Ancient Administrations.docx

HISTORIC SURVEY OF ADMINISTRATIONS DURING ANCIENT INDIA

SUBMITTED BY

ELZABETH MINU MATHEWS

DIVISION: A ROLL NO: 17010323025 COURSE: BA LLB

Symbiosis Law School, Hyderabad Symbiosis International University, Pune

In September, 2017

Under the guidance of P. Jayaraju Assistant Professor Symbiosis Law School, Hyderabad

CERTIFICATE

The Project entitled “HISTORIC SURVEY OF ADMINISTRATIONS DURING ANCIENT INDIA” submitted to the Symbiosis Law School, Hyderabad for HISTORY – I (HISTORY OF LAW & LEGAL INSTITUTIONS IN ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL INDIA) as part of internal assessment is based on my original work carried out under the guidance of Mr. P. Jayaraju from July to October. The project work has not been submitted elsewhere for award of any degree. The material borrowed from other sources and incorporated in the project has been duly acknowledged. I understand that I myself could be held responsible and accountable for plagiarism, if any, detected later on.

Signature of the candidate:

Date: 13.09.2017

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude and indebtedness to Mr. P. Jayaraju for his enlightening lectures. I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to our teaching staff for guiding us the path towards gaining knowledge.

I would like to thank the Library Staff of Symbiosis Law School, Hyderabad as well for their co-operation.

I would also like to thank my batch mates and seniors who inspired, helped and guided me in making this project.

I also take this opportunity to express a deep sense of gratitude to Mr. M.I Baig , The Director, Symbiosis Law School, Hyderabad and Mr. Sukhvinder Singh Dari , The Deputy Director , Symbiosis Law School , Hyderabad and all other faculty members for providing us with the best facilities and for their cooperation in each and every step that we take.

Signature of the Candidate:

Date: 13.09.2017

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INDEX

SL.

TOPIC

PAGE NO.

NO. 1

INTRODUCTION

5

2

ADMINISTRATION DURING INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

6-7

3

ADMINISTRATION DURING VEDIC PERIOD

8 - 10

4

ADMINISTRATION DURING NANDA DYNASTY

5

MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION

12 - 18

6

GUPTAN ADMINISTRATION

19 - 21

7.

CONCLUSION

22

8.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

23

4

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INTRODUCTION

This project explores how different Administrations in Ancient India contributed to the development of Administrative system in India and a historic survey of Ancient Administrations. India has a rich cultural heritage. The progress of man in the past is the subject matter of history. In order to understand the present India and its administration we have to trace back its roots in Ancient India. In the Indian Administrative System in ancient period, different systems of administration are found to have existed at different periods. The earliest reference can be traced to the Indus Valley civilization. From excavations, historians have come to the conclusion that government in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa was systematic. In the Indus Valley civilization it was found that there existed planned roads and drainage which shows that in cities there existed a municipal government which looked after the needs and made systematic arrangements for the cities. Moreover, the entire area covered by the civilization contained one type of house, a common system of weights and measures and a common script. The sources about the systems of administration which prevailed in India in the ancient times and the political ideas and ideals which moulded and shaped those systems, are various. They are: the Vedas, the Hindu Epics, the Smritis, the Puranas, the religious books of the Buddhists and the Jains, historical and dramatic literature, accounts of foreign travellers, epigraphic records, and lastly, a few treatises which deal specially with Politics.

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ADMINISTRATION DURING INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION 3300 BCE – 1700 BCE The name Indus evokes the urban, proficient culture of the third and mid second millennia BC that prospered in the zone around the Indus River and its tributaries. It's initially known urban communities, Harappa on the banks of a dried up bed of the Ravi River, an Indus tributary, and Mohenjo-Daro, 570 kilometres downstream, in the vicinity of the Indus River itself. Indus rulers seem to have represented their urban areas through the control of exchange and religion rather than the military might. There is no proof of monuments built to commemorate the rulers and there is no sign of warfare and weapons of offence. The rulers carried seals with animal symbols and writing and wore ornaments of rare material. Each bigger city was likely sorted out as a city-state.

The political association of the urban communities was most likely not a hereditary monarchy. Numerous large buildings and public spaces in the lower town appear to indicate the presence of several distinct elite group. Local pioneers would have been responsible for the maintenance of well-planned streets and housing, wells and drainage facilities. They created an urban society made out of various social levels. Craftsman, rural workers, agricultural labours, administrative leaders, religious pioneers, traders and political rulers lived together in walled urban areas separated into well-defined neighbourhoods. The square stone seals with writing and animal depictions portrayals were very important symbols of power. These different seals showed up with the ascent of the urban areas and then vanished with their decline. Different objects, e.g., distinctive painted pottery, elaborate adornments, metal tools, cubical stone weights also vanished with the loss of the script.

SYMBOLS OF POWER • ZEBU BULL - symbolizes the leader of the group, strong and virile. It represents to the most effective clan in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. The script accompanying the animals could allude to royal titles.

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• ELEPHANT - these seals are of medium size and are basically found in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. These were most likely attached to products that were being exchanged. These seals were most used by minor • MALE WATER BUFFALO - Assumes a posture of defence as ensuring protection to the group and the females, depicting fertility and protection. These seals were presumably used by minor administrative officers. • TIGER - these seals are initially found in the larger urban communities. These seals were most likely used by minor administrative officers • UNICORN - seems to be an important symbol of the elite class and traders. These seals are found at all locales in the Indus Valley and even Mesopotamia. The unicorn is delineated accepting different stances and were likely made by local artisan’s at all significant cities. These seals were commonly used by the aristocracy or merchants specifically associated in governing different settlements and accepting the financial and political power in the major cities.

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ADMINISTRATION DURING VEDIC PERIOD 1500 BCE – 500 BCE The Indus Valley civilization was trailed by the Vedic period. The Vedic Age was the time when the Aryans settled in India. Their villages set the reason for basic architecture in India. It was the period in which the Vedas, the oldest sacred scripture writings of Hinduism, were formed. The society that emerged amid that time is known as the Vedic Period, or the Vedic Age, Civilization. The Vedic Civilization prospered between the 1500 BC and 500 BC on the Indo-Gangetic Plains of the Indian subcontinent. This development set out the establishment of Hinduism and in addition the related Indian culture. The Vedic Age was trailed by the golden period of Hinduism and classical Sanskrit literature, the Maurya Empire and the Middle Kingdoms of India.

RIG VEDIC PERIOD Administration in Rig Vedic period was carried out through political bodies like sabhas and samitis. In the Rig Vedic period administrative units were known as "Kul," "Gram" and 'Vish'. Gram or the village comprised of the neighbouring family units. In the political arrangement of the Rig Vedic period the smallest unit was the family. The eldest individual in the family becomes its head. The village comprised of a group of families. The leader of the village was known as "Gramini" who acts as the administrative head. A group of villages was known as the "Vish" and its head was 'Vishpati'. Numerous "Vishas" constituted a "Jan" whose key officer was known as 'Gopa'. This was a critical office and as a rule the ruler himself turned into the 'Gopa'. Government in the Rig Vedic period was monarchical. The office of the king was hereditary. But the kings were not despotic and they had to take an oath at the time of coronation to work in the interest of the people. The king as well as his subjects were bound by 'Dharmas' or rule of law which was a code of duties. To assist the king in administration there were various officers. There is also a mention in Rig Vedic period of two democratic bodies known as the 'Sabha' and the 'Samiti', which controlled the king. The 'Sabha' was an elite institution and worked as the council of elders while the 'Samiti' was a public body.

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In Rig-Veda king is not associated with any divinity. The king is also not seen performing any public sacrifices for the state. It seems that the Vedic King was the hereditary head of a council of vitpatis and originally he owed his position to his qualities as a military leader. King is described as the protector of the people. Adjudication is not considered as his function. The sabha and the samiti were more concerned with the settlement of disputes. The principle of self-help had a great scope in civil and criminal cases. Women also attended the sabha in Rig Vedic times. The main source of income was the income of the crown-lands and gifts from the people, which were voluntary. Very few government officers have been mentioned: senani or general, gramani or the village headman and purohita or the royal priest. Senani was the deputy commander of the military forces. Purohita was mainly concerned with the sacrifices to be offered to gods. He would accompany the king in the battlefield to help the army with the help of mystic powers. The king was originally a president of the council of peers or elders. He had as such no extensive powers. Sabha and samiti were two popular bodies that exercised considerable control over the king. The administrative system consisted of a.

The tribal kingdom which was called RASHTRA.

b.

Tribes which were called JANA.

c.

Each tribal unit was described as VISH.

d.

Villages which were called GRAMA.

The king who was the central figure in the administrative system was assisted by a. The chief priest or PUROHIT and b. Army commander who was called SENANI. Other figures of the administrative machinery were: a. The Treasurer b. Steward c. Spies and messengers d. Charioteer e. Superintendent of dicing.

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There was no systematic legal institution and custom was the law. Justice was based on the concept of DHARMA and an adjudication of disputes was done by the King and chief priest with the occasional advice of elders in select cases. Capital punishment did not exist but trial ordeal was a common practice.

LATER VEDIC PERIOD In later Vedic times, the vidatha completely disappeared. The sabha and samiti continued to hold the ground, but their character changed. Women were no longer permitted to sit in the sabha, and it was now dominated by nobles and Brahmanas. The formation of wider kingdoms made the king more powerful. Tribal authority tended to become territorial. The term rashtra, which indicates territory, first appears in this period. The King performed the rajasuya sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power to him. He performed the asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over an area in which the royal house ran uninterrupted. He also performed the vajapeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen. During this period collection of taxes and tributes, the king officer called sangrihitri. Even in later Vedic times the king did not possess a standing army. Tribal units were mustered in times of war, and, according to one ritual for success in war, the king had to eat along with his people from the same plate.

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NANDA DYNASTY 345 BCE–321 BCE

About the middle of the fourth century B.C the Sisunaga dynasty was overthrown by the first Nanda ruler Mahapadma. According to the Puranas, he was born of a Sudra woman. In the Jain works, he is described as the son of a courtesan by a barber and according to a Greek writer Curtius, Mahapadma was the son of a barber who by is good looks had won the queen's heart and who subsequently assassinated the ruler of Sisunaga dynasty. All these accounts show that Mahapadma was of low origin, and succeeded in capturing the Magadhan throne by political intrigue of subterfuge. The fame of Magadha scaled new heights under the Nanda dynasty. Their conquests went beyond the boundaries of the Gangetic basin and in North India they carved a well-knit and vast empire. Mahapadma Nanda was a powerful ruler of the Nanda dynasty. Mahapadma is said to have uprooted the Ksahtriyas by defeating the Iksvakus, Kurus, Panchalas, Kasis, Surasenas, Maithlas, Kalingas, Asmakas and Haihayas. It is certain that almost the whole of Madhyadesa and Malwa region formed parts of Sisunaga's empire. Nanda controls over parts of Kalinga, the conquest of Asmaka and other regions lying further south does not seem to be altogether improbable. On the Godavari, there is a city called Nav Nand Dehra. According to Pliny, the Prasi (Easterners) surpassed in power and glory every other people all over India. This shows the high reputation which the Namdas enjoyed at that time. The eight sons of Mahapadma are said to have ruled for twelve years in succession. The last Nanda ruler was probably Dhananada. According to Greek writer Curtius, he maintained a strong army consisting of 2,00,000 foot soldiers, 2000 horses, 20,000 chariots and 4,000 elephants and had immense riches. But he was irreligious (adharmika), and of tyrannical disposition. He was, therefore, very unpopular. After Alexander's departure Chandragupta Maurya took advantage of the situation and destroyed the power of the Nandas of Magadha (C.320-21 B.C). Magadha had thus step by step emerged as the premier kingdom in northern India, and henceforth its history merged with the history of India itself. The glamour of the Nandas had been dimmed by the greater splendour of the Mauryas. But we should remember that it was they who for the first time united the petty states of northern India, who were generally at war with one another, into one strong military unit. In other words, it was the Nandas who established a strong and unified political authority which covered most of northern India excluding Bengal.

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MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION 322 BCE–180 BCE

The Mauryan Empire (322-185 BC), was ruled by Mauryan Empire and it was the largest empire to rule the Indian subcontinent, it was one of the most geographically extensive empire with a powerful military and strong politics. The Magadhan kingdom lay in the Indo-Gangetic plains of modern day Bihar, Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bengal, the capital city of the empire was Pataliputra, which is Patna, today. Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan Empire in 322 B.C.E after conquering and overthrowing the Nanda Dynasty. He began to expand his power westward across central and western India.. By 316 B.C.E., the empire had totally occupied Northwestern part of India, conquering the satraps left by Alexander the Great, also defeated the Macedonians with the help of Chanakya or Kautilya who, the was the advisor of Chandragupta Maurya. Chadragupta had a single, efficient and effective system of finance, administration, and security. The Mauryan Empire is rightly regarded as one of the most prominent and significant periods India has ever witnessed. In the ninth year of reign, Ashoka fought the Kalinga War in the years 262 – c. 261 BCE. After the war, the Empire experienced a half century of complete peace and security under Ashoka’s rule. India was a prosperous and stable empire with great economic and military power. It’s political and trade had influence extended across Western and Central Asia to Europe. During that period, Mauryan India also witnessed and enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of learning and the sciences. At its peak, they expanded north to the Himalayas and east to Assam, west to Pakistan and Emperor Bindusara expanded the empire to western and southern India. The decline of Mauryan Empire began fifty years after Asoka’s rule and in 185 B.C., and power of the Sunga (or Shunga) Dynasty rose in Magadha. In order to be in control of Magadha, Maurya defeated the Nanda Dynasty and further conquered the Macedonian with the help of the advisor, his minister. Owing to this relation between the both, the theories and works of Chanakya were applied in the administration of the working of a kingdom, mainly, Arthasastra, a compendium of governance, administration and kingship. 12

Name of the king

From

To

Chandragupta Maurya

322 B.C.E.

298 B.C.E.

Bindusara

297 B.C.E.

272 B.C.E.

Ashoka The Great

273 B.C.E.

232 B.C.E.

Dasaratha

232 B.C.E.

224 B.C.E.

Samprati

224 B.C.E.

215 B.C.E.

Devavarman

202 B.C.E.

195 B.C.E.

Satadhanvan

195 B.C.E.

187 B.C.E.

Brihadratha

187 B.C.E.

185 B.C.E.

KAUTILIYA’S ARTHASHASTRA Kautilya’s Arthashastra, a political treatise on ancient Indian political institutions, written sometime from 321 to 296 B.C., examines statecraft, gives an account of State administration, and reflects the rule of the Mauryan kings. Arthashastra, a treatise through Kautilya, a Brahmin Minister under Chandragupta Maurya, is written in Sanskrit. It discusses theories and principles for effective governance. Kautilya viewed the State as an institutional necessity for human advancement. It comprises fifteen books dealing extensively with the powers and obligations of the king; major organs of the state including the King, the Ministers, the Janapada [territory with people settled on it], the Durga, the Treasury, and the Army; Revenue administration; and personnel administration. A thorough analysis of the Arthashastra brings to light the following principles of Public Administration: welfare orientation; unity of command; division of work; coordination; planning, budgeting and accounting; decentralization; recruitment based on qualifications laid down for each post; paid civil service; hierarchy; and delegation of authority. The most noticeable aspect of the Arthashastra is its emphasis on Public Welfare even in an autocratic agrarian State. That is where its timelessness lies. It is composed in the form of brief statements called Sutras and is compiled in 15 books (Adhikarnas), 150 sections, 180 chapters (Prakarnas), 6000 verses (sutras).

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ADMINISTRATION The theories of Chanakya or Kautilya were actually brought into practice for the effective administration of the vast empire. So, primarily, the Saptanga theory was practiced.

I. Saptanga theory: It literally means theory of the seven elements of the state. According to Kautilya, a state is instituted of the following elements: a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

Svamin Amatya Janapada Durga Kosa Bala Mitra

– King – Minister or High Official – Territory – Fort – Treasury – Army – Ally or friend.

II. Mauryan Centralized Administration: The King: The king used to be the head of the state and he had control over the military, executive, judiciary, and legislature. He would take advice from a council, consisting of ministers, the treasurer and the general. The administration of the dynasty itself is under the control of the king. The sovereign and supreme authority of the administrations lies with the king. The king maintains the harmony and social order by punishing the guilty.He is also regarded as the ultimate authority of the bureaucracy. Before Ashoka’s reign, Mauryan Empire was a Hindu state, and as per its concepts, the supreme power of a state is Dharma or law and, these kings are its guardians. The king is obliged to abide by what his ministers in the times of emergency. The provincial governor and provincial ministers had the right to be consulted by the king especially in all provincial matters. The king was considered to be representative of Gods, and further was known as Devanampriya, which literally means- beloved of God. The king used to be the heart and soul of the dynasty. And according the Chanakya, he observed that an ideal leader is the one who has proper understanding of shastras and of what the best interests of the citizen are, who is free from disease, is brave, strong, confident, truthful and of noble birth.

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III. Ministry: The Council of Ministers or the Mantri Parishad or the Privy Council advices the kings, but their power is not absolute. These ministers are appointed by the king himself. The political check was done by this council. This council of ministers act as the backbone of the political body. These mantrins’ advice was taken on each instant that is related to administration. The Mantri Parishad would have to qualify themselves and show their abilities by clearing tests of religion, love, fear and money. In times of emergency, the king consulted with the Mantri Parishad and always guided by the majority decision of the Mantri Parishad. Even the absentee ministers were consulted by letter correspondence. The Mantri Parishad along with the mantrins form the ministry for the Mauryan Administration. Prominent members of the ministry included:Purohita - High Priest; Mahamantri - Minister; Senapati - Commander in chief, and, Yuvaraja - Crown Prince, Who were paid their salaries in cash alone. They received 48 thousand Panas (Pana was a silver coin equal to 3/4th of a Tola). Kautilya differentiates mantrins from members of the mantra parishad considering their pay and functions.

IV. Revenue Administration: Kautilya, one of the greatest political thinkers India has ever witnessed, laid greater stress on the treasury as, he believed, the smooth and successful functioning of the government depends on finance of a state. The main sources of revenue were rent, tax and land revenue. The collection of all revenues of the empire and the responsibility of taking care of income and expenditure by supervising the works of the akshapataladhyaksha or accountant general was done by ‘Samaharta’. In addition, revenue came from irrigation, in the form of customs, i.e., a tax levied on goods or duties on imports and exports, road cases, shop tax, ferry tax, forests, mines, pastures, crown lands, fees from craftsmen, gambling etc. Kautilya talks about some other kinds of income as well, such as pindakara, a fixed commuted tax contributed by the villages from time to time, and senabhaktam, the punitive tax imposed by the army on the region through which it passes. Much of the state revenue collected was expended on paying the army, the officials of the royal government, on charities and on different public works like irrigation projects, road construction etc.

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V. Military Administration: According to the account a Roman writer Pliny (The Natural Historia), Chandragupta maintained 6, 00,000 foot soldiers, 30000 cavalry, 9000 elephants and 1,000 chariots.. The administration of armed forces according to Megasthanes was carried on by a board of 30 officers divided into 6 committees, each committee consisting of 5 members. It seems that the six wings of the armed forces – I.

The army,

II.

The cavalry,

III.

The war elephants,

IV.

The war chariots,

V.

The navy and

VI.

The transport and supply

All these six committees or wings were placed under some adhyakshas or superintendents. They are – the army was headed by padadhyaksha, the cavalry was headed by asvadhyaksha, the elephants was headed by hastyadhyaksha, the chariotary was headed by rathadhyaksha, the navy was headed by navadhyaksha and the armory was headed by ayudhagaradhyaksha respectively. Kautilya refers to different types of warriors, such as the hereditary ones, soldiers supplied by forest tribes, and those furnished by the allies. Salaries of various ranks of military officers were also mentioned and fixed. The Senapati received a salary of 48,000 panas annually, followed by 24,000 for Prasasta, 12,000 for Nayaka, 8,000 for Mukhya, 4,000 for Adhyaksha, and 500 for ordinary soldiers. The salaries were paid in cash only. Although he Mauryans had a vast territory for a long time, owing to their strong military power, they could maintain the huge army.

VI. Mauryan Municipal Administration System: The empire was divided into various Municipal boards. The main cities of Mauryan Empire was Patliputra, Kausaumbi, Taxila and Ujjain. Greek writer, Megasthenes tells us about how the city of Patliputra was administered, it was broadly divided into 40 wards, each administered by a counselor, and administration capital had 6 committees with 5 members each. The six committees had the following duties respectively 16

The functions of the six committees were: a. Industrial art - Standardizes wages, encourages and implements the use of pure and sound material and demanding completing work for fair wages. b. Hospitality- Takes care of foreigners and foreign affairs. c. Census- Mauryans were the first ones to conduct Census in India, and probably the firsts in the world as a whole. Registration of births and deaths, facilitates levying of taxes, systematic functioning of the state, maintaining law and order d. Supervises the manufacturing of goods and other commodities e. Trade and Commerce- Regulates the sales and purchases of goods. f. Weights and Measures and Taxes- Collects excise duties and taxes.

VII. Judicial Administration: The king was the head of the judicial system, and he, himself was the judge. He acted as the highest court of appeal and heard the appeal cases himself. But, considering the fact that the Mauryan Empire was very vast, it was humanly impossible for the king to hear to each and every case in the state, so he had subordinate judges too, and the very petty issues were heard by the village headman. These subordinate courts were situated at the provincial capitals, divisions and district under amatyas and pradesikas, mahamatras and rajukas. The police officers were known as Pradesikas, whose primary duty was to investigate crimes committed in the territories within their jurisdiction. Investigation regarding the crimes committed was taken very seriously and strict measures were followed. The judicial system prevalent back then are relevant now too, taking a few examples: a. The pardoning power concept came into existence during the reign of Ashoka-the great. b. In the third and fourth chapters of Arthasastra talks about the existence of two types of courts prevalent, 1. Dharmasthya – Civil Court, and 2. Kantakasodhana – Criminal Court. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court was known as Dharmadhikarin. Sources of law mentioned by Kautilya were: 17

1. Dharma or sacred law, 2. Vyavahara or usage, 3. Charitam or customs and traditions, and, 4. Rajasasanas or royal proclamations. The punishments that existed in the Mauryan Empire were mainly, fines, imprisonment, mutilation and capital punishment, as talked about in Ashoka’s edicts.

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GUPTAN ADMINISTRATION 321 CE–550 CE

The Guptas sustained the legacy of the Mauryans in several respects. The divine character of the king was upheld and the king controlled all the stages of the administrative machinery. The empire was divided, like the Mauryan, for administrative purposes into units styled as Bhukti‘, Desa, Rashtra, and Mandala. Villages had their own headmen and assemblies and towns and cities had special officers described nagarapatis and even town councils. The king had the help of several functionaries to share the burden of administration. Separately from the confidential adviser, there were civil and military officials, feudatories, district officers and several others. The Gupta period is considered as the Golden Age in the history of India because this period witnessed all round developments in Religion, Literature, Science, Art and Architecture. There was economic prosperity all over the country. People lived in peace. Apart from these there was Cultural Renaissance. Therefore the Guptan period is considered as the Golden Age in the history of India. Decline of the Guptas Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta. His reign was marked by peace and prosperity. After his death, his son Skandagupta ascended the throne. During his time, the Huns frequently attacked the Gupta Empire. Toramana and Mihirakula, the two powerful kings had weakened the Gupta Empire. The Huns were generally fierce people who came from Central Asia. The mighty vassals were constantly giving troubles to the Guptan monarchs. The dispute, which occurred at the time of succession, was also another cause for the downfall of the Guptas. After the death of Skandagupta, the empire began to decline and collapsed completely. ADMINISTRATION The Gupta kings had limitless powers. There was political unity in India under the Guptas. There was an efficient administration, the vast empire was divided into provinces which were under the control of the governors. The members of the royal family were appointed as governors. The ministers, generals and other officials followed Rajya Dharma. The provinces were divided into Vishayas or districts. The village was the lowest unit of administration. A local chief administered it.

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The Guptan monarchs maintained a standing army. The use of cavalry and horse archery became important in the army. Special attention was paid to the safety of the border areas. Land tax and Excise duties were collected. The judicial system was developed and several law books were written. For the first time civil and criminal Laws were differentiated. Fa-hien’s Account During the reign of Chandragupta II, Fa-hien, and the Chinese traveler visited his court. He came to India to see the important Buddhist Centers. He stayed a few years in Chandragupta’s Court. His accounts contain information about the victories and other achievements of Chandragupta. According to him, kings were tolerant, people were prosperous arid of charitable disposition People dared not to kill living things Punishments were mild India had traded with China, Ceylon, East Indian Islands arid many countries of Europe. The numerical strength of the Gupta army is not known. Evidently the king maintained a standing army, which was supplemented by the forces occasionally supplied by his feudatories. Horse chariots receded into the background, and cavalry came to the fore. Horse archery became an important element in military tactics. During the Gupta period land taxes increased in number, and those on trade and commerce decreased. Probably the king collected taxes varying from one-fourth to one-sixth of the produce. In addition, whenever the royal army passed through the countryside, the local people had to feed it. The peasants had also to supply animals, food grains, furniture, etc., for the maintenance of royal officers on duty in rural areas. In central and western India, the villagers were also subjected to forced labour called vishti by the royal army and officials. The judicial system was far more developed under the Guptas than in earlier times. Several law-books were compiled during this period, and for the first time civil and criminal laws were clearly demarcated. Theft and adultery fell under criminal law, disputes regarding various types of property under civil law. Elaborate laws were laid down about inheritance. As in earlier times, many laws continued to be based on varna differentiation. It was the duty of the king to uphold the law, and try cases with the help of brahmana priests. The guilds of artisans, merchants, and others were governed by their own laws. Seals from Vaishali and from Bhita near Allahabad indicate that these guilds flourished during Gupta times. The Gupta bureaucracy was not as elaborate as that of the Mauryas. The most important officers in the Gupta empire were the kumaramatyas. They were appointed by the king in the home 20

provinces and possibly paid in cash. As the Guptas were possibly vaishyas, recruitment was not confined to the upper varnas only, but several offices were combined in the hands of the same person, and posts became hereditary. This naturally weakened royal control. The Guptas organized a system of provincial and local administration. The empire was divided into divisions called bhukth, and each bhukti was placed under the charge of an uparika. The bhuktis were divided into districts (vishayas), which were placed under the charge of a vishayapati. In eastern India, the vishayas were divided into vithis, which again were subdivided into villages. The village headman gained in importance in Gupta times, managing village affairs with the assistance of elders. With the administration of a village or a small town, leading local elements were associated. No land transactions could be effected without their consent. In the urban administration, organized professional bodies were given a considerable say. The sealings from Vaishali show that artisans, merchants, and the head of the guild served on the same corporate body, and in this capacity they obviously conducted the affairs of the town. The administrative board of the district of Kotivarsha in north Bengal (Bangladesh) included the chief merchant, the chief trader, and the chief artisan. Their consent to land transactions was considered necessary. Artisans and bankers were organized into their own separate guilds. We hear of numerous guilds of artisans, traders, etc., at Bhita and Vaishali. At Mandasor in Malwa and at Indore, silk weavers maintained their own guilds. In the district of Bulandshahar in western UP, the oil-pressers were organized into guilds. It seems that these guilds, especially those of merchants, enjoyed certain immunities. In any event, they looked after the affairs of their own members and punished those who violated the laws and customs of the guild. The participation of leading artisans, merchants, elders, and others in the rural and urban administration also lessened the need to maintain a large retinue of officers. The Guptas neither needed nor had the elaborate administrative machinery of Maurya times, and in some ways their political system appears to have been feudal.

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CONCLUSION

From this project it can be observed that the best administrative system was put forward by Mauryan Empire. Mauryan’s thought and functioned in a way, much ahead of their contemporaries. The Mauryan empire was largely monarchial, in which the king was the head of the state. It can also be understood that it was likely due to the presence and great influence of the great Indian statesman and philosopher, Kautilya, that the administration of a state as vast as Mauryan empire, which covered almost the whole of Indian subcontinent was administered so smoothly and innovatively. Be it the central administration, or the revenue administration, or the judicial or the military, all were upto the mark of the administrations existing even today. We can conclude by saying that the administration that existed in Mauryan empire was the largest empire, which ushered the centralized government in which, due to vastness, many subordinated worked under the supreme power, the king. It was indeed a great success and created history and left a bench mark for the ones to come and still remains a trend-setter as whole. The Mauryan empire became a paternal despotism under the reign of Ashoka. His sincerity and love for his subjects is expressed in his saying, “All men are my children”, which defines totally his view about the citizens of his state. It is a mode of administration that is looked up on constantly by the lovers and researchers of history, and many of its salient features are applied even today.

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