Brief History Of Basketball.docx

BRIEF HISTORY OF BASKETBALL A SHORT HISTORY OF BASKETBALL

Basketball was invented in 1891 by Dr James Naismith, a Canadian of Scottish descent at Springfield College Massachusetts. The college was the International YMCA Training School and the game was invented to provide an indoor activity for trainee YMCA leaders. When the game was first played, peach baskets were nailed up at each end of the gymnasium as “goals”, hence the origin of the name “basketball”. The first set of rules was published and distributed through the YMCA movement in 1892 and this resulted in the game spreading rapidly throughout Canada and the USA. 1892 also saw the game played in England for the first time at Birkenhead YMCA after the Club President was the game played whilst on a business trip to Canada. In 1893 the game was introduced into the Physical Training College in Hampstead (now Dartford College of PE) by Madame Berman Osterberg. Changes to the game to suit the girls led to the first rules of netball being published in 1901. By 1898 a professional league was established in the USA and by 1911 basketball had spread throughout the UK as a sport. In 1924 it was introduced as a demonstration sport at the Paris Olympic Games and Great Britain won the title. 1927 saw Abe Saperstein a Londoner from the world famous Harlem Globetrotters and in 1931 FIBA the International Basketball Federation was formed with a Welshman as its first secretary. The England Basketball Association was formed in 1936, 13 years before the NBA was formed in America, and by 1957 the English Schools Basketball Association was formed. The 1970’s saw the introduction of both men’s and women’s national leagues in the UK, and by 1999, 219 teams were entered in the over 16 national leagues with almost 100 competing at under 15 levels. By 1990 there were 117 member countries in FIBA making basketball the second largest of all the world’s governing bodies and also the world’s fastest growing and largest participation sport. To date there are 212 member countries worldwide, whilst in the UK alone there are over 500,000 people who regularly participate in recreational basketball and it has become increasingly common to find the sport as part of the curriculum in schools at all levels. It is also used widely as a community activity as anyone of any age or gender can participate. Basketball is now included in the Commonwealth Games and the sport in general received a lot of coverage when the GB wheelchair team performed very successfully in the Paralympics recently, proving that it is a sport that is accessible and playable by all.

NATURE OF THE GAME BASKETBALL The nature of the game of Basketball is to try to score more points than the opposing team by throwing - or 'shooting' - a ball through the opening in the top of the basketball hoop, whilst following a set of rules. Whichever team has the most points at the end of the game wins, although additional time may be issued in the rare instance that a game ends in a tie. It is one of the world's most popular a widely enjoyed sports. The hoop that the players must try to shoot their basketballs through is, by regulation, 18 inches in diameter at the rim and mounted to a backboard 10 feet off the ground. During regular play, either team can score a 'field goal' by shooting the basketball through the hoop. This will score then respective teams two points, due to the distance the player will be from the hoop. The 'easiness' of scoring a basket whilst touching or closer to the hoop than the three-point line means a score of two points is possible, while being on or behind the three-point line, as its name suggests, awards the player an extra point (three) for the technicality of their shots. Movement while in control of the ball is governed by a 'dribbling' technique, where the basketball is bounced by the player as they are walking or running, and team mates can also pass the ball to other players on their team in a variety of ways. It is a direct violation of the rules to walk with the ball, carry it, or double dribble, which means to hold the ball after dribbling, and then resume dribbling. Violating the rules in such a way will result in a 'foul'. Other ways a player can earn a foul include engaging in disruptive physical contact (Basketball is primarily a non-contact sport). If an offensive player is fouled upon while shooting, he is usually awarded a free throw from which two points can be scored. 'Technical' fouls exist too, and these are usually issued when certain indiscretions occur. These most commonly include unsportsmanlike conduct on the part of a player or a coach, and can also result in a free throw for the opposing team. Basketball has its own sets of commonly used techniques of ball control such as passing, dribbling and shooting, and has also evolved very many specialized player positioning techniques and offensive/defensive structures. The tallest members of a Basketball team will typically play the 'power forward', 'center' or 'small forward positions', whereas shorter players and more technically minded players may be consigned to the 'shooting guard' or 'point guard' positions. Competitive basketball is carefully regulated by, but in light of this, a whole host of variations on 'traditional' Basketball have been developed for more casual play. Competitive basketball is usually played indoors on well maintained and perfectly marked out courts, but the less regulated versions of the game can be seen to be played outdoors in a variety or urban and rural areas alike.

COURT DIMENSION OF BASKETBALL Basketball courts come in different sizes. In the National Basketball Association (NBA), the court is 94 by 50 feet (28.7 by15.2 m). Under International Basketball Federation (FIBA) rules, the court is slightly smaller, measuring exactly 28 by 15 meters (91.9 by 49.2 ft).

Rules of Basketball  

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Each team can have a maximum of 5 players on the court at any one time. Substitutions can be made as many times as they wish within the game. The ball can only be moved by either dribbling (bouncing the ball) or passing the ball. Once a player puts two hands on the ball (not including catching the ball) they cannot then dribble or move with the ball and the ball must be passed or shot. After the ball goes into a team’s half and they win possession back the ball must then make it back over the half way line within 10 seconds. If the ball fails to do so then a foul will be called and the ball will be turned over. Each team has 24 seconds to at least shot at the basket. A shot constitutes either going in the basket or hitting the rim of the basket. If after the shot is taken and the ball fails to go in the basket then the shot clock is restarted for another 24 seconds. The team trying to score a basket is called the offence whilst the team trying to prevent them from scoring is called the defence. The defence must do all they can to stop the offence from scoring by either blocking a shot or preventing a shot from being fired. After each successful basket the ball is then turned over to the opposition. Fouls committed throughout the game will be accumulated and then when reached a certain number will be eventually be awarded as a free throw. A free throw involves one playerfrom the offensive team (the player fouled) to take a shot unopposed from the free throw line. Depending on where the foul was committed will depend on the number free throws a player gets. Violations in basketball include travelling (taking more than one step without bouncing the ball), double dribble (picking the ball up dribbling, stopping then dribbling again with two hands), goaltending (a defensive player interferes with the ball travelling downwards towards the basket) and back court violation (once the ball passes the half way line the offensive team cannot take the ball back over the half way line).

OFFICIAL OF THE GAME The game of basketball is not officiated only by referees, there is a whole group of officials to manage a game and to keep things on track. The group includes referee, umpires, scorer, timekeeper and shot clock operator. In basketball, Officials are usually referred to as referees. Generally there is one lead referee and one or two umpires depending on whether there is a two- or three-person crew. Lead official is called the crew chief & the other two officials are "referees".  

Two-man crews consist of a referee and an umpire Three-man crews contain a referee and two umpires. Both classes of officials have equal rights to control almost all aspects of the game. Referees The number of referees officiating a game depends on the level of play. In NBA, a crew chief and two referees are assigned to conduct a game. In international game, it can be either one referee and one umpire or one referee and two umpires officiate a game. Lead Referee Lead referee or Crew chief is the in charge of the game. Normally, all two or three referees are independent in terms of making their decisions but in case of a dispute, it’s the lead referee whose verdict is considered final. Scorers There can be one or two scorers in a game depending on the rules of the league. They keep a running summary of points scored, record the fouls called on each player, notes the time-outs Timers Timer assists referee in recording time. Generally, two timers are appointed by the league. One is official timer who operates the game clock and the other is shot clock operator who operates 24 second clock.

BRIEF HISTORY OF VOLLEYBALL The game of volleyball, originally called “mintonette,” was invented in 1895 by William G. Morgan after the invention of basketball only four years before. Morgan, a graduate of the Springfield College of the YMCA, designed the game to be a combination of basketball, baseball, tennis, and handball. Indoor Volleyball Scholarships Beach Volleyball Scholarships The first volleyball net, borrowed from tennis, was only 6’6″ high (though you need to remember that the average American was shorter in the nineteenth century). The offensive style of setting and spiking was first demonstrated in the Philippines in 1916. Over the years that followed, it became clear that standard rules were needed for tournament play, and thus the USVBA (United States Volleyball Association) was formed in 1928. Latest Volleyball News from the NCAA and NAIA. Two years later, the first two-man beach volleyball game was played, though the professional side of the sport did not emerge until much later. Not surprisingly, the first beach volleyball association appeared in California (1965), and the professional players united under the auspices of the AVP (American Volleyball Professionals) in 1983. During the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, American men and women took gold and silver medals in indoor volleyball competitions. Four years later at the Olympics in Korea, the men once again scored gold. Starting in 1996, two-man beach volleyball was officially introduced to the Olympics. Today, there are more than 800 million volleyball players worldwide, 46 million of them in the U.S. Timeline of Significant Volleyball Events In 1900, a special ball was designed for the sport. In 1916, in the Philippines, an offensive style of passing the ball in a high trajectory to be struck by another player (the set and spike) were introduced. In 1917, the game was changed from 21 to 15 points. In 1920, three hits per side and back row attack rules were instituted. In 1922, the first YMCA national championships were held in Brooklyn, NY. Twenty-seven teams from 11 states were represented.

In 1928, it became clear that tournaments and rules were needed, so the United States Volleyball Association (USVBA, now USA Volleyball) was formed. The first U.S. Open was staged, as the field was open to non-YMCA squads. In 1930, the first two-man beach game was played. In 1934, national volleyball referees were approved and recognized. In 1937, at the AAU convention in Boston, action was taken to recognize the U.S. Volleyball Association as the official national governing body in the U.S. In 1947, the Federation Internationale De Volley-Ball (FIVB) was founded. In 1948, the first two-man beach tournament was held. In 1949, the initial World Championships were held in Prague, Czechoslovakia. In 1964, volleyball was introduced to the Olympic Games in Tokyo. In 1965, the California Beach Volleyball Association (CBVA) was formed. In 1974, the World Championships in Mexico were telecast in Japan. In 1975, the U.S. National Women’s team began a year-round training regime in Pasadena, Texas (moved to Colorado Springs in 1979, Coto de Caza and Fountain Valley, CA, in 1980, and San Diego, CA, in 1985). In 1977, the U.S. National Men’s Team began a year-round training regime in Dayton, Ohio (moved to San Diego, CA, in 1981). In 1983, the Association of Volleyball Professionals (AVP) was formed. In 1984, the U.S. won their first medals at the Olympics in Los Angeles. The men won the gold, and the women the silver. In 1986, the Women’s Professional Volleyball Association (WPVA) was formed. In 1988, the U.S. men repeated the gold in the Olympics in Korea. In 1990, the World League was created. In 1995, the sport of volleyball was 100 years old! In 1996, two-person beach volleyball became an Olympic sport.

NATURE OF THE GAME VOLLEYBALL There are several different competitive versions of volleyball, each having slightly different rules. However, there are some characteristics that all versions of volleyball have in common.   

All versions have the dual objective of causing the ball to land in your opponent's court while preventing it from landing in your own. Every version is considered a team sport, which requires coordinating and communicating with teammates to reach common objectives. Each team is allowed a limited number of touches on the ball before it has to go over the net.

No matter which version you play, these rules are the same. Think of the word volley, which means to hit or touch the ball before it strikes the ground. Volleyball is just that; stopping the ball from hitting the ground on your side of the net and trying to get it to hit the ground on your opponent’s side. So how does this work? Let’s take a look.

COURT DIMENSION OF VOLLEYBALL The overall measurements for a Volleyball court is 60 feet by 30 feet. Each side of the court is therefore 30 feet by 30 feet in size. Center Line A center line is marked at the center of the court dividing it equally into 30 feet squares. Attack Line The attack line is marked 10 feet on each side of the center line of the court. Some rules show the attack line at 9′ 10″ however that includes the width of the line itself (2″). Service Line A service line is marked 10 feet inside the right sideline on each back line. This is the area from which the server may serve the volleyball. The Net The net is hung directly above the center line at 7 feet 4 inches for women and 8 feet for men. Standards Volleyball standards should be set at 36 feet apart, 3 feet on either side of the sidelines. Ceiling Height The minimum ceiling height should be 23 feet. Preferably the ceilings should be higher.

RULES OF VOLLEYBALL Basic Volleyball Rules       

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6 players on the floor at any one time - 3 in the front row and 3 in the back row Maximum of 3 hits per side Points are made on every serve for wining team of rally (rally-point scoring). Player may not hit the ball twice in succession. (A block is not considered a hit.) Ball may be played off the net during a volley and on a serve. A ball hitting a boundary line is in. A ball is out if it hits an antennae, the floor completely outside the court, any of the net or cables outside the antennae, the referee stand or pole, the ceiling above a non-playable area. It is legal to contact the ball with any part of a player’s body. It is illegal to catch, hold or throw the ball. A player cannot block or attack a serve from on or inside the 10-foot line. After the serve, front-line players may switch positions at the net. Matches are made up of sets; the number depends on level of play. 3-set matches are 2 sets to 25 points and a third set to 15. Each set must be won by two points. The winner is the first team to win 2 sets. 5-set matches are 4 sets to 25 points and fifth set to 15. The team must win by 2 unless tournament rules dictate otherwise. The winner is the first team to win three sets.

Basic Volleyball Rule Violations Rule violations that result in a point for the opponent     

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When serving, the player steps on or across the service line as while making contact with the ball. Failure to serve the ball over the net successfully. Ball-handling errors. Contacting the ball illegally (double touching, lifting, carrying, throwing, etc.) Touching the net with any part of the body while the ball is in play. When blocking a ball coming from the opponent’s court, it’s illegal to contact the ball when reaching over the net if both your opponent has not used 3 contacts AND they have a player there to make a play on the ball. When attacking a ball coming from the opponent’s court, contacting the ball when reaching over the net is a violation if the ball has not yet broken the vertical plane of the net. Crossing the court centerline with any part of your body is a violation. Exception: if it is the hand or foot. In this case, the entire hand or entire foot must cross for it to be a violation. Serving out of rotation/order. Back-row player blocking (deflecting a ball coming from the opponent) when, at the moment of contact, the back-row player is near the net and has part of his/her body above the top of the net. This is an illegal block. Back-row player attacking a ball inside the front zone (the area inside the 3M/10-foot line) when, at the moment of contact, the ball is completely above the net. This is an illegal attack.

OFFICIALS OF THE VOLLEYBALL REFEREE Volleyball officials that make up the officiating crew are first referee, second referee,scorekeeper, assistant scorer, and line judges. The first referee is in charge from the beginning of the match until the end. The first referee has authority over all other members of the officiating crew. The first referee should talk to all the officiating crew members before the match starts, going over any questions officials might have about their responsibilities. The first referee should have a talk with the second referee before the match starts discussing issues such as pre-match protocol and anything that will help the match run more smoothly. The second referee should establish a rapport with thescorekeeper and libero tracker. If the scorer and libero tracker have a problem or don’t understand something, they should be comfortable enough to ask the second referee for help. SCOREKEEPER Pre Match 

Before the match starts, the scorekeeper should fill in the pre-match info team names, starting line ups, etc.

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Records points when they are scored

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Watches the servers and indicates immediately to the referees when a server has served out of order. It's also good preventive officiating to watch teams, rotation in case assistance is needed for the second referee to determine the correct team alignment.

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Records player substitutions and team timeouts

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Records any sanctions

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Records all other events as instructed by the referees

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Records the final result of the set

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In the case of a protest, after the first referee gives authorization, the scorekeeper lets the game captain write a statement for protest on the scoresheet.

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Records the final result of the match

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Signs the scoresheet

THE ASSISTANT SCORER 

Notifies any fault with libero replacements

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Operates the manual scoreboard on the scorer’s table

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Checks the score on the scoreboard with the score on the scoresheet

THE LINE JUDGES SIGNAL 

Ball “in” and “out” whenever the ball lands near the lines

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Touches of “out” balls by players receiving the ball

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Ball touching the antennae

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A served ball crossing the net outside the crossing space (the space between the antennae’s)

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Any player standing off the court at the moment of service

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Server foot faults

BRIEF HISTORY OF FOOTBALL The contemporary history of the world's favourite game spans more than 100 years. It all began in 1863 in England, when rugby football and association football branched off on their different courses and the Football Association in England was formed - becoming the sport's first governing body. Both codes stemmed from a common root and both have a long and intricately branched ancestral tree. A search down the centuries reveals at least half a dozen different games, varying to different degrees, and to which the historical development of football has been traced back. Whether this can be justified in some instances is disputable. Nevertheless, the fact remains that people have enjoyed kicking a ball about for thousands of years and there is absolutely no reason to consider it an aberration of the more 'natural' form of playing a ball with the hands. On the contrary, apart from the need to employ the legs and feet in tough tussles for the ball, often without any laws for protection, it was recognised right at the outset that the art of controlling the ball with the feet was not easy and, as such, required no small measure of skill. The very earliest form of the game for which there is scientific evidence was an exercise from a military manual dating back to the second and third centuries BC in China. This Han Dynasty forebear of football was called Tsu' Chu and it consisted of kicking a leather ball filled with feathers and hair through an opening, measuring only 30-40cm in width, into a small net fixed onto long bamboo canes. According to one variation of this exercise, the player was not permitted to aim at his target unimpeded, but had to use his feet, chest, back and shoulders while trying to withstand the attacks of his opponents. Use of the hands was not permitted. Another form of the game, also originating from the Far East, was the Japanese Kemari, which began some 500-600 years later and is still played today. This is a sport lacking the competitive element of Tsu' Chu with no struggle for possession involved. Standing in a circle, the players had to pass the ball to each other, in a relatively small space, trying not to let it touch the ground. The Greek 'Episkyros' - of which few concrete details survive - was much livelier, as was the Roman 'Harpastum'. The latter was played out with a smaller ball by two teams on a rectangular field marked by boundary lines and a centre line. The objective was to get the ball over the opposition's boundary lines and as players passed it between themselves, trickery was the order of the day. The game remained popular for 700-800 years, but, although the Romans took it to Britain with them, the use of feet was so small as to scarcely be of consequence.

NATURE OF THE GAME FOOTBALL Football is played according to a set of rules, known as the Game Rules. The game is played using a single round ball. Two teams of eleven players compete to get the ball into the goal of the other team, thus achieving a goal. The team that has scored the most goals at the end of the game is the winner, and if they score the same number of goals it is considered a draw. Football, also known as, “soccer”, in some places around the world, is a great sport with lots of activity. It is a great way to stay in shape and to keep yourself occupied and moving. The main rule is that players (except for goalkeepers) cannot touch the ball with their hands or arms intentionally (but they are allowed to use their hands in throw-ins). Although players generally use their feet to move the ball, they can use any part of their body except their hands or arms. In a typical game, players try to push the ball towards their opponents’ goal through individual control of the ball, with maneuvers such as dribbling, passing the ball to a teammate and kicking the ball towards the opposite goal, which is always protected by the goalkeeper (also called goalkeeper). The players of the opposing team try to retake control of the ball by intercepting the passes or through the player who controls the ball (although physical contact between opponents is limited). Football is generally a fluid game, which only stops when the ball leaves the field or when the match is stopped by the referee due to some infraction. At a professional level, in most matches there are only a few goals. For example, during the 2005-06 season in the English Premier League they scored an average of 2.48 goals per game. The English Premier League is one of the best sources of sports gambling. If you want to get money from betting on football games, you can click here for promos and bet on football today. The Laws of the Game do not specify the positions of the players except the goalkeeper, but over time specialists have evolved at a certain position in the field. In general, these specialists are included in three main categories: goal scorers (or strikers), whose main function is to score goals; defenses, which specialize in preventing opponents from scoring; and midfielders, who steal balls on the contrary, maintain possession of the ball and connect with the forwards. The players in these positions are called field players to differentiate them from the goalkeeper. The positions of the field players differ according to the side of the field in which the player spends the most time. For example, there are central defenses, right flanks, left midfielders, etc. The ten field players can be placed in these positions in any combination (for example, it is usual for four defenders, four midfielders and two forwards, or three defenders, three midfielders and four forwards). The number of players in each position determines the style of play of the team; with more forwards and fewer defenses the game system is more aggressive and offensive, while conversely the system would be more defensive. Although players can spend most of the game in a specific position, there are no restrictions on movement and players can change positions at any time. The positional design of the players in the field of play is known as training. The coach of the team is in charge of deciding training and tactics.

COURT DIMENSION OF FOOTBALL Pitch dimensions Find out the size details of a football pitch.

Did you know that not all pitches are the same size? The length of a pitch must be between 100 yards (90m) and 130 yards (120m) and the width not less than 50 yards (45m) and not more than 100 yards (90m). And what about where most of the action happens - the penalty box? It is also known as the 18-yardbox, with the smaller area marked out inside it - called the six-yard-box. This is where some of the world's best strikers earn their living. And for all you penalty takers - or savers - out there, the most famous spot in football sits 12 yards (11m) from goal. Last, but not least, that wooden thing at each end of the pitch they call the goal.

Think you know how big it is? It's eight feet high (2.44m) and eight yards wide (7.32m).

RULES OF THE GAME FOOTBALL

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A match consists of two 45 minutes halves with a 15 minute rest period in between. Each team can have a minimum off 11 players (including 1 goalkeeper who is the only player allowed to handle the ball within the 18 yard box) and a minimum of 7 players are needed to constitute a match. The field must be made of either artificial or natural grass. The size of pitches is allowed to vary but must be within 100-130 yards long and 50-100 yards wide. The pitch must also be marked with a rectangular shape around the outside showing out of bounds, two six yard boxes, two 18 yard boxes and a centre circle. A spot for a penalty placed 12 yards out of both goals and centre circle must also be visible. The ball must have a circumference of 58-61cm and be of a circular shape. Each team can name up to 7 substitute players. Substitutions can be made at any time of the match with each team being able to make a maximum of 3 substitutions per side. In the event of all three substitutes being made and a player having to leave the field for injury the team will be forced to play without a replacement for that player. Each game must include one referee and two assistant referee’s (linesmen). It’s the job of the referee to act as time keeper and make any decisions which may need to be made such as fouls, free kicks, throw ins, penalties and added on time at the end of each half. The referee may consult the assistant referees at any time in the match regarding a decision. It’s the assistant referee’s job to spot offside’s in the match (see below), throw ins for either team and also assist the referee in all decision making processes where appropriate. If the game needs to head to extra time as a result of both teams being level in a match then 30 minutes will be added in the form of two 15 minute halves after the allotted 90 minutes. If teams are still level after extra time then a penalty shootout must take place. The whole ball must cross the goal line for it to constitute as a goal. For fouls committed a player could receive either a yellow or red card depending on the severity of the foul; this comes down to the referee’s discretion. The yellow is a warning and a red card is a dismissal of that player. Two yellow cards will equal one red. Once a player is sent off then they cannot be replaced. If a ball goes out of play off an opponent in either of the side lines then it is given as a throw in. If it goes out of play off an attacking player on the base line then it is a goal kick. If it comes off a defending player it is a corner kick.

OFFICIALS OF THE GAME FOOTBALL Standard seven-official system        

Referee. Umpire. Head linesman/down judge. Line judge. Field judge. Side judge. Back judge. Transitioning during turnovers, punts, and other returns.

BRIEF HISTORY OF SWIMMING Evidence of recreational swimming in prehistoric times has been found, with the earliest evidence dating to Stone Age paintings from around 10,000 years ago. Written references date from 2000 BC, with some of the earliest references to swimming including the Iliad, the Odyssey, the Bible, Beowulf, the Quran and others. In 1538, Nikolaus Wynmann, a Swiss professor of languages, wrote the first book about swimming, The Swimmer or A Dialogue on the Art of Swimming (Der Swimmer order ein Zweigespräch über die Schwimmkunst). Swimming emerged as a competitive recreational activity in the 1830s in England. In 1828, the first indoor swimming pool, St George's Baths was opened to the public.[4] By 1837, the National Swimming Society was holding regular swimming competitions in six artificial swimming pools, built around London. The recreational activity grew in popularity and by 1880, when the first national governing body, the Amateur Swimming Association was formed, there were already over 300 regional clubs in operation across the country.[5] The routes taken by Webb and T.W. Burgess across the English Channel, in 1875 and 1911, respectively. In 1844 two Native American participants at a swimming competition in London introduced the front crawl to a European audience. Sir John Arthur Trudgen picked up the hand-over stroke from some South American natives and successfully debuted the new stroke in 1873, winning a local competition in England. His stroke is still regarded as the most powerful to use today. [6] Captain Matthew Webb was the first man to swim the English Channel (between England and France), in 1875. Using the breaststroke technique, he swam the channel 21.26 miles (34.21 km) in 21 hours and 45 minutes. His feat was not replicated or surpassed for the next 36 years, until T.W. Burgess made the crossing in 1911. Other European countries also established swimming federations; Germany in 1882, France in 1890 and Hungary in 1896. The first European amateur swimming competitions were in 1889 in Vienna. The world's first women's swimming championship was held in Scotlandin 1892.[7] Men's swimming became part of the first modern Olympic Games in 1896 in Athens. In 1902, the Australian Richmond Cavill introduced freestyle to the Western world. In 1908, the world swimming association, Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA), was formed. Women's swimming was introduced into the Olympics in 1912; the first international swim meet for women outside the Olympics was the 1922 Women's Olympiad. Butterfly was developed in the 1930s and was at first a variant of breaststroke, until it was accepted as a separate style in 1952.

NATURE OF THE GAME SWIMMING

You only learn to swim properly once so why not do it the natural way? Our pioneering approach has long been recognised and approved by parents, students, universities and fellow academics. It ensures that swimmers of all ages gain confidence in the water, improving your ability, and correcting your technique, until you can swim beautifully and effortlessly. Since we started in 1993, we have been successful in teaching hundreds of thousands of children to swim using researched method and special techniques, so successful that we are now have eight thousand students attending our classes each week. We operate our pools from HQ in Queens Park, North West London where we have a dedicated team of customer service assistants who will be able to recommend the best course for you. Our teachers of which there are about 100 are placed in our pools around the UK, as far north as Edinburgh! The training arm of our company, Swimming Nature Network offers to train and partner with pools, health clubs and leisure centres to implement our swimming programmes, expanding our principles and techniques.

COURT DIMENSION OF SWIMMING An Olympic-size swimming pool conforms to regulated dimensions, large enough for international competition. This type of swimming pool is used in the Olympic Games, where the race course is 50 metres (164.0 ft) in length, typically referred to as "long course", distinguishing it from "short course" which applies to competitions in pools that are 25 metres (82.0 ft) in length. If touch panels are used in competition, then the distance between touch panels should be either 25 or 50 metres to qualify for FINA recognition. This means that Olympic pools are generally oversized, to accommodate touch panels used in competition. An Olympic-size swimming pool is used as a colloquial unit of volume, to make approximate comparisons to similarly sized objects or volumes. It is not a specific definition, as there is no official limit on the depth of an Olympic pool. The value has an order of magnitude of 1 megaliter (ML). Physical property

Specified value

Length

50 m [2]

Width

25.0 m[2]

Depth

2.0 m (6 ft 7 in) minimum, 3.0 m (9 ft 10 in) recommended.[2]

Number of lanes

10

Lane width

2.5 m (8 ft 2 in)

Water temperature

25–28 °C (77–82 °F)

Light intensity

minimum 1500 lux (140 footcandles)

2,500,000 L (550,000 imp gal; 660,000 US gal), assuming a nominal depth of 2 m. Volume 2,500 m3 (88,000 cu ft) in cubic units. About 2 acre-feet.

RULES OF THE GAME SWIMMING FINA RULES - The Strokes - FINA Basic Rules (FOBISIA interpretation) - Turns - FINA Basic Rules (FOBISIA interpretation) - Starts - FINA Basic Rules (FOBISIA interpretation) - Finishing - FINA Basic Rules (FOBISIA interpretation) FINA RULES - FOBISIA competitions will follow FINA Laws regarding the above areas of the sport.

4 STROKES - FINA Rules apply in terms of the nature of the strokes. Rules of the strokes and start/turn/finish of the strokes of FINA FINA Rules apply to below explanations of the strokes:

FREESTYLE:  The swimmer may swim any style, except that in individual medley or medley relay events, freestyle means any style other than backstroke, breaststroke or butterfly. 

Some part of the swimmer must touch the wall upon completion of each length and at the finish.

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Some part of the swimmer must break the surface of the water throughout the race, except it shall be permissible for the swimmer to be completely submerged during the turn and for a distance of not more than 15metres after the start and each turn.

BACKSTROKE:  At the signal for starting and after turning the swimmer shall push off and swim upon his/her back throughout the race except when executing a turn. The normal position on the back can include a roll movement of the body up to, but not including 90 degrees from horizontal. 

Some part of the swimmer must break the surface of the water throughout the race. It is permissible for the swimmer to be completely submerged during the turn, at the finish and for a distance of not more than 15 metres after the start and each turn. However, recent developments and trends, swimmers and coaches have developed a “Fish Action” (Fly kick on a swimmers side!) same distance applies and passing through 90°! (This would be deemed as swimming on their front and thus not backstroke)

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Upon the finish of the race the swimmer must touch the wall while on the back.

BREASTSTROKE:  From the beginning of the first arm stroke after the start and after each turn, the body shall be kept on the breast. It is not permitted to roll onto the back at any time.  All movements of the arms shall be simultaneous and in the same horizontal plane without alternating movement. 

After the start and after each turn, the swimmer may take one arm stroke completely back to the legs. The head must break the surface of the water before the hands turn inward at the widest part of the second stroke. A single downward dolphin kick followed by a breaststroke kick is permitted while wholly submerged.

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The feet must be turned outwards during the propulsive part of the kick. A scissors, flutter or downward kick is not permitted except breaking the surface of the water with the feet is allowed unless followed by a downward dolphin kick. At each turn and at the finish of the race, the touch shall be made with both hands simultaneously at, above, or below the water level.

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BUTTERFLY:  From the beginning of the first arm stroke after the start and each turn, the body shall be kept on the breast.   

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Under water kicking on the side is allowed. It is not permitted to roll onto the back at any time. Both arms shall be brought forward together over the water and brought backward simultaneously throughout the race. All up and down movements of the legs must be simultaneous. The legs or the feet need to be on the same level, but they shall not alternate in relation to each other. A breaststroke kicking is not permitted. At the start and turns, a swimmer is permitted one or more leg kicks and one arm pull under the water, which must bring him/her to the surface. It shall be permissible for a swimmer to be completely submerged for a distance of not more than 15 metres after the start and each turn.

MEDLEY SWIMMING:  In Individual Medley events, the swimmer covers the four swimming styles in the following order: Butterfly, Backstroke, Breaststroke and Freestyle.  In Medley Relay events, swimmers will cover the four swimming styles in the following order: Backstroke, Breaststroke, Butterfly and Freestyle. STARTS ALL FRONT/ PRONE STROKES  Swimmers are to start from the side of the pool (starting block, side of the pool or in the water). 

The same apples to relay events e.g. Freestyle.

BACKSTROKE STARTS  Swimmers have to start in the water.

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Toes under the surface.

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15 meters maximum under water before surfacing.

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One false start rule.

RELAY STARTS  Starts apply according to entering the water as stated before. 

Freestyle relays (forward dive)

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Medley Relays will start in the water with the backstroke leg first and backstroke start rules applying!

TAKEOVERS  Relay swimmers must not dive (feet leave starting block) before the incoming swimmer (on their team) in the water has touched the end of the pool in their lane.

FINISHES  Butterfly and Breaststroke finishes must be with both hands touching at the same time and level. 

Backstroke finishes must be on the back and can be with one hand

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Freestyle finishes (depending on the chosen stroke) tend to be one handed and on the swimmer front

THE RACE:  A swimmer swimming over the course alone shall cover the whole distance to qualify. 

A swimmer must finish the race in the same lane in which he/she started.

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In all events, a swimmer when turning shall make physical contact with the end of the pool or course. The turn must be made from the wall, and it is not permitted to take a stride or step from the bottom of the pool (If the host pool has a shallow end) Pulling on the lane rope is not allowed. Obstructing another swimmer by swimming across another lane or otherwise interfering shall disqualify the offender.

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There shall be four swimmers on each relay team.

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In relay events, the team of a swimmer whose feet lose touch with the starting platform before the preceding team-mate touches the wall shall be disqualified.

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Any relay team shall be disqualified from a race if a team member, other than the swimmer designated to swim that length, enters the water when the race is being conducted, before all swimmers of all teams have finished the race.

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The members of a relay team and their order of competing must be nominated before the race. Any relay team member may compete in a race only once.

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Any swimmer having finished his/her race, or his/her distance in a relay event, must leave the pool as soon as possible without obstructing and other swimmer who has not yet finished his/her race.

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All turns require contact as this indicates successful completion of each lap.

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Failure to execute turns properly will result in a DQ (disqualification)Turn judges have to properly notify the start judge of the violation then to warrant if it is a ‘DQ’able violation of the rules.

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Swimmer and coach need to be notified immediately after the race so that swimmers and coaches are not left in the dark with unexplained DQ.’s

FOBISIA INTERPRETATION – STROKES 

Meet officials will use discretion when disqualifying swimmers.

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FINA Rules apply to medal winning swimmers.

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If a swimmer is NO T in medal position and is NOT gaining from improper stroke technique the judges should be told of the improper stroke technique.

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Examples : 1. “Screw” leg kick on breaststroke, 2. Arms not clearing the water level on butterfly.

FOBISIA INTERPRETATION  If a swimmer is in a medal winning position then FINA rules apply. 

Or if the swimmer gains a medal winning position from incorrect turns then the FINA rules apply.

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If the swimmer is not winning a medal and makes an improper turn, the position will stand No DQ!

NB it is vital to appreciate that the FOBISIA Games are a multi discipline competition and as such some swimmers will NOT be well versed in competitive swimming rules. The host school needs to communicate this to officials and stroke judges and ensure that DQs are not the norm.  A Group Format FOBISIA Swimming 2016 Max 5, Min 2 (including tyre)  NB should a school only field one competitor, then that athlete shall be considered the ‘A’ swimmer  Host schools have appointed a Meet Director to co-ordinate the event. This is a member of staff also coaching a team. The Meet Directors’ decision concerning inconsistencies between placing, times and the stroke judges’ decisions shall be final.

Scoring System for events 6 Schools  A Events: 1st 18pts, 2nd 17pts, 3rd 16pts, 4th 15 pts, 5th 14pts, 6th 13pts  B Events: 1st 12pts, 2nd 11pts, 3rd 10pts, 4th 9pts, 5th 8pts, 6th 7pts  C Events: 1st 6pts, 2nd 5pts, 3rd 4pts, 4th 3 pts, 5th 2pts; 6th 1pt

All Relays are double points, just normal A and B race points awarded. All events will take place under international rules with the following exceptions:  All races will take place in a 25m pool. 

Backstroke flags are placed 5m from each end wall of the pool

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Electronic, we do not have we will have time keepers

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Two timers will time each lane.

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Place judges will decide finishing positions for 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th places rather than using times. The times will be used for personal records only. Times will decide all other finishing positions. Lanes have been allocated well before the event.

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Starting signal is a hooter.

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In the event of a false start, a continuous siren will be activated.

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There may be NO false start rope.

Sitting in the Tyre Relay (Car tyre size inner tubes)  10 x 23m sitting in the tyre relay will consist of all 12 members of the team, 6 girls starting at the start line with 6 boys opposite them. 

The tyre starts on the side of the pool. The swimmer has to place the tyre on their bottom; they lower themselves into the water and paddle using their arms and kicking their legs in order to get to the other side.

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Once the swimmer in the tyre has reached the side of the pool the swimmer can get out and the next person can then get onto the tyre and go until the race is over.

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The finish will be judged when the first tyre with swimmer on it on the last leg touches the side of the pool.

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If a swimmer for any reason falls out they must not use the lane ropes to pull themselves in order to gain an advantage but climb back into the tyre and continue the race.

OFFICIALS OF THE GAME SWIMMING Referee – the single most important officiating role in competitive swimming, the referee has full control. He or she is responsible for enforcing the rules, settling disputes between coaches and other officials and calling swimmers to their respective blocks. When the referee is preparing to start the swim, he or she will blow a short whistle blast to tell swimmers to stand next to their blocks. The referee will then blow a longer whistle blast to tell swimmers to stand on their blocks. Starter – responsible for sending swimmers off the block and making sure each swimmer leaves on time. If a swimmer jumps early, the starter may penalize him or her for a false start. The starter controls the swimmers from the time the referee turns them over to when the race begins. Clerk of course – also referred to as a bullpen, this official organizes the competitive swimmers before the race based on their heat times (qualifying swims). While there are always exceptions to this rule, most heats in competitive swim are seeded from slowest to fastest. Timekeepers – as the name suggests, timekeepers are responsible for recording the time of the swimmer(s) in his or her respective name. There are typically two timekeepers for each lane, each of which uses a stopwatch to record swimmers' times. Inspector of turns – observes swimmers during the start, finish, and turns, ensuring they follow all rules and regulations. There are two inspector of turns used in most competitive swims: one at the front-end of the pool and another at the rear. If a swimmer makes a violation during a turn, the inspector of turns must create a “disqualification report” for the chief inspector of turns, who then hands the report to the referee. Judges of stroke – responsible for observing swimmers' style to ensure they are using proper technique. Judges of stroke may also assist inspector of turns during the start and finish. Finish judges – identifies which order swimmers finish, and that swimmers finish using the correct style (e.g. competitive backstroke swimmers must finish on their back).

BRIEF HISTORY OF BADMINTON Games employing shuttlecocks have been played for centuries across Eurasia,[a] but the modern game of badminton developed in the mid-19th century among the British as a variant of the earlier game of battledore and shuttlecock. ("Battledore" was an older term for "racquet".)[4] Its exact origin remains obscure. The name derives from the Duke of Beaufort's Badminton House in Gloucestershire,[5] but why or when remains unclear. As early as 1860, a London toy dealer named Isaac Spratt published a booklet entitled Badminton Battledore – A New Game, but no copy is known to have survived.[6] An 1863 article in The Cornhill Magazine describes badminton as "battledore and shuttlecock played with sides, across a string suspended some five feet from the ground".[7] The game may have originally developed among expatriate officers in British India,[8] where it was very popular by the 1870s.[6] Ball badminton, a form of the game played with a wool ball instead of a shuttlecock, was being played in Thanjavur as early as the 1850s[9] and was at first played interchangeably with badminton by the British, the woollen ball being preferred in windy or wet weather. Early on, the game was also known as Poona or Poonah after the garrison town of Pune,[8][10] where it was particularly popular and where the first rules for the game were drawn up in 1873.[6][7][b] By 1875, officers returning home had started a badminton club in Folkestone. Initially, the sport was played with sides ranging from 1 to 4 players, but it was quickly established that games between two or four competitors worked the best.[4] The shuttlecocks were coated with India rubber and, in outdoor play, sometimes weighted with lead.[4] Although the depth of the net was of no consequence, it was preferred that it should reach the ground.[4] The sport was played under the Pune rules until 1887, when J. H. E. Hart of the Bath Badminton Club drew up revised regulations.[5] In 1890, Hart and Bagnel Wild again revised the rules.[6] The Badminton Association of England (BAE) published these rules in 1893 and officially launched the sport at a house called "Dunbar"[c] in Portsmouth on 13 September.[12] The BAE started the first badminton competition, the All England Open Badminton Championships for gentlemen's doubles, ladies' doubles, and mixed doubles, in 1899.[5] Singles competitions were added in 1900 and an England–Ireland championship match appeared in 1904.[5] England, Scotland, Wales, Canada, Denmark, France, Ireland, the Netherlands, and New Zealand were the founding members of the International Badminton Federation in 1934, now known as the Badminton World Federation. India joined as an affiliate in 1936. The BWF now governs international badminton. Although initiated in England, competitive men's badminton has traditionally been dominated in Europe by Denmark. Worldwide, Asian nations have become dominant in international competition. China, Denmark, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, and South Korea are the nations which have consistently produced world-class players in the past few decades, with China being the greatest force in men's and women's competition recently.

NATURE OF THE GAME BADMINTON Badminton is a racquet sport played using racquets to hit a shuttlecock across a net. Although it may be played with larger teams, the most common forms of the game are "singles" (with one player per side) and "doubles" (with two players per side). Badminton is often played as a casual outdoor activity in a yard or on a beach; formal games are played on a rectangular indoor court. Points are scored by striking the shuttlecock with the racquet and landing it within the opposing side's half of the court. Each side may only strike the shuttlecock once before it passes over the net. Play ends once the shuttlecock has struck the floor or if a fault has been called by the umpire, service judge, or (in their absence) the opposing side.[1] The shuttlecock is a feathered or (in informal matches) plastic projectile which flies differently from the balls used in many other sports. In particular, the feathers create much higher drag, causing the shuttlecock to decelerate more rapidly. Shuttlecocks also have a high top speed compared to the balls in other racquet sports. The flight of the shuttlecock gives the sport its distinctive nature. The game developed in British India from the earlier game of battledore and shuttlecock. European play came to be dominated by Denmark but the game has become very popular in Asia, with recent competitions dominated by China. Since 1992, badminton has been a Summer Olympic sport with four events: men's singles, women's singles, men's doubles, and women's doubles,[2] with mixed doubles added four years later. At high levels of play, the sport demands excellent fitness: players require aerobic stamina, agility, strength, speed, and precision. It is also a technical sport, requiring good motor coordination and the development of sophisticated

COURT DIMENSION OF BADMINTON The court is rectangular and divided into halves by a net. Courts are usually marked for both singles and doubles play, although badminton rules permit a court to be marked for singles only.[13] The doubles court is wider than the singles court, but both are of the same length. The exception, which often causes confusion to newer players, is that the doubles court has a shorter serve-length dimension. The full width of the court is 6.1 metres (20 ft), and in singles this width is reduced to 5.18 metres (17 ft). The full length of the court is 13.4 metres (44 ft). The service courts are marked by a centre line dividing the width of the court, by a short service line at a distance of 1.98 metres (6 ft 6 inch) from the net, and by the outer side and back boundaries. In doubles, the service court is also marked by a long service line, which is 0.76 metres (2 ft 6 inch) from the back boundary. The net is 1.55 metres (5 ft 1 inch) high at the edges and 1.524 metres (5 ft) high in the centre. The net posts are placed over the doubles sidelines, even when singles is played. The minimum height for the ceiling above the court is not mentioned in the Laws of Badminton. Nonetheless, a badminton court will not be suitable if the ceiling is likely to be hit on a high serve.

RULES OF THE GAME BADMINTON  

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A game can take place with either two (singles) or four (doubles) players. An official match has to be played indoors on the proper court dimensions. The dimensions are 6.1m by 13.4m, The net is situated through the middle of the court and is set at 1.55m. To score a point the shuttlecock must hit within the parameters of the opponents court. If the shuttlecock hits the net or lands out then a point is awarded to your opponent. Players must serve diagonally across the net to their opponent. As points are won then serving stations move from one side to the other. There are no second serves so if your first serve goes out then your opponent wins the point. A serve must be hit underarm and below the servers waist. No overarm serves are allowed. Each game will start with a toss to determine which player will serve first and which side of the court the opponent would like to start from. Once the shuttlecock is ‘live’ then a player may move around the court as they wish. They are permitted to hit the shuttlecock from out of the playing area. If a player touches the net with any part of their body or racket then it is deemed a fault and their opponent receives the point. A fault is also called if a player deliberately distracts their opponent, the shuttlecock is caught in the racket then flung, the shuttlecock is hit twice or if the player continues to infract with the laws of badminton. Each game is umpired by a referee on a high chair who overlooks the game. There are also line judges who monitor if the shuttlecock lands in or not. The referee has overriding calls on infringements and faults. Let may be called by the referee if an unforeseen or accidental circumstance arose. These may include the shuttlecock getting stuck in the bet, server serving out of turn, one player was not ready or a decision which is too close to call. The game has only two rest periods coming the form of a 90 second rest after the first game and a 5 minute rest period after the second game. If the laws are continuously broken by a player then the referee holds the power to dock that player of points with persisting fouls receiving a forfeit of the set or even the match.

OFFICIALS OF THE GAME BADMINTON The officials are the judges responsible to ensure a fair badminton game is being played.They consists of: Umpire: The ‘main judge’ for the particular badminton game. He/she has the power to overrule any decisions made by the service judge or line judges. The umpire is the person ensuring that the badminton game is run smoothly and prevent any players from delaying the game play. Whenever a player requests to change the shuttle, the umpire will need to approve that the change could be made. The umpire also looks out for faults committed around the net area such as whether a player touched the net when returning the shuttle. Besides, the umpire is responsible to make a ‘fault’ call when the shuttle touches the player or the players’ attires except for the badminton racket. In badminton, it will be a fault/foul to a player if the shuttle touches any part of that player’s body or attire. Service Judge: The service judge is responsible in making a ‘service fault’ call and to provide shuttles to the players. Line Judges: Line judges sit beside the badminton court (right in front of every in/out lines) to determine whether the shuttle is inside or outside the boundaries of the court.

BRIEF HISTORY OF LAWN TENNIS The game that most people call 'tennis' is the direct descendant of what is now known as real tennis or royal tennis (which continues to be played today as a separate sport with more complex rules). Most rules of the game commonly known as tennis derive from it. It is reasonable to see both sports as variations of the same game. The idea that tennis originated in the monastic cloisters in northern France in the 12th century has been largely discredited, but it is correct that in the first few centuries in which it was played, the ball was then struck with the palm of the hand; hence, the name jeu de paume ("game of the palm").[1] It was not until the 16th century that rackets came into use, and the game began to be called "tennis." It was popular in England and France, and Henry VIII of England was a very big fan of the game, now referred to as real tennis.[2] Many original tennis courts remain, including courts at Oxford, Cambridge, Falkland Palace in Fife where Mary Queen of Scots regularly played, and Hampton Court Palace. Many of the French courts were decommissioned with the terror that accompanied the French Revolution. The Tennis Court Oath(Serment du Jeu de Paume) was a pivotal event during the first days of the French Revolution. The Oath was a pledge signed by 576 of the 577 members from the Third Estate who were locked out of a meeting of the Estates-General on 20 June 1789. Any history of tennis that ignores its origins in the game that was (and is still in certain circles) known as tennis until "lawn tennis" became popular in the late nineteenth century is inaccurate. The Davis Cup, an annual competition between men's national teams, dates to 1900.[3] The analogous competition for women's national teams, the Fed Cup, was founded as the Federation Cup in 1963 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the International Tennis Federation, also known as the ITF. Promoter C. C. Pyle created the first professional tennis tour in 1926, with a group of American and French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences.[4][5] The most notable of these early professionals were the American Vinnie Richards and the Frenchwoman Suzanne Lenglen.[4][6] Once a player turned pro he or she could not compete in the major (amateur) tournaments.[4] In 1968, commercial pressures and rumors of some amateurs taking money under the table led to the abandonment of this distinction, inaugurating the Open Era (see below), in which all players could compete in all tournaments, and top players were able to make their living from tennis.[7] With the beginning of the open era, the establishment of an international professional tennis circuit, and revenues from the sale of television rights, tennis's popularity has spread worldwide, and the sport has shed its upper/middle-class English-speaking image[8] (although it is acknowledged that this stereotype still exists)

NATURE OF THE GAME LAWN TENNIS

Tennis is a racket sport that can be played individually against a single opponent (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles). Each player uses a tennis racket that is strung with cord to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over or around a net and into the opponent's court. The object of the game is to maneuver the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid return. The player who is unable to return the ball will not gain a point, while the opposite player will. Tennis is an Olympic sport and is played at all levels of society and at all ages. The sport can be played by anyone who can hold a racket, including wheelchair users. The modern game of tennis originated in Birmingham, England, in the late 19th century as lawn tennis.[1] It had close connections both to various field (lawn) games such as croquet and bowls as well as to the older racket sport today called real tennis. During most of the 19th century, in fact, the term tennis referred to real tennis, not lawn tennis. The rules of modern tennis have changed little since the 1890s. Two exceptions are that from 1908 to 1961 the server had to keep one foot on the ground at all times, and the adoption of the tiebreak in the 1970s. A recent addition to professional tennis has been the adoption of electronic review technology coupled with a point-challenge system, which allows a player to contest the line call of a point, a system known as Hawk-Eye. Tennis is played by millions of recreational players and is also a popular worldwide spectator sport. The four Grand Slamtournaments (also referred to as the Majors) are especially popular: the Australian Open played on hard courts, the French Openplayed on red clay courts, Wimbledon played on grass courts, and the US Open also played on hard courts.

COURT DIMENSION OF LAWN TENNIS Tennis is played on a rectangular, flat surface. The court is 78 feet (23.77 m) long, and 27 feet (8.2 m) wide for singles matches and 36 ft (11 m) for doubles matches.[48] Additional clear space around the court is required in order for players to reach overrun balls. A net is stretched across the full width of the court, parallel with the baselines, dividing it into two equal ends. It is held up by either a metal cable or cord that can be no more than 0.8 cm (1⁄3 in).[49] The net is 3 feet 6 inches (1.07 m) high at the posts and 3 feet (0.91 m) high in the center.[48] The net posts are 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the doubles court on each side or, for a singles net, 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the singles court on each side. The modern tennis court owes its design to Major Walter Clopton Wingfield. In 1873, Wingfield patented a court much the same as the current one for his stické tennis (sphairistike). This template was modified in 1875 to the court design that exists today, with markings similar to Wingfield's version, but with the hourglass shape of his court changed to a rectangle.[50] Tennis is unusual in that it is played on a variety of surfaces.[51] Grass, clay, and hardcourts of concrete or asphalt topped with acrylic are the most common. Occasionally carpet is used for indoor play, with hardwood flooring having been historically used. Artificial turf courts can also be found.

RULES OF THE GAME LAWN TENNIS 

No ad From 'No advantage'. Scoring method created by Jimmy Van Alen. The first player or doubles team to win four points wins the game, regardless of whether the player or team is ahead by two points. When the game score reaches three points each, the receiver chooses which side of the court (advantage court or deuce court) the service is to be delivered on the seventh and game-deciding point. Utilized by World Team Tennis professional competition, ATP tours, WTA tours, ITF Pro Doubles and ITF Junior Doubles.[57][58] 

Pro set Instead of playing multiple sets, players may play one "pro set". A pro set is first to 8 (or 10) games by a margin of two games, instead of first to 6 games. A 12-point tie-break is usually played when the score is 8–8 (or 10–10). These are often played with no-ad scoring. 

Match tie-break This is sometimes played instead of a third set. A match tie-break (also called super tiebreak) is played like a regular tie-break, but the winner must win ten points instead of seven. Match tie-breaks are used in the Hopman Cup, Grand Slams (excluding Wimbledon) and the Olympic Games for mixed doubles; on the ATP (since 2006), WTA (since 2007) and ITF (excluding four Grand Slam tournaments and the Davis Cup) tours for doubles and as a player's choice in USTA league play. 

Fast4 Fast4 is a shortened format that offers a "fast" alternative, with four points, four games and four rules: there are no advantage scores, lets are played, tie-breakers apply at three games all and the first to four games wins the set. Another, however informal, tennis format is called Canadian doubles. This involves three players, with one person playing a doubles team. The single player gets to utilize the alleys normally reserved only for a doubles team. Conversely, the doubles team does not use the alleys when executing a shot. The scoring is the same as a regular game. This format is not sanctioned by any official body. "Australian doubles", another informal and unsanctioned form of tennis, is played with similar rules to the Canadian doubles style, only in this version, players rotate court position after each game. As such, each player plays doubles and singles over the course of a match, with the singles player always serving. Scoring styles vary, but one popular method is to assign a value of 2 points to each game, with the server taking both points if he or she holds serve and the doubles team each taking one if they break serve. Wheelchair tennis can be played by able-bodied players as well as people who require a wheelchair for mobility. An extra bounce is permitted. This rule makes it possible to have mixed wheelchair and able-bodied matches. It is possible for a doubles team to consist of a wheelchair player and an able-bodied player (referred to as "one-up, one-down"), or for a wheelchair player to play.

OFFICIALS OF GAME LAWN TENNIS Certification Tennis officials are certified by their respective national association. The ITF also certifies officials in the categories of chair umpire, referee and chief umpire. [3] Each ITF certification or "badge" is broken into five certification levels. The first, green badge, is considered sufficient for officiating at the highest levels of tennis within the official's own nation and is not divided into categories (and is primarily used in Spanish- and French-speaking areas, where a national organization may not be present). The second, the white badge, is divided into the three categories (chair, chief, and referee) but remains only a national certification. The following three, bronze (chair umpire only), silver, and gold badge, are considered international certifications. These international officials are those seen at the highest levels of play like the Grand Slams, ATP and WTA Tours, and the Fed and Davis Cups.[4] Chair umpire The chair umpire is the final authority on all questions of fact during the match. Questions of fact include whether a ball was in, the calling of a service let or the calling of a foot-fault. In matches where line umpires are also assigned, the chair umpire has the right to overrule if he or she is sure that a clear mistake has been made. The chair umpire is often situated in a tall chair at the center of the court, behind a net post. The players' benches are to either side of the chair. From this position, the chair umpire calls the score of the match to the players and spectators between points. At the conclusion of a point, game, or set, the chair umpire times the players to ensure they follow ITF regulations on pace of play. The chair umpire is responsible for completing a scorecard, the official historical record of the match. Line umpire A line umpire stands at ready position, focusing on his assigned line. The line umpire "calls all shots relating to the assigned lines."[5] Line umpires work on court as part of a team of between one and nine line umpires. Each line umpire is assigned to one line or, in the case of a short-handed crew, a position in a system. For example, a line umpire on the receiver's side may have to cover the center service line then, following the serve, move to one of the sidelines. The line umpire signals a ball out by making a verbal "out" call ("fault" for a serve) followed by the extension of the arm shoulder high in the direction the ball was out. A ball is signalled "safe" or "good" by holding both hands together knee high in front of the body.[6] A line umpire who is unable to call a shot (usually because a player obstructs his/her view) signals this by holding his/her hands beside his/her head, the upper side pointing in the same direction as the eyes; that call is then the chair umpire's responsibility. Line umpires are also responsible for calling footfaults. When baseline umpires are being used, they watch to see if the server touches any part of the baseline before the ball is struck. Center service line umpires are responsible for calling footfaults when the server steps over the imaginary extension of the centerline. Footfault calls are made with a verbal "Footfault" call followed by a vertical extension of the arm with the palm open.

Off-court officials Referee The referee "is the official who is responsible for assuring that the competition is fair and played under the ITF Rules of Tennis." The referee supervises all of the aspects of play at a tournament including the conduct of players, coaches, spectators, and administrative crew.[7] The referee must be present whenever matches are being played. The referee also "is the final authority on all questions of tennis law..."[8] Any player may appeal the chair umpire's interpretation of tennis law to the tournament referee or deputy referee. In making the decision on an appeal the referee must consider the rulings of fact of the chair umpire, as well as statements of the players and line umpires. The referee's decision is final. The referee is also responsible for making the tournament draw in accordance with competition regulations. The making of the draw includes determining seeds and placing players and byes. The referee must then work with tournament organizers to schedule matches. This process has been made much easier in recent years with the introduction of computer programs that complete draw sheets and schedules based on online player entries and court availability. During play of a tournament, the referee is the sole authority on the suspension of play due to weather and other concerns.[9] The referee is usually only seen on court during the administration of a medical timeout. Due to the complex regulations dictating medical timeouts the referee accompanies the medical trainer onto court. The referee is present to explain procedures and regulations to the player and trainer, and to time the timeout to ensure no extra time is given, as this would be construed as an unfair advantage. Chief umpire The chief umpire of a tournament "appoints and replaces or reassigns, when necessary, Chair Umpires, (and) Line Umpires..."[10] Chief umpires are used primarily in large professional tournaments and are responsible for the recruitment and hiring of officials for the tournament. During the tournament, the chief umpire assigns umpires to courts, subject to overrule by the referee. The chief umpire also collects scorecards from chair umpires at the conclusion of the match and thus may furnish the media with any factual information they may request.