Beynd 4p

The personalised marketplace: beyond the 4Ps

Ronald E. Goldsmith Professor of Marketing, College of Business, Florida State University, Tallahasee, Florida, USA

Keywords

Marketing strategy, Marketing management, Marketing mix, Relationship marketing, Mass customization

The traditional marketing mix

At the heart of most presentations of marketing management lies the time-honored concept of the 4Ps ± product, price, promotion, and place ± the Marketing Mix ± that Abstract summarise key decision responsibilities of Theories of marketing management and strategy need to evolve marketing managers (e.g. McDonald and and change to keep pace with Roberts, 1992). First formulated over 20 years changes in the marketplace and in ago by McCarthy (1975) as a pedagogical tool, marketing practice. As the next the concept of the 4Ps represents a parsimocentury draws closer, it is apparnious and comprehensive way to describe the ent that some marketing managers are basing their chief tasks of marketing managers. After relationships with customers on selecting a target market, marketing manpolicies and procedures called agers must develop a systematic plan to sell either ``individualisation'', ``massto these customers and create long-term customisation'', or as we prefer, ``personalisation''. The core of this relationships (Doyle, 1995). The marketing practice involves tailoring goods plan consists of decisions about product, and services to the individual price, promotion, and distribution. These are needs and wants of specific conthe major decision areas where marketing sumers, just the opposite of onesize-fits-all. We propose that permanagers allocate scarce corporate resources sonalisation is so important to to achieve their sales and profit goals. Little marketing strategy that it should has changed in this presentation since become one of the featured eleMcCarthy's original statement. Most marments of the marketing mix, alongside product, price, promoketing texts still feature the 4Ps as the tion, place, personnel, physical central, coordinating concept around which assets, and procedures, to form a the many other aspects of marketing practice new marketing mix, the 8Ps. are organised. The one major alteration to this approach has come with the advent of services marketing as a distinct managerial discipline (Lovelock, 1996). Services marketing theorists have taken great pains to distinguish services marketing from product marketing (e.g. Berry, 1980). A major portion of this The author would like to effort has focused on rethinking the marketthank Eileen Bridges, Leisa Flynn, and Jon Freiden ing mix and showing how it is different for for their helpful comments services. By demonstrating that the marketon a draft. ing of services requires different decisions than goods marketing requires, these thinkers present services marketing as a unique and distinct type of marketing. The services marketing mix differs chiefly from the 4Ps by Marketing Intelligence & Planning 17/4 [1999] 178±185

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the addition of three new decision responsibilities that must be integrated to form a coherent and effective services marketing mix. By adding personnel, physical assets, and procedures to the marketing mix, forming the 7Ps, services marketing theorists staked out a new field of management theory and practice separate from the marketing of tangible goods (Lovelock, 1996). This conceptual advance has, in turn, caused a reevaluation of traditional marketing management thought by obscuring the boundary between goods and services, forcing the realisation that many products consist of elements of both tangible goods and intangible services. Our purpose is to present a reformulation of the 7P concept, retaining the basic principle, but reorganising the elements and extending its scope to encompass many new ideas that have appeared in the last ten years. These come not only from services marketing, but also from the movement championing relationship marketing, masscustomisation as a manufacturing practice, from the growing field of database marketing, and from recent statements of marketing theory: Frederick Webster's (1994) MarketDriven Management: Using the New Marketing Concept of Create a Customer-Oriented Company, Slywotzky and Morrison's (1997) The Profit Zone, and Peppers and Rogers' (1993) The One to One Future. We propose a new area of decision-making responsibility and a competitive tool, personalisation, as one of the most crucial for marketers in today's and tomorrow's business environment. Thus, we suggest a new presentation of the marketing management mix, which we call the 8Ps, to carry marketing theory and practice into the next century.

Services marketing: a revolution in marketing strategy The well-documented and gradual evolution of many advanced economies away from manufacturing and toward services has

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entailed new ways of thinking about marketing. Marketing practice in the service industries has certainly benefited from the work of many managers and researchers who have sought ways to improve service delivery. Less obvious, however, has been the reciprocal influence of services marketing thought on traditional goods marketing. The services marketing emphasis on customer satisfaction and long-term relationships with customers have influenced goods marketers to think differently about their businesses and their customers. Many marketers, whether of goods or services, are now aware of the elements shared by both types of products. They also realise that all marketers should place more emphasis on satisfying customers, preventing defections, and building long-term relationships (Webster, 1994). For marketing theory, the result of this sea change in marketing practice and philosophy has been to change the way marketing management is taught. Managers of all types of businesses are encouraged to think about the 7Ps. Managers are being forced to recognise that no matter how they conceptualise their product, its marketing and management probably contain at least some service elements, whether this is called ``customer service'', or the ``service department'', or even when left unrecognised. Just forcing managers to see that at least part of their business, and not necessarily the least part, consists of service-type relationships with customers, has benefited many businesses (Taylor, 1998). Raising levels of overall customer satisfaction with the firm by adding or improving the service elements of the total product results in customer satisfaction and greater profits. As more and more companies realise this, far-seeing companies will look to the next new idea for ways to compete aggressively. We argue that the most important new idea in marketing is personalisation. Moreover, we propose that personalisation should become a standard part of the marketing mix, thus forming the 8P paradigm (see Figure 1).

Personalisation: the new marketing responsibility Techniques of mass production, ideals of standardisation, operating efficiencies, and the one-size-fits-all production mentality have led in the past to a philosophy of business that stresses selling a standard product to as many consumers as possible (Lampel and Mintzberg, 1996). Marketers who seek to identify and reach consumers more and more precisely have exerted an

opposite pull. Thus, there has been a gradual move in marketing thought and practice: mass marketing ± market segmentation ± niche marketing ± micro-marketing ± masscustomisation ± personalisation. Since the heyday of mass marketing in the 1950s, through the decades to the twenty-first century, marketing thought has pushed for smaller and smaller groups of consumers as market targets (Schiller, 1989). Now, all these strategies exist side by side, giving managers a choice of strategic options. This multiplicity of customer approaches will characterise future marketing practice. Managers will create a blend of strategies, some targeting relatively large segments, others directed toward niches. Part of this portfolio will be personalisation, where some customers are targeted individually in a set of oneto-one relationships (Logman, 1997; Peppers and Rogers, 1993; Taylor, 1998). The crux of our argument is that in addition to the need to make decisions and to create strategies regarding product, price, promotion, and place, managers should routinely consider the elements of: . personnel involved in delivery of the product; . the physical assets that accompany and surround the product; and . the procedures by which buyers acquire and use the product. Finally, managers must consider the extent to which they should: . personalise the product, making it unique for each individual buyer. This practice is growing in many product fields (Woodyard, 1998). For instance, The Wall Street Journal (1998) recently noted that ``fed up with department stores that don't offer enough selection or service, more older and affluent shoppers turn to custom-made clothing''. This and other examples of current marketing practice suggest the time is right to reformulate the marketing mix to include these new practices. In fact, we contend the Personalisation decision is so important that it should be among the first decisions managers make so that the degree and nature of product personalisation should guide subsequent marketing decisions as suggested by Figure 1. The traditional marketing mix proposed that managers had to decide first on the product they hoped to sell to consumers. These decisions involved chiefly the features the product would have, its benefits for consumers, the level of quality offered, quantities, and package forms, etc. Based on expertise, intuition, innovative insights, or systematic market research, product [ 179 ]

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Figure 1 The marketing mix

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decisions deal with the product itself, what it is like, and what it does for customers. Once they develop the product, managers draw up a marketing plan detailing how it is to be priced, delivered, and promoted. The marketing concept, a widely discussed philosophy of business (Webster, 1994), has always stressed the need to integrate the decisions in these four areas to form a unified strategy. We feel that personalisation is such an important element of the overall marketing strategy that it should be addressed in conjunction with product development, and that decisions regarding the nature and degree of personalisation should help guide product development. As managers develop the product they should build into it the degree of personalisation they intend to offer to the market. This consideration could affect the way the product is manufactured through mass-customisation (Anderson et al., 1997; Kelly, 1996; Oleson, 1998; Pine, 1993) or how

individualised a service should be (Lovelock, 1996, p. 42). Many subsequent marketing decisions will be influenced by the personalisation decision. In the case of a service product, managers should decide whether each customer gets exactly the same service (e.g. public bus) at one extreme of the continuum, or whether each customer gets a completely different, custom service (e.g. taxi), at the other end (see Lampel and Mintzberg, 1996). Services marketers already face this problem to some extent. As they design the service, they decide how much of the service can be ``industrialised'', to use Levitt's (1976) immortal term, and how much must be customised. A bank might treat every checkcashing activity exactly alike to the point that a machine, an ATM, can conduct these transactions mechanically. Loans, however, require a great deal of individual attention so that the total process of applying and receiving a loan is a personalised experience. How much personalisation is required is a function of consumer preferences, operating efficiencies, and deliberate strategy. The same paradigm might hold true for other services. We can discern the use of personalisation in different companies' marketing strategies. McDonald's, for instance, pioneered a highly standardised food product, with personal choices available in a limited menu, but every hamburger identical. Burger King, in contrast, told consumers to ``have it your way''. McDonald's has long been the market leader, and remains so today, but Burger King remained competitive and has even been making substantial sales gains, suggesting that consumer preferences may be changing as they turn more and more to the personal and away from the standardised. McDonald's now appears to be developing a more individualised hamburger to compete with the Whopper (Gibson, 1997a, b). Marketers have sought to meet individual consumer preferences through line extensions, offering seemingly endless size, flavor, and package varieties of core brands side-byside, so consumers have greater choices while remaining customers of the same company. This approach, however, has proved only partially successful for many firms, as is evidenced by the high failure rate of so many line extensions (Doyle, 1995). These variations on a core brand often seem to do little more than cannibalise the demand for the original, bringing in little additional revenue offset their additional costs. They reduce operating efficiencies, clog channels of distribution, increase distribution costs, confuse many consumers, and still fail to satisfy many of the wants consumers feel,

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thereby actually diluting brand equity (see Ries and Trout, 1993, Ch. 12). Some line extensions are successful; a judicious use of this strategy can improve customer satisfaction as well as corporate profitability. Diet Coke is an example. Overuse betrays a lack of imagination by many marketers and a misguided approach. Companies may want to consider personalisation as a philosophy of doing business that treats each customer as an individual rather than as a member of a target segment. Companies should learn about individual consumer needs and wants, design, make, and deliver a customised product (Hof, 1998). They should engage in a genuine dialogue with customers to get their input before, during, and after the product is consumed. This personalisation approach stresses a genuine interest in and concern for consumers as individuals. It is more than the oneway street of conventional relationship marketing where consumers are asked for loyalty, friendship, and repeat respect, but none is given in return (Fournier et al., 1998). It is more than lip-service avowals of concern for customers and requires real actions. It means a real two-way flow of information where consumer input is not only solicited, but also acted on. Information about consumers is used to help them, not harass them (see Taylor, 1998).

The implications of personalisation Segmentation and positioning

One of the first and most important jobs of marketing management is to segment the mass market into relatively homogeneous subsegments and then select one or more of these groups as target markets. This process helps the marketer to understand the structure of the market and to identify who the customer is or should be. Personalisation can play a role in this analysis as the marketer can examine target segments and determine which of these potential buyers would like an even more personalised version of the product. Thus, new, more precise, market segments can be created within the larger target segments already served by the marketer. In addition, personalisation may open the avenue to acquiring new market segments unhappy with mass produced competitive products and seeking more personalised versions for themselves. If segments can be identified that seek the personalised product, and if these are sufficiently large, distinct, profitable, reachable, and perhaps growing, a natural positioning strategy would be to offer the firm's product

as the personal alternative to the mass produced competitors. Personalisation lends itself to a unique positioning strategy, where the brand can be given a distinctive image to separate it from competitors. By connecting the personalised product to the individual needs of consumers, the brand can be presented as a symbol of individual personalities and lifestyles. After the market has been successfully segmented, target segments selected, and positioning strategies created, the marketer needs to proceed with development of the marketing mix.

The marketing mix

As marketers make the product decision, they should consider the degree and type of personalisation to implement as part of the product. Not all products will lend themselves equally to this marketing tactic, but many products can achieve a degree of consumer personalisation. This will determine the extent and type of customisation required by the manufacturing process. Moreover, as personalised products are developed, they have many ramifications for subsequent marketing decisions as an integrated strategy is crafted. Many manufacturers now offer personalised products (Horovitz, 1998). In addition to the obvious examples of special ordered cars and food items, clothing and shoes can be personalised for individual customers (Gilmore and Pine, 1997). The music industry is developing techniques and procedures to allow customers to create ``customised'' CDs containing a selection of the songs (from different artists) they want to own (Bauder, 1997). Cosmetics such as lipsticks can be custom blended to match a consumer's clothing or hair. A product such as a home computer is built to the specifications of individual consumers. This is common practice among the major home computer companies: Dell, Gateway, and Compaq. General Nutrition Centers (GNC) has put machines at 12 of its Live Well stores that custom mix daily vitamins, shampoo and lotions (Woodyard, 1998). The Internet now has many types of news programs that are not only highly specialised, but also can be customised by a user to automatically deliver news reports on specific topics as they become available. Entertainment can also be personalised by computer users as they tap into Internet networks devoted to specialised type of music and other forms of entertainment (Sandberg, 1998). Personalised products may imply personalised prices. Marketers of custom clothes, for instance, command higher gross margins (Woodyard, 1998). Pricing schedules could be [ 181 ]

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developed so that customising the product entails a higher selling price. This may be especially feasible where the personalised segment is less price sensitive (Doyle, 1995). Moreover, although many would not think it likely, opportunities exist for companies to personalise the prices of their standardised products. Most consumers are familiar with negotiated prices for cars and houses that represent a personalised price. But can the prices of fast-moving consumer goods be personalised? Coca-Cola Co. thinks it is possible. By linking ``smart'' vending machines to Coke's internal computer network, prices for cans of Coke could vary by time of year or even temperature. Spreading communications networks and computerised information distribution via the Internet make it more likely that consumers will gather product information, including prices, and use this information to command the prices they wish from manufacturers (Kuttner, 1998). Some even forecast a revolution in prices: ``In the future, marketers will offer special deals ± tailored just for you, just for the moment ± on everything from theater tickets to bank loans to camcorders'' (Cortese, 1998). Product delivery for many products could be personalised as it often is for home computers. Consumers could be given a choice of how they wish to receive a product: by mail, home delivery via a specific delivery service, store pick up. Information products can also be delivered in personalised ways: ``Instead of being limited to off-the-shelf choices, consumers now can buy customised publications, from greeting cards to books, that are literally hot off the press'' (Woodyard, 1998). Through kiosks in malls or stores (Weimer, 1997) or off the Internet (Cronin, 1997), consumers can buy published materials individualised just for them. The proliferation of Internet sites that deliver personalised news and entertainment to subscribers is another example of this trend (Hof, 1998). Promotion is another area where personalisation could make a big difference in the design of marketing strategy. Greater personalisation in the form of individualised marketing communications should be more effective than mass communications (Peppers and Rogers, 1993). Internet advertising can be personalized for individual consumers (Hof, 1998). In the long run it will be possible to direct individual ads to specific TV sets (Ono, 1998). Peppers and Rogers (1993) describe many feasible techniques of interactive communications between consumers and companies via fax, e-mail, and video. Marketers should also take into

account the situations in which consumers learn about, buy, and consume products as these elements may increase the potential for personalisation (Foxall, 1992). By opening dialogue with customers, promotion can be made more personal; and it has other benefits for the firm by yielding useful information about consumer needs, wants, specifications, and new ideas. This information, in turn, can be used to customise existing products and develop new products. The personnel dimension of the marketing mix refers to the employees who actually perform the service for customers. They could also work in the customer service department of a tangible goods company. Services marketing theory places a heavy emphasis on hiring, training, supporting, evaluating, and rewarding service personnel. It is recognised that the service cannot be separated from the service provider (Lovelock, 1996). While many services are naturally personalised, that is, each customer gets an individualised service product, other services seem to benefit from a standardisation or industrialisation design (Levitt, 1976). A services marketer who wishes to offer a service personalised for individual customers must design the personnel selection, training, and supervision system so that it prepares personnel to customise their behaviours to fit the individual needs of customers. Of course, personalising service products requires not only trained personnel but also the procedures designed so that a personalised service product can be created, if the managers choose to follow this competitive strategy. Marketing managers may need to think of ways to design their service products to be as individual as possible, even if the basic service is the same for all customers. Obviously, information technology is a key ingredient in this effort (see Peppers and Rogers, 1993). Finally, marketers may even personalise the physical assets in their marketing mix to correspond with the overall personalisation strategy.

New product development

One of the most exciting aspects of the personalisation concept is the idea that as marketers seek to develop new products, they should systematically try to visualise these market offerings as personalised products (see Foxall, 1984). It may be easier to develop a personal version of an existing product than to develop a wholly new product. New products come in five versions: product improvements, line extensions, brand extensions, new brands, and new-to-the-world innovations (see Peter and Donnelly, 1997,

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p. 125). Personalisation as a philosophy may guide new product development in all of these areas. The next ``new and improved'' version of a product could be a version with more personalised features. The product line could be extended to include a personalised version (e.g. along with standard seed packets, a seed company could offer a personalised seed mix). The firm could take its expertise in a personalised product in one category and expand into a new product category keeping the same brand name, but benefiting from the equity and good reputation it has in the original category (Amazon books has expanded to Amazon CDs). A wholly new brand could be developed that is totally oriented around the personalisation philosophy, but kept distinct from a firm's original, less customised brands. Finally, marketing managers should think systematically about developing new, personalised products. What consumer problems are poorly solved using existing market offerings? Would a personal product solve these problems better? Can the marketer attain the all-important goals of consumer satisfaction and value creation via personalisation? (Doyle, 1995). Standard new product development techniques such as focus groups, brainstorming, need analysis, and dimensional analysis should be supplemented by a personalisation dimension to take advantage of this opportunity.

Conclusion The strategy and practice of market segmentation have always focused on dividing large heterogeneous markets into smaller more homogeneous segments to improve customer satisfaction and marketing efficiency and effectiveness. The years have witnessed the evolution of market segments from rather crude divisions based on simple demographics and product usage to more sophisticated schemes using consumer lifestyles, values, attitudes, and perceptions. Using database marketing has pushed the precision of market analysis much further, grouping consumers by zip codes or other geodemographic characteristics (Berry, 1994; Francese and Piirto, 1990; Thomas and Kirchner, 1991). Database marketing opens the possibility for treating each consumer as an individual target (McDougall, 1995; Peppers and Rogers, 1993). Recommendations regarding market segmentation and targeting consumers are converging on a new paradigm (Pitta, 1998). The emphasis on relationship marketing (Fierman, 1994; Peppers and Rogers, 1993; Vavra, 1992), building long-term

relationships between firms and customers, almost demands a one-to-one market segmentation program for information marketers (see Freiden et al., 1998). The 1990s have witnessed two seemingly contradictory managerial trends. One move has seen manufacturers, chiefly in packaged goods, trimming their product lines to reduce the number of choices and offer fewer brand variations, but concentrating on the more profitable items (Narisetti, 1997; Nielsen, 1992; Schiller, 1996). Marketers have also become aware that traditional marketing strategies targeted toward groups of consumers have become more expensive and less effective (Taylor, 1998). The second move has been increasing customisation (Gilmore and Pine, 1997; Lampel and Mintzberg, 1996; Logman, 1997). In fact, both strategies can be pursued simultaneously. Many companies need to reduce costs, and only by trimming the product line can this be achieved. However, offering fewer versions of brands is not incompatible with a strategy that targets those customers who will respond positively to the personalised brand. Personalisation may be a way for branded goods manufacturers to fight encroaching own-label competition. In addition to marketing their own non-branded versions of the product, couponing, cutting prices, and increasing advertising, they may opt for offering a personalised version of the brand to draw customers put-off by the lack of individualisation inherent in non-branded products or store brands (Therrien et al., 993). The prototype of personalisation is of course the World Wide Web. The power of the Internet is to tailor itself for each of its users, and recent reports suggest that personalised Internet shopping yields improved sales and profits to the firms that practice it (Hof, 1998). The Net allows consumers to shop and buy in a one-to-one environment, and many of the information products sold through the Net lend themselves to personalisation. For instance, consumers can create a ``personal store'' for a variety of products (books, CDs, for example) and shop online within this individual environment (see Hof, 1998 for specific examples). Virtual shopping also opens up the possibility of individualising pricing for consumers as the latter increasingly shop around looking for the best deals on comparable goods (Wysocki, 1998). This may be the only way Internet marketers can avoid competing solely on price, a development that turns their brands into commodities (Slywotzky and Morrison, 1997). While the personalisation strategy seems a natural feature of Internet commerce, it is applicable to many other product fields, but it [ 183 ]

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will not be applicable to all product categories. If consumers are not willing to pay the additional costs for personalised products, demand will not warrant their manufacture and distribution. Even in this instance, however, advertising and pricing could be personalised if these proved to be profitable strategies; so some degree of personalisation of the other elements of the marketing mix may be possible, even thought the product itself is not. Sometimes personalisation requires consumers to reveal personal information in order for the process to work. If customers resist doing so, they will not be able to join the personalised segment. Some products will resist being personalised. Constraints imposed either by manufacturing, distribution, or competitive behaviour, may limit the marketer's ability to personalise his brand. Some products benefit from mass production, so that the most attractive product offering is an identical copy of all the others. Nevertheless, many marketers in many product fields seem to be finding ways to design, engineer, and produce products personalised for individual consumers who are willing to pay for this added benefit.

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