Unit 3 Amazon drought (Greenpeace) The Amazon rainforest is suffering one of the worst droughts for decades. Dozens of river boats lie stranded on the river banks. Communities are cut off because boats are unable to navigate the shrunken river. This barge with a car on board has been stuck on the sand for two months. Tens of thousands of Amazon fish are already dead and many more face suffocation because of low oxygen levels in the water. Flocks of vultures gather to feed on the carcasses. The bodies of river dolphins are washed up on the shore: with no fish left to feed on, they too are victims of the relentless drought. Fisherman Raimundo Nonato and his family search for water which is safe to drink; he says the drought has made reaching neighbouring communities difficult. Deforestation is responsible for a quarter of global greenhouse gases. Up to 75 percent of Brazilian emissions come from cutting down and burning the forest to make way for cattle ranching and Soya plantations. Fewer trees mean less moisture rises into the air; this in turn reduces the clouds which drop rain back into the forest. It’s a vicious circle and scientists say the drought in the Amazon has come much sooner than expected. A team from Greenpeace has been working in the droughtstricken areas of the Amazon. They’ve seen for themselves the effects of extreme weather. Campaigners say the only way to slow down climate change in the region is to stop further destruction of the Amazon forest. “The rainfall production of the Amazon depends on the forest. Amazon deforestation and burnings reduce the formation of clouds and the rain in the region and are the main contribution of Brazil (?) to global warming. It’s necessary to halt Amazon deforestation right now but it’s also very important that developed nations reduce their greenhouse gas emissions; if not this drought that affects dramatically the lives of hundreds and thousands of human beings will be the scenario we’ll have more frequently in the future.” Some scientists are linking climate change with the current severe dry spell in the Amazon; they say that global warming will continue to reduce rainfall in the area. The twin threats of deforestation and greenhouse gases mean the Amazon may suffer more droughts in the future.
Water in Bangladesh Earth Report, BBC World
The people of Bangladesh live intimately with water. Situated at the confluence of great rivers – the Brahmaputra, the Ganges, the Meghna – experiencing annual monsoons that routinely flood a third of the country, Bangladesh is awash with water. According to the Bangladesh Centre for Research & Action on environment and development, tree cutting in the high Himalayan mountains has reduced the amount of water that can be absorbed during the rainy season causing yet more water and silt from erosion to pour into the lowline land along the Bay of Bengal. But having an abundance of water has not meant wealth for the people. Dr Ahsan Uddin Ahmed. I’m living in a country where more than fifty percent of the population are below (the) poverty line, which means they cannot even spend a dollar per day. With nine hundred people per square kilometre, the country’s a hundred and thirty one million people live in closer proximity to each other than people in almost any other country on earth. Dr Q.K. Ahmad. These people are socially, economically and in every other way at the very bottom of any social organisation anywhere. Fetching water is women’s work in Bangladesh. The traditional water containers are shaped to fit in the crook of a woman’s arm, and to ride on her hip. Young girls are expected to learn this skill early. When you see how naturally women in Bangladesh carry water, it is easy to forget just how heavy their load actually is. These peaceful scenes belie some serious water problems. Traditionally the people of this region relied on surface water from the rivers and ponds. Ms Nilufar Nabu. Their industry, their dumping their waste in the rivers, therefore their river water is becoming so much polluted that the fish is dying, and their people are having skin diseases and others. Because of the potential spread of disease from using surface water, the development community and the Bangladesh government have long encouraged the people to dig tube wells to access underground water supplies. With the agreement of the government, the UN launched a drive to ensure that everyone in Bangladesh was within easy walking distance of a well with a hand pump. Tragically, after successfully digging tube wells for over ninety five percent of the people, it was discovered that much of the underground water is contaminated with high concentrations of arsenic, the source of which remains the subject of debate. Ms Nilufar Nabu. Knowing very well that the water is not pure – maybe there’s arsenic – but they’re using that because they don’t have (an)other way.
Sixty million people in Bangladesh are estimated to be affected by arsenic in their drinking water, and most of the population has been exposed. There is also a serious problem of arsenic poisoning in East Bengal and India. According to a study published by the World Health Organisation, this is the largest mass poisoning of a population in history.
Hosepipes banned by Thames Water BBC News (2006/03/13) Britain's biggest water company will ban hosepipes and sprinklers from next month, the firm has announced. Thames Water, whose eight million customers will be affected by the ban, says two unusually dry winters have caused "serious" water shortages. The ban is the first in 15 years for the firm, which operates across the Thames Valley, in London, and from Kent to Gloucestershire. Hosepipe bans are already in place throughout much of southeast England. The drought across the SouthEast has now gone on for so long that we have to be prudent Jeremy Pelczer Thames Water chief executive Jeremy Pelczer said the decision had not been taken lightly. "The drought across the South East has now gone on for so long that we have to be prudent and introduce measures that will make best use of limited supplies and help protect the environment," he said. Mr Pelczer said the move would "lessen the likelihood of more stringent restrictions later", but much depended on rainfall levels. The ban comes despite the latest figures for water storage showing Thames Water reservoirs to be 96% full the second fullest in the country. "Our reservoirs are okay," a spokesman told the BBC News website. "Where we've got the problem is with the low water levels in the aquifers." Aquifers also known as ground reservoirs are underground layers of rock that collect water. The spokesman said aquifers provided "a significant" amount of Thames Water's supply. Agency support The South East has had two consecutive winters with belowaverage rainfall. The period between November 2004 and January 2006 was the driest for more than 80 years, surpassing even the notable drought of 197476. Thames Water is acting responsibly by introducing a hosepipe ban at this time Environment Agency A spokesman for the Environment Agency supported the Thames Water's move, saying it had "acted responsibly by introducing a hosepipe ban at this time". And Andrew Marsh, of the Consumer Council for Water, said imposing hosepipe bans was a "sensible precaution". "Consumers will support the ban, but the problem with Thames Water is that they have a pretty poor record with leakage." Darren Johnson, chair of the London Assembly's Environment Committee, was also critical of the company's record. "Thames Water, Ofwat and the Government have got to agree a longterm investment strategy to repair and replace London's crumbling mains system as a matter of urgency," he said. Thames Water is currently spending £1bn replacing Victorian pipes, which are estimated to leak around a third of water travelling from reservoirs to homes.
The Essex Desert BBC News (Thursday 9 December 2004) Essex is a desert. That's not an apocalyptic vision of a globallywarmed future; it's just a look at the annual average rainfall figures for the UK. This week's 'Costing the Earth' looks beyond Britain's image as grey and rainsodden and gets to grips with reality. London has less rainfall than Istanbul and Madrid and it's getting drier at an astonishing rate. The water supplies of SouthEast England are already stretched to breaking point every summer so what happens when climate change brings drier winters and hotter summers? Where is the water to come from to supply the million new homes that John Prescott has promised for the SouthEast? Stephen Halliday, author of 'Water, A Turbulent History' has some suggestions. Why not reverse our rivers so they no longer dump fresh water into the sea? Why not fill the canal system with water from the rainsodden north of England and funnel it to the parched south? Thames Water, London's major water company, believes it may have a simpler plan. They will make use of the largest water source on earth the sea. Plans are well advanced for a £200m desalination plant at Barking which will take water from the Thames Estuary, squeeze out the salt and pipe it to 900,000 eastenders. But this technology, commonly used by the oilrich states of the Middle East, has its problems. It requires huge quantities of energy, it may have an impact on the estuary's ecosystem and it's certainly going to be expensive. Will umbrellatoting Londoners be willing to pay more to drink seawater?
Johannesburg summit on sustainable development BBC World (2002) Nelson Mandela told world leaders giving people clean water should be high on the list of the world’s priorities. Over a billion people don’t have access to safe drinking water. K. township is a remote and impoverished settlement in central South Africa, and this is a familiar ritual for the people who live here. This community is a microcosm of something that over a billion people around the world face every single day: the struggle to find one of the most basic things of life – clean water. And yet our thirst for this natural resource seems unquenchable. According to the World Bank, global consumption is doubling every twenty years while new sources are becoming scarcer. The UN’s warning is a stark one: without urgent action, water will become the most pressing environmental and development issue this century. No wonder then that it has been a dominant concern at the world’s summit on sustainable development. And today, probably the most revered statesman on earth lends his moral weight to the longterm vision of the delegates at this conference. Nelson Mandela. “We are working together to make access to water a basic right for all human beings”. We take this right for granted in the West but in H. clinic, just an hour’s drive from the conference, you see the importance of clean water. In poor countries, six thousand children die every day from easily preventable diseases as a result of contaminated water. Dirty water means easily preventable diseases and deaths. If this conference can succeed in providing more of this vital resource to the world’s poor, it will help to save lives and it will aid the already overburdened health systems in these countries.
Unit 4 Ultrathin 'blankets' cut reservoir evaporation
Sylvia Pag Westphal – NewScientist.com news service (01 November 2003) Spreading an ultrathin layer of organic molecules on the surface of reservoirs could prevent millions of cubic metres of precious water evaporating each year, according to a Canadian company that is the first to commercialise the technique. The molecules form an invisible, biodegradable blanket that blocks the escape of water molecules into the air. Field tests of the technology in several countries show an average of 30 per cent reduction in the rate of evaporation. And saving the water costs less than half the price of replacing it, says Dan O'Brien, chief executive of Flexible Solutions in Victoria, British Columbia, the company that developed the process. "It's pioneering work," adds Moshe Alamaro, an atmospheric scientist and an expert on monolayer applications at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. "They are the first commercial enterprise using monolayers [to retard evaporation]," he says. The idea of using monolayers of molecules in water is not new, and scientists have been experimenting with the notion for more than 50 years. The biodegradeable "fatty alcohols" hexadecanol and octadecanol are ideal for making the monolayers. Each molecule consists of a waterrepelling hydrocarbon chain connected to a waterattracting chemical group. This structure makes the molecules organise themselves into a selfsealing uniform layer one to two molecules thick when spread on the surface of water. But fatty alcohols tend to cake when prepared in bulk as a fine powder, and so are difficult to distribute evenly onto water. "You put fatty alcohols in water and they sit there like candle wax," says O'Brien. That is where Flexible Solutions becomes involved. Unforeseen effects The company's founder, Robert Neville O'Brien (Dan O'Brien's father), is a pioneer in this field. He patented a technique to add calcium hydroxide to the organic chemical, which makes it easy to produce in powder form. The compound also makes the alcohols acquire a positive electrical charge when they hit the water, which causes them to repel each other and rapidly spread across the surface. This week Flexible Solutions announced results from trials in India and Morocco that showed between 30 and 45 per cent reduction in evaporation. In one 650hectare reservoir the total amount of water saved in two weeks was 199,000 cubic metres, the company reports. If the technology becomes widespread, some questions will need to be addressed. While the fatty alcohols are considered nontoxic and safe in drinking water at the concentrations used, little research has been done to examine longerterm ecological effects of retarding evaporation in lakes or reservoirs, says Alamaro. Preventing evaporation for long periods might increase the water temperature and affect the exchange rates of gases such as oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide. This could have unforeseen effects on the local ecosystem.
Wind turbines could be turned into rainmaking machines, claims a wave power pioneer. Rob Edwards (Edinburgh) – New Scientist (25 May 2002) Stephen Salter, an engineer at the University of Edinburgh, became famous in the 1970s for inventing the "nodding duck" wavepower device, which spawned many of the designs now under development and in trials. At an international marine conference in Crete last week, Salter presented his latest idea: a floating wind turbine that sprays water vapour high into the air, to increase evaporation from the ocean and precipitation over land. He says it could help defuse burgeoning conflicts over access to water, stop deserts spreading, improve soil quality, top up water tables, save rainforests and neutralise the impact of climate change. Sceptics will doubtless ask if it can make the tea as well. Salter proposes using an existing design called a Darrieus turbine. This looks like a 40metrehigh egg beater, with slender aerofoilshaped blades attached at top and bottom, which the wind sets spinning about the vertical axis. Although this design can generate electricity, it is not as efficient as the horizontalaxis machines. But Salter isn't interested in generating power. He plans to use the centrifugal force generated by the rotating blades to pump water droplets into the atmosphere. Stagnant air In his scheme, seawater will be sucked up from the ocean into pipes within the blades. Nozzles at the ends of these pipes will turn the water into an aerosol and spray fine droplets from the trailing edges of the blades 5 to 20 metres above the sea surface into the turbulent wake of the rotor. This, Salter points out, will hugely increase the surface area of water that can be turned into water vapour. The turbine will also overcome one of the main brakes on evaporation from the ocean, he argues. The problem is a waferthin layer of stagnant, humid air that clings to the surface of the sea and prevents water molecules from escaping. Salter calculates that with a wind speed of 8 metres per second, each "spray turbine" could lift more than half a cubic metre of water a second to a height of 10 metres. Hundreds or even thousands of the machines in hot areas of the world could make enough rain to prevent droughts, he estimates. "The successful largescale deployment of spray turbines could reduce the number of people who are short of water by several million." "Very long shot" About 100,000 turbines operating for 100 years would, theoretically, be enough to reverse the onemetre rise in sea level predicted as a result of global warming. But this assumes that a quarter of the resulting rainfall is retained underground in areas like the Sahara desert, where water tables are very low. Salter accepts that spray turbines present major technical challenges, such as how to make the spray fine enough, and how to filter the seawater to prevent marine life from clogging the pipes. "Engineers should always fear biology," he warns. But meteorologists doubt whether water vapour scattered on a vast scale several metres above the sea will mix sufficiently with air higher in the atmosphere to make any significant impression on cloud formation. There is also the obvious difficulty of predicting where any rain will actually fall. "It's a very long shot," says Ian Brooks, a meteorologist at Leeds University. "It is an engineer's solution to a problem that no atmospheric scientist would ever have dreamed of trying." But he agrees that it's worth investigating.
Fog harvesting in Chile BBC [getting] water out of thin air: easy! As long as you’re in the right place and Howard has been there: a tiny village in Northern Chile. …technological development. It’s true: the first railway line was built near here, the first gasworks, the first telegraph, the first telephone service in South America, all near here. Well now, there’s something else new in town: Chungungo lies in the area called “el norte chico” where the Atacama desert comes down to the Pacific ocean. Hot by day, cold at night, it’s often overcast, permanently dusty and dry as the proverbial bone. Drought is the inescapable fact of life here. Every drop of water in Chungungo has to be brought in by lorry from fifty miles away, but it wasn’t always so difficult. Fifteen hundred people once lived on these terraces in the hills above Chungungo. The iron mine employed them bringing water and electricity to the village as a bit of neighbourly PR. But no more. The mine closed twenty years ago, the pumps were turned off, the generator shut down and Chungungo was back where it started: dry. What saved it was a quirk of geography. Just off the coast of Chile, the Humbodlt current draws cold water northwards from the Antarctic. As humid sea air passes over the current, it’s cooled producing an almost constant sea fog along this coast. And that’s where Chungungo now gets its water from. Take a look up there on the hilltop where the old mine used to be. Strung out along the ridge is a line of plastic nets. As the fog rises in the morning, the nets draw water from the air, drop by tiny drop. It takes ten million fog droplets to make one of these drops, and millions of these to make one litre of water, yet these nets can produce up to thirtyfive litres a day from every square metre of net. It’s a unique experiment. Until a Chilean scientist came up with the idea of using fog, nobody had ever tried anything like this. Now engineers from as far away as China and Namibia have come to Chungungo to see how it’s done. The system uses no power; the water simply runs downhill where it’s totally transformed the village and the lives of the villagers. Earlier this morning I was introduced to Senora Gloria Rivera who lives here with her family and she said we could come back later and see them at home. (“Senora Buenos dias, como estas…”) I asked her if life was any better now (“Senora, la vida aqui esta mejor?) – it’s better (“porque?”) – because we have made progress…We have water in this town, that’s the main thing. On fog free days the supply can still dry up and there’s certainly never enough to waste. Each house has a water metre and heavy users have to pay dearly, but in a place where people have to use seawater for washing dishes, this is a luxury. Outside the village, a small allotment site with its own water supply is taking shape. Gardening wasn’t easy to establish because nobody had ever grown anything here before but a few people are leading the way and many more families are now starting to produce their own vegetables. Often on Tomorrow’s World when I’ve come to remote places like this, I’ve seen known technology being used to solve specific problems, but here’s a completely new technology, a tremendous piece of natural thinking that’s had a huge impact on the quality of people’s lives and like all the best ideas, it does it simply.
Water company bosses plan to tow icebergs up Thames Lewis Smith – The Times (May 17, 2006) §1
TOWING icebergs from the Arctic is among the measures proposed by water chiefs to solve emergency water shortages. The prospect of icebergs sailing up the Thames Estuary to keep London and the Home Counties supplied with tap water seems farfetched but is under serious consideration by Thames Water. It is one of the options being looked at as the South East faces the possibility of its worst drought in a century. “We have to look at any possible alternative, including towing icebergs from the Arctic and seeding rain clouds,” Richard Aylard, of Thames Water, said at an emergency meeting of the London Assembly.
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“Tankers from Scotland and Norway are something that has been looked at. If we get into an emergency situation that’s the kind of thing we would be looking at. It’s very much the last resort. It would be an extraordinary thing to do but we will have to look at extraordinary measures if we are in an extraordinary situation. We are looking at that now.” Richard Aylard says.
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Transporting water by road has been considered but has been all but rejected, even if an emergency drought order was to be declared because of the scale of the shortages. When lorries were used to transport water during severe shortages in Yorkshire in the 1990s, the number of people affected was small compared with the 13 million facing drought in the South East, 8 million of whom live in the Thames Water region.
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“Bringing water around the country by road supply isn’t going to work for eight million people,” Mr Aylard told the meeting. Sea tankers would be the first choice, he said. Using icebergs to help to solve the water shortage would, he accepted, be regarded as “crazy” by many people. Thames Water has not established whether icebergs from Greenland or northern Scandinavia would be the more appropriate
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Hosepipe and sprinkler bans are in place as the South East is suffering exceptionally low water supplies before summer has started. The first drought order since 1995 takes effect in Sutton and East Surrey on May 27 and two more water companies, Southern and Mid Kent, have applied for orders. Thames Water has been told by the Environment Agency to seek one. After a drought order comes an emergency drought order, which is imposed when standpipes and water rationing are required because of severe shortages. Only essential water use is allowed.
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Mr Aylard, speaking alongside Mike Pocock, of Three Valleys Water, said that as well as icebergs and a fleet of tankers transporting water across the North Sea from Scandinavia, a national water grid has been considered. Such a grid would allow water from wellstocked parts of the country to be piped to areas where there are shortages, but it has been discounted because of the cost of the infrastructure but, more importantly, [because of] the cost of the energy in pumping it round. Water is bulky.” Each household’s daily water weighs, on average, two thirds of a tonne and to pump enough to supply even small parts of the South East would be prohibitively expensive. Mr Aylard said: “This is something that’s been looked at for more than forty years. Every time they’ve looked at it they have concluded that technically it’s possible, but it isn’t practical. Moving large amounts of water around isn’t the answer. More reservoirs are needed to store water but they take years to build even once permission has been granted. Thames Water hopes to create a reservoir near Abingdon, Oxfordshire, but the earliest it could be ready is 2020. An appeal to overturn a decision by Ken Livingstone, the Mayor of London, to veto a desalination plant at Beckton, East London, begins next week. The Environment Agency stepped up its pressure on water companies to limit consumption. Robert Runcie, of the Environment Agency, said that a drought order, which enables companies to ban non essential uses of water, could be applied sequentially and sensitively to lessen any economic impact. He said: “Our concern is that if we do nothing now, then it will be a situation where an emergency drought order would be required and then a full sweep of draconian measures would come into play.” The Forum of Private Business said that small companies in the South East were victims of “mismanagement” by water companies. Nick Goulding, the forum’s chief executive, said: “Not only are [businesses] paying for water companies to carry out longoverdue repairs, but now they will pay a further cost for the lack of foresight by water company management.” FACING MELTDOWN An estimated 3 trillion cubic metres of iceberg water melts into the sea each year. This is almost as much as the
3.3 trillion cubic metres worldwide annual consumption of fresh water. An iceberg one mile long, 1,000ft wide and 900ft deep would contain 20 billion gallons of fresh water, enough to supply 445,000 families in Britain for a year. …/
Unit 6 The Mad Genius from the Bottom of the Sea
Unlimited energy. Fastgrowing fruit. Free airconditioning. John P. Craven says we can have it all by tapping the icy waters of the deep. Carl Hoffman (June 2005) /…/ The topic under discussion is Craven's plan to use cold water pumped up from the deep ocean to provide lowcost and environmentally sustainable power, water, and food to a new residential and commercial development in the Marianas, a chain of islands some 3,000 miles to the west of Hawaii. /…/ Craven may sound like a brilliant psychotic, but he's got plenty of credentials: a PhD in ocean engineering, a law degree, and a stint as chief scientist for the US Navy's Special Projects Office. /…/ His grand plan could come across as a fantasy, but it's already won $75 million from Alpha Pacific, a Memphis, Tennessee, venture capital firm, and $1.5 million in federal funds. Craven hopes that within a year, bulldozers will begin clearing land on Saipan and engineers will start sinking a pipe to pump icy water from the ocean depths to produce electricity and freshwater. And in Kona, Craven expects to use coldwater agriculture to transform five acres of otherwise barren lava fields into the world's most productive vineyard. Craven's system exploits the dramatic temperature difference between ocean water below 3,000 feet – perpetually just above freezing and the much warmer water and air above it. That temperature gap can be harnessed to create a nearly unlimited supply of energy. Although the scientific concepts behind coldwater energy have been around for decades, Craven made them real when he founded the statefunded Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii in 1974 on Keahole Point, near Kona. Under Craven, the lab developed the process of using cold deepocean water and hot surface water to produce electricity. By the 1980s the Natural Energy Lab's demonstration plant was generating net power, the world's first through socalled Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC). Craven believes there are simple, cheap, and immediate applications of coldwater technology. He favors building systems in ideal locations, such as islands adjacent to deep water with no continental shelf. Sink a big pipe, crank a pump, and voilà! you've entered a world powered by ocean water. Once primed, the pipe acts like a giant siphon, requiring relatively little energy to keep an inexhaustible supply of cold at hand. Already, 39degreeFahrenheit water courses through the Natural Energy Lab's newest pipe a 55inchdiameter, 9,000footlong polyethylene behemoth at the rate of 27,000 gallons a minute, 24 hours a day. Running the frigid pipes through heat exchangers produces unlimited airconditioning that costs almost nothing. Draining their sweat yields an endless supply of freshwater for drinking and irrigation. The cold water also creates a temperature difference between root and fruit that Craven believes speeds growth. And by turning the flow on and off, Craven has found he can further accelerate the plants' growth cycle by forcing them in and out of dormancy – he can get three crops of grapes a year and pineapples in eight months instead of the usual 18. Feeding some of the water through a contraption Craven calls a hurricane tower generates clean electricity. "What the world doesn't understand," says Craven, still zigzagging through the parking lot, "is that what we don't have enough of is cold, not heat." Creating a DeepSea Oasis on Dry Land The key to Craven's cool world is converting the ocean's thermal energy. The first step: Sink a pipe at least 3,000 feet deep and start pumping up seawater. The end result: an environmentally sustainable, virtually inexhaustible supply of electricity, freshwater for drinking and irrigation, even airconditioning. Here's how it works: Refrigeration: Cold seawater circulates through a closed loop of pipes that replace the coolant and compressor found in conventional airconditioning units. Irrigation: Pipes carrying cold water run beneath fields of crops, sweating freshwater to irrigate plants and chilling their roots, promoting faster crop cycles. Desalination: Cold seawater passes through Craven's "sky towers," which contain closely packed radiatorlike networks of pipes. The frigid pipes sweat in the tropical heat, producing freshwater condensate.
Power Generation: Pipes draw warm water from the ocean surface and cold water from the seabed. The warm water enters a vacuum chamber and is evaporated into steam that drives an electricityproducing turbine. The cold water condenses the steam back into water for drinking and irrigation.
Desalination plant on the Thames BBC Breakfast TV
Woman anchor: London could face severe water shortages unless a 2 hundred million pounds desalination plant is given the goahead; that’s what Thames Water will tell a public inquiry today. Male anchor: Well the company says the scheme, which will purify water drawn from the Thames in East London, is vital, but the plans are being opposed by environmentalists. Well let’s speak to Breakfast studio’s Botfield near the site of the proposed plant in Woolwich. Jules so, controversial to say the least? Reporter: yes it certainly is. It seems strange doesn’t it Dermot, to be talking about water shortages when we know that parts of the country are suffering from severe flooding this morning, but you see that’s the nature of water supplies in this country: the North often water rich, and the South water poor; and of course one of the ideas is to move water around the country using a water grid. Another suggestion under the spotlight today is to use salinated – salt water from the Thames estuary. Britain may be an island, but all that water around us would need a great deal of treatment to make it drinkable. Desalination plants already operate in America and the Middle East. Most use heat to evaporate salt water, which then condenses leaving the salt behind. At their site in Essex, Thames Water want to use another technique, it’s called “reverse osmosis”: salt water from the Thames estuary would be forced under pressure through a fine filter. Fresh water would collect on one side, leaving [the] saline solution on the other. It’s a clever process, but there’s strong opposition. D. Johnson (Green Party): “A desalination plant is hugely energy intensive and produces 250,000 tonnes of CO2 emissions every year. We can’t go down that route, it’s just not green. It’s not the way forward.” But if the water shortage in the South East continues to tighten its grip, a new and guaranteed supply of safe drinking water could seem irresistible. Phil Cox: “Any region which is short of indigenous supply of water [has] an enormous potential for desalination. We’ve got enormous reserves out there, of water, it’s a technology which is proven, so we can do it.” In fact they’re already doing it in the Channel islands. This desalination plant on Jersey can be switched on and off as needed. Thames Water say their facility would work the same way. Now the site of the proposed plant on the banks of the Thames is just a couple of miles downstream from here at Beckton.
Fresh water from the sea
An innovative concept, the ‘Seawater Greenhouse’ combines natural processes, simple construction techniques and computer modelling to produce fresh water. Brian Bell (London Press Service) A unique innovative idea has the potential to impact on the lives of millions of people living in coastal, fresh waterstarved areas across the globe. A shortage of water and the inability to grow food is the root cause of much suffering and poverty. More than a billion people do not have access to a safe supply of water and the number is growing. /…/ The Seawater Greenhouse is a unique concept that combines natural processes, simple construction techniques and mathematical computer modelling to provide a solution to one of the world’s greatest needs: fresh water. It is designed for hot, arid coastal regions. It distills fresh water from seawater and cools the growing environment to create optimum conditions for cultivation, enabling crops to be grown in conditions that would otherwise be difficult or impossible. The marine greenhouse addresses the need for fresh water, on a local scale as an oasis or well. It recreates the natural hydrological cycle within a controlled environment using sunlight, wind and seawater. Seawater provides evaporative cooling and fresh water is condensed in much the same way as dew. The quantity of fresh water is determined by seawater and air temperatures, relative humidity and sunlight. The hotter, sunnier and drier the conditions, the more water it makes.
The front wall of the greenhouse is a seawater evaporator. It consists of a cardboard honeycomb lattice and faces the prevailing wind. Fans assist and control air movement. Seawater trickles down through the evaporator, cooling and humidifying the air as it passes through into the planting area. Sunlight is filtered through an ultravioletabsorbent radiation film that traps infrared heat in the greenhouse roof area, while allowing visible light through to promote photosynthesis. Combined with the evaporator, this creates optimum growing conditions cool and humid yet with high light intensity. Cool air passes through the planting area and then combines with hot dry air from the roof area. The mixture passes through a second seawater evaporator creating hot saturated air that then flows through the condenser. The condenser is cooled by incoming seawater. The temperature difference causes fresh water to condense out of the airflow. The volume of fresh water is determined by air temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation and the airflow rate. These conditions can be replicated in a thermodynamic model and, with appropriate meteorological information, the detailed design and performance of the Seawater Greenhouse can be optimised for every suitable location. A key element of the greenhouse is the condenser that actually makes the fresh water referred to as the watermaker. The amount of water produced is related to the surface area of the condenser, the larger this can be, the more fresh water is produced.
Replumbing the Planet New Scientist, 7 June 2003 Gigantic engineering projects are redirecting the waters of some of the world’s greatest rivers. Are these megaprojects the only way to bring clean water to all or are they hydrological hubris, asks Fred Pearce IN A small ceremony in April this year, a bottle of water filled at Danjiangkou reservoir in central China was presented to the vicemayor of Beijing. The water had come more than 1,200 kilometres. Its arrival signified the start of what China claims is the biggest engineering project of all time. It will divert part of the flow of the world’s fourth biggest river, the Yangtze in southern China, to replenish the Yellow river in the north, which is being drained dry. The first water from the $60 billion scheme should be flowing by the time Beijing hosts the Olympic games in 2008. And around 20 years from now, when the project is complete, it will be siphoning north around 50 cubic kilometres of water a year, which is three times as much water as England and Wales consume in the same time. The implications are immense. Till now, the world has built its cities close to big rivers, where the water is. Even modern superdams do little more than move water within river basins, holding seasonal floods up in the mountains and releasing them downstream in the dry season. All that is about to change. As well as the Chinese scheme, megaprojects are being planned for the forests of central Africa, the mountains of Spain, the parched plains of India, and maybe soon in the Australian outback and the icy torrents of northern Canada, too. They will replumb the planet to take water to where the people are. China’s “southtonorth” project follows hot on the heels of the Three Gorges dam on the Yangtze, the world’s largest hydroelectric dam, whose reservoir began filling in April. /…/ China is suffering a hydrological crisis that leaves it no choice but to embark on such breathtaking projects, says Wang Hao of the China Institute of Water Resources. Five times in the past decade, the 4800kilometrelong Yellow river has failed to reach the sea for part of the year because every last drop has been diverted to irrigation channels and city taps. Parts of the river’s parched upper basin are turning to desert, unleashing dust storms that occasionally reach all the way to Canada. This April, as the growing season began, the river had its lowest spring flow for 50 years and irrigation channels dried up across 16 million hectares of fields. Farmers and cities alike have turned to ancient reserves of underground water, but that is running out, too. Rain cannot replenish it quickly enough, and the aquifers of northern China are being depleted by a staggering 30 cubic kilometres a year. In places, 90 per cent of the reserve is gone. The water table beneath Beijing has fallen 59 metres in the past 40 years. The north of China, which has two thirds of the crop land but only onefifth of the nation’s water, needs 28 cubic
kilometres more water each year. That figure will rise to 66 cubic kilometres by 2030, says Wang. So even after completion of the southtonorth scheme, the region will still be short of 16 cubic kilometres a year. /…/ So within the next decade or so, the world’s two most populous countries plan to remake their geography so that water flows where it never has before. And other countries are taking a similar course. Within the next few months, the European Union will decide whether to cough up as much as $8 billion to help fulfil Spain’s $24 billion National Hydrological Plan. Its centrepiece is an 850kilometre canal that will extract up to threequarters of the flow from the river Ebro, the biggest river in the wetter north of the country, and send it to the country’s increasingly arid south. There it will irrigate half a million hectares of fields around Almeira and fill taps and water golf courses at tourist resorts on the coast. /…/ In the US, around the same time, President George W. Bush called for talks with the Canadian government about buying the contents of its Arctic rivers to irrigate the desert cities of Los Angeles and Las Vegas. Exactly how the water would be shifted was not made clear. But Canada certainly has plenty of it. During the spring melt, roughly a tenth of all the water in the world’s rivers is in Canadian rivers that empty into the Pacific Ocean. So far Canada has coldshouldered the plan. /…/ The world undoubtedly faces a growing crisis over the management of its great rivers. Like the Yellow river, the Indus, Colorado and Nile have all periodically run empty in recent years because humans have abstracted their every last drop. Despite this, there is huge unmet demand. More than a billion people have no access to clean drinking water, and while the World Summit last year promised to halve that figure by 2015, nobody is sure where the water will come from. On today’s trends, onethird of the planet’s population will be seriously short of water by 2025. Politicians in China, India, Pakistan, Egypt and other waterstressed countries want their water engineers to find solutions — and fast. Big seems not just beautiful but essential. But environmental groups warn that emptying some rivers to fill others will lead to ecological havoc. Indian researchers warn that the canals of the riverlinking project, and the reservoirs needed to fill them, will displace up to 2 million people from their homes and carry huge volumes of pollution from the industrial rivers of the north. This, they say, will kill wildlife and pollute drinking water in the south. Many point to the appalling ecological havoc caused a generation ago in central Asia when Russian engineers diverted most of the flows of two giant rivers away from the Aral Sea. The sea dried up, turning the surrounding area into a saltencrusted wilderness. In Australia, scientists have banded together under the name the Wentworth Group to argue that more irrigation will just increase salinity in the country’s fields. And according to the wildlife campaign group WWF, dams are largely responsible for dramatic declines in the world’s freshwater fisheries. Transfers will further destabilise ecosystems by shifting predator species from one river system to another, it says. Engineers claim that, far from wrecking ecosystems, their schemes will revitalise the receiving rivers. In China, for instance, they insist that bringing Yangtze water north is the only way of reviving the Yellow river. But many water scientists say these plans are hydrological hubris. The numbers don’t add up. The water emerging from tunnels, pipes and canals will be too costly for the farmers whose needs they are supposed to meet. The transfers will also be wasteful, with half the water leaking away or evaporating. Researchers attending the World Water Forum in Kyoto in March argued that collecting and using water more efficiently would lessen the need for more dams. While the Nile runs empty, enough water evaporates from the surface of the Aswan dam to supply all Britain’s needs. And from Spain to northern China, Mexico to Morocco, farmers still irrigate crops by flooding their fields, when the job could be done far more efficiently with drips from a perforated hose. At a conservative estimate, says Mark Resogrant of the International Food Policy Research Institute in Washington DC, two thirds of the water sent down irrigation canals never reaches the crops it is meant for. Even modest efforts at using water more efficiently could end the world water crisis, he says. In most places, we can fill the taps without emptying the rivers. /…/ Everywhere there are alternatives to the water megaprojects. In southern California, half the region’s water needs could be met by rainfall, yet most of its rain is channelled straight off the tarmac into the ocean. /…/ India has dozens of halfcompleted water projects, not to mention a vast, centuriesold infrastructure of forgotten local watersupply systems. In Karnataka, one of the states that the rivertransfer project is supposed to benefit, there are tens of thousands of small reservoirs dug to catch the monsoon rains that now lie silted up and abandoned. These should be developed first, says Ramaswamy Iyer, a former director of India’s water ministry who has since become a prominent
critic of the rivertransfer plan. But with official systems seemingly paralysed, many Indian communities are finding local solutions to their water problems. In Rajasthan, thousands of villages that have revived old reservoirs and rainwater collecting systems are finding they still have water when villages relying on distant dams have run dry (New Scientist, 7 September 2002, p48). In neighbouring Gujarat, farmers have gone further, pouring captured monsoon rains down their wells to recharge underground water reserves for use in the dry season. This spontaneous growth of “people’s technology” has confounded hydrologists and is now active across almost half the state. Even big cities could increase their water ressources by up to a third by capturing and storing the rain, rather than letting it run away through storm drains, Halls says. /…/
Unit 7 Fairly viewing dams
Neither a total development solution, nor environmental anathema Kader Asmal South Africa's Minister of Water Affairs and Forestry under Nelson Mandela, and now Education Minister, chairs the World Commission on Dams. (Wednesday, March 22, 2000) $1
On this deceptively blue planet, fresh water is in short supply. Today on World Water Day (March 22) we are all concerned about worsening water scarcity brought on by wasteful habits, population growth, and increasing urbanization. To this equation we must add the uncertainties of global climate change.
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Recent disastrous floods following years of drought in my home region of southern Africa have shown that water isn't always where we want it, when we want it. So dam technology was developed to manage water resources to serve human needs.
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But dams have become increasingly controversial. For the better part of the last century, it was presumed dams delivered development, be it through irrigation, flood control, hydroelectricity, or ensuring urban water supply. Annually, $50 billion is spent designing and building dams. Because most rivers that could be dammed in northern countries have already been dammed, attention has shifted to southern, less developed regions.
§4
Many governments in Africa, Asia, and Latin America would like to build more dams. They want to develop their rivers for water and food security, to control devastating floods, and for hydropower which has proven a development boon in so many countries. But they can't get the funding for those dams, because in recent years international lending agencies have shied away from hydroelectric dams. They seem too expensive. It's far cheaper to build a gasfired electric plant than a hydropower dam, even though the former means importing energy supplies that create greenhouse gases.
§5
But, an even greater deterrent to dams is the cost of controversy. In recent years nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have launched many successful campaigns against large dams because those projects can have devastating impacts on communities, flora, and fauna. Most controversial of all is that dam construction annually requires the displacement of an estimated 4 million people, disproportionately affecting indigenous people.
§6
The debate over whether dams are good or bad has become one of the most intensely contested issues in sustainable development today. And the pendulum has swung away from dams: the number constructed annually has fallen from an average of 450 per year between 197590, to 300 in the 1990s.
§7
Regardless, dams remain a viable choice in delivering an array of development benefits. But they're neither a blanket solution to development needs nor the unmitigated disaster their critics claim. The question is: how does a society determine its best choice in managing water resources to meet growing demand in a sustainable manner ?
§8
The World Commission on Dams (WCD), which I chair, was created in 1997 to inform that decisionmaking process and break the deadlock between pro and antidam lobbies. The independent commission was formed by the IUCNWorld Conservation Union, a coalition of more than 800 environmental agencies and NGOs, and the World Bank. Members are 12 eminent representatives from government, NGOs, academia, and international business. The commission is conducting the first independent, global review of the costs and benefits of dams, and will develop criteria for future decisionmaking on dams.
§9
Making such decisions has never been more difficult. (…) At first glance, dams would appear to be the emissionfree choice. But there are no perfect, painless solutions. Scientists gathered at a WCD workshop in Montreal last month agreed that dam reservoirs also emit greenhouse gases due to the decomposition of trees and other biomass in reservoir waters.
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Research indicates hydropower reservoirs in northern countries generally produce less greenhouse gas than fossilfuel plants of similar capacity. Yet the opposite is true for certain dams studied in tropical regions.
Research in this area is still inconclusive, but rapidly expanding, thanks to collaboration between the two sides on the dams debate. /…/
Water reservoirs and greenhouse emissions Fred Pearce, London – The Independant (13 October 2000) §1
Once reservoirs and dams were the answer to pollutionfree power. Now evidence shows greenhouse gases bubbling up from them at an alarming rate.
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Fetid, choked with weeds and swarming with mosquitos, the Balbina reservoir in the Amazon rainforest is a billiondollar boondoggle. The dam soars 50 metres above the trees. But much of the reservoir behind it, which floods an area the size of Warwickshire, is less than four metres deep. "From the air, you can see brown trees beneath the water across huge areas," says Philip Fearnside, from Brazil's National Institute for Research in Amazonia. He has counted 1,500 islands and "so many bays and inlets it looks rather like a crosssection of a human lung". Even the introduction of a herd of grazing manatees has failed to staunch the spread of weeds across the surface. Water stagnates in the reservoir's backwaters for years before reaching the dam's hydroelectric turbines, which have a piffling generating capacity of 112 megawatts. That means the reservoir needs to flood the equivalent of two football pitches to power a onekilowatt air conditioner in the Amazonian capital, Manaus. The depth of the insanity of this hydroelectric dam has only recently emerged. Built 13 years ago to provide "green" pollutionfree electricity, it in fact produces eight times more greenhouse gas than a typical coalfired power station with a similar generating capacity. The rotting vegetation has generated millions of tonnes of two greenhouse gases. These are carbon dioxide and methane a gas that, molecule for molecule, is 20 times more potent at warming the planet than carbon dioxide. Balbina is not alone. Recent research by Marco Aurelio dos Santos, at Cidade University in Rio de Janeiro, suggests that up to half of Brazil's hydroelectric reservoirs have a globalwarming capability similar to that of a fossilfuel power plant. And just across the border in French Guiana, the PetitSaut dam, which powers Europe's Ariane rocket launch site, produces three times as much gas as a coalburning equivalent.
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In June, the World Commission on Dams warned that the problem extended beyond rainforest reservoirs. It told UN climatechange negotiators that greenhouse gases bubble up from "all 30 reservoirs for which measurements have been made." The message was clear: "There is no justification for claiming that hydroelectricity does not contribute significantly to global warming." The Commission is an assembly of scientists, engineers and environmentalists, and is supported by the World Bank, the world's biggest funder of large dams. Its findings have been corroborated by researchers from Canada, home of some of the world's largest hydroelectric projects. Vincent St Louis, of the University of Alberta, has made the first ever calculation of the total contribution of the thousands of reservoirs round the world to global warming. In the September issue of the journal BioScience, he says that they produce a fifth of all the manmade methane in the atmosphere. Add in their emissions of carbon dioxide, and they make up 7 per cent of the manmade greenhouse effect. That is a bigger impact than, for instance, aircraft emissions. While probably only a handful of reservoirs the likes of Balbina and PetitSaut – are turning out to be dirtier than coalfired power stations, almost all make a significant contribution. "Whatever dam builders may say, reservoirs are not greenhousegas neutral," says St Louis. He says all governments should start measuring the emissions from their reservoirs. And scientists policing the Kyoto Protocol to halt climate change should insist that the findings are included in national emissions inventories.
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(…) St Louis found that emissions from tropical reservoirs contain the most methane. "We suspect this is because warmer temperatures in sediments promote faster, more anaerobic decomposition," says coauthor Carol Kelly of the Canadian government's Department of Fisheries and Oceans. While only a third of the world's reservoirs are in the tropics, they appear to produce around 80 per cent of greenhouse gas emissions. But in the long run, reservoirs in northern countries could be as dangerous for the world's climate especially those that flood peat bogs.
§5
The inclusion of reservoir gases could transform national inventories of greenhouse gases. French Guiana used to be one of the world’s most greenhousefriendly nations. But according to calculations by Robert Delmas, of the Laboratory of Aerology Observation in Toulouse, the PetitSaut reservoir has turned it into one of the worst polluters. Per head of population, French Guiana's emissions are three times those of France and greater than those of the US.
California Water Don Knapp, Sacramento, California In California water is a precious commodity and there’s not enough to go around. As Don Knapp reports, deciding who gets the water is even more complicated than doling it out. With just a few key strokes M. Roger can drain a dam or fill one up. His computer console controls twenty seven dams, twenty pumping stations, and 9 electrical power plants that run water through the fivehundredmile length of the California water project. Across the hall a few more engineers control the even bigger dams and power plants of the federal water project. Very little water or snow falls on California that doesn’t pass through the mass of plumbing of the state and federal water systems. And it seems there’s a plan for practically every drop. John Burke, bureau of reclamation “It’s difficult to satisfy a lot of people for a very long time in California because of the competition. Not everybody gets their, you know, their wish list.” Farmers claim most of the water, new laws set aside some for fish and wildlife. More water is sent downstream to improve river water quality and some is dumped to make room for flood control.” Jim Spence, Calif. Dept of water resources. “Our perpetual job is trying to balance all the competing interests for the water…” or for space for water in the reservoirs. Last January there wasn’t enough, and all the dams in the Virgins couldn’t make enough room for all the water. Major levy breaks sent tens of thousands looking for shelters, killed 8, and caused $2 bn in damage. Now with El Niño’s threat of another wet winter water managers face the tough decision : store water or throw it away. Who decides ? Lupe Rodrigez, Calif. Dept of water resources. “All I can say is that the more critical a situation gets the higher up it goes.” Environmentalists come down on the side of flood protection. They want to open dams and send more water downstream to protect fish runs. Steven Evans, Friends of the River “Many of the agencies that operate these dams operate them to provide water for consumptive purposes, and unfortunately sometimes flood control, fish and wildlife benefits come in second best.” With thirty million people in California and droughts as frequent as floods, water managers feel pressure from all sides. In the end who gets how much of what is a decision based at least in part on political clout.
To dam or not to dam? Earth report, BBC World
The world has had a centurylong love affair with dams. In the 1930s, dams building helped kick start a depressed US economy. The Aswan dam on the Nile transformed the Egyptian economy. Dams could provide limitless electricity. They could ensure water for parched fields or thirsty cities. Dams could help control floods. Now though the love affair is over. The world’s 45,000 big dams have often generated as much controversy as they have benefits. The environmental and social costs of these big dams have at times proved unacceptably high. Fragile ecosystems have been damaged irreparably. Irrigated land has turned to salt. Dams choked with silt have failed to live up to the expectations promised by their designers. Millions meanwhile have been forced to abandon their homes and their livelihoods. It’s all triggered a radical rethink, and the independent World Commission on Dams (WCD) was set up in 1997 to investigate. Kader Asmal (chairman of WCD). “We looked at a number of dams in their context – why were they built? What were the results? What were the expectations and were they fulfilled? What happened to people downstream? What was the actual nature of the effect on their lives? Particularly we looked at the themes from an environment, resettlement, to the emission of gas, to the benefits delivered? Who paid for the benefits? And who benefited?” Two and a half years and $10 million later, the World Commission comprising experts from all sides of the great dam debate has produced a 450 page report of their findings. They recognise the longterm costs that accrue when too few decide for too many what is best for society. In too many cases – the report says – an unacceptably high price is being paid.
But if power and water supply is needed, the question is: “What’s the alternative?” In terms of electricity, how about nuclear? Or fossil fuels? The problem for planners is they’re damned if they do and damned if they don’t.
Unit 8 Reservoir Raiders
Earth Report, BBC World (January 2001) Jeff Halper left his native America twenty eight years ago to settle in his spiritual homeland, Israel. Since then his views about Israel have radically changed. Today Jeff is a human rights activist campaigning on behalf of Palestinians. Jeff Halper We’re on our way to a demolition. This morning we heard that the Israeli army is destroying the reservoirs of some Palestinian farmers in this fairly arid desert area near Hebron. So now we’re driving from Jerusalem down into the desert to see what’s going on. Kayed Jaber is the Palestinian farmer Jeff is on his way to see. For generations, his family clan, the Jabers, have farmed most of this valley. Kayed’s cousin Ismael lives on the neighbouring farm. Kayed and Ismael grow fruit and vegetables for market. But there is a serious water shortage. Ismael The best thing you can do if you farm in this area is catch every drop of rainwater and store it for farming. They use an ancient system of covered reservoirs to store rainwater, but these are no longer big enough. They’re building some bigger reservoirs, but, the Israeli authorities want to destroy them. /…/ Since the 1967 ArabIsraeli conflict, the population of Israel and the West Bank has more than doubled. Both Arab and Israeli statistics show that in another twenty five years the population in this part of the country is set to double again. As numbers increase, competition for land and water is causing friction between the communities. Jeff Halper Palestinians get very little water as opposed to the settlements. Right across here is a settlement, right within a mile of here is a settlement. So the Israeli settlements here get as much water as they want, living on a European level, whereas the Palestinians, especially the farmers, get very little water. And when they try simply to capture rainwater, the reservoirs they build get demolished”.
Water privatisation in Colombia BBC World
Cali, Colombia. The armed conflict here has now become part of Washington’s war on terror, but these council offices are at the centre of another dispute – over privatisation. Water, electricity, telephones – the Colombian government, like others in Latin America, is under pressure to sell off its public services, partly to raise money to pay its debts, partly because the IMF says it will increase efficiency, and partly now because the General Agreement on Trade and Services (GATS) – another plank in the WTO talks – says refusing to privatise services like these will be a barrier to trade. The workforce didn’t agree. On Christmas day, eight hundred of them occupied the offices of the council tower block and stayed there for thirty six days. The people of Cali organised marches in their support, brought food, and helped to block the police and army when they tried to evict them. In the end, the government backed down and promised not to privatise. Gustavo Solarte was one of the water workers who took part. His twins were born while he was inside the tower. Gustavo Solarte (subtitles) The occupation really saved the company. Their idea was to liquidate, to cut our jobs and to stop providing services to the poorest areas. A private company can’t provide that service because it’s not profitable. People can’t afford to pay the bills. But a public service has a duty to supply everyone. That’s why we want to keep the service public. Part of the union’s success in winning such wide support was down to these weekend mingas where council workers like Gustavo give up one Saturday a month to go out into the poorest neighbourhoods and fix people’s pipes and fuses for
free. Gustavo S. (subtitles) We come and fix whatever problem you might have. It’s our time given to help the community, so there’s no charge.