Basic Questions On Prophetic Literature

Chapter I: Basic Questions about the Prophetic Literature of Ancient Israel See David L. Petersen, “Introduction to Prophetic Literature” in The New International Bible Commentary, vol. 6, pp.1-23.

1. What is the Scope of Prophetic Literature? a. From the Point of View of the Hebrew

Canon b. From the Point of View of Authorship c. From the Point of View of Redaction d. From the Point of View of the Christian Canon

a. From the Point of View of the Hebrew Canon Torah Nebiim Ketubim

Nebiim Joshua-Judges-Samuel-Kings

(“Former Prophets” = Deuteronomistic History) Isaiah-Jeremiah-Ezekiel-The Twelve

(“Latter Prophets”) The Twelve:  Ho-Jo-Am  Ob-Jon-Mi  Na-Ha-Zep  Hag-Zech-Mal

Historical Books as Prophetic Books Prophets as Historians 1) Deut 18:15-18 and 2 Kgs 17:13 2) 1 Chr 29:29 • “Israel’s prophets were of fundamental

importance for understanding Israelite History” (p. 2). • In Deuteronomistic History, one of the main themes is “prophecy and fulfillment” (see Ceresko, p. 130). • Problem: Christian Tradition does not regard the Historical Books as Prophetic Books.

b. From the Point of View of Authorship What the prophets have “said”. Inspired and authoritative.

Problem: Literature about the prophets. Not all of it was written by them. E.g. Elisha and Gehazi in 2 Kgs 8:4-5. Jeremiah and Baruch in Jer 45:1

c. From the Point of View of Redaction The difference between “authentic” and

“secondary” prophetic literature. Isaiah ben Amos vs. Second Isaiah (chaps. 40-66) Zechariah 1-11 vs. Zechariah 9-14

d. From the Point of View of the Christian Canon Baruch (Deuterocanonical) Daniel (“Prophet” in LXX) Mt 24:15 Josephus (Antiquities x 11,7) Placed after Ezekiel (in the Latin Vulgate) The book was probably too late (ca. 150 B.C.)

to be included among the prophets in the Hebrew Canon.

What , then, is Prophetic Literature? It is the literature that attests to or grows

out of the ministry and activity of Israel’s prophets (Petersen, p. 3).

2. What does “prophet” mean? From Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online Main Entry: proph·et one who utters divinely inspired revelations the writer of one of the prophetic books of

the Bible one regarded by a group of followers as the final authoritative revealer of God's will <Muhammad, the Prophet of Allah>

 one gifted with more than ordinary

spiritual and moral insight; especially : an inspired poet  one who foretells future events : predictor an effective or leading spokesman for a cause, doctrine, or group Christian Science : a spiritual seer b: disappearance of material sense before the conscious facts of spiritual Truth.

“’Prophecy’” is one of those slippery words

that have a remarkably broad and illdefined range of meaning” (Blenkinsopp, “Prophetism and Prophecy,” p. 951). The need to investigate what the designation “prophet” implied:

Linguistic (Etymological) Greek prophetes from pro (for) and phēmi

(to speak). “to speak for”, to “speak before”, hence “to forsee” “One who proclaims a message on behalf of another, generally a deity” (Blenkinsopp, p. 952). See J. Blenkinsopp, “Prophetism and Prophets” in International Bible Commentary, pp., 951-956.

Prophētēs at Delphi

The Dephic Pythia on a Tripod

Hebrew Terms for “Prophet” 1. näbî´ “prophet” (plural nübì´îm)  Akkadian root nabu “to call”  näbî´ as “one who calls “or as majority of scholars accept, “the called one” (passive participle form).  See the call of Jeremiah (1:4-10); Isaiah (6); and Ezekiel (1-3)  This term is translation of the Greek LXX “prophetes”.  It appears 315 times in the masculine form  And six times in the feminine (nübî´â “prophetess”), [see slide below]  14x in the Torah (10x in Deuteronomy alone)  99x the Former Prophets  156x the Latter Prophets  95x in Jeremiah  17x in Ezekiel  7x in Isaiah

Note: that in classical Greek, there is

another word for “prophet” that is mantis. Mantis is associated with ecstatic behavior

(mantic person). LXX translator preferred the word “prophetes” rather than “mantis”. Perhaps, to stress the declarative and rational aspects of prophecy in the Hebrew scriptures.

Note that “nabi” appears often in

Deuteronomy and in the book of the prophet Jeremiah. Jeremiah could have been transmitted and

edited near the school that produced the Deuteronomistic History (in the North) In Isaiah, the term appears rarely. Note that Isaiah was prophet in Jerusalem

(South) The term “nabi” was used more commonly

in Israel (North) rather in Judah (South).

2) Hözeh “seer” or “visionary” - an

individual who receives and reports visions See Sam 24:11 (Gad)

3) rö´eh “diviner” -one who has the gift of

second sight or extrasensory perception See 1 Samuel 9:9 (Samuel)

Note that both terms literally means “to

see”. Sometimes, they are synonymous: See same 1 Sam 9:9

For the meaning of the prophet as a “seer”,

see the article of WALTER VOGELS “From Blindness to Prophecy: The Prophet as Seer who Invites People to See,” MST Review 7 (2005): 109-132.

4) ´îš-hä´élöhîm “man of God” – a person

who possesses the power of the Holy, hence, are dangerous, powerful, and must be respected. See Elijah in 1 Kgs 17:18; Elisha in 2 Kgs 4:1-37

5) nübî´â “prophetess” A woman who serves as a channel of

communication between the human and the divine worlds. Prophetesses played a central role in Israel’s early history. -see R. R. Wilson, “Prophetess” in HarperCollins Bible Dictionary, p. 889.

Miriam (Exod 15:20-21) Deborah (Judg 4:1-10) Huldah (2 Kgs 22:14-20) Noadiah (Neh 6: 10-14) *Anna (Luke 2:36-38) *Jezebel (Rev 2:20)

NOTE: Some prophets are priests Three religious and intellectual leaders in

Ancient Israel Sage, Priest, and Prophet

Jeremiah (Jer 1:1) Ezekiel (Ezek 1:3) Zechariah (Zech 1:1 and Neh 12:16) Joel (Joel 1:13-14; 19; 2:18-20) Zephaniah (Zeph 3:14-15)

In conclusion, the survey of the terms tells

us of the various roles of prophets, including as intermediaries and even as priests.

3.When did the prophetic movement begin? (see Petersen, pp. 5-8) First is to ask the question:, when was

Israel formed as a nation? See my article on the theories of the origins

of Israel in http://tiqwah.blogspot.com/2006/06/where-did-anc Israel as a nation emerged with the birth of

the monarchy (ca. 1000 B.C.).

Prophets appeared side by side with the

monarchy. Question: What about ABRAHAM (Gen 20:7), MOSES (Exod 34:10), MIRIAM (Exod 15:20), AARAON (Exod 7:1), and DEBORAH (Judg 4:4) who were called “prophets/propthesses”? The “prophet” (“nabi”) has an extended or wider sense here: Patriarch, intercessor, singer, interpreter, or

judge,

Three conditions for the existence of

prophecy 1) audience – most of the time kings 2) patrons or protectors  AHIKAM SON OF SHAPHAN in Jer 26:24  THE ETHIOPIAN, EBED-MELECH in Jer 38:7-12.

3) Major crises in history of ancient Israel  Beginning of the monarchy  Division of the Kingdom  Assyrian threat and the Destruction of the Northern Kingdom (721 B.C.)  Babylonian thread and the destruction of the Southern Kingdom (586 B.C.)  Life in the Exile  Restoration Period

Beginning of the Monarchy Nathan in 2 Sam 11-12 Gad in 2 Sam 24

Henry Fuseli King David being warned by The Prophet Nathan circa 1772 Black chalk, grey wash on paper, 616 x 918 mm Private collection, courtesy of Aroldo Zevi Limited, London PHOTO GRAB: tate.org.uk

Division of the Kingdom Prophet Ahijah the Shilonite King Rehobam vs. King Jeroboam of the

new Northern kingdom (1 Kings 11)

Neo-Assyrian Empire threat vs. Israel 2 Kings 15 Eight century B.C. Amos and Hosea

TIGLATH-PILESER III 745-727 B.C. Photo grab: wikipedia.org

Neo-Assyrian Threat vs. Judah Micah 1:10-16 Isiah 36-37 2 Kings 18-19

Sennache rib campaign vs. Judah in 721 B.C. Photo grab:

Neo-Babylonian attack on Jerusalem in 597 and 587 Jeremiah Ezekiel

Cuneiform tablet mentioning the capture of Jerusalem in 597 (British Museum, London) photo

During the Exile Will God be with this people? Will there still be a covenant? Ezekiel and his vision of the valley of the

bones (ch. 37) Second Isaiah (chaps. 40-55), see 54:11-12 Jeremiah and the new covenant (Jer 31:31) Haggai and restoration of monarchy, see 2:20-23 Zechariah and a new order, see chap. 4

Restoration, Rebuilding of the Temple 515 B. C. – Temple Rebuilt (Second Temple

Period) Prophetic literature were in the form of notes, additions, and supplements to earlier words. Religion was now practiced also in Diaspora (Egypt and Mesopotamia) New oracles from the deity was no longer necessary. Prophets were no longer needed.

In summary, prophets emerged in times of

crisis, from the beginning of the monarchy up to the time of restoration or the beginning of the Second Temple Period (515 B.C.).

4. What is the Social Status of the Prophet? Readings: D. L. Petersen, “Introduction to Prophetic

Literature,” pp. 8-9. J. Blenkinsopp, A History of Prophecy in Israel, rev. and enl., pp. 30-39.

1) Most prophets were active in the cities.

•AMOS moving from Tekoa (South) to Bethel (North) •JEREMIAH of Anathoth preached in Jerusalem in the Temple area.

2) Often, prophets worked for the royal

court. Nathan And hundred years later, Haggai

3) Very often, they spoke on behalf of

those without power—oppressed, like widows and orphans.

4) Prophets were also connected with

warfare and cult. 5) Some were peripatetic figures like Elijah and Elisha 6) They were low on the economic and social scale. Except, perhaps, Amos  (see the discussion of Blenkinsopp in p. 33).

5. What are the different literary forms used in prophetic literature? Browse or skim the following: Claus Westermann, Basic Forms of Prophetic

Speech (trans. H. C. White; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1967). Marvin A. Sweeney, Isaiah 1-39 with an Introduction to the Prophetic Literature , Forms of Old Testament Literature 16 (Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 1996), pp. 15-30.

D. L. Petersen, “Introduction to Prophetic Literature,” pp. 12-16.

•ANE prophetic texts are oftentimes appear in form of single clay tablets or in a incantation bowl. Visit: http://tiqwah.blogspot.com/2006/05/satan-prince-of-d •But, in ancient Israel, collections of numerous speeches or incidents from a prophet’s life.

Some books have a welldefiined structure . E.g. Ezekiel

The Categories of Prose and Poetry

Prose is writing patterned from everyday speech. Poetry is heightened speech.

Difficulty of ascertaining a biblical text: Is it a prose or a poetry? What are the criteria? Can we use the same criteria of modern

literature?

e.g. Ezekiel 17:9-10

NRSV

NAB

1. Prose Accounts Most reports on the activity of prophets are

in prose But they are not all stories. Seven (7) accounts of prose accounts

7 Types of Prose Accounts 1) Symbolic Action Report – it describes

prophetic behavior that is designed to convey a message. Isaiah 20:1-6  For nakedness as a symbolic expression see 1 Sam 19:19-24; Micah 1:8-9 Ezek 4:1-3 Ezek 5:1-4

2) Commissioning Report = “Call

Narratives” Six elements (Norman Habel)

Structure of a Call Narrative (From:  Habel, Norm.  “The Form and Significance of the Call Narratives.”  ZAW 77 (1965): 297-323; For online, click here

3. Vision Report Note: “prophet” as “seer” “to look up and see” (Amos 7:1) Examples  Amos’ five visions (7:1-9; 8:1-3; 9:1-4)  Ezekiel’s four visions (1:1; 8:1; 37:1; and 40:1

Zechariah’s eight visions  Daniel’s vision (Dan 7:15-16)

4) Legenda  story of the life of a saint (Webster) A report about something holy, whether on

object or a person  E.g. “ark of God” in 2 Sam 6:6-7  Elisha as “man of God” in 2 Kgs 2:23-24; 2 Kgs 4:1-7

5) Prophetic Historiography History is written from the point of view of

the role of the prophet.  See Isaiah 36-39 = 2 Kgs 18:13-19:37

For ancient Israelites, “the prophetic word

[has] a major place in history” (Petersen, p. 14).

6) Autobiography [not biography as

presented earlier]

E.g. Jeremiah 37-44

7) Divinatory Chronicle Text narrating the prophet as a diviner  (one who could give information from the world beyond that of normal human knowledge)  “to inquire from Yahweh”  E.g. 1 Samuel 9  Zechariah 7-9  Ezekiel 20

2. Poetic Speech Claus Westermann,

Basic Forms of Prophetic Speech (trans. H. C. White; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1967).* Online outline of Westermann’s Basic Forms*

Adele Berlin,

“Introduction to Hebrew Poetry,” in The New Interpreter’s Bible vol. 4, pp. 301-315.

2. Poetic Speech It is the predominant form of prophetic

literature Special attention to Hebrew poetic techniques and rhetorical styles Regular forms of speech might been created and preserved in ancient society “Köh ´ämar yhwh” (“thus says the Lord”) “says the Lord”

1) Judgment Oracle e.g. Jer 6:16-21

2) Woe oracle  Isa 10:1-4 Hebrew hôy Probably used originally to someone who had

just died. = person is good as dead Opposite: Beatitudes ´aºšürê

3) Lawsuit (rîb) Legal process that ends with the passing of a

sentence. Must have been derived from Israel’s law courts. Most common prophetic speech. e.g. Micah 1:2-7

Micah 1:2-7 1 Hear, you peoples, all of you; [Summon] listen, O earth, and all that is in it; and let the Lord GOD be a witness against you, the Lord from his holy temple. …. 5 All this is for the transgression of Jacob and for the sins of the house of Israel. What is the transgression of Jacob? [interrogation] Is it not Samaria? And what is the high place of Judah? Is it not Jerusalem? 6 Therefore I will make Samaria a heap in the open country, [sentence] a place for planting vineyards. I will pour down her stones into the valley, and uncover her foundations.

4) lament Would have been used in funerary rites. E.g. Amos 5:1-2

Structure of psalms of lament (from

Westermann) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Address or Introductory Cry Lament Proper Confession of Trust Petition Proper Vow of Praise

See Psalm 22, see also my study on this in

Diwa 31 (2006), pp, 24-41.

5) hymn Begins with plural imperative verb, like

“Sing” or “Praise” Attests to the character of the deity. E.g. Habakkuk 3:2-15 Isa 5:1-2

6) allegory symbolic story that serves as a disguised

representation for meanings other than those indicated on the surface. Used by scribes and intellectuals E.g. Ezekiel 17:2-10

7) acrostics is a poem or other text written in an alphabetic

script, in which the first letter, syllable or word of each verse, paragraph or other recurring feature in the text spells out another message. See ANTHONY R. CERESKO, “Endings and

Beginnings: ‘Alphabetic Thinking’ and the Shape of Psalms 106, and of the Psalter,” in (CBAP 2005 Proceedings; Tagaytay Scripture and the Quest for New Society City: CBAP, 2006), pp. 7590). Nahum 1:1-8

Two important books on prose and poetry

See chapter VI “Prophecy and Poetry”, pp. 137-162.