Ap Psychology Review 2016-2017.docx

AP PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2016-2017 Attribution Theory – tendency to give explanations for someone’s beh, often by crediting situation or person’s disposition Fundamental Attribution Thy – tendency to overestimate the impact of person’s disposition (or personality) and underestimate impact of situation Foot-in-the-Door Phem – tendency to comply w/ larger requests after responding to a smaller request Door in the face- Ask for large requests get a smaller prize (ask for car get bike) Zimbardo – Stanford Prison Experiment/Lucifer Effect – Roleplaying: People take on the role of what they feel are proper for the situation Cognitive Dissonance – people change their behavior to avoid looking discomfort in thinking. Person is against gay rights then becomes gay, he will change attitude to gay rights activist (created by Festinger) Asch – conformity – tendency to go along with the views and actions of others, even if you know they are wrong – line test Milgram – obedience – people tend to obey authority figures; 60% of participants thought they delivered the max possible level of shock (Most Controversial) Social Facilitation – improved performance in presence of others; easy tasks get easier as hard tasks get harder Social Loafing – in the presence of others, people tend to do less, partly because they believe others will do it Deindividualization – loss of self-awareness and self-restraint, typically in a sense of anomie (mob situation) Group Polarization – if a group is like-minded, discussion strengthens prevailing options and attitudes Groupthink – a mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decisionmaking overrules reality. Just-World Phenomenon – tendency of people to believe that the world is just and people get what they deserve and deserve what they get Social Traps – situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interests, become caught in mutually destructive behavior In-group – people with whom one shares a common identity with Out-group – those perceived as different from themselves Hindsight Bias – tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have predicted it beforehand and may contribute to blaming the victim and forming prejudices against him/her Social Desirability Bias- People in an experiment respond in a manner that will be viewed favorly by others.

Scapegoat theory- Prejudice offers an outlet to release anger by blaming someone. Prejudice – unjustifiable attitude towards a group and its members False-consensus Effect- the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors. Mere exposure effect – the repeated exposure to a stimulus will increase the liking of it Normative social influence- influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval (Asche) Informational social influence- influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality Altruism – unselfish regard for the welfare to others Bystander effect – tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present Reciprocity Norms – the expectation that we should return help, not harm to those who have helped us Social responsibility norm- help those in need Social exchange- Aim to maximize benefits and minimize costs. Gender schema theory- the theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly gender role-a set of expected behaviors for males and for females Gender Type- The process by which children acquire the values, motives, and behaviors considered appropriate for their gender in their particular culture Critical thinking- Examines assumptions, evaluates evidence, and access conclusions. Biological – explore the links between brain and mind Cognition – study how we perceive, think, and solve problems Humanistic – study that says that humans are basically good and possess a free-will Behavioral Perspective– study that says all beh. is observable. Psychoanalytic – study of the unconscious, includes childhood and aggression issues Sociocultural – study of how cultural and political experiences affect our life Evolutionary – study of the evolutionary of humans over time (from apes) Developmental – study of our changing abilities(cognitive, physical) from womb to tomb. Wilhelm Wundt – father of psychology, created first psychological laboratory Structuralism – analyze sensations, images, and feelings into their most basic elements Introspection – looking inward at one’s own mental processes (both structuralism and introspection created by Edward Titchener) William James – the brain and mind are constantly changing and created Functionalism. Mary Calkins- First women president of APA. Margaret Washburn- First women to receive PhD. Functionalism – underlying causes and practical consequences of certain behaviors and

mental strategies – “steam of consciousness” Sigmund Freud – founder of psychoanalysis Psychoanalytic Theory – all behavior is meaningful and driven by unconscious forces Applied Research – aims to solve practical problems Basic Research – pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base Hypothesis – is a testable prediction, often induced by a thy, to enable us to accept, reject, or revise the thy (educational guess) IV –a factor, manipulated by the experimenter, and whose effect is studies DV – a factor that may change in response to the IV Theory – is an explanation that integrates principles, organizes, and predicts beh or event Operational definition – a clear statement of what one is looking for in an experiment

TEST RELIABILITY TERMS* Validity – it measure what you want it to be measured Reliability – it is replicable and is consistent Content validity- the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest (such as a driving test that samples driving tasks). Split half reliability- Cutting test into two halves and giving those halves to two groups. Predictive Validity- to which a score on a scale or test predicts scores on some criterion measure (abilities) Construct Validity- how accurate the specific test is to measure what it is supposed to measure. (intelligence test)* Replication- Replicating research study using different people in different situations. Correlational study- involves assessing the degree of association between two or more variables or characteristics of interest that occur naturally. This type of research does not directly manipulate variables but rather observes naturally occurring differences. Does not prove causation. Sampling – process by which participants are selected Sampling bias-when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn, creates inaccurate generalizations about the population Population – the amount of participants that can be selected for the sample Representative sample – take the results from a smaller group and apply that to a larger group of people *** A test without standardization is useless***** Random sample – everyone has an equal chance of being selected for the experiment because the participants are chosen at random Control – group that does not take part in the critical part of the experimentation process, used as a comparison group

Experimenter bias – the experimenter, either unconsciously or consciously, affects the outcome of the experiment Single-blind procedure – the subjects do not know to what group they belong Double-blind procedure – neither the experimenter nor the subject knows to what group the subjects are in or who receives the placebo Hawthorne effect – if you know you’re being studied, you will act differently than you normally/typically would. Placebo effect- Experimental results brought by expectations alone. Placebo – sugar pill – something administered that has no real affect on the person other than what they think mentally Positive correlation – as one goes up, the other goes up Negative correlation – as one goes up, the other goes down Naturalistic observation – observing and recording beh in the wild/natural environment Mean – average of the scores – add them up and divide by total number of scores Median – middle score – when all scores are put numerically in order, the middle score Mode – the most frequently occurring score in the distribution Range – the lowest score subtracted from the higher score Standard Deviation – the average distance of scores around the mean z-score – a type of standard score that tells us how many standard deviation units a given score is above or below the mean for that group Myelin Sheath – a fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that speeds the neural impulse Axon – wire-like structure ending in the terminal that extends from the cell body Neurons – a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system Sensory Neurons (afferent) – neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors (nose, ears, hands) to the central nervous system Interneuron – central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and the motor outputs Motor Neurons (efferent) – neurons that carry incoming information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands Neurotransmitters – chemical contained in TERMINAL BUTTONS that enable neurons to communicate; they fit into the receptor site of neurons like a key fits into a lock. They are released at the SYNAPTIC VESSELS or SYNAPSES. Agonist – excite, by causing neurotransmitters to hit site multiple times(also mimics effects) Antagonists – inhibits, by blocking neurotransmitters CNS – the brain and spinal cord PNS – sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body Somatic NS – the division of the PNS that controls the body’s skeletal muscles

Autonomic NS – the part of the PNS that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs, like the heart Sympathetic NS – arouses the body(inhibits digestion, increase glucose, heart beat faster, norepinephrine and epinephrine released, bladder relaxed, pupil dilated) Parasympathetic NS – calms the body (contracts bladder + pupil) Pituitary gland – the endocrine system’s most influential gland, under the influence of the hypothalamus, this regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

BRAIN hypothalamus- sex drive, drug addiction, and fear and aggression. lateral hypothalamus- increases hunger through the release of hormone Orexin (Oreo) ventromedial hypothalamus- depresses hunger (leptin is right here and allows organism not to eat. rat experiment) EEG – an amplified recording of waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface, these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the skull PET – a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a certain task MRI – a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce a computer generated image that distinguishes between the types of soft tissue in the brain Ex: Doctor finds abnormality in brain tissue, doctor used a MRI to find out. FMRI- looks at the blood flow of the brain. Medulla – connected to the base of the brainstem, controls our blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing Reticular Formation – screens incoming info, and filters out irrelevant info, controls arousal and attention (when cut out, leads to coma)

Thalamus – the brain's sensory switchboard, senses everything except smell. Pons – above the medulla, makes chemicals involved w/ sleep & facial expressions Cerebellum – the little brain attached to the rear of the brainstem, controls coordination, fire muscles movements and balance (MOST LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS HERE)

cerebral cortex -the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; information-processing center and decision making center. (Human’s have largest of all animals) glial cells (glia)-cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons. Limbic System – associated with emotions like aggression and fear and drives such as hunger and thirst and sex (Hippocampus, Hypothalamus, and Amygdala) Amygdala – part of the limbic system that is involved in emotions, aggression, and fear Hypothalamus – controls the metabolic functions of body temp, sex arousal, hunger, thirst, motivation/emotions, and the endocrine system Hippocampus – part of the limbic system involved in learning and memory( INVOLVED WITH MAKING NEW MEMORIES!!!) Temporal Lobe – at side of brain above ears involved in memory, perception, hearing Occipital Lobe – lower back part of brain involved with processing visual info vision Peripheral Lobe – top of brain, discriminates between textures and shapes Frontal Lobe – located under forehead, involved with complex cognitive functions William Penfield – studied the effects of stimulation on the motor cortex Phineas Gage – known as the first lobotomy after a rod goes through his head; gives psych info on part of brain involved w/ emotions and reasoning Lobotomy- a now-rare psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves that connect the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers to the inner brain. associative areas- areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remember thinking, and speaking. Angular Gyrus-involved in reading aloud; receives visual information from the visual area and codes it in auditory form Broca’s Area – directs muscle movements involved with speech Wernicke’s Area – involved in language comprehension Plasticity – brain’s ability to modify itself after some kind of injury/illness (Growing new dendrites) Split Brain – corpus callosum cut, not allowing info to travel to other side of brain *If an image is projected to the left visual field of a split brained person it will be processed in the right visual cortex. Corpus Callosum – responsible for higher thinking function, connects two sides of brain *Patients with seizures have their corpus callosum cut.** Left Hemi – logical, sequential tasks, solving math problems, verbal logical Right Hemi – facial recognition, puzzle solver, emotional, artistic creative

Sensory Cortex – receives info from skin surface and sense organs Motor Cortex – controls voluntary movements, on opposite side of body, in frontal lobe Brain Stem- oldest part of the brain (also known as reptilian brain) Hindbrain – lower brain, located at rear base of skull, responsible for reflexive or automatic behaviors Forebrain – largest part of brain that controls what we think of as thoughts and reasons Midbrain – located above Pons, integrates and relay sensory info to main part of brain **Oldest to newest parts of Brain** Brain stem→ Limbic System→Cerebral Cortex Depolarization – this occurs when positive ions enter the neuron, making it susceptible to fire an action potential Refractory Period – After a neuron has fired an action potential, it pauses for a short period to recharge, until it will fire again Elaborative rehearsal- connecting new things to other things in the long term memory Threshold – the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse Action Potential – a neural impulse that travels down the axon. Resting potential- Negatively charged ions inside and positive outside All-or-none – when the depolarized current exceeds the threshold of a neuron, it will fire unless it’s below, causing is not to fire Reuptake – neurotransmitters reabsorbed by the terminal buttons of sending neuron Endorphins- produced in the brain, provides pain relief/ morphine/ runner’s high. Neurotransmitters and their diseases/side effects Acetylcholine – activates motor neurons and skeletal muscles, too little = Alzheimer’s Dopamine – contributes to voluntary movements and pleasurable emotions, lack of it causes Parkinson’s as too much causes schizophrenia Serotonin – involved in mood, regulation of sleep, appetite, and body temperature, to little leads to depression as too much contributes to OCD and mania Norepinephrine – affects memory, learning, and contributes to changes in mood, undersupply leads to depression Glutamate- involved in memory, oversupply leads to migraines/seizures (avoid msg) Medications/ Treatments SSRI- prozac, zoloft, treats depression. Thorazine and Clozapine- treats schizophrenia (Antipsychotics used to treat schizophrenia) Lithium Carbonate- treats bipolar/ manic depression Electroconvulsive Therapy- biomedical treatment; typically for severely depressed; brief, mild electric current is sent through the brain Top-down Processing – info processed guided by higher level mental processes, recognizing face & T/-\E C/-\T (I read ‘the cat’, no thinking) using context or experience to

understand something. Bottom-up Processing – analysis of the stimulus begins w/ the sense receptor and work up to brain, /-\ (I see something, oh it’s an A) (Start with the small pieces then piece together) JND – minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 % of the time Olfaction - smelling Cocktail Party Phem – focus of attention on selected aspects of the environment and block out the rest Retinal Disparity – comparing the information from each eyeball, the greater difference between the two images means they are closer Transduction – the conversation of one form of energy into another, translates the incoming stimuli into a neural signal

Vision Retina – process visual info into neural impulses (Transduction occurs here!!!) *Path neural impulse will take through Retina: Rods and Cones→ Bipolar cells→ Ganglion Cells→ Optic Nerve Cornea – protects and bends incoming light rays/focus Lens – focus light rays on the retina (accommodation) Iris – controls the pupil’s size Fovea – central point (only cones) and see color (VISUAL ACUITY BEST HERE) Pupil – adjusts opening to let in light Blind spot – point at which optic nerve leaves eye Optic nerve – carries neural impulse to the brain Rods – detect black, white, and gray and are on the side of eyes (peripheral and night vision) Cones – detect color (fine detail) (mainly located in fovea) Transduction- The process by which our sensory system converts stimulus energy into neural messages. Nearsightedness- nearby objects seen more clear, focuses image of distant objects in front of retina. “Can’t see far” Farsightedness- a condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina. Visual Capture- Tendency for vision to dominate the other senses. Pineal gland- produces melatonin Parallel Processing – the processing of several aspects of a problem, simultaneously Young-Helmholtz Theory – we have three types of cones in the retina: red, blue, green; we get other colors by mixing and lightening/darkening colors Opponent Process Theory – the sensory receptors arranged in the retina come in pairs: red/green, yellow/blue, and black/white based on AFTER IMAGES!

Afterimage – the firing of the cones used after viewing something steadily Visual Cliff – experiment to tell if a baby has a sense of depth (depth perception) Feature detectors- nerve cells in brain that respond to shape, movement, and color. Depth Perception: the ability to see objects in three dimensions. · Visual Cliff Studies (Gibson & Walk 1960) · Binocular Cues: cues to depth perception that comes from the use of eyes working together. o Retinal Disparity (comparing images from each eye needed for depth perception. 3D Movies) o Convergence Monocular Cues: cues to depth that can be perceived by either eye alone o Relative Size (The smaller the object the farther away it is) o Interposition o Relative Clarity (Hazy objects are farther away.) o Texture Gradient ( A gradual change from coarse to fine.) o Relative Height (Tall objects seem farther away) o Relative Motion or motion parallax (As we move, objects around us seem to move as well) o Linear Perspective (Railroad tracks seem to converge with distance.) o Light and Shadow Motion Perception: we see movement that is “actually” there · Phi Phenomenon: an illusion of movement created when two or more lights blink on and off in quick succession · Stroboscopic movement: perception of movement in series of still images flashed quickly in sequence Perceptual Constancy: Perceptions of characteristics of objects remain the same, even though sensory information changes. · Size Constancy: Objects closer to our eyes will produce bigger images on our retinas (and smaller distance) but we take distance into account in our estimations of size. Perceptual Set: predisposition to perceive one thing and not another, determined by schema. Mental set- Tendency to approach a problem in a way that it has always been successful to us. in the past. Intensity – loudness, measured in decibels Frequency - the pitch, a tone’s highness/lowness

Outer ear – sound waves collected - Source Ear canal Eardrum (thin membrane that vibrates when hit) Middle ear – transmits and amplifies the vibration - Hammer Anvil Stirrup Oval window Conductive hearing loss-Occurs when sound vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear are blocked Sensorineural loss- Hearing loss caused by damage to the inner ear or the nerve from the ear to the brain. Inner ear – change to neural impulse Cochlea -(snail shaped membrane filled w/ fluid that changes vibration to an electric symbol) *Path an auditory stimulus passes through- AUDITORY CANAL, EARDRUM, OSSICLES, OVAL WINDOW, COCHLEA. Frequency theory- Rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve. (High pitch) Place theory- pitch we hear is is where the cochlea's membrane is being stimulated. ( Low pitch) Sensory Deprivation – if one sense is deprived, another will become stronger, ie. blind people have very good hearing Sensory Adaption – after a while of constant stimulation, will stop detecting sense, ie. watch or candle burning Vestibular sense – sense of body position and movement, balance which is determined by the semicircular canals Perceptual Set – a mental predisposition to see one thing rather than another Gestalt – an organized whole, put all individual pieces together to get big picture (Perception) - Proximity – objects that are close together are more likely to be perceived as belonging in the same group - Similarity – objects that are similar in appearance are more likely to be perceived - Continuity – Objects that form a continuous form are more likely to be perceived - Closure – Objects that make up recognizable image are more likely to be perceived -Figure Ground Constancy – objects with similar size, shape and brightness are considered a set Grouping- Organize similar stimuli into coherent groups. *Metacognition – gain ability to think about the way you think/ self-evaluation Pavlov – founder of classical conditioning while trying to study digestive system Classical Conditioning – learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli NS – neutral stimuli – stimuli that does not trigger a response UCS – unconditioned stimuli – stimuli that automatically triggers a response

UCR – unconditioned response – an unlearned, natural response to the UCS CS – conditioned stimuli – after association with the UCS, elicits a certain response CR – conditioned response – the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus Acquisition – initial stage of CC, in which the association between the NS and UCS takes place, only lasts about ½ a second Generalization – tendency to respond to similar stimuli in the same way Discrimination – the learned ability to distinguish between the CS and other stimuli Spontaneous Recovery – the reappearing of the CR to the CS Extinction – the fading of the CR, when there is no UCS John Garcia – found the effects of radiation on rats (taste aversion) Operant Conditioning – consequences that follow a beh will increase/decrease likelihood of them happening again (behavior strengthened by reinforcer or weakened by punisher) Edward Thorndike- said that behavior that lead to positive outcomes are most likely to be repeated, and that responses followed by negative outcomes are not likely to be repeated. Skinner – founder of operant conditioning & SKINNER BOX Shaping – procedure in which reinforces behavior through successful approximations Positive Reinforcement – add good – reinforcing beh by rewarding, give allowance Negative Reinforcement – take away bad – reinforcing beh by eliminating averse thing (for example taking headache med so headache is taken away. Positive Punishment – add bad – reinforcing beh by adding pain/penalty/etc Negative Punishment – take away good – reinforcing beh by take away phone/keys/etc Primary Reinforcers – stimuli that is satisfying and requires no learning food/water/sex Secondary Reinforcers – stimuli that has acquired its reinforcing power thru experiences money, praise, grades. Reinforcement schedules Continuous – reinforce beh every time it happens (RATIO FOR NUMBER, INTERVAL FOR TIME) VARIABLE R – random number of responses slot machine FIXED R – after a set number of responses buy one get one free VARIABLE I – after a random amount of time fishing FIXED I – after a set rate of time paycheck every 2 weeks Social Learning- learning social behaviors by observing others. Albert Bandura: observational learning- allows you to profit immediately from the mistakes and successes of others; his experiment had adult models punching BoBo dolls and then observed children who watched begin to exhibit many of the same behaviors; social learning theory, and modeling.

BOBO dolls – after see a parent aggressive, child more likely aggressive – TV violence Flashbulb Memory – a clear memory of an emotionally significant event: 911, JFK Information processing theory Encoding – changing the info into storable content Storage – placing info into a storage spot for use later Retrieval – getting the info out of storage 3 Measures of Retention - Recall- a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier Ex: fill in the blank test -Recognition-a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned. Ex: Multiple choice test -Relearning- a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve – We lose most information we learn from the time we learn it, then gradually information is lost. . Primary sex characteristics- sex organs (Ovaries, penis) Secondary sex characteristics- pubic hair, breasts, adams apple. Serial Position effect – tendency to recall the first and last items of a list the best. Primary effect – tendency to recall the first terms of list Recency effect – tendency to recall the last terms of list Mnemonic Devices – ways of remembering info by using creative memory techniques Chunking – putting many number into parts, change 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 to 123, 465, 789 (made 9 things into 3 = easier to remember) Method of Loci- Remembering pieces of information and associating them with locations, familiar environments. Link method- Forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together. Peg Word System- can be used to memorize an ordered list of words or the specific numbers associated with the words. Usually rhymes. (one- bun, two- shoe, three- tree) Priming-the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory Sensory Memory – the immediate, very brief recording of sensory info Iconic – visual info/memory Echoic – auditory info/memory Token economy-an OPERANT conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats. Effortful processing- encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Three stage processing model- Sensory memory (brief recording of sensory info), STM – short term memory – temporary memory storage Capacity: 7 items; Length: Several seconds to a minute, LTM – long term memory – an almost endless amount of storage ability long-term potentiation- LTP; proLONGed strengthening of POTENTIAL neuron firing; by stimulating certain neural connections repeated, they become more efficient at releasing neurotransmitters; neural basis for LEARNING and memory Implicit – memory of the procedure – how to ride a bike Explicit – memory of facts – George Washington is first president Anterograde Amnesia – inability to make new memories, can remember old ones b4. Retrograde Amnesia – inability to remember memories prior to accident Infantile Amnesia – inability to remember anything before age of 3 People with Amnesia show damage to hippocampus Recall – retrieval of info already learned – fill in the blank test Recognition – identify info already learned – multiple choice Proactive interference – old info interfere w/ new info Retroactive interference – new info interfere w/ old info Repression – pushing a memory to the back of mind – cannot be retrieved Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – physiological needs (food, water) safety needs(security, shelter) belongingness needs (friends, family, community) esteem needs (achievement, flattery for mastery) self actualization!!!! Self-actualization – the motivation to achieve one’s full potential Sexual response cycle – by Masters and Johnson – Excitement Plateau Orgasm Resolution Refractory Period – the resting period after an orgasm in which one cannot be achieved Homeostasis – a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspects of body chemistry Stress – the process by which we respond to certain events that we appraise as threatening or challenging GAS – General Adaption Syndrome – made by Hans Selye responses to stress – alarm resistance, exhaustion (A.R.E.) Intrinsic motivation – desire to perform behavior for own sake Extrinsic motivation – desire to perform behavior for reward at end Bulimia – eating a large amount of food and then purging (barf) it up Anorexia – not eating food at all (starving) Obesity – overeating and gaining excessive amount of weight Drive reduction Theory – physiological need creates an aroused tension states (drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy that need

spillover effect-response to one event influences our response to another. James-Lange Thy – experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological response to emotionally arousing stimuli (stimuli then response then emotion) Cannon-Bard Thy – emotionally arousing stimuli simultaneously trigger both a physiological response and emotion (stimuli then response and emote) Schacter & Singer / 2 Factor Thy – emotion must be physically aroused and cognitively labeled before emotion (stimuli then response and label then emote) Signal detection theory- Predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (“signal”) amid a background stimulation (“noise”). Assumes that there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivations and levels of fatigue. Consciousness – our awareness of ourselves and our environment Conscious level – the info about yourself and your enviro. you are currently aware of Nonconscious level – body processes controlled by your mind that we are not aware of (heartbeat, respiration, and digestion) Preconscious level – info about yourself and environment that you are currently not thinking about Subconscious level – info that we are not completely aware of but we know exists due to our behaviors Unconscious level – reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories in which we are ashamed of.

Sleep Stage 1 onset of sleep; twilight; alpha waves Stage 2 small bursts of activities – SPINDLES, nonrem sleep Stage 3 sections of delta waves, hard to wake up, wet bed & sleep walk in 3&4 Stage 4 all delta waves – deep sleep, growth REM sleep rapid eye movement, paradoxical sleep, DREAMS. Nightmare – a scary dream that wakes up the child Night terror – a high-arousal dream that terrifies a child due to the fact that it occurs in Stage four sleep. Insomnia – recurring difficulties either falling asleep or staying asleep Narcolepsy – uncontrollable sleep attacks, person randomly collapses into REM sleep Sleep apnea – temporary cessations of breathing during sleep Somnambulism – sleep walking Dreams – “the highway to the unconscious”, sequence of images, emotions. Manifest Content – the storyline of the dream Latent Content – the underlying meaning of the dream

Hypnosis – a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) SUGGESTS to another person (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur Social inhibition- perform poorly in front of ppl. (avoid social interaction) Agonists – excite, by causing neurotransmitters to hit site multiple times Antagonists – inhibits, by BLOCKING neurotransmitters (curare) Delta waves - happens during deep sleep. Alpha waves- happen during awakened relaxed state Psychoactive drugs – a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood Drug Type Ingredients Meth stimulant meth/dopamine Cocaine* stimulant cocaine/dopamine Tobacco stimulant tobacco/dopamine Caffeine stimulant caffeine/dopamine Alcohol* depressant Barbiturates depressant tranquilizers Opium & Heroin depressant heroin/opium/dopamine LSD* hallucinogen LSD/serotonin Marijuana* hallucinogen dopamine/THC/anandamide Ecstasy* hallucinogen ecstasy/serotonin Tolerance – the diminishing effects with regular use of the same dose of a drug Withdrawal – the discomfort and distress that follows discontinuing the use of an addictive drug, usually cause a person to go back on drug Stimulants – drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions Depressants – drug that reduce neural activity and slow body functions ALCOHOL – a depressant ALWAYS, no matter the amount taken (will be on AP test!) Hallucinogens – psychedelic drug that distorts perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of a sensory input Opiates – opium and its derivatives, the depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety Temperament – a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity Heritability – the proportion of variation among individual that can attribute to genes Culture – the enduring behaviors, ideas, values, attitudes, and traditions shared by a grp Norm – an understood rule by society for accepted and expected behavior Individualism – giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identification (U.S.) Collectivism-giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly

Spearman – proposed that general intelligence is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis (he made up factor analysis) Emotional intelligence- created by Daniel Goleman, ability to manage emotions and empathize with others. Factor analysis – a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test Gardner – wanted to broaden definition of intelligence, created 8 types of intelligence (Logical-Mathematical, Linguistic, Musical, Spatial, body-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (self), interpersonal (others), and naturalist) Sternberg – created his three types of intelligences (analytical, creative, and practical) Binet – published first useful test of general mental ability; broke kids up into ‘bright’ and ‘dull’ by how they compared with both their chronological age and mental age Terman – revised Binet’s test, and called it the Stanford- Binet test. Wechsler – WAIS – study personal strengths and weaknesses in 11 different subjects IQ formula – Mental age/Chronological age x 100 (autism less than 70) Achievement Test – designed to determine what an individual has learned Aptitude Test – designed to predict one’s capacity to learn in the future Latent Learning- learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Incentives- Anything that motivates you to do a behavior, whether it be positive or neg. Cognitive map- a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned its layout. Divergent thinking – Thinking of multiple, creative answers. Convergent thinking – Thinking very logically, only one answer. Nature v Nurture – the debate of whether you are shaped by your environment or genes FAS – fetal alcohol syndrome – physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking Habituation- decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus their interest wanes and they look away sooner Newborn reflexes Rooting Reflex – when touched on the cheek, a baby will turn its head and seek a nipple Moro Reflex – when feeling like it is falling, baby flings limbs (arms) out and slowly retract them Babinski Reflex – when a baby’s foot is stroked, he/she will spread their toes Sucking Reflex – when an object is placed into baby’s mouth (roof of mouth is touched), the infant will suck on it Grasping Reflex – if an object is placed into baby’s balm (or if palm is stroked), the baby will try to grasp it Reflex- Inborn response (knee jerk)

Schemas-a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information Assimilation-interpreting one's new experience from one's existing schemas Accommodation-adapting current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new info. Crystallized intelligence – one’s accumulated knowledge & verbal skill, increase with age Fluid intelligence – one’s ability to reason speedily & abstractly, decrease with age Harry Harlow – created the Harlow monkey experiment, raise baby monkey’s w/ a wire mother and bottle vs. a terry cloth mother, most monkey’s liked the comfort rather than the food and necessary needs provided by the other mother Mary Ainsworth – studied how different attachment styles affected kids Secure attachment – confidently explore the novel environment while parents are present, are distressed when they leave, and come to parents when they return Avoidant attachment – may resist being held by parent and will explore the novel environment. They do not go to parent for comfort when they return after absence Anxious attachment – have ambivalent reactions to parents. They may show extreme stress when parents leave, but upon return resist being comforted by parent Trait theory- describe the characteristics that make up human personality in an effort to predict future behavior.

Types of Parenting created by Baumrind Authoritarian – set strict standard & apply punishment for violations of rules Permissive – do not set clear guidelines for kids & randomly enforce rules Authoritative – have set standards, but able to explain them with kids when broken, encourage independence, but not too strict on punishments

Erik Erikson’s Stage of Development Trust v Mistrust – birth to one year, infancy – if needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust Autonomy v shame/doubt – age 1 to age 2, toddlerhood – learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities Initiative v guilt – age 3 to 5, preschooler – learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent Competence v inferiority – age 6 to puberty, elementary school – learn the pleasures of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior Identity v role confusion – teen years to early 20s, adolescence – work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are Intimacy v isolation – 20s to early 40s, young adulthood – struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel isolated Generativity v stagnation – 40s to 60s, middle adulthood – people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they feel a lack of

purpose for their life Integrity v despair – late 60s to death, late adulthood – when reflecting on their life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure

Jean Piaget’s Development Stages Sensorimotor – birth to 2 years of age, experience world through senses and actions, learn object permanence and stranger anxiety Preoperational – 2 to 6 years of age, representing things with words rather than images, use intuitive rather than logical thinking, very egocentric (only see from own view) Concrete operational – from ages 7 to 11, think logically about concrete events, grasp concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations, learn conservation Formal operational – from age 12 through adulthood, they begin to think abstractly, they understand abstract logic and potential for mature moral reasoning

Kohlberg’s Moral Thinking Preconventional – obey in order to avoid punishment or get reward - in the case of stealing medicine in order to save the life of your wife, someone with this morality would say … no, I don’t want to get in trouble Conventional – care for others and uphold laws and social rules simply b/c they are laws - … no, it is illegal to steal and I don’t want to break a law Postconventional – affirm people’s agreed-upon rights or follow what one personally perceives as correct or ethically ok - … yes, my wife needs it and a whole life is much more worth the $50 the medicine costs, in truth, I would be doing what anyone would do

Freud's Psychosexual stages* Oral – infant seeks pleasure through their mouths Anal – toilet training, pleasure in controlling. Phallic – realize their gender, love mother, hate father Latency – repress sexual urges to work w/ everyone (dormant) Genital – pleasure in genitals and sex, last for rest of life.* Oedipus complex – boys desire to have sex with their mom Electra complex – same as Oedipus, but girl wants her dad. Inductive Reasoning- Start small go big (Making generalizations). Deductive Reasoning- Start big go small. Fixate – if a problem occurs in one stage, similar problems may come up later in life, ie. Smoking is an oral fixation, due to a lack of pleasure in oral stage Representative Heuristics – judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent/match particular prototype, ie. a short, slim, poetry reading man is a ivy league professor, not a truck drive (don’t think of the many truck drivers compared to the small number of ivy league professors)

Available Heuristics – estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory, ie. after a horrible house fire, a person will think that a house fire is more common than a tornado hitting house. Heuristic- simple thinking strategy to solve a problem. Fixation- can’t see problem in a new way. Functional Fixedness – the inability to see the different uses of an object, ie. a paper clip’s only use is to clip papers (don’t think about making it into a hook, etc.) Noam Chomsky – People have an inborn ability to learn language Benjamin Whorf – linguistic determination – language determines the way we think Babbling Stage – the stage of speech development in which an infant utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language One-word Stage – the stage of speech development during which a child speaks mostly in single words, from age 1 to 2 Two-word Stage – beginning at age 2, child speaks mostly in two word statements Telegraphic Stage – early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram (go car) using mostly nouns and verbs, omitting auxiliary words Morpheme- smallest unit of meaning (Walked -the “ed” means in the past) Phoneme- smallest unit of sound. “ch” Personality – an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting Type A – hard-driving, aggressive, anger-prone people (get more heart problems) Type B – easygoing, relaxed people Free association – unscripted, uncensored talking, which is supposed to provide clues to the unconscious parts of the mind Id – contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that strives for basic sexual and aggressive drives, immediate gratification (devil) Pleasure principle – id operated on this – strive for pleasure, at all costs Ego – the largely conscious, executive part of personality that mediates between the demands of the id, superego, and reality Reality principle – ego operates on this – u can’t always get what u want, realistically Superego – the part of the personality that represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgments and for future aspirations (angel) Defense Mechanisms – ego’s productive method of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality Repression – pushing bad thoughts to back of mind, forgetting (Oh, I forgot) Displacement – taking you anger out on someone else (man/wife/boss) Projection – pushing your own feelings on to someone else (you look tired) Reaction Formation – showing the opposite feeling you have (I hate you) Regression – going back to an earlier stage of development (temper tantrum)

Rationalization – giving reasons why you did what you did (well, I was very tired) Sublimation – putting bad urges into acceptable social ways (boxing/football) Horney – Neo-Freudian feminist Penis Envy – a women’s want for the man’s power (not necessary the actual body part) Womb Envy – a man’s want to be able to reproduce Humanism – all humans are basically good and have free will Rogers – people are genuine, accepting, and empathic Self-concept – all our thoughts are feelings about ourselves in answer to the question, “Who am I?” We strive to form a positive one. The difference between a real self and ideal self will form your self-concept Real self – who you really are, in terms of personality Ideal self – who you want to be, your perfect version Unconditional Positive Regard – an attitude of total acceptance towards another person Trait Theory – study, define, and track one’s traits over their lifetime, they don’t care about the why, just what they are Trait – a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel or act, as assessed by self-reporting inventories and peer reports

OCEAN -Conscientiousness – ORGANIZED, careful, and disciplined -Agreeableness – Soft-hearted, trusting, and helpful -Neuroticism (emot.) – Calm, secure, and self-satisfied -Openness – Imaginative, curious -Extraversion – Sociable, outgoing, and affectionate Projective Tests – are personality tests that provide ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projections of one’s inner dynamics Rorschach Inkblot – most widely used projective test, series of ten inkblots, participant looks at inkblot and says what he sees TAT – participant is given a picture and they must make up a story about the picture MMPI – the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders, this test is now used for many other screening purposes Internal Locus of Control – the perception that one can control their own faith External Locus of Control – the perception that one’s fate is controlled by an outside force and that they have no control over it Carl Jung – unconscious is really powerful, but contains more that bad thoughts, etc. Collective Unconscious – Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history

Neo-Freudian – followers of Freud who broke off due to his emphasis on childhood memories and sexually and aggressive urges Self-efficacy – how capable we think we are in controlling event, determined by previous events, comparisons w/ others abilities, listening what others say about our capabilities, and feedback from body Learned Helplessness – when unable to avoid repeated adverse events, the person/animal feels helpless and will not try any more to avoid/escape Inferiority Complex – the avoiding of feelings of inadequacy and insignificance Spotlight Effect – the tendency to overestimate others’ noticing and evaluating our appearances, performances, and blunders Self-serving Bias – a readiness to perceive oneself favorably. Credit for our successes but blame others for our failures. Confirmation bias-a major obstacle to problem solving is out eagerness to search for information that confirms our ideas Belief bias- the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid Belief perseverance -clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited Psychological Therapies Biomedical Therapy- prescribed medication or medical procedures that act directly on brain or Central Nervous System. Psychoanalysis- created by Sigmund Freud, which included the following terms: a) Free association: Say whatever comes to mind, no matter how embarrassing it may seem. b) Resistance: Blocks in the flow of your free association. c) Transference: When the client is angry at his/her Therapist, and is seen as transferring his/her feelings from other relationships. Client Centered therapy- a humanistic therapy developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses active listening (repeating and restating what patient says) within a genuine, accepting, and empathetic environment. G.A.E. (GAY) Rational-emotive therapy- comprehensive, active-directive, philosophically and empirically based psychotherapy which focuses on resolving emotional and behavioral problems, disturbances and irrational beliefs. (created by Albert Ellis) Eclectic approach-an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy. Behavior therapy- therapy that eliminates unwanted behavior. a) Counterconditioning- A behavior therapy procedure that includes:

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Exposure therapies: Systematic desensitization, uses gradually increasing anxiety triggering stimuli to treat phobias. - Aversive Conditioning: Associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior(alcoholism) Cognitive-behavior therapy-a popular integrated therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior) family therapy-therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by or directed at other family members; attempts to guide family members toward positive relationships and improved communication Group Therapy - Psychotherapy conducted with at least three or four non-related individuals who are similar in some area, such as gender, age, mental illness, or presenting problem. Bipolar mood disorder- Person experiences manias and periods of Depression Dysthymia disorder- A mild but long form of depression.

Anxiety disorders: Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Constant generalized anxiety with no trigger. Symptoms: Worry, muscular tension, agitation, sleeplessness Groups at risk: Women are twice as prone to G.A.D. as men. Panic Disorder (PD): Recurrent Un-cued panic attacks Panic attack: An episode of immense fear of imminent doom. Cued vs. Un-cued panic attacks: Response to stimuli vs. unprovoked fear Agoraphobia: Fear of open spaces (not having help if/when having a panic attack in public) Phobias: Focused anxiety towards a specific situation/thing. Social phobia (a.k.a. Social Anxiety Disorder): intense fear of being judged by others Symptoms: Behavioral: Avoiding social situations Physical: Sweating, trembling, and diarrhea when speaking publicly etc. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) 3 most common obsessions: 1. Concerns with germs 2. Fear of terrible things 3. Exactness/order 3 most common compulsions: 1. Checking 2. Cleaning 3. Repetitive rituals Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Symptoms: Jumpiness, haunting memories/nightmares, social withdrawal, insomnia What traumatizes us? 1. Combat (Long-term high stress situation, death of comrades) 2. Disasters (Death of a loved one or friend) 3. Sexual Assaults Antisocial person. disorder- sociopath or psychopath. Somatoform disorder- A condition where there is no physiological basis. for example, a person experiences a loss of sensation in their right arm, so she goes to the doctor and he/she determines that the person does not have anything wrong with the body… Dissociative fugue- Have no memory of your identity. ( Can happen anytime) Absolute threshold- the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time (sound, light, taste) Subliminal- Below one's absolute threshold for constant awareness. Yes we can perceive them but there is no scientific evidence they can persuade us Weber’s Law- The principle that to perceive their difference, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percent rather than a constant amount. Set point-the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. industrial-organizational psychology -the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behaviour in workplaces Theory X -workers are basically lazy, error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money, and should be directed from above. Theory Y - given challenge and freedom, workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem and to demonstrate their competence and creativity. Reciprocal determinism -the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors. ( quiet person studies in the library, and extraverted person goes to parties) Self reference effect- is a tendency for people to encode information differently depending on the level on which the self is implicated in the information. When people are asked to remember information when it is related in some way to the self, the recall rate can be improved. Tardive dyskinesia- involuntary movements of the facial muscles, tongue, and limbs. NEUROLEPTICS IS A TYPE OF MEDICATION THAT HAS INCLUDES TARDIVE DYSKINESIA AS A SIDE EFFECT. Meta-analysis-procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies Cross Sectional- in this study people of different ages are compared with one another. Longitudinal Study-a type of study in which one group of subjects is followed and observed (or examined, surveyed, etc) for an extended period of time (years)

Survey – a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions, or beh of people in a questionnaire. Case Study- Studies an individual in depth Gate control theory- The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. Overjustification Effect- The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already enjoys. ***Given variance, find standard deviation**** Variance= 100 Standard deviation= square root of variance=10!! Descriptive statistics are more appropriate for summarizing, organizing, characterizing data/sample. Students can list/imply a relevant statistic (e.g., mean, variability, correlation). Inferential statistics are more appropriate for comparing differences OR finding statistical significance OR drawing conclusions OR interpreting OR finding if events happened by chance. State-dependent memory is the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed. Episodic memory- memory of memorable, autobiographical events (trip to paris) Statistically significant- statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. Arousal theory- optimal performance occurs with moderate levels of arousal Debriefing-Informing participants about the true nature of a experiment after its completion. Superordinate goals- requiring the work of everyone in a team 2 achieve a goal. Eysenck personality- (ENP) Extraversion/Introversion, Neuroticism/Stability, Psychoticism/Socialisation Conversion disorder- Person has sudden blindness without any biological explanation. Psychophysics- first psychology to be studied when light energy hits retina the cones and rods activate the bipolar cells *Burn your hand on oven pan your hand moves away due to initiation from spinal cord Deep structure- grammatical, syntax structure of the sentence, how the abstract meanings of sentences relate to each other(Chomsky) empiricism- knowledge comes from the senses and that science should be based on experiments and observations alone. Social Clock- Society’s expectation of the timing of certain events. (marriage, parenthood) Self concept- a sense of one’s identity. imprinting- When animals form attachments during critical period early in life. Basic Trust- Erikson says that world is trusting- infants gain this while having responsible and loving parents.

Framing effect- Something worded to appeal to our interests/ advertisements Misinformation effect- is the tendency of eyewitnesses to an event to incorporate misleading information about the event into their memories. At the heart of many false memories, source amnesia refers to misattributing an event to the wrong source. Down syndrome- one extra chromosome Paul ekman- he developed 6 basic emotions: sadness, happiness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust. Speedy low road- fear goes through Thalamus then amygdala bypass cortex Thinking high road- Thalamus, sensory cortex, prefrontal cort, amygdala Carroll Izard-found 10 emotions joy, excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, guilt Catharsis-emotional release, releasing aggressive energy relieves aggressive urges ex: working out, punching a pillow, crying Adaptation-level phenomenon-our tendency to form judgments defined by our experiences. Relative deprivation-the perception that one is worse of relative to those we compare ourselves to.