Animal Behaviour.docx

Biology F215 Revision Animal Behaviour Key Words Key words

Definition

Adaptive behaviour

Behaviour that increases the chances of an organism’s survival into adulthood

Addictive behaviour

Behaviours such as smoking and gambling, thought to be more likely in the presence of the DRD4 receptor gene

ADHD

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

Classical conditioning

A form of learning in which two unrelated stimuli are applied to an animal, one a ‘normal response’ (for example salivation in the presence of food) another unrelated (for example the ringing of a bell). After repeated exposure to both stimuli together the animal will eventually respond with the normal response to the unrelated stimulus

Conditioned reflex

A reflex in which an animal has learned to respond to a different stimulus from the one that normally elicits a response

DRD4

One of five genes that code for dopamine receptor molecules

Fixed action patterns

Instinctive behavioural responses to stimuli leading to a fixed pattern of neuronal output

Habituation

A learned behaviour. With repeated exposure animals learn to ignore stimuli that lead to neither reward or punishment

Hierarchy

A social grouping in which individuals have a place in the order of importance within the group

Imprinting

Young animals becoming associated with another organism – usually the parent

Innate behaviour

A behaviour that an animal is capable of from birth without any learning or practice

Insight learning

Regarded as the highest form of learning. Based on the ability to think and reason in order to solve problems

Kineses

Orientation behaviours where the rate of movement increases when an organism is in unfavourable conditions

Latent (or exploratory) learning

Learning by exploration of new surroundings and retaining information that may be of later use

Learned behaviour

Animal responses that change or adapt with experience

Longitudinal study

An investigation in which the same individuals are studied repeatedly over a long period of time

OCD

Obsessive-compulsive disorder. Thought to result from a deficiency in the levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin

What is ethology? -

Ethology is the study of how patterns of behaviour adapt organisms to their environment

o

It is a descriptive field study approach 

Was replaced by behavioural ecology which assumes that optimal behaviour increases fitness

What is psychology? -

Psychology is the study of how animals learn new patterns of behaviour o

It is a laboratory based approach

What is behaviour? -

Behaviour is an organism’s response to changes in its environment (stimuli) that help it survive o

It may be innate or learned 

Both genes and the environment play a part in influencing behaviour

What is innate behaviour? -

Innate behaviour is any animal response that occurs without the need for learning o

A pattern of inherited, pre-set behaviour that does not require learning or practise

o

It is instinctive 

o

Allows organism to respond to a stimulus without prior experience of it

It is stereotyped 

Performed in the same way every time

o

Similar in all members of a species

o

Genetically determined so it can be passed on to offspring via reproduction 

Only survives if it does not confer a selective disadvantage to the species

What are the advantages and disadvantages of innate behaviour? -

Can be used immediately (no learning required) and may ensure survival

-

Important if organism has a short life span with little/no opportunity for learning o

-

E.g. if solitary, no parental care or no overlap of generations

May not be the best response o

Inflexible and cannot be altered by experience in response to a changing environment

What involves innate behaviour? -

Includes simple orientation behaviours such as kineses and taxes o

It can be a simple reflex action or a more complex set of behaviours carried out in a fixed sequence (Fixed Action Pattern)

What is kineses? -

A kinesis is an orientation behaviour where the rate of movement increases when the organism is in an unfavourable environment

o

The behaviour is non-directional 

For instance woodlice avoid predation by living in damp, dark areas 

If placed in dry/bright conditions they move rapidly and randomly until they are in a more suitable conditions

What is taxes? -

A taxis is a directional orientation response o

It can be positive (towards stimulus) or negative (away from stimulus)

-

Phototaxis is a response to light

-

Chemotaxis is a response to a specific chemical 

For instance the female silk moth (Bombyx mori) produces a pheromone that attracts the male by chemotaxis over large distances

What are reflex actions? -

They are responses which are controlled by the autonomic nervous system are reflex actions o

They are rapid, automatic, involuntary responses 

They are innate responses that are not learned 

They have the same response each time o

Important for safety/survival 

Some are under voluntary control in adults e.g. emptying of bladder/defaecation

What are escape reflexes? -

Many animals have an escape reflex to avoid predators o

They are involuntary responses that follow a specific pattern 

For instance Kangaroo rats leap when they hear a rattling sound to try to avoid a rattlesnake

What is a Fixed Action Pattern (FAP)? -

FAP’s are stereotyped, fixed sequence of behaviours to a particular stimulus o

They are also species-specific

-

They are innate (genetically determined) and not usually modified by learning o

Once started the FAP must run their course and be completed even if circumstances change 

E.g. spider making a cocoon for its eggs



E.g. A female sand wasp dig a nest then goes and hunts for prey, e.g. caterpillar, when it returns to the nest with paralysed prey, it leaves it at the entrance of the nest whilst it inspects nest, then retrieves prey. It then lays an egg next to prey in chamber of nest 

If prey is moved away from the nest during inspection stage the wasp will retrieve prey but will still inspect the nest again before dragging prey in

What examples are there of complex innate behaviour? -

The waggle dance is used by worker honey bees to communicate the direction and distance of a food source – an example of complex behaviour in invertebrates

A summary of innate behaviour -

Innate behaviour is a pattern of inherited, pre-set behaviour that does not require learning or practice

-

A reflex action is one in which a particular stimulus brings about an automatic response

-

Most behaviours are the result of genetically-determined features of the NS interacting with the environment in which the animal developed

-

Innate, stereotyped patterns of behaviour can be modified by experience

What is learned behaviour? -

Learned behaviour refers to any animal responses that change or adapt with experience o

It shows a change or adaptation in response to experience 

The organism acquires behaviour pattern during its lifetime 

-

Depends upon the interaction of genes and environment o

-

Can adapt an organism to a changing environment

See variation in response amongst members of a species

Ability to learn is inherited but not the behaviour which cannot be passed on to offspring via reproduction 

May be passed on to offspring by teaching 

E.g. from observing and copying other members of its family or social group (cultural or observational learning)

What are the differences between innate and learned behaviour? -

Innate behaviour o

Stereotyped



Not modified by experience 

Not adaptable and flexible o

-

Genetically determined

Learned behaviour o

Not stereotyped 

Modified by experience 

Adaptable and flexible o

Ability to learn is inherited but not the behaviour

What is learning? -

Learning is a durable and usually adaptive change in an animal’s behaviour traceable to a specific experience in the individual’s life o

Or, more simply, it is a change in behaviour as the result of experience

What is the modification of behaviour patterns? -

It is the ability to learn and modify patterns of behaviour by experience which has adaptive advantages o

-

There may be narrow developmental time window in which learning can occur

This is an example of learned behaviour o

Learned behaviour is not innate, it is modified in response to experience 

It allows adaptation to a changing environment 

It is found in organisms with a longer life span (so time to learn) o

Where there is parental care or time spent with other members of the species, in order to learn from them

What examples of learned behaviour are there? -

Habituation o

An animal can learn not to respond to a stimulus that is neither beneficial nor harmful 

It allows an animal to ignore irrelevant stimuli and to allocate time and energy more efficiently 

For example when a nestling bird sees a shadow passing overhead, it first hides in fear of a bird of prey flying over o

-

In time, the young bird learns that some shadows come from its parent flying back to feed it, and some shadows are simply nonthreatening

Imprinting o

A form of learning in which a young animal becomes associated with (imprinted on) another organism usually the parent 

Allows the young to learn new skills from parent e.g. appropriate type of organism for mating, song call



Closely associated with innate behaviour o

Tendency to imprint is innate 

o

Only occurs within a narrow developmental period (sensitive period), often soon after birth or hatching 

Usually irreversible 

e.g. goslings imprint on first moving object o



e.g. If a male bird does not sing the correct species-specific song (if did not hear song as a nestling) it may be unable to find a mate

Conditioning o

Many reflex actions are innate 

Others can be modified by experience - conditioned reflex 

o

It is a simple form of learning

Is it involuntary or conditioned? 

Laughing gull chicks learn by sight to rotate their heads so it is easier for the parents to feed them 

If they are fed in the dark then they do not rotate their head when begging for food o

-

By three days old goslings are already imprinted

If the organism receives the wrong imprint it can affect survival and ability to reproduce 

-

Begging for food is involuntary reflex but rotating the head is a conditioned reflex (must be learnt)

Classical and operant conditioning can both be described as associative learning o

In classical conditioning the subject associates two stimuli (short-lived conditioned response)

o

In operant conditioning the subject associates a stimulus with a response (long lived conditioned response)

-

Uses the association areas of the brain

-

Classical conditioning o

Animal passively learns to associate a neutral stimulus with an important one 

Involuntary, temporary and reinforced by repetition 

-

The object the response is directed towards is the imprinting stimulus

Operant conditioning

For instance the work of Ivan Pavlov – the classical conditioning in dogs

o

Can also be called Trial and error learning

o

The animal actively learns to associate an action with a reward (so action repeated) or punishment (so action not repeated) 

A Reward or punishment acts as a reinforcer of the behaviour 

Burrhus Skinner investigated operant conditioning in pigeons and rats (using the Skinner box) o

Initially the animal accidentally presses the lever which results in a reward 

The reward provides positive reinforcement 

Leads to repetition of the behaviour (lever pressing) o

It is a voluntary response 

o

Is the unconditioned behaviour voluntary? 

o

o

Involuntary - Classical

Is a reward or punishment involved? 

o

Voluntary - Operant

Is the unconditioned behaviour involuntary? 

o

Operant

How many stimuli are involved? 

One - Operant



Two - Classical

Uses of conditioning 

Training animals 

-

Learnt to associate the operation with the reward

E.g. dogs where reward is attention from owners/treat



Purchase of a product in response to advertising



Treatment of phobias

Latent (exploratory) learning o

Observational (or cultural) learning 

o

Ability of young animals to learn by observing others

Latent (or exploratory) learning 

Animals will explore new surroundings and retain information about the surroundings for future use 

E.g. young rabbits explore area around burrow – may need knowledge to escape a predator

-

Insight learning o

Most complex form of learned behaviour 

Problem-solving behaviour using observations and previous experiences 

Solution not achieved by trial and error but based upon putting together actions from two or more different sources o

o

Wolfgang Kohler conducted research into insight learning in chimpanzee 

o

Once solved the solution is remembered

Chimpanzees stacked boxes in order to reach bananas

Is insight learning evidence of rational thinking? 

With chimps it is easy to anthropomorphise 

Evidence is often anecdotal, involving a description of behaviour in a few individuals and cannot be repeated

What happens in primates? -

Most primates live in family groups o

Young remain in group until they reach sexual maturity 

A hierarchy exists within the group where individuals have a different status and role within the group 

-

This social organisation protects all group members

They have a highly developed cerebral cortex – involved in social development and interaction

What is social behaviour? -

Social behaviour refers to the behaviour of organisms of a particular species living together in groups with relatively defined roles for each member of the group o

It is important in primates due to extended dependency period of offspring 

Also exists in other animals 

Arises when benefits of group living outweigh the costs

Why do primates have extended care of young? -

Primate gestation periods are relatively short, so the skull is small enough to pass down the birth canal o

Once born there is a lengthy period of development when infant is dependent on parental care 

This allows the brain to develop and provides time to acquire all learned behaviours necessary for survival

What is carry behaviour? -

Primates are born less mature and spend first part of lives in constant contact with mother

-

Aids learning and social development

What is follow behaviour? -

In other species, young are born more fully developed and can be left or are quickly able to follow mother

What is the social organisation in gorillas? -

Mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla beringei) live in stable family groups (troops) of around 10 individuals o

There is one mature dominant male (a silverback) who protects group, leads search for food and mates with mature females 

Several adult females and their offspring 

All young males and most young females leave group when they reach sexual maturity o

The sexually mature males would cause conflict with dominant silverback male 

It also helps to promote greater genetic variation by avoiding inbreeding

What is the social behaviour in gorillas? -

Grooming o

-

Reinforces relationships

In first 12 months, young are cared for by the mother o

Mother provides protection

-

Infants learn social and other skills, to allow them to live independently

-

From 2 years, juvenile gorillas play together and imitate adult behaviour e.g. whilst foraging for food

-

From 3 years, silverback protects young from older males and is important in teaching new skills

-

Gorillas rely on calls and facial expressions for communication

What are the advantages of social behaviour in gorillas? -

Female gives birth to one or a few infants at a time

-

Survival rates are higher due to maternal care and group protection

-

Young learn through observation and play (cultural learning)

-

Important to acquire skills e.g. for foraging, that are necessary for survival

-

Group protection allows time for brain to develop allowing the acquisition of more learned behaviours

-

Knowledge of food sources and foraging skills e.g. use of tools is shared within group

-

Greater ability to detect and deter predators within group

What is dopamine? -

Dopamine acts as a hormone and as a neurotransmitter o

o

Hormone: 

Produced in hypothalamus and inhibits release of prolactin from anterior pituitary



Dopamine is also a precursor of adrenaline and noradrenaline

Neurotransmitter: 

Low levels of dopamine 

Associated with Parkinson’s o



Treated using the dopamine precursor L-dopa

High levels of dopamine 

Associated with mental health conditions, e.g. schizophrenia, compulsive gambling

What is the role of dopamine? -

Dopamine has many diverse roles o

It increases general arousal and decreases inhibition

o

It also has a role in the control of motivation and learning

What are the receptors for dopamine? -

Dopamine exerts its effects by binding to a receptor o

There are five types of receptors (DRD1-5), coded for by different genes, lead to different cellular responses 

A large number of variants of DRD4 exist, e.g. differing in the number of tandem repeats (2-11) of a 48bp sequence



Some variants are implicated in certain human behavioural conditions, e.g. ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), autism and bulimia nervosa linked to 7R variant



Certain variants of DRD4 are also implicated in various addictive behaviours, e.g. gambling, smoking 

One study compared effects of administering L-dopa and haloperidol (blocks dopamine receptors) o

How is ADHD treated?

Observed difference in risk-taking levels of individuals

-

ADHD is treated with the drug Ritalin, that lowers dopamine levels in brain

-

The brain scan to the right shows the differences in activity between someone without ADHD and another person with ADHD

Do any other neurotransmitters affect behaviour? -

OCD (Obsessive Compulsive Disorder) is thought to result from low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin