Biology Study Guide

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Some things to consider before reading my study guide: 1. This is my study guide 2. It is tailored for MY previous knowledge 3. I did not make this for you, it is for ME 4. Some things are missing (towards the end, I got lazy) 5. Do not complain that this is missing something! I don’t give a damn! 6. Otherwise, this is a good guide. I stopped touching Barrons and PR about 4 days before the test and used solely this to refresh my memory. 7. I got a 770, so you know this is at least useful :] 8. What is my prior knowledge with Biology you ask? a. Freshman biology course (YES! That’s it!) 9. How long did I study for this despite knowing nothing? a. Two weeks! 10. Finally, enjoy and sorry for the ranting :] Biochemistry: Isotopes: different # of neutrons Ionic bond: electrons are transferred Anion- gains electrons Cation-loses electrons Covalent bond: share electrons nonpolar covalent: electrons shared equally, between 2 like atoms polar covalent: electrons not shared equally, between 2 unlike atoms Characteristic of Water: High specific heat, high heat of vaporization, high adhesion properties(clinging), strong cohesion(stick together) PH: 0-6 acidic, 8-14 basic; 1 PH difference=10X more powerful. Buffer: bicarbonate ion (resist pH change) ------------------------------------------Carbohydrate: release 4 calories per gram Monosaccharide: C6H12O6 Disaccharide: C12H22011 Glucose + Glucose=Maltose Glucose + Galactose=Lactose Glucose + Fructose=Sucrose Polysaccharide: polymer of carbohydrates

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Plants: cellulose, starch Animals: chitin, glycogen -------------------------------------------Lipids: 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids / releases 9 calories per gram Saturated: solid @ room temperature (animals) Unsaturated: liquid @ room temperature (plants) --------------------------------------------Proteins: carboxyl group, amine group, variable (R) [S,P,C,O,H,N] joined by peptide bonds complex macromolecules, responsible for growth and repair 20 different amino acid, but thousands of proteins Structure: primary: sequence of amino acid secondary: hydrogen binding tertiary: the way it functions quaternary: more than 1 polypeptide chain (hemoglobin) Enzymes: lowers energy of activation Very specific, reusable, optimal temp is 37 C Cofactors(minerals) coenzymes(vitamins) help enzymes function. Prions: misfolded version of protein in brain. ---------------------------------------------Nuclecid Acids: phosphate, 5 carbon sugar (deoxy or ribose), nitrogenous base. Adenine and guanine are purines Cytosine, thymine, and uracil are pyrimidines

The Cell: Prokaryotes: No membrane 1 circular chromosome Ribosomes (An)erobic respiration No cytoskeletal elements

Most are single cell Only 1 to 10 micrometers Tough external cell walls Eukaryotes: Distinct organelles

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Large ribosomes Respiration is mostly aerobic 10 to 100 micrometer Cell membrane Endosymbiosis: pro took permanent residence inside other larger prokaryotics (1.5B) Humans have more than 200 different types of eukaryotic cells Organelles: Nucleus: DNA wrapped in histones into chromatin network. Surrounded by selectively permeable double membrane. Nucleolus: Ribosomes are synthesized here Ribosomes: site of protein synthesis Endoplasmic Reticulum: Rough ER: site of protein synthesis Smooth ER: Steroid hormones and lips Connects ER to Golgi Apparatus Detox cell, carb metabolism. Golgi Apparatus: modify, store, package substances in the Rough ER Lysosome: hydrolytic enzymes, apoptosis(cell death) Mitochondrion: Site of cellular respiration (2500 in active cell) Outer double membrane, inner membrane (cristae) Contain own DNA, self replicate. Vacuole: store substances for the cell Some have contractile vacuoles that pump out excess water) Plastids: Chloroplast: site of photosynthesis in grana which is in stroma. Can self replicate Leucoplasts: colorless, store starch, found in roots Chromoplast: store carotenoid pigments, attract insects. Cytoskeleton: Microtubules: Cilia(short) and flagella(long) Known as (9+2) 9 pairs of 2 singlets

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Microfilaments: protein actin that help support the shape of the cell. Cleavage furrows, pseudopods, myosin filaments (skeletal muscles) Centrioles: 9 triplets, two centrioles make up 1 centrosome Cell Wall: plants and algae(cellulose), fungus(chitin) Plants have middle lamella that prevents cells from separating. Cytoplasm & Cytosol: Cytosol refers to the semiliquid portion of the cytoplasm. Cytoplasm cycle is called cyclosis. Cell/Plasma Memebrane. Fluid mosaic, phospholid bilayer, cholesterol are embedded to make it more stable, carbohydrates attached for cell to cell recognition. 60% of cell membrane is protein. ATP synthetase act as enzyme.

Transportation: Hypertonic sol: more water inside cell, water moves out (plasmolysis) Hypotonic sol: less water inside cell, water moves in (turgid) Simple diff, facilitated diff requires NO ATP. Active Transport requires ATP Exocytosis-release of molecules Pinocytosis- cell drinking Phagocytosis- cell eating Receptor-mediated endocytosis- take large amounts of specific substance. Electroscopes: Phase contrast- living unstained cells Electron microscope: beam of electron, 100,000X Transmission electron microscope: interior of cells (vacuum column) Cells are dead afterwards and equipment is expensive Scanning electron microscope: surface, tissue must be killed. Ultracentrifuge Tissue is mashed, and spun at high speed to separate layers (nuclei, mitochondria, ribosome) Cell Division: Mitosis: 2n -> 2n and 2n

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Chromosomes replicate during S phase! Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis

Meiosis 1: reduction division Synapsis: pairing up homologue Crossing over: exchange genetic material. Chromosomes separate and line up in the middle. Meiosis 2: Sister chromatids separate Produces 4 unique cells from the orginal mother cell. Photosynthesis: reduction reaction (gain electron) 6CO2 + 12H20 -> C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2

Light pigments can absorb all colors except their own. Chlorophyll a participates directly in light reactions Chlorophyll b(green), carotenoid (yellow, orange, red), phycolbins (red) Light Dependent Reactions: occurs in the thylakoids. Excited elections escape into two electron transport chains where ATP is produced. Photophosphorylation (comes from light energy)

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Water is ripped apart providing electrons for chlorophyll, Oxygen is released as a waste product. NADP carries hydrogen from photosynthesis to Dark reactions through NADPH Light Independent Reactions: occurs in the stroma DOES NOT PRODUCE ATP Carbon fixation C02 + H = sugar(CH20) called G3P or PGAL Structure of a Leaf:

Other Plants: C-4 Plants: Minimize water loss and maximize water production. Pumps carbon dioxide deep into the leaf Hatch-Slack pathway / Kranz anatomy. CAM Plants: Keeps stomates closed during the day, open at night Cell Respiration: Anaerobic Respiration: Alcohol fermentation: Pyruvic acid -> ethol alcohol + CO2 Lactic Acid Fermentation: Strenuous exercise. Aerobic Respiration: Glycolysis: occurs in the cytoplasm Glucose -> 2 pyruvate substrate lvl phosphorylation- enzyme transfer P group to ADP 1 Glucose + 2ATP -> 2 Pyruvate + 4 ATP + 2 NADH (2 ATP Net Gain) The Kreb Cycle: occurs in the matrix Pyruvic acid combines with coenzyme A -> acetyl coA 1 cycle produces: 1 ATP, FADH2, 3 NADH. ATP is produced by sub lvl phos. Electron Transport Chain: Pumps protons across the cristae membrane to create protein gradient. Carries electrons by NADH and FADH from glycolysis + kreb cycle to oxygen

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Oxygen is the final hydrogen acceptor / pulls electrons along the ETC. .5 O2 + H2 -> H20 (waste product) Oxidative Phosphorylation and Chemiosmosis. Uses potential energy stored in the gradient to phosphorylate ADP H protons move through synthetase channels NAD: 3 ATP, FAD: 2 ATP

Glucose -> NAD and FAD -> Electron Transport Chain -> ATP Glycolysis (cytoplasm) - 2ATP Kreb Cycle (matrix) – 2 ATP ETC (cristae) – 32 ATP

Classical Genetics: Law of Dominance: hybrids will show dominate traits Law of Segregation: two traits carried by each parent seperates Tt -> T and t Law of Independent Assortment: one trait isn’t inherited along with another trait. Incomplete Dominance: blending Red X White= 4 Pink Codominance: both show, AB blood type Multiple Alleles: more than two forms, (AA, Ai, BB, Bi, ii, AB) Polygenic Inheritance: bell shaped curve of gene distribution. Sex Linked Genes: carried on the X chromosome. Phenotype will only show if she has both or a dominate sex gene (-X,-X) or (-X,X) If males have it, they will express it, (only 1 X chromosomes) Karyotype: picture of all chromosomes. Humans have 46, (44 autosomal, 2 sex) Pedigree: family tree. (Males: squares, Females: circles) Mutations: abnormality in geome. Nondisjunction: chromosomes fail to separate. Abnormal # of chromosomes: aneuploidy 3 chromosome: trisomy >3 chromosome: polyploidy. Monohybrid Cross: Phenotype: 3T, 1t Genotype: 1HD, 2Hybrid D, 1 Hr Dihybrid Cross: Phenotype: Genotype: 9,3,3,1 Molecular Genetics: Griffith(1927)- discovered ability of bacteria change genetic makeup by taking foreign DNA Avery, MacLeod, McCarty(1944)-provided direct experimental evidence DNA was genetic material. Hershey and Chase(1952)- proved DNA was molecule of inherence.

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Rosalind Franklin(1950-53)- showed DNA was a double helix. Watson and Crick: received Noble Prize in 1962 for correctly describing DNA structure. Meselson and Stahl(1953)- DNA replicated in a semiconservative fashion Structure of DNA Double helix, two strands running opposite each other. 5 carbon sugar(deoxy), phosphate group, mitrogenous base. Has A-T, G-C Structure of RNA Single strand, polymer of repeated nucleotides. 5 carbon sugar(ribose), phosphate group, nitrogenous base. Has A-U, G-C MessengerRNA- carries message from DNA to cytoplasm codon TransferRNA-carries amino acids to mRNA -> polypeptide. anticodon RibosomalRNA- makes ribosome. DNA Replication: Replication takes place in S phase DNA polymerase catalyzes replication of new DNA Telomeres are at the ends of the chromosomes to protect lose of genes. Transcription: DNA makes RNA RNA Processing: Removes intron from initial transcript to form final transcript. Translocation: occurs in ribosomes mRNA is converted into an amino acid sequence. Gene Regulation: Inducible operon- turned off unless turned on Repressible operon- turned on unless turned off. Point mutation: change in a letter Insertion: add a letter, deletion: remove a letter, Human Genome: 3 Billion base pairs, 30,000 genes. 97% of DNA is junk. Recombinant DNA: combines DNA from two sources into one. Restriction Enzymes: cut DNA at specific recognition sequences or sites. Gel Electrophoresis: DNA are shot through, the smallest go through first. Polymerase Chain Reaction: DNA can be rapidly copied or amplified. Evolution: A population is the smallest group that can evolve. Fossil Record: existence of secies that have become extinct or have evolved into others. Comparative Anatomy: similar anatomical structures are related to each other Homologous structures: have same origin Analogous structures: same function but not same structure.

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Vestigial structures: evidence that structurally, animals have evolved. Comparative Biochemistry: common ancestor will have common biochem pathway. Comparative Embryology: similar stages in their embryonic development. Molecular Biology: comparison of amino acid of cytochrome c. Biogeography: Pangaea slowly separated into 7 continents over 150 Mil years. Lamark: individual organisms change in response to environment Use and disuse Darwin: natural selection Population grows exponentially to overpopulate. Created competition, survival of the fittest. *Giraffe: the avg lengeth of the neck in the population changed *Pepper Moth: Directional Evolution Due to industrialization known as industrial melanism. Evolution and Drug resistance: only resistant individual survive to reproduce, next generation will be resistant Natural Selection: Stabilizing selection: eliminates the # of extremes, favors intermediate Disruptive Selection: increase in # of extremes Directional Selection: one phenotype replaces another Variation in a Population: Mutation: change in genetic material Genetic drift: change in the gene pool due to chance. Bottleneck effect: alleles may be under or overrepresented compared to orginal. Founder Effect: rare alleles are overrepresented. Gene Flow: movement of alleles into or out of a population. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium: stable nonevolving population Large population, isolated, no mutation, random mating, no natural selection. P: dominant, Q: recessive. p + q = 1, p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 Isolation and New Species Formation: Geographical- species are separated physically Polyploidy- mutation during meiosis can only bred with other polyploidies. Habitat Isolation: live in the same area but rarely encounters. Behavioral isolation: isolated because of behavior (mating call) Temporal isolation: time, different time of mating Reproductive Isolation: unable to mate with each other Patterns of Evolution: Divergent: population splits Convergent: two species share same environment

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Parallel: two similar species that evolve similar. (wolves) Coevolution: mutual evolution of two species. (predator and prey) Adaptive Radiation: many species from one single ancestor Theories of Evolution: Gradualism: gradually evolved over a long period of time. Punctuated Equilibrium: species rapidly evolve and then go into hiatus. Spontaneous Generation: living things emerge from nonliving (Francesco Redi) How Life Began: Oparin & Haldane: under condition of early earth, life could begin Miller & Urey: almost any energy source could convert inorganic molecules-> amino acid Fox: made proteinoid from organic matter. Endosymbiosis: First cells were anaerobic hetrotrophic prokaryotes / 3.5 Bil Eukaryotic cells: 1.5 B Cambrian explosion: 565 Mil, explosion of life. Concepts of Evolution: Evolution is not always a slow process It does not occur at the same rate Does not always make it more complex Smallest that can evolve are populations Directed by changes in the environment. Taxomomy: Germ Layer: Ectoderm: skin and nervous system Endoderm: gut and digestive system Mesoderm: blood, muscles, bones Coelom: fluid filled body cavity, provides space for organ systems. Acoelomates: only digestive cavity Pseudocoelom: have fluid filled tube but not completely lined by mesoderm. Coelomate: all three, plus a completely lined coelom, Cephalization: Annelids through chordates. Sensory apparatus in the head, digestive, excretory, and reproductive structures located in posterior end. Domain Monera (Backteria) Prokaryotes (no nucleus, mitochondria, or chloroplasts)

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Symbiots, decomposers, pathogens No introns, reproduce by conjugation (sexual where individuals exchange info) Archaea Methanogens: produce energy from methane Halophiles: live in high salt concentrations Thermphiles: live in hot temperatures. Protista: All eukaryotes, most are single celled, auto and hetrotrophs. Named for how they move Carry out conjugation Fungi: Hetrotropic eukaryotes, decomposers, use extracellular digestion Cell walls made out of chitin, combine with algae to form lichen Reproduce asexually by budding, spore formation, or fragmentation (parent break up and regenerate into multiple individuals.) Animal Phylas: Porifera (sponges): Nonmoving, only have two layers: ecto, endo, and mesoglea. Have specialized cells but no true tissues or organs. Reproduce asexually (fragmentation) or sexually (hermaphordites) Cnidarians (hydra and jellyfish) Radial symmetry, polyp (vase) or medusa (upside down bowl shape) Extracellular digestion, contain cnidocytes and nematocyst. Platyhelmnthes (flatworms/tapeworms) Simpliest bilaterial symmetry. ecto, endo, mesoderm. Only one opening for food, got nutrient/waste from diffusion. Nematodes (roundworms) Unsegmented worms with bilateral symmetry. Annelids (segmented worms) Bilateral, digestive tract, used nephridia for excretion of nitrogen waste Closed circulatory system, blood contains hemoglobin, hermaphrodites. Mollusks Soft body, hard calcium shell, bilateral symmetry, open circulatory system, gills and nephridia (excrete niotrogen waste). Arthropods Jointed appendages, segmented into head thorax and abdomen, chitin exoskeleton, open circulatory system, hemocoels, uses Malpighian tubules to remove nitrogen waste, uric acid. Air ducts in body bring in oxygen. Echinoderms Slow moving, bilateral > radial, reproduce sexually, or asexually(fragmentation) Have both calcium endoskeleton and exoskeleton.

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Plants: Bryophytes: lack vascular tissue, absorb water by diffusion, very short. Gymnosperm: cone bearing, think cuticle to reduce water loss. Angiosperm: flowering plants Monocot: 1 leaf, scattered vascular bundle, parallel leaf, 3 flowers, fibrous root Dicot: 2 leaf, ringed vascular bundle, netlike leaf, 4 or 5 floral parts, taproot.

Primary Growth-vertical / secondary growth- lateral growth Roots: Epidermis: covers root/ modified for absorption. Root hair help absorption Cortex: consists of parenchyma cells (plastids) for storage Endoderm: semi permeable/ determines what enters and what doesn’t Stele: sight of primary growth Types of Roots: Taproot: single large root. Adventitious roots: rise above ground, ariel root: ivy, prop root: support Stem: supports and transport water. Xylem: tracheids and vessel elements, carries water & nutrients, aka wood Phloem: sieve tube elements and companion cells, carries sugar. Ground Tissue: everything besides the dermal and vascular tissue Parenchyma: primary cell wall, thin and flexible, lack secondary cell wall(support) Collenchyma: unevenly thickened primary cells, the strings celery. Sclerenchyma: very thick primary cell wall, purely for support. Apoplast: movement of water through cell Symplast: movemen of water through cytoplasm. Asexual Preproduction: vegetative propagation, a piece makes a new plant. Sexual Reproduction: One pollen grain containing 3 monoploid nuclei (1 tube nucleus and 2 sperm nuclei). Pollen grain makes a tube, 1 sperm becomes embryo (2n), other

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becomes the triploid (3n) aka food. Ovule becomes seed, ovary becomes fruit. The Seed: Hypocotyls: lower part of stem and roots Epicotyls becomes the upper part of the stem Radical: first organ to emerge from the seed. Alternation of generations: Gametophyte (n) mitosis-> 2n zygote. Each zygote develop into a Sporophyte (2n) that produces monoploid spores (n) by meiosis. Ferns: seedless vascular plants that have independent sporophyte and gametophye generations. Seed plants: advanced vascular plants (gymnosperm & angiosperm). Gametophyte generation exists inside sporophyte generation, dependent on sporophyte Hormones: Auxins: simulates elongation and growth by softening the cell wall. Cytokinins: simulates cell division, delay cell death. Gibberellins: promotes stem and leaf elongation Abscisic Acid (ABA): inhibits growth Ethylene: promotes ripening. Tropism: towards or away from a stimuli. Positive (towards) Negitive (away) phototropism (light) Positive (towards) Negitive (away) geotropism (ground)

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Animal Physiology: Ligaments- bone to bone Tendon- muscle to bone. Ectoderm- cold blooded Endoderm- warm blooded Excretion: Ammonia: highly toxic, excreted by water living organisms Urea: not as toxic as ammonia, excreted by earthworms and humans (liver) Uric Acid: not soluble, insects, reptiles, birds. Earthworms: have long straight tube, food stored in crop, gizzard grind up food. Typhlosole increases surface area. Respiration exchanges through moist skin. Heart has 5 arches Uses nephridia to remove urea. They are hermaphrodites, both (fe)male organs. Grasshopper:

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Has gizzard containing chitin to help grind food. Malpighian tubules remove nitrogen waste. Open circulatory system interconnected by sinuses or hemocoels. Blood doesn’t carry hemoglobin or oxygen. Hemocynin contains copper instead of iron.