby now, most often separatelycomposed from the solo part by anothermusician. However, somewhat longer pieces were also being composed by the 1960s, most prominently Liu Wenjin's YubeiBallade and SanmenGorge Fantasia. Takingthe latteras an 16Huang Haihuai's Horse Race exists in two versions. That more commonly played today is an abridgedarrangementmade by Shen Liqunin the 1970s (Association 1990:9). 17The winner was Min Huifen, then aged seventeen;cf. HL-536 (1988).

Stock:Contemporary recitalsolosfor theerhu

Fig. 7 Structureof Liu Wenjin'sSanmen Gorge Fantasia Sections Score MarkingsSub-SectionsPhrases Unts Bar Numbers Intoduction as if I (Free tme) improvised(No barlines) a 1- 6 a "1 b 7- 12 A ~ Allegro A ' 13- 18 "a'' ' b 19- 24 c 25-27 c' 28- 30 --------31--34d d' 35- 37 I B c 2 38-40 c' 41- 43 b d 44-_47 "d" " 48- 52 Link 52- 60 a" a" 61- 66 67- 72 b"' 3 A a"' al' 73- 80 Link 81- 89 e 90- 97 ' C C 98-106 f Link 106-110 g 111-118 g' 119- 125 (d 4 D 126-127 _ "h II -."h' 128-129 Moderat "codetm 129-130 Link 131 e' 132-139 c ""'f' 140-148 ~codeta C~~ 149-151 Link free time 152 inmtoduction153 - 154 i E e 155:162 i' "l163-170 5 j 171-178 TT ' f 179-186 F A/Iegrett j* codetma 187-192 k 192-229 G Link 230-238 a 239-244 a b A 245-250 a' 251-256 a' 6 b' 257-262 Allegro c 263 - 265 c' b 266-268 B IV d 269-272 d" 273- 277 Link 278 - 282 1 283 - 287 Coda a"" 288 - 296 A. a"'-A b'" 297-310 codettam 311 - 320

71

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BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology, vol. 1 (1992)

example, similarly to the shorterpieces alreadyconsidered,it is formed from a number of brief, contrasting sections (see figure 7, based on the score in Association1987:30-41). The formal structureof the Sanmen Gorge Fantasia shows once more the dominantuse of relatively brief, contrastingsections in the compositionof erhu recital pieces during this period. Each section has a ternarystructure,the final section being a varied recapitulationof the first. The composer's markings (shown in the second column) reveal that Liu Wenjin was not consistent when adding his own section numbers:18compare,for example, his identificationof the passage startingin bar 25 as a separatesection but not the reappearanceof this materialat bar 263. Similarly,relatedmaterialat bars 53 and 278 is in the former case the end of one of Liu's sections and in the latter the start of his coda. These inconsistencies disguise the four-partform of his composition. As alreadymentioned,each part of the piece has a ternaryshape, employing three relatively simple theme groups (see column 3). Only Section III is unusual in that it does not repeat or vary its first theme group as its third. Link passages, usuallyfor yangqinalone, connecteach section and sometimesone sub-sectionto another.These may have the function of preparinga new mode for use by the soloist in the next section and breakingthe uniformityof the texture, allowing audience interest to be rekindledat the soloist's subsequententry. Within each sub-section,each theme groupis normallyassembled from paired phrases (see columns 4 and 5). Thus, the first sub-sectionA (column 3) consists of the two phrasesidentified as a and a' (column 4), each of these being composed of two six-barunits:a and b (column 5). Liu Wenjin's compositional plan reveals considerableorganisationand the influence of his trainingin Westernmusic theory:binary-formthemes rangedin ternary-formsections of a four-partwhole. Although the accompanimentis generally subservientto the erhu, it is a necessarypart of the composition,not an appendage. Other importantpieces of this period include Qinqiang Theme Fantasia by Zhao Zhenxiao and Lu Rirong,Poem of Spring by Zhong Yiliang and Changes in the MountainVillage by Zeng Jiaqing(Zhanget al. 1987:32). The solo music written for erhu between 1940 and 1965 normally shows a greaterpolitical consciousness thanthat of the earlierperiod, if not in its music then in its title and programme.This reflects the increased politicization of society during the early Communistperiod. The requirementsof amateurand conservatory students led to the publication of a wider range of solos and educationalpieces, including studies, and this may have stimulatedinterestin a broaderspectrumof modes, performancetechniques and regional styles. The burgeoningprofessionalismand respectabilityof solo performerswas paralleled by redesign of the instrument,with technical innovations,such as the adoption of steel stringsmentionedabove, allowing the performanceof more impressive music. Aspects of the performancetechniquesof other Chinese instrumentsand 18This inconsistencyis unimportantsince it would not influenceperformance.

recitalsolosfor theerhu Stock:Contemporary

73

the violin were sometimes incorporated.The majorityof composers were still erhu players. Solos written during this period retained the short, sectional character of their predecessors.Indeed,pieces writtenbefore 1940 were commonly studied, performed and published during this period. By the 1960s, however, more extended pieces with integratedaccompaniments,sometimes intended for the larger ensembles and orchestrasof Chinese instrumentsthen developing, were also written.

6 Solo music from 1966 to 1990 Generalthemes in the historyof solo erhu music composed over the last twentyfive years include a furtherincreasein aspects of virtuosityand technicaldisplay as well as the substantial involvement of professional composers, including composer-performers,in the creation of large-scale works for erhu. Both these factors resulted from the impact of the conservatorysystem, which raised the general standardof instrumentalmusical performancein China and providedan increasingnumberof professional,formally-trainedcomposers. However, the first decade of this period, the Cultural Revolution,19 was basically a static one as far as the compositionof erhu solos is concerned.The phase was a difficult one for most professional musicians since they were attackedas "specialists","elitists"and hence class enemies. Only a few, such as Min Huifen, managed to develop their careers through the performanceof a narrowrange of acceptedpieces includingHuangHaihuai's River Waters. The tone of this periodis set by Wu Choukang(1975:101): In recent years Min Hui-fen has paid many visits to factories,communesand army units to receive education from the workers, peasants and soldiers. This has deepenedher understandingof the vast differencebetween the new society and the

old. Whenshe playsThe Waterin theRiver[RiverWaters],she underlinesthis

strong contrast by various fingering techniques and striking variations in the volume, successfullyexpressinga profoundcontentin distinctiveerh-hustyle.20

Others,for example Zhang Shao (Zhangand Tang 1975) and Wang Guotong (Wang and Zhang 1976), respondedby preparingfor publicationarrangements of the latest revolutionarysongs and model opera excerpts.21In keeping with the political will of the time, an emphasiswas placed upon amateurlearningand 19Originallycoveringa shorterperiod,thistermis nowcommonlyusedto referto thewholeof the periodfrom 1966-76 duringwhich the left wing of the ChineseCommunistPartywas ascendent. 20The"variousfingeringtechniques" mentioned referto thedifferenttypesof by Wupresumably vibratoandnon-vibrato fingeringcalledforin thescoreof RiverWaters. 21 The model operaswere the small numberof shows performedall over Chinaduringthe CulturalRevolution.Theyweredevelopedundertheguidanceof JiangQing,wife of Maoanda leadingmemberof theGangof Four.

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vol. 1 (1992) BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

mass activity rather than professional expertise. For example, Zhang Shao and Tang Liangde's erhu method (Zhang and Tang 1975:104-128) contains studies entitled: Going to the Enemy's Rear, The Army and the People are Brothers, The Three Main Rules of Discipline and Eight Points for Attention (revolutionary/military tunes); In Industry, Learn from Daqing, The Commune Happily Reaps the Bumper Harvest, The Herdsmen Sing of Chairman Mao (themes of daily life); Tying the Red Plait, Sword Dance of the Female Warriors (excerpts from the music of the model shows); I Love Beijing's Tiananmen, Glorious Beijing (patriotic themes); Wishing Chairman Mao Ten Thousand Years Without End (two versions), Chairman Mao Travels Over the Whole of China and Long Live Chairman Mao! ("devotional" pieces).22 In the main, these were arrangements of pre-existing material rather than new works; it was only in the late 1970s, after the downfall of the Gang of Four that original composition resumed in a significant manner. An example of this, which also illustrates the tendency of recent erhu solos to continue the previous trends of development of new playing techniques and depiction of horses, is Chen Yaoxing's Galloping Warhorses. Chen, a performer-composer, decided to experiment with techniques from both Chinese and Western instruments to see if it was possible to reproduce on the erhu sounds such as "shouts, neighing, hoof beats and bugles" (Zhang et al. 1987:35). The immediate stimulus to this was his interest in the pipa piece Ambush on All Sides.23 Figure 8 reproduces part of the solo (yangqin part omitted), showing how the first neigh is written. This technique is described as a "linked, pausing bow" (Zhang et al. 1987:35). It combines the simultaneous tremolo bowing of both strings with a trill and glissando. Later in the piece, Chen notates a similar "high speed tremolo on both strings" with a tremolo sign in place of the trill marking used above.24 This is derived from a similar pipa technique used in the Ambush on All Sides. Also used by Chen Yaoxing in this piece was a technique he called "da jigong" [large struck bow] (see also Zhang 1989:70). This, he claims, simulates hoof beats and is performed by striking up and down on one string with the bow hair. Figure 9 reproduces Chen's cipher notation for this passage. (Numerals are read as sol-fa pitches in the key shown. Dots above a number raise the pitch of that note by one octave, dots below lower the pitch by one octave. Rhythmic suffixes and barlines are written much as in staff notation.)

22 Going to the Enemy'sRear was a revolutionarysong by Xian Xinghai. The ThreeMain Rules of Discipline and Eight Pointsfor Attentionwere slogans of the People's LiberationArmy set to music to help their memorisation. Daqing was an oil field hailed as an exemplar of successful Communistindustry(Hollingworth1987:115). 23 This is one of the standardsof the pipa's militaryrepertory. Chen's piece is also discussed by Zhang Shao (1989:36). 24 In this techniquethe inner string is sounded with the bow hair, the outer one with the bamboo (Association 1987:175). This lattertechnique produces a sound strikingly like that of the pipa special effect it is modelledupon.

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Fig. 8 'Neighing' in Chen Yaoxing's Galloping Warhorses tr

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The compositionof pieces such as GallopingWarhorsescontinuedthe fashion for erhu solos in, or attributed to, different regional styles. Rather as the Westernmusic studentmay be taughtand examinedin the performanceof music of contrastingperiods, Chinese musicians studied and performedmusic which portrayed contrasting areas. Many of these pieces are pastiche in nature, composers or performersfrom elsewhere taking prominentmusical features or thematicmaterialfrom a regional style and combiningthem with the results of their formal training and experience in both Chinese and Western music. Generally,some attemptat popularappealis made and a politically appiopriate theme, normallyemphasizingthe folk roots of the composition,is appended. The accompanimentsof these pieces are of two kinds. In some instances,the yangqin part shares the melodic contourof the solo instrument,possibly decorating rests and held notes in the erhu with imitative material, as in figure 10. Alternatively,as in figure 11, simple, functionalharmonymay be employed. This harmonyis very simple indeed, merely alternatingtonic and dominant chords, occasionally with decorationssuch as the minor thirdin bars 5 to 7 and the appoggiaturalb' in bars 13 and 14. Although some of these solos were writtenby professionalperformers,others were createdby non-playingcomposersin consultationwith leading performers such as Wang Guotongor Min Huifen. This is particularlythe case for larger works of more than one movement,increasinglywrittenduringthe 1980s.

vol. 1 (1992) BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

76

Fig. 10 The Wish of the Lake Hong People, arranged by Min Huifen (1977), bars 3-8 (Zhang 1989:36, Wang 1980:45) With deep feeling

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An example of this kind of composition is Peng Xiuwen's Unyielding Su Wu.25 Written for an erhu tuned to g and d', the piece is a conventional

concerto with three movements: fast, slow and fast. Similarly to many other Chinese composers of the immediate post-CulturalRevolution period, Peng's programmein this piece is historical, Su Wu being a general captured by northernnomadswho eventuallywas able to returnto his homeland. Each movementtreatsin generalterms one episode of Su Wu's story:firstly, his captivity as a shepherd in inhospitable terrain; secondly, his feelings of longing for his homeland;and finally the celebrations that greet his return.26 The work belongs to the nineteenth-centuryconcerto tradition,comprisingthree movements linked by common thematic material and an overall tonal plan. Although the writing for the most part employs pentatonic modes, these are superimposed on a tonal scheme which passes from G minor to G major (repeated) and ends the first movement on D major.27The second movement moves from the area of C minor, to C major and back to C minor. The third 25 The orchestralaccompanimentof this work is writtenfor Chinese orchestra,but many works exist in versions with symphonyorchestrainstead. 26 These movements are subtitled The Loyal One Alone AmongstWindand Snow, Yearningfor ChinaandHoldinga Festivalfor the Returnin Glory. 27 Throughoutthis analysis I refer to key signaturesused in the score (Peng 1987) ratherthan keys per se. In most cases, however, the key signature employed does give an accurate impression of the (largely) pentatonicmode Peng uses for his melodies and the generally simple tonal harmonieswith which he accompaniesthem.

77

Stock: Contemporaryrecital solosfor the erhu

Fig. 11 Opening of Little Postman by Liu Yian and Zhao Hanyang (1983) (Association1989:64-5) Allegretto,Happily

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ranges from D major, through C major, B flat major, G major and back to D again. Passage from one movement to another is smoothed by the use of bridging material that emphasizes common notes between the end of one movement and the start of the next, as in figure 12.28 As mentioned above, related thematic material is employed in all three movements. This unifying factor serves to hold the composition together, the structure of each movement being rather loosely formed around a succession of 28This is accomplishedsimilarlyto, althoughmore simply than,the passage from one movement to the next in Rachmaninov'sSecond Piano Concerto.

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vol.1 (1992) BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

Fig. 12 Conclusion offirst movement,opening of second in Peng Xiuwen'sUnyieldingSu Wu. Restingparts are omitted. 0 Li

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tutti and solo passages, many of which are based upon some form of the main theme. Comparedwith the structureof Liu Wenjin's Sanmen Gorge Fantasia (see above), Peng Xiuwen's concerto form is both more continuous and less symmetrical,although elements of traditionalWestern concerto form are also present. Taking the first movement as an example, the beginning is a slow introduction(bars 1-73) in G minor. This is a tutti section, much of which is written over a harmonicallystable pedal G. The melodic materialfrom bar 35 onwardsappearsrelatedto the main theme to come, reversingits opening motif of dominantto tonic pitches a bar apart.The second section (bars 74-124) is begun by the solo erhu developing motives from the main theme in G major.A brief but significanttutti (84-90) follows, again using the tonic-dominantmotif in elaboratedform. The significance of this tutti is that it reappears several times later on duringthe course of the movementin the mannerof a ritornello. Developmentcontinues in furthersolo and tutti passages (91-104 and 105-124 respectively) which pass througha numberof closely related tonal areas. In a third section (bars 125-170) the soloist presents the main theme group in the

Stock:Contemporary recitalsolosfor theerhu

79

tonic key (G).29There are two themes, the formerbeing the main theme of the whole piece, the second is (quite conventionally) more lyrical in nature and accompaniedby a change of textureand rudimentarycontrapuntalimitation in the matouqin part. The fourth section is a second development section (171275). Developed in turn are: the main theme (171-180) in the tonic, slow introductionmaterialfrom bar 35 onwardsin G minor (181-204), tutti motivic fragments in G major (205-216), solo development of the first main theme (217-227), passage work (228-236), development of the second main theme (237-255), returnof the ritomello motif in G and then sequentiallyin D (256263). Finally there is a linking passage (264-275) which leads to D major.The fifth and final section (276-320) is begun by anothertutti passage (276-283) which is followed by solo passage work (284-296) and development of the second theme (297-305). It is concluded by a solo codetta (306-320) which remainsin D. Motivic developmentis integratedthroughoutthe movement,with developed versions of the main theme occurringbefore its first statement in basic form (bar 125). The impressions of continuity and organic growth as the piece progressesare therebyenhanced. Liu Wenjin has also recently written a large scale concerto in four movements, the Great Wall Fantasy of 1981.30 As in Peng Xiuwen's concerto, the compositiondeals with a patrioticand historicaltheme. Othercomposers as well have recently sharedan interest in historical themes for their music, and many younger composers have gone a step further by employing aspects of ancient Chinese music itself, often in combination with elements of Western avant-gardemusic.31This has allowed them to move away from the romantic style of older composers while still emphasizing the national identity of their work. A piece which demonstratesuse of historicalmusical materialis Yu Zhikui's Qin Music (1983). Apart from using a melody from the seventh-centuryqin piece Elegant Orchid, the erhu piece also adoptsplaying techniquesfrom qin music in general (Association 1989:52-4).32Representativeof music more consciously employing avant-garde techniquesis a duet for erhu and yangqin: ShuangQue by Tan Dun (1984). In this case, the avant-gardetechniquesutilized includerhythmicand melodic aleatorismcoupledwith an expressionistapproach to dynamiccontrast. The first section of Tan Dun's compositionis shown in figure 13. Subsequent sections vary the same materialand employ a numberof experimentaldevices, includingan extendedpassageof bowed double-stopping. 29 Used as the main theme of this work is the folk tune Su WuHerds Sheep. 30 See Association 1989:2-19,74-7 and Xiao 1983 for a melodic score, performanceremarksand a generaldescriptionof this piece respectively. 31 This trendof composition is not confined to erhu solos alone. It is also encounteredin recent music for symphony orchestra,voices or piano, for instance. 32 See Chen et al. 1989:20-7 for a discussion and transcriptionof Elegant Orchid.

vol. 1 (1992) BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

80

Fig. 13 Opening of Tan Dun's Shuang Que

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recitalsolosfor theerhu Stock:Contemporary

81

Avant-gardesolos for erhu are sometimesperformedor broadcastbut few of them have yet been publishedor commerciallyrecorded.Much more commonly encounteredin both the concert hall and over the air waves are piecess such as the joint composition Parting of the Newly-Wedsby Zhang Xiaofeng and Zhu Xiaogu. The musical structure,programme(a Tang Dynasty poem of the same title by Du Fu) and harmonic language of this piece are far closer to the compositionsof Peng Xiuwen and Liu Wenjinthanto those of Tan Dun. Solo music composed for erhu from the CulturalRevolution onwards has a wider range than that of earlier pieces, partly as a result of the increasing involvement of different kinds of composers in its creation: performershave continuedto write short, sectionalpieces which develop aspects of performance technique and/or regional style in a popularmusical idiom; composers of the Chinese nationalist tradition have begun to employ the erhu as a soloist in picturesqueconcertos;and those of the avant-gardepersuasionhave used it in a growing number of experimentalworks. Some musicians have also begun to arrangenon-Chinesemusic of many kinds for the erhu. Examples range from works by Bach and Schubertto Indianfilm music and Menti's Czardas(Zhang 1989). Apart from recent solos, performersstill learn many of the works of earlier periods,especially those of Liu Tianhua,and traditionalpieces, such as Abing's The Moon Reflectedon the Second Springs. Collections of pieces are published and recorded fairly frequently, so contemporary erhu players are able to acquirea large repertoryof varied solo works. As in the previous period, many of these pieces have an apt political or patriotic programme,although this is sometimesmore subtly presentedthroughthe perspectiveof a historicaltheme. 7 Conclusion Works intended for recitals of the solo erhu, with or without accompaniment, have an importantposition in the training of all erhu players in the present conservatorysystem. Even though opportunitiesfor public performanceof these pieces are comparativelyrare, students devote the majority of their practice time to masteringa repertoryranging from transcriptionsof traditionalinstrumental music to the compositions of folk musicians to solos dating from the early twentieth century onwards. For many students, solo pieces are the only repertory of the erhu, ensemble and orchestral work being very much less significant. Although many of the pieces that form this repertoryare musically lightweight, concentratingon technicaldisplay or the variationof a few stereotypes (for instance, pre-revolutionarysorrows or Mongol horsemanship),they are for the most part well-written for the erhu. Since performershave dominated the creationof solo works until recent years, this is perhapsunsurprising.Although several adequatelyconstructedworks for erhu have appeared,the involvement of professionalcomposers has not so far producedany large-scale solos which match the standardof, say, the best of Liu Tianhua'sshorterpieces or Abing's

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vol. 1 (1992) BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

transcribedimprovisations.A general difficulty for composers would appearto be the creationof a musical style both suitableto the erhu and weighty enough to sustainmusical interestover an extendedperiodof time withoutalienatingthe mass audiencesfor whom all works are supposedto be designed. Although the work of the Chinese avant garde may stimulate interest amongst mainstream composers in new musical resources, it will probably require a fundamental change in the political directionof compositionbefore many composers set out to write longer, more varied solos. When questionedabout their solo repertory, several older erhu perfomerscomplainedabout the lack of high quality largescale solos. Audiences, they said, found the longer of the existing solos dull. Younger players were, in general, less concerned about the repertoryitselfthey enjoyed tackling colourful, virtuoso solos-and more concernedabout the lack of opportunitiesto perform. Erhu players, whether young or old, have developed a wide range of common technical skills in the creationand performanceof their solo repertory. While many of these skills are based on techniquesknown to erhu players in previous centuries, others are the result of the influence of other musical instruments,such as the violin, and the adoptionof a Western-styleconservatory training.Unlike in the West, therehas not yet been an "authenticity"movement in Chinese musical performance.On the contrary,there has been a movement towards the development of what players call a "scientific, modem" playing style which has tended to reduce the stylistic differences between the music of one region or performerand another.This parallelsmovementsto disseminatea common dialect of Chinese across the whole nation, and centralplanningof all aspects of political, economic and artisticlife. In this aspect, as in all others,the contemporarysolo repertoryfor the erhu can be seen to be highly responsiveto its changingcultural,musicalandphysicalcontexts. GLOSSARY For convenience, this glossaryhas been divided into five parts:a) names of people, with family name written first, according to Chinese custom; b) names of compositions; c) names of instruments;d) notationalsymbols; e) other terms. Listing is alphabetical basedon the pinyin transliteration.In some cases, when translationwas not convenientor meaningful in the text, more literal renderingsare given below for the non-specialist. Charactersshown are simple form,as currentlyused in the People's Republicof China. a. People

calledHuaYanjun(I k properly Abing(1893-1950) I 'i streetmusician, i CaoAnhe I * musicologist ChenHaiyui, $ waiter 1 erhuperformer/ composer ChenYaoxingM, 1' ChenZhenduo1, t.R ' erhuperformer/ teacher/ arranger Du Fu (712-770) +i ? TangDynastypoet

9)

recitalsolosfortheerhu Stock:Contemporary 1' HattoriKoh-ichi Ani Japanesecomposer ' I 'tF Haihuai composer Huang Zerhuperformer/ teacher/ arranger 4 ) (1908-1986) JiangFengzhi Li Xiuqi $ I * composer Liu Beimao (1909-1981) t1 jt X erhucomposer/ teacher/ arranger Liu Tianhua(1895-1932) tl A I erhuperformer/ teacher/ arranger Liu Wenji tS 4 composer Liu Yian V1 Ai 'P composer Lu RirongI B Ai composer Lu Xiutang(1911-1966) M 1' ' erhuperformer/teacher/arranger Min Huifen It"] . ' erhuperformer/ teacher/ arranger Peng Xiuwen 52 14' [ composer Piao Dongsheng * , : composer At il arranger ShenLiqun A ,1 Sun Wenming(1928-68) 7J' I fl streetmusician TanDun if

/4 composer

[I I erhuperformer/ teacher/ composer Wang Guotongi M Yi I Z erhu teacher/ composer Wang Wu Bochao (1903-49) i 1b A erhuperformer/composer Wu Zhimin& ; R erhuteacher/ performer/ composer Xian Xinghai (1905-45) A A ' composer Yu Zhikui -T W X composer ' Zeng Jiaqing bin A composer Zeng Xun a 4 erhuperformer/ composer ZhangXiaofeng ?K I 4 composer ZhaoHanyang;6 ZhaoZhenxiaoA!

I ZhongYiliangVt Zhu Xiaogu %*

[B composer

i i

composer [ composer composer

b. Compositions 1 /S >> "Gallopingon the . Benchizai QianliCaoyuan << * Thousand-MileGrassland"by WangGuotongandLi Xiuqi Bing Zhong Yin <> "Groaningin Sickness"by Liu Tianhua i4 >> "UnyieldingSu Wu"by Peng Xiuwen Buqu de Su Wu << T IS At ChangchengSuixiang << K i t '1i >> "GreatWall Fantasy"by Liu Wenjin >> "FestivalNight"by Liu Tianhua '1 Chu YeXiaochang << R, + ChunShi > "Poemof Spring"by ZhongYiliang

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Dao Diren HoufangQu << 'J f& A fi >> "Goingto the Enemy's Rear"by Xian Xinghai l >> "TheMoonReflectedon the SecondSprings" Er Quan YingYue<> "BumperHarvest"by WangYi . $ >> "TheLoyal One Alone AmidstWind Feng Xue Gu Zhong ?<<'J; and Snow",first movementof Peng Xiuwen's "UnyieldingSu Wu" >> "HerdingHorses"by Zeng Jiaqing ? , Ganji << i ?:f * 1t VA >> "The GongsheXiKaiFeng ShouLian <> "InIndustry,LearnfromDaqing", GongyeXue Daqing << IL revolutionarytune >? "Marchof Brightness"by Liu Tianhua GuangmingXing << t KAF >> "AutumnMoon Overthe HanPalace", Han Gong Qiu Yue << A ancientpipa tunebest knownfor erhuin JiangFengzhi'sarrangement . >> "TheWish of the A A, R 7 't HonghuRenminde Xinyuan << LakeHong People"arrangedby Min Huifen i >> "DecoratedHappy[Song]",Jiangnansizhu melody Hua Huanle <> "Yearningfor the Homeland"by Liu Xiutang Jianghe Shui << 'I i/-TX >> "RiverWaters"by HuangHaihuai JingzhuMao ZhuxiWanshou-Wujiang<> "WishingChairmanMao Ten ThousandYearsWithoutEnd",revolutionarytune Kong Shan Niao Yu <<7 l -q i >> "BirdsSingingin the DesertedMountains" by Liu Tianhua La Luotuo << S 3 At >> "Pullingthe Camel"by Zeng Xun ,t ? A Mao ZhuxiZouBianZugouDadi << i& 1 m!i* * > "ChairmanMao TravelsOverthe Whole of China", revolutionarytune ? t a&* MuminGechangMao Zhuxi << ) >> "TheHerdsmenSing of ChairmanMao",revolutionarytune U >> "VillageSong"by Liu Xiutang t Nongcun zhi Ge ?C<< >> "SwordDanceof the Female Nii ZhanshiDao Wu <<* i -?-77Warriors",model show tune Qin Yun << i 9 >> "QinMusic"by Yu Zhikui >>? "QinqiangTheme QinqiangZhutiSuixiangqu <<^ l Fantasia"by ZhaoZhenxiaoandLu Rirong Saima > "HorseRace"by HuangHaihuai

4

San Bao Fo <<

'

1 >> "TheBuddhistTriad",traditionaltune

recitalsolosfor theerhu Stock:Contemporary

?'>>'The Three / t SanDaJilii, BaXiangZhuyi << - * t MainRules of DisciplineandEightPointsfor Attention",revolutionarytune SanmenXia Changxiangqu<< _ I' *tti A G >> "SanmenGorgeFantasia" by Liu Wenjin ?> 'Three Pools Mirroringthe Moon",traditional San Tan Yin Yue<< -4 p P Cantonesetune Shan CunBianle Yang << '14 ~ 7 ' >>"Changesin the MountainVillage" by Zeng Jiaqing 1 >> "Paired[Poems]"by TanDun R? ShuangQue << Shi Mian Maifu << + i 1 ?>>"Ambushon All Sides",pipa solo << . . >> "Yearningfor China"secondmovementof Si Han Huai Xiang '1ff Xiuwen's Su Peng "Unyielding Wu" ? >> "Su Wu Herds Sheep",folksong Su WuMu Yang << i ! w ] 'J 4fl i ? >> TaiyangZhaoyaodao ZuguoBianjiang <<* :8 B "TheSun Shines on the Motherland'sBorderTerritories"by Liu Beimao '! '2 Wansui!Mao Zhuxi ?<< ,l >> "LongLive ChairmanMao!", revolutionarysong Weidade Beijing << lt * 4 ..Jl .It WoAi Beijing de Tiananmen ?<<

>> "GloriousBeijing",revolutionarysong ' l >> "ILove Beijing's , r

Tiananmen",revolutionarysong Xian Ju Yin <> "RecitingDuringLeisure"by Liu Tianhua R > "LittlePostman"by Liu Yian and it Xiaoxiao Youdiyuan<<'' '1' A ZhaoHanyang Xin Hun Bie ?<<4fr :6 ,J>> "Partingof the Newly-Weds"by ZhangXiaofeng andZhu Xiaogu ? "Walking[alongthe] Street",Jiangnansizhumelody >> Xing Jie <> "Fragrant Wind",traditionaltunerelatedto ZhonghuaLiuban E >> "ThreeVariationson Yang Pass",qin YangGuanSan Die << Bt solo, also arrangedfor erhu ?E - >> "ElegantOrchid",ancientqin solo Youlan << ? Jt YubeiXushiqu << $ I >> "YubeiBallade"by Liu Wenjin >> Yue Ye << it "MoonlitNight"by Liu Tianhua Za Hong Tousheng <> "Tyingthe Red Plait",model show tune I / ? ?>>"Onthe Grassland"by Piao Dongsheng Zai CaoyuanShang << << * Al >> "GallopingWarhorses"by ChenYaoxing ZhanmaBenteng AX Zhi Jie Ronggui t<<^ ' 1)/3 >> "Holdinga Festivalfor the Returnin Glory", thirdmovementof Peng Xiuwen's "UnyieldingSu Wu"

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Six Beat",Jiangnansizhu ^i >> "Middle-Decorated ZhonghuaLiuban << + melody 7 Ye A >> $ii ?l S. 1 ZhufuMao ZhuxiWanshou-Wujiang<<

a

"WishingChairmanMao 10,000 YearsWithoutEnd",revolutionarysong Zhu Ying Yao Hong << 't I 1ig !I >> "RedFlickeringCandle"by Liu Tianhua ,JAE1F 4 ? >> "TheArmyandthe People are Zidibinghe Laobaixing <
d. Notational symbols chuo I ( O ) rising glissando er -a / 2 stop stringwith secondfinger (t 5) "pulled"bow, sometimeswritten:rn lagong kong '-( ) open string nei h inner(lower-pitched)string san _ /3 stop stringwith thirdfinger si U / 4 stop stringwith fourthfinger (t 5) "pushed"bow, sometimeswritten: v tuigong wai 4 outer(higher-pitched)string yi - / 1 stop stringwith first (index)finger zhu S' (-A ) descendingglissando arrows,eg. \ I' / these graphicallyportraythe contourof the desiredglissando

recitalsolosfor theerhu Stock:Contemporary

87

e. Other terms

m

bangziqiang f A3 collective termfor relatedstyles of Chineseopera chuida<X T'[music for] wind andpercussionensemble gongchepu I R% 4 traditionalChinesenotationbasedon symbolsof relativepitch dajigong * $ 9 "largestruckbow" gu qu 5 Wf ancientpiece haozi *~ T work song Jiangnansizhu 'I if if IT [musicfor] "silkandbamboo"instrumentalensembleof the Jiangnanregion kuaisushuangxian dougong 'M it i

SE3t k

high speedtremoloon both

strings kunqu fElliteraryoperastyle liandungong t x 5 linked,pausingbow luogu V7 i [musicfor] percussionensemble - model operas yangbanxi a' 'i = >> "Howto learnthe erhu",methodby .' 9" ZenyangXizou Erhu << ChenZhenduo(1941)

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Jiang Tianyi (1922) Xiaodiao Gongchepu [Gongche notation melodies]. Shanghai: Shanghai World Books. Kraus,Richard(1983) "China'scultural'liberalization'andconflict over the social organizationof the arts."ModernChina 9.2:212-27. Laloy, Louis (1909) La musiquechinoise. Paris:Laurens. Linfair61015 (1987) Concertofor Di-zi, Er-huand Orchestra.Taipei:Linfair.[Cassette] Liu Beimao (1957) Erhu ChuangzuoQu Ji [A collection of erhu compositions]. Beijing: Music Publisher. Liu, Terence M. (1988) The developmentof the Chinese two-stringedlute erhufollowing the New Culture Movement (c1915-1985). Unpub. Ph.D. dissertation, Kent State Univ. (DA 8827170). Liu Yuhe (1985) Liu Tianhua ChuangzuoQu Ji [A collection of Liu Tianhua's compositions]. Beijing: People's Music Publisher. Lu Xiutang(1969) ErhuDuzou Qu Ba Shou [Eightsolos for erhu]. Shanghai:Art Publisher. Mao Yunm (1991) "MusicunderMao, its backgroundand aftermath."Asian Music 22.2:97-125. Miao Tianruiet al. (1985) Zhongguo YinyueCidian [A dictionary of Chinese music]. Beijing: People's Music Publisher. Peng Xiuwen (1987) Buqu de Su Wu [Unyielding Su Wu]. Beijing: People's Music Publisher. [Score] Perris, Arnold (1983) "Music as propaganda:art at the command of doctrine in the P.R.C." Ethnomusicology27.1:1-28. Picken, Laurence E. R. (1965) "Early Chinese friction-chordophones."Galpin Society Journal 18:82-9. Powell, Jarrad(1987) "Score:GendingErhu."Balungan3:15-20. Stock, Jonathan(1991) Context and creativity: The two-stringedfiddle erhu in contemporary China. Unpub. Ph.D. diss., Queen's Univ. of Belfast. (1993a) "A historical account of the Chinese two-stringed fiddle erhu." To appear in GalpinSocietyJournal46. (1993b) 'Three erhupieces by Abing: an analysisof improvisationalprocesses in Chinese traditionalinstrumentalmusic."To appearin AsianMusic 24.2. Wang Yi (1980) Erhu Qu Ji Di YiJi [A collection of erhupieces, Volume 1]. Shanghai:Shanghai Art Publisher. Witzleben, J. Lawrence (1987) "JiangnanSizhu music clubs in Shanghai:context, concept and identity."Ethnomusicology31.2:240-60. Wu Choukang(1975) "Theerh-huandpipa."ChineseLiterature1:100-5. Xiao Xinghua (1983) "ErhuXiezuoqu 'ChangchengSuixiang' " [The "GreatWall Fantasy"erhu Concerto].Zhongguo Yinyue3:64-8. Ye Dong (1983) MinzuQiyuede Ticaiyu Xingshi [The form and structureof nationalinstrumental music]. Shanghai:ShanghaiArt Publisher. Yu Siu Wah (1985) ThreeEr-hupieces from Jiangnan. Unpub. M.A. diss., Queen's Univ. of Belfast. Zhang Rui et al. (1987) Mingqu Xinshang yu Yanzou [The performance and appreciation of famous pieces]. Beijing:People's LiberationArmy Art Publisher. Zhang Shao (1989) Erhu Guangbo Jiaoxue Jiangzuo [A broadcastcourse in erhu teaching]. Shanghai:ShanghaiMusic Publisher. andTang Liangde (1975) Erhu YanzouFa [Erhuperformancemethod].Beijing: People's Music Publisher. Zhong Qingming (1989) Huqin QiyuanBianzheng [A dialectical discussion on the origin of the huqin]. YinyueXuexi yu Yanjiu2:33-9.