Basic Grammar

Table of Contents I. Parts of Speech (aka the different kinds of words) noun pronoun verb adjective adverb preposition

II. Putting Words Togethe r phrase prepositional phrase

sentence o decla rative sentence o interr ogatory sentence o imper ative sentence run-on sentence sentence fragment

NOUN A noun is any word which names a person, place, thing, idea, animal, quality, or activity. Can be the subject or object of a sentence. Examples: person – Jennifer, the patient place - downtown thing - table idea - equality animal - gopher quality – height activity – navigation

Types of Nouns: Proper nouns are the names of specific things, people, or places, such as Chicoutimi and Christine. They usually begin with a capital letter. Common nouns are general names such as person, mansion, and book. Concrete nouns refer to things which you can sense such as clock and telephone. Abstract nouns refer to ideas or qualities such as liberty and truth. Count nouns refer to anything which can be counted. Ex. Singular Car, plural Cars Spellings: Nouns ending with s, sh, o, ch requires suffix es. Ex. Wish to wishes, echo to echoes. Nouns ending with y becomes plural with ies. Ex. Story to stories. Irregular count nouns do not form their plurals using the rules stated above: Ex. Man to Men, child to children, mouse to mice. Mass nouns refer to entities which cannot be counted. They do not usually have a plural form. Ex: wine, money, justice, time Collective nouns refer to groups of people or things. Collective nouns can usually be counted; therefore, they have plural forms. Ex: herd to herds, gang to gangs,

PRONOUN a word that replaces or stands for ("pro" = for) a noun. Ex: he, she, it In other words, A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun or stands in for an unknown noun. The noun which the pronoun replaces is called its antecedent. Examples: Mary wondered whether she should go to the party. "Mary" is the antecedent of the pronoun "she". The test was difficult for Dave, who had not studied. "Dave" is the antecedent of the pronoun "who". VERB an action word. Ex: sit, laugh, screw In other words: The verb is a part of speech, a word or compound of words, that performs one of three kinds of tasks: it expresses action; it expresses a state of being; or it expresses the relationship between two things. In its most powerful and normal position, it follows a noun (the agent of the verb). Examples: He bought a shirt. (agent) (did something) (object- answers the question "what?") She brushes her hair every hour. Marina will lose the race. He is a doctor of bioethics. Note: while "a doctor" answers the question "what?" the verb is not an action verb, but rather a "state of being" verb. Therefore, is is not a transitive verb; it links the Subject (he) with his state of being (doctor). TENSES SIMPLE TENSE Simple present (action or situation exists now): I dance. He dances. They dance. Present progressive (action is in progress): I am dancing. He is dancing. We are dancing. Present perfect (action begins in the past and leads up to and includes the present): I have danced. She has danced. You have danced. Present perfect progressive (action begins in the past, continues in the present, and may continue into the future): I have been dancing. He has been dancing.

They have been dancing. PAST TENSE Simple past (actions or situations are complete and completely in the past): They danced. We danced. She danced. Past progressive (actions in the past occurred over a period of time): She was dancing. They were dancing. I was dancing. Past perfect (an action that has been completed before another action or situation): She had danced. We had danced. You had danced. Past perfect progressive (an ongoing action in the past has ended): She had been dancing. We had been dancing. They had been dancing. FUTURE TENSE Simple future (actions will occur in the future): I will dance. She will dance. You will dance. Future progressive (future actions will continue for some time). I will be dancing. She will be dancing. They will be dancing. Future perfect (actions will be completed by or before a specific future time): I will have danced. She will have danced. They will have danced. Future perfect progressive (actions are ongoing up to a specific future time): I will have been dancing. You will have been dancing. He will have been dancing.

ADJECTIVE a word that describes or modifies a noun. Answers the questions "how many," "what kind," etc. Ex: happy, suicidal, red, dangerous 1. descriptive, describing a quality of the noun 2. limiting, limiting the noun being described Examples: descriptive: tall tree, stellar performance limiting: my dog, the second try ARTICLES: Definite & Indefinite Articles : There is only one definite article, the. When used before a noun, it specifies a particular noun as opposed to any one. Examples: the dog (a specific, identifiable dog), the walls (specific, identifiable walls) There are two indefinite articles, a and an. These are used with a noun when a specific noun is not being pointed at. Examples: a dog (any dog), an apple (any apple) ADVERB a word that describes or modifies a verb. Ex: carefully, quickly, wisely. Also sometimes modifies an adjective. ("She was very tall." 'Very' is an adverb modifying 'tall,' which in turn is an adjective modifying 'she'.) Adverbs usually, but not always, end in "-ly". (However, not every word ending in "ly" is an adverb: "friendly," for example, is an adjective.) So, Adverbs modify: 1. Verbs 2. Adjectives 3. Other adverbs 4. whole sentences They answer questions like: "how?" "when?" "where?" "why?" "in what order?" "how often?" Many adverbs end in -ly. For example: awkwardly happily sharply tightly cheerfully loudly swiftly viciously However, this is not an exact method of identifying adverbs. Some common adverbs do not end in -ly. For example: everywhere here never so fast much rather well And some words that end in -ly are not necessarily adverbs. Such as:

friendly lively rally folly lonely sickly The only way to be sure a word is an adverb is by looking at its function within the sentence. Examples: modifying verbs She sighed loudly. How did she sigh? Loudly. "Loudly" is an adverb, modifying the verb, "sighed" and answering the question "how?". He went to Vancouver yesterday. When did he go to Vancouver? Yesterday. "Yesterday" is an adverb answering the question "when?" and modifying the verb "went." Examples: modifying adjectives The sky was very blue. "Very" answers the question, "How blue?" It is an adverb, modifying the adjective "blue." The day was completely enjoyable. "Completely" describes how enjoyable the day was and is an adverb which modifies an adjective. Examples: modifying other adverbs He hit the ball excessively hard. "Excessively" modifies the adverb "hard" and is also an adverb. The attic smelled, somewhat suspiciously, of marijuana. The adverb "suspiciously" is modified by the adverb "somewhat." modifying a whole sentence Probably she will leave me alone now.

Here, "probably" is an adverb which is modifying the entire following sentence. Adverbial conjunction, also known as a conjunctive adverb, is a word which functions both as an adverb and a conjunction.

Some common conjunctive adverbs are: accordingly however nonetheless also incidentally now anyway indeed otherwise besides instead similarly certainly likewise still consequently meanwhile then finally moreover thereafter further namely therefore furthermore nevertheless thus hence next undoubtedly Some conjunctive adverbs with more than one word are: as a result on the contrary at the same time on the other hand PREPOSITION (literally "pre-position") a word that indicates the relationship of a noun (or noun phrase) to another word. Examples of prepositions are to, at, with, for, against, across. In brief, What is a preposition? A preposition links a noun or a pronoun (the object of the preposition) with some other word or expression in the sentence. Example: The cow jumped over the moon. The preposition "over" links its object, "the moon," to the verb "jump." The river below the bridge is rising. The object of the preposition, "the bridge," is linked to the noun "river" through the preposition "below." Some common prepositions are: about below in over

until

above beneath inside past up across beside into since upon after between near through with against by of throughout within among down off till without around during on to at except onto toward before for out under behind from outside underneath Prepositions can be more than one word. Some examples are: according to as well as in addition to across from because of with regard to CONJUNCTIONS: Conjunctions join sentence elements such as words, phrases, or clauses. There are three types of conjunctions: coordinating, correlative, and subordinating. Coordinating Conjunctions Coordinating conjunctions join sentence parts of equal grammatical status. They are: and but

for nor

or so

yet

Nor, for, and so can only join independent clauses. Examples: Do you want to study math or English? The coordinating conjunction "or" is linking two nouns. Do you want to go to the park or to the zoo. The conjunction "or" is linking the phrase "to the park" with the phrase "to the zoo." He gave me his phone number but I lost it. The conjunction "but" is connecting two clauses of equal status: the two facts are equally true and neither is made dependent on the other. Coordinating words that work in pairs are called correlative conjunctions. They join words, phrases, and clauses, as well as whole sentences. The most common correlative conjunctions are: both ... and either ... or

neither ... nor not only ... but also

Examples: We can study either math or English. I not only lost his phone number, but also forgot where he lived. Subordinating conjunctions connect clauses of unequal status. A subordinating conjunction introduces a subordinate or dependent clause, which is unable to stand alone as a complete sentence. Common subordinating conjunctions are: after even if that while although even though though as if if unless as though in order that until as long as rather than when(ever) because since where(ever) before so that whether Example: Whenever we go to the lake, I always get bitten by mosquitoes. "Whenever" is a subordinating conjunction that joins the dependent clause, "whenever we go to the lake," to the rest of the sentence. The dependent clause is subordinate, or "of lesser status," because it cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. INTERJECTIONS: Interjections are flavouring particles used in speech to indicate emotion, or provide transition. Some examples are: eh, okay, say, oh, no, ouch, yuck Examples: It's great to be a Canadian, eh? Yuck! That tastes disgusting. Say, let's go hiking. Okay, maybe it's not so bad.

Putting Words Together PHRASE

an expression (can be a single word, but usually more) which contains a single thought but is not necessarily a complete sentence. Words make up phrases; phrases make up sentences. By some definitions, a phrase cannot contain a verb. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE A phrase beginning with a preposition. Heh, heh. You could have figured that out, right? Example: "I am sitting" is a complete sentence unto itself; it I am sitting contains a subject ("I") and a verb ("am sitting"). The in the phrase "in the bushes" is a prepositional phrase ("in" bushes. being the preposition) that expands upon the basic concept. SENTENCE the basic unit of writing. A sentence should have a subject and a predicate. The subject is the noun to which the sentence's verb refers; the predicate is the verb plus whatever other parts modify or elaborate on it. Example: "My" is a possessive pronoun; My mother "mother" is the subject (noun); sings. "sings" is the verb. There are several types of sentences. The major ones are: DECLARATIVE The majority of sentences are declarative. A declarative sentence makes a statement. This sentence is declarative, as are the previous two. INTERROGATORY An interrogatory sentence asks a question. Do you understand that? Which of these sentences is an example? IMPERATIVE An imperative sentence gives a command. Ex: "Shut up and kiss me." Note that an imperative sentence does not require a subject; the pronoun "you" is implied. RUN-ON SENTENCE A sentence that is too long and should be broken into two or more sentences. One sentence should present one basic concept; if it presents more than that, it may be a run-on. A large number of "and"s, "but"s, and similar joining words is one warning sign of a run-on. SENTENCE FRAGMENT A phrase that is acting like a sentence but is incomplete. Examples: My favorite This is not a sentence because color. it contains no verb. Walking very This is not a sentence because slowly. it contains no noun. This is not a sentence because On the table. it contains neither a verb nor a subject.

Sentence fragments are acceptable as answers to direct questions: "Where is my sword?" "In the bushes."

PUNCTUATION Periods: Usage Use a period (or full stop) at the end of a sentence that makes a statement. Example: Most people do not believe in vampires. 1. A period is also used after certain abbreviations. Examples: Ms. Jones, etc., p.m., p.o., b.i.d. 2. A period is generally not used after well-known acronyms. Examples: CBC, WBC. COLON: USAGE There are two ways to think of the colon: as a strong internal punctuation mark that indicates a long pause, and as a friendly, outgoing punctuation mark that introduces parts of a sentence. Examples: (1) The following creatures are all imaginary: vampires, werewolves, and zombies. (2) I explained again my reasons for not entering my bedroom: there were bloody footprints leading towards the door, I had heard strange sounds from inside the room, and there was a large sign on the door reading "Death to those who enter!" SEMI-COLON: USAGE The semi-colon is a strong, muscular punctuation mark; it holds two grammatically complete parts of a sentence together. Example: Yesterday I saw a vampire; it was standing in my front yard when I got home. This sentence could be rewritten as two separate, shorter sentences: Yesterday, I saw a vampire. It was standing in my front yard when I got home.

I got good marks on all my exams; therefore, I will graduate with high honours. The patient came in the emergency room; however, he left without information.

The semi-colon is also used to punctuate a series of phrases already containing commas, to avoid the confusing effect of too many commas in one sentence. Example: Samuel Beckett's play Waiting for Godot will be performed on Wednesday, May 9th, at 7:30 p.m.; on Thursday, May 10th, at 8:30 p.m.; on Friday, May 11th, at 2:00 p.m. and 8:30 p.m.; and on Saturday, May 12th, at 2:00 p.m, 5:00 p.m., and 9:30 p.m. SLASH (symbol / ): USAGE The slash is used between two words to indicate that either term is applicable. Example:

and/or

COMMA: USAGE Compound Sentence How do I use a comma with a compound sentence? Compound sentences contain two or more main clauses. Examples: (1) The murderer was in the room at that moment, but nobody knew it. (2) Leaves are falling, flowers are dying, and winter is coming.

Clauses: How do I use a comma with an adverbial clause? An adverbial clause tells why, when, where, how, who, and under what conditions the main event of the sentence took place. Example: My friend Sarah, desperate to finish her essay, stayed up until three a.m. (Q: Why did Sarah stay up until three a.m.? A: She was desperate to finish her essay.) My sister, determined to become an astronaut, is currently studying honours physics. An adverbial clause may begin with a subordinating conjunction--a word like when, because, if, and although. Example: When the murderer entered the room, I drew in my breath sharply., My sister is studying honours physics, since she is determined to become an astronaut.

I broke my arm in the spring of 1994, just before final exams.

Introductory Interjections An interjection is a short expression of reaction or response. An introductory interjection is placed at the beginning of a sentence. Examples: Oh, I didn't see you! Yes, I will be going to the show.

Conjunction Conjunctions are linking words: and, or, but, for, nor, so, then, and yet. Conjunctions fall into two categories: coordinating conjunctions, which link clauses or phrases of equal status, and subordinating conjunctions, which introduce sub ordinate clauses. Examples of coordinating conjunctions: The students thought that their grades were too low, and they complained to their professor. The mechanic was not competent, nor was he polite. The weather forecast was grim, so we packed extra sweaters and raingear. He was a brilliant researcher, yet he could not communicate his ideas effectively. Subordinating Conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions include because and if. These conjunctions do not need commas. Examples: She did well on the exam because she had studied assiduously. We will not go to the parade if it rains. COMMAS IN SERIES How do I use commas with items in a series? Use a comma to separate items in a series. Example: The Calgary summer is short, sunny, and windy. NOTE:

The comma before "and" is preferred, but not mandatory.

Use commas to separate two or more items modifying the same noun. Example: Calgarians eagerly await their short, sunny, windy summer. Misusing commas with items in a series... Do not place a comma before the first item in a series. Incorrect: In the picnic basket were, fresh bread, cold chicken, and three bottles of wine. Correct: In the picnic basket were fresh bread, cold chicken, and three bottles of wine. Do not place a comma after the last item in a series. Incorrect: Calgarians eagerly await their short, sunny, windy, summer. Correct: Calgarians eagerly await their short, sunny, windy summer.

Example 1: Without comma: Before leaving the soldiers demolished the fort. A comma is needed here to prevent confusion in interpreting the sentence. Without the comma, the reader might think that the soldiers were being left, rather than doing the leaving. The sentence might have gone on to end this way: "Before leaving the soldiers, I kissed them all goodbye". With comma: Before leaving, the soldiers demolished the fort.

Example 2: Without comma: As she was rising to speak her mind suddenly played a cruel trick and she forgot her speech. Is she going to "speak her mind"? The reader is likely to read the first part of the sentence this way, unless help arrives in the form of a comma. With comma: As she was rising to speak, her mind suddenly played a cruel trick and she forgot her speech. Example 3: Without comma: Shelley having drowned Byron presided over the

funeral ceremonies on the beach. Did Shelley drown Byron? If so, how could Byron preside over the funeral? With comma: Shelley having drowned, Byron presided over the funeral ceremonies on the beach. One final example: Consider this question, asked by one zoo-keeper to another: Without comma: Did the lion eat Fred? With comma: Did the lion eat, Fred? There is a crucial difference between the two sentences (especially to Fred). Never underestimate the power of a comma!