Anandithaa_dfs_assignment1.pdf

DESIGN & FASHION STUDIES Presented by: Anandithaa S A B.Des (LD-4) 2017-2021 Nift Kolkata

OBJECTIVE • Fashion trends and fashion movements of each decade across 20th century • Growth of various fashion capitals • Growth of retail structure of the fashion industry from 20th to 21st century

The Fashion Trends Of Each Decade In The 20th Century.

Let’s take a journey through the past century and learn the fashion trends that characterized a century of promise

The

1900s

Fashion has changed a great deal since the 18th century, clothing and accessories looked quite different from what they do today. Typical fashion of the time included corsets, stiff collars, and Gibson Girl hairstyles – a hairstyle with a bun based on ink drawings of women done by an American named Charles Gibson beginning in the 1890‟s. GIBSON'S GIRL WAS MEANT TO PERSONIFY THE IDEAL AMERICAN BEAUTY OF THAT ERA, AND HER HAIRSTYLE IS SOFT AND VERY POOFY WITH A BUN ON TOP AND RINGLETS AND TENDRILS HANGING DOWN A fashionable trend in the 1900‟s was the s-bend corset, it set the standard of the time and women all over the nation wore this piece for many occasions. The corset thrust the hips backward and forced the chest forward, creating a pouter-pigeon shape. The trend was emphasized with puffed, frilly blouses embellished with elaborate decorations such as broad ribbon ties and lace collars. Women‟s hair was often parted in the center and often looped around pads and false hair to create a „brim‟ of hair around the hairline.

The

1910s

During the early part of the century, fashion became more masculine and macho, yet was also characterized by rich and exotic touches of flare. Women wore short bob haircuts throughout this decade; they also wore shorter skirts and dresses – well shorter for the time as short meant just above the ankle. World War I heavily influenced much of the fashion of this time, designers created pieces that marked the generation and dressed women for the era. The hobble skirt, for example, caught on quickly with the women of the time and remained the height of fashion until around 1915.

The

1920s

The 1920‟s is known as both the roaring 20‟s and the Jazz Era. This decade ushered in the modern era of women‟s fashion as it abandoned the more restricting fashions of the past decades in favour of more comfortable clothes. Skirts and trousers offered the comfort women were looking for. Athletic clothing, boyish silhouettes, and glittering opulence also characterize this famous era. The trend moved forward both fashion statements and women‟s independence. Women began wearing less constrictive clothing typical of the 1800‟s and early 1900‟s, opting instead for more loose and breathable fabrics such as silk. Accessories also made a grand entrance in this decade, from matching headbands to pearls and statement pieces; women were making an entrance into the forefront of social setting with fashion-forward garments and confidence.

The

1930s

EVERY DECADE OF ADVANCEMENT IMPROVED THE QUALITY OF LIFE FOR WOMEN AND THEIR ABILITY FOR SELF-EXPRESSION. For example, the fashion trends in the 1930‟s were heavily influenced by the progressive nature of the 1920‟s

and mirrored some of the trends, but pushed the envelope further. The clothing became more relaxed and comfortable, and for the first time, more daring as women not only wore less clothes but more revealing clothes. Much of this fashion progress came to a temporary halt during the end of the decade when the Great depression hit; this caused a retrograde in women‟s fashion back to a decade before with more conservative articles of clothing highlighting traditional feminine features. In this one, longer hemlines returned to the scene and restrictive garments that showed a women‟s body appeared.

The

1940s

Another decade marked and influenced by a world war set the scene for women‟s fashion, and for clothing designers. World War II was in full swing, and so was the fashion industry, with new fabrics and designs yet losing other fabrics and designs. For example, common fabrics used during the 1920‟s such as silk were no longer being used, instead, clothing was being made from cheaper materials that were more available at the time. The war caused shortages and world trade deficits that slowed clothing production but spurred innovation in the industry. Colours were heavily influenced by the war, women adorned military-inspired fashion colours and regalia such as navy and nautical colours. The women enjoyed showing off the colours, and the men appreciated the support and patriotism that this fashion decade introduced. The war also produced more masculine clothing with yet shorter skirts and stiffer, wider shoulders.

The

1950s

Mid-century, fashion took a drastic turn. The war had ended and a new decade with new confidence had begun. A women‟s figure is celebrated in the clothing designs and accessories, with designers catering to new trends and new demands. Mid-century, fashion took a drastic turn. The war had ended and a new decade with new confidence had begun. A women‟s figure is celebrated in the clothing designs and accessories, with designers catering to new trends and new demands.

The

THE 1960‟S SAW ADVANCES IN CULTURE AND HUMAN RIGHTS.

1960s

Music took fashion on a groovy trip, and the civil rights movement in the United States sparked further independence in women‟s rights and fashion. This unique mix started a firestorm of fashion trends that broke many rules – many rules that needed to be broken. The 1960‟s can be characterized as an era of social movements and fashion innovations that are still worn today. These fashion trends reflected the change in society and the structure of classes, dividing some and uniting others. Fashion expressed these cultural and societal changes through clothing such as A-line dresses that showed off women‟s legs and gave them extra height. Vibrant colours with psychedelic prints, and chic vintage handbags characterized the underground scene, especially within the music industry. Topping off the unique fashion styles, women wore incredible hairstyles that defined the decade that made it into hit films.

The

1970s

Rolling along the decades, the 1970‟s further developed women‟s fashion sense and fashion statements. The decade embodied individualism – clothing became a symbol of independence and freethinking, a trend that clothing has personified till today. Items such as flared jeans and platform shoes characterized clothing styles. This decade really helped women express their individuality, not only among men, but also among women. In the 1970‟s, Vogue declared, “There are no rules in the fashion game now.” Referring to overproduction flooding the fashion market with inexpensive clothing made of synthetic materials. Typical items of this decade included mini skirts, bell-bottom pants that were popularized by hippies, vintage clothing made a debut, and glam rock and disco trends introduced fashion staples such as satin, glitter, and bright colours.

The

1980s

This is the era of big hair and big shoulder pads. Not only did women‟s fashion change, but also women‟s roles in society with many entering the working force than ever before. Not only did women work more, but they also played more and fashion catered to this notion. Women wore clothing for practical purposes and for fashion statements, creating a decade of luxurious garments such as silks and furs. Clothing and accessories were characterized by vibrant colours and bouffant hair. Fashion in the 80‟s was characterized by unforgettable trends, some that are still worn today, but others that are not. The trends of this decade included tights, leotards, sweatpants, velour tracksuits, and the quintessential ripped jeans – which are still a fashion statement today. In addition, athletic accessories were also extremely popular, a trend boosted by the aerobics craze of the 80‟s.

The

1990s

The 1990‟s took a turn away from the opulent and vibrant previous decades, in favour of more minimalist fashion trends. As with decades before, the 90‟s were heavily influenced by music, particularly rock and grunge music. Much like the band members seen on MTV, women wore casual daywear such as jeans and tshirts. The 90‟s fashion scene remains among the most seen fashion trends today as new generations embrace the styles of the end of the century, a statement of both the end and beginning of a new century.

Much like hairstyles of the 20th century, women’s clothing was based on wars, politics, social movements, and more. From bell bottoms and poodle skirts to chansonettes and platform shoes, here are the fashion trends from the last century.

1900s: Feathered Hat Often referred to as the "Plume Boom," the popularity of wearing real feathers in hats reached its peak in the early 20th century.

Belle époque: Luxurious fashion. People packed in splendour before World War I drained the pockets. This period came right after the Victorian period. Those swish Brits! Day gowns, tight corsets, lace, feathers, parasols and gloves had a following that were excessive at the time, but so darn pretty.

1910s: Edwardian Corset The Edwardian corset was meant to accentuate a woman's breasts and hips, while cinching the

body at the waist, and dramatically curving the back. With the busk now being positioned straight down as opposed to inward, women were finally able to breathe a bit better. This takes the idea that pain is beauty to a whole new level!.

1920s: The Flapper Dress After the Women‟s Suffrage Movement, women‟s fashions took a drastic turn. Frowned upon for wearing makeup, chopping off their hair, smoking, and drinking, these "flapper" women abandoned their female form and wore straight-cut dresses that were hiked above their knees and bras made specifically to flatten their chests. This look, created by Coco Chanel and termed "garconne" was also about comfort--they continued without the corsets, but also ditched other uncomfortable undergarments to move more freely during the Jazz Age.

1920s: Flapper Headband Named after the bobby pins that kept it in place, the bob haircut became incredibly popular in the 1920s. These rebellious women would often pair their cuts with headbands that cut across the forehead to give their 'do a more feminine look.

1920s: Cloche Hats According to The Smithsonian, the cloche hat was actually invented in 1908 by a woman named Caroline Reboux. During the Jazz Age, it became increasingly popular because women loved the look of the hat paired with their Eton cropped hair.

1930s: Puff Sleeves Moving away from the Chanel "garconne" look of the 1920s, women of the this decade returned to more feminine shapes in their wardrobes. The puff sleeve was said to help bring back the curves of a woman‟s body, while also helping to create a curve if the woman didn‟t have one.

1940s: Utility Dresses Much of the decade‟s fashion was based on what many call civilian uniforms. These clothes, marked "CC41" for "civilian clothing 1941," were made to be durable and affordable, not fashionable. Women rolled up the sleeves of their utility outfits, sported a

cloth in their hair, added a bit of red lipstick, and went to work. Along with the lack of materials came creative solutions for clothing-women repurposed old clothing, bedsheets and other scrap materials with patterns so their wardrobes weren‟t so monotonous.

1940s: HighWaisted Bikini In previous decades, women had no choice but to wear one-piece

bathing suits. In the 1940s, the two-piece bikini became popular which showed off slightly more skin. Because of the war-time rationing, these bikinis were cut plain and simply, with no adornments. Jewels, ruffles, and lace were added to these bikinis in the 1950s.

1950s: The Poodle Skirt With the end of the war came the end of rationing and the beginning of a generation of rock „n‟ roll dancers. These dancers craved clothing that was moveable, and the poodle skirt allowed them to dance without any restriction. Termed "poodle" skirt because many of them sported an image of the dog on the hem, these knee-length skirts were often worn

with cardigans, neck scarves, bulky belts, frilly socks, and oxfords.

1950s: Saddle Shoes The saddle shoe was initially created for sporting purposes in the

early 1900s, but with the onset of dances like the Lindy Hop and the Jitterbug in the '50s, they became the choice footwear. These shoes, much like oxfords, were acceptable for both sexes to wear and came in a variety of colours.

1950s: Chansonette Bra After being deprived from materials for so long, women looked for clothing that accentuated the female silhouette and the Chansonette bra did just that. These bras were made popular by female sex icons of the '50s, and were quickly given the nickname "bullet bra" because of their shape. The bra did not have any wires or padding, but had a pocket of air at the

tip of each cup which was said to help the breasts breathe comfortably.

1950s: Cat-Eye Glasses These Hollywood glam glasses were made popular by Marilyn Monroe in the 1953 film How to Marry a Millionaire. These specs became more of an accessory than a necessity for women in America.

1960s: Go-Go Boots These social movements of each decade generated their own fashions with help from international celebrities. From England‟s Twiggy and The Beatles and France‟s Brigitte Bardot, women in America began trying new trends, one of which was the boot. The go-go boot, named after the French word "la gogue" for happiness, was a calf high plastic boot and can be credited to designer André Courrèges. As the hemlines of the decade were hiked, the height of the go-go boot rose to meet it.

1960s: Pearls While pearls had been popular among upper classes since the Middle Ages, the '60s brought about fashion pearls that were much less expensive, usually made out of plastic. These pearls were supposed to convey social status, while also promoting femininity and class. Pearls weren‟t the only iconic piece of wardrobe on the set of Audrey Hepburn‟s bestknown film. Her black dress made such a splash that in recent years

1960s: Pillbox Hats While hats had been worn as a necessity in previous years, in the '60s they became an accessory. According to Vintage Fashion Guild, even the Catholic Church ended its requirement of hat wearing to mass in 1967. Small pillbox hats were worn on neatly teased hair to add extra volume, while floppy hats were mostly worn by the freedom-searching youth.

1960s: Fringe While fringe had been on the scene for many years-- think of Olivia Borden and even Elvis-Cher became iconic for sporting fringe on almost all of her clothing in the '60s. She was largely influenced by American Indian clothing. It is known that her fashions spawned an entire generation of fringewearing women and men.

1970s: The Crop Top While crop tops and tummy tops are popular today, they have to be credited back to the '40s. Female celebrities dared to be different and sported these tiny tops but they never seemed to catch on. At the time, Catherine Bach was one of the first women to ever show her stomach on television! In the decade of social change and freedom, people saw something that they had

never seen before and wanted to be part of it. Thus, the crop top was born.

1970s: WideBrimmed Hats It should come as no surprise that the widebrimmed hat came out of the '70s--a decade charged by youth going against the grain. Bombshell Brigitte Bardot was photographed many times wearing these hats, on set and in leisure.

1970s: Bell Bottoms One of the most popular fashion items in the '70s was bell bottom pants (for both men and women). While bellbottom pants had started their rise in the '60s with non-conformist youth, the '70s welcomed an era of mass-produced flared pants in a plethora of different fabrics.

1980s: Shoulder Pads The 1980s was a decade of self-indulgence. Women looked for fashion inspiration from television shows, movies, and music videos and the fashions were over the top. Women were now becoming a large part of the workplace and were told that they needed to look the part. The "power suit" emerged as a woman‟s go-to outfit for the corporate world, complete with immensely padded shoulders and a straight jacket cut. The thought was that the wider the shoulders were, the smaller the waist looked.

1980s: Oversized Sunglasses Often credited to Jackie Kennedy in the '60s as a way to hide from the paparazzi, big framed sunglasses became incredibly popular in the '80s with the motto of "bigger is better." Designs in the '80s were over the top, which meant everything was bigger--hair, shoulder pads, and even glasses. Popular styles included the ever-so-famous tortoise shell, heart shaped sunnies, and the aviators.

1990s: Floral Dresses As the over-the-top style of the '80s faded, the '90s welcomed a much more laid-back look. This was the first time in history that people were going to work in something other than a suit--people were more interested in comfort. People began boycotting brands and there was a decline in upscale clothing. Instead, women wore unfitted floral dresses and paired them with big hair, jean jackets, Keds, and ankle socks.

1990s: Plaid We were surprised to find that plaid dates all the way back to the 1500s and had revivals almost every decade since! In the '90s, Cher Horowitz from the movie Clueless took the counterculture staple and turned it mainstream. With her bright yellow plaid jacket and her matching yellow plaid skirt, the world was convinced to follow suit.

1990s: Chuck Taylors While the shoe was originally made for basketball players, the '90s saw a huge revival of these Chuck Taylors on the streets. These shoes became synonymous with counterculture and were worn by lovers of grunge, punk rockers, and rockers. Today, these sneakers are one of the most popular out there.

1990s: Platform Shoes According to Refinery 29, the platform shoe hasn‟t always been about fashion. They were used to help royals walk through mud in the medieval times, boosted the height of Greek thespians on stage, and were actually outlawed by parliament in the 1670s! After many ins and outs in the fashion world, they made a huge comeback in the '90s as a go-to accessory for the popular British pop group, the Spice Girls.

2000s: Velour Track Suits Thanks to Juicy Couture, celebrities (including Paris Hilton!) in the early millennium were found wearing velour tracksuits in every colour. Trying to emulate Hollywood, people all over the world followed suit and dozens of replicas came onto the market.

2000s: UGG Boots When a fashion magazine featured Cameron Diaz wearing a fuzzy pair of boots while running errands, the entire world was up in arms-everyone needed to have them! These boots, named UGGs, are an Australian brand that rose in popularity in the early 2000s and was even featured on Oprah's

list of favourite things.

2000s: Underwear as Outerwear Thanks to Britney Spears and her song "Slave 4 U," adults, teens, and tweens alike jumped on the underwear as outerwear bandwagon, wearing everything from bras, underwear and bustier as clothing. Thankfully, this so-called trend was very shortlived.

2000s: Statement Jewellery In the early 2000s, celebrities started bringing the bling. From earrings to necklaces to rings, everything bigger really was better. We've since settled down a little (no more collarbonelength chandelier earrings!), but you'll still see some majorly glam accessories on most of Hollywood's leading ladies.

Today Flashing forward to present day and fashion right now is all about vintage vibes. Looking through the decades for inspiration, the style savvy know that current trends are all focused on retro classics. Fashion blogger Caroline Daur has her throwback fashion on point wearing bell bottom denim, platform shoes, a newsboy cap and plaid purse.

Belle

époque

Flappers

Fifties glam

Swinging

Sixties

Disco Fever

Preppy Good boy/good girl looks can be achieved with a getup from this genre. Plaid skirts, Izod polos, penny loafers and argyle sweaters make any rebel look precious to their parents. Modern preps have slim-size polos in bright colours, which they pair with khaki pants and ribbon belts.

Hippie Peace-lovers loved the flower power look of the ‟60s. Ethnic outfits prevailed along with Afghans, peasant blouses, patchwork blouses and clothes made of hemp. Psychedelic and tie-dye prints were heavily favored, as were flowers in their hair. Pass the bong, dude.

Punk Punk fashion has long been on the radar and has evolved through the decades. A classic punk uniform consisted of Doc Martens or Converse sneakers, jeans or leather pants, a ratty shirt held together by safety pins, a leather jacket, silver spiked accessories and a dyed Mohawk.

Power Dressing

Minimalism

Cowboy A recurring movement, jeans, Western belts, cowboy boots and hats always make the grade.

Grunge Pearl Jam, Nirvana, Stone Temple Pilots and Soundgarden were at the forefront and their music was rooted in dark, angst-ridden lyrics. Flannel was huge as were boots, particularly Doc Martens.

Ghetto fabulous Without a doubt, this is one movement that has swept youth away. Kangol hats, baggy pants, Adidas sneakers, oversized shirts, gold teeth, multi-finger rings and doorknocker earrings. Phat Farm, Sean John and Rocawear have created clothing lines to ride with the market.

Military This movement has been all over fashion‟s radar. Boots, camo-gear, cargo pants, jackets and army garb have created a niche in the market. Military chic includes luxe embellishments and leathers for a softer and less severe look.

Boho Different from the hippie movement, boho was born 25 years later and is a more developed revival of the ‟60s look. Boho includes embellished and embroidered ethnic-chic caftans and sandals that are very Calypsoesque. Chiffon, lace, silk, cashmere and fur were strong players while Ghost and Voyage were big names.

New wave With influences from the UK‟s new wave music scene, followers of this movement wore all black head to toe.

Hollywood glam Gorgeous Hollywood stars set the trends from the ‟30s to the ‟50s, strutting down the red carpet in beautiful satin gowns and perfectly coiffed ‟dos. Imagine Charlize Theron as a modern-day Hollywood starlet from that era.

Rock royalty Different from heavy metal, this encompasses a look that‟s more Beyoncé and Victoria Beckham than Ozzy Osbourne. For rockers

who don‟t wear ripped jeans, but designer denim encrusted with jewels.

Deconstructionist Basically wearing your outfit inside out, this unconventional approach

puts the zippers and seams on the outside. A great way to recycle outfits!

Current jean phenomenon Whether low risers or slim-fit, these are not just a trend but seem to be the start of the newest movement.

Home To The Most Influential Designers

It’s easy to find a city with great style, but when it comes to dominating the fashion landscape, it’s all about the Big Four: New York, Paris, Milan, and London. Fashion capitals usually have a broad mix of business, artistic, entertainment, cultural and leisure activities and are internationally recognized for having a unique and strong identity.

• Paris Paris has quite a bit of fashion history. French fashion dates back to the time of Louis XIV, where the royal courts would only have access to luxury goods. With the creation of the fashion press in the early 1670s, it allowed fashion to be mass produced for the public. During the French Revolution, there was a movement known as “sans culottes,” or “without culottes” that was widespread. Culottes were a sign of royalty, so by not wearing them, you proved you were on the side of the people (think about that next time you consider buying a pair). The first couturier was considered Charles Fredrick Worth in the late 19th century. Couture in Paris was a strong influence with many houses such as Vionnet, Chanel and Balenciaga opening their doors at the turn on the 20th century. However, tradedy struck when World War II caused many of the fashion houses to close, shifting the fashion spotlight to America, who was rather unaffected by the war.

At the end of the war, Dior released his New Look, which changed the view of women’s fashion, emphasizing the body and curves, where as the fashions during the war did the opposite. Couture remained the fashionable style until the 1960s when Yves Saint Laurent introduced the idea of pret-a-porter, or ready to wear. Many Italian youth would look to London for more casual styles, criticizing couture. This gave way for the development of Parisian ready-to-wear, which remained a growing industry in the 1970s and 1980s. Paris Fashion Week began showing in 1973. They also host a couture show for spring and fall, where designers from all over the world come and show their couture collections. The famed shopping district in Paris is Avenue des Champ-Elysees.

NEON FASHION EXTRAVAGANZA

• London The fashion history of London has its roots in the British monarchy, who would often influence much of the fashion. Many commoners aspired to be like the royalty, wanting to replicate their dress. Textile production began in England in the 1700s with a way for the middle and lower class to have access to clothing, as the upper classes already had access to all of it. The loom was created in England in the mid-1700s with a way for people to weave their own fabrics from yarn. English technology was strictly protected so no one was able to leave with any of the country’s technology blueprints. This eventually spread to America and helped to start their textile industry. Fashion began to mimic that of America and the remainder of Europe until the 1960s, which was probably the most iconic decade in English fashion. In “Swinging London,” the mod fashion trend made a strong impact, with plastics becoming the experimental plastic.

This even spread to home decor. Twiggy was the iconic model, sporting a cat eye or spider lashes as the look. From then on, London really branched out into forming their own fashion identity. In the 1970s, punk was beginning to become a strong subculture in both London and New York City. Designer Vivienne Westwood would become known for her tartan prints and distressed clothing. The 1980s brought decadence to fashion, along with the first showing of London Fashion Week in 1984. What defines London’s style as a fashion city is the influence of Britpop with an influx of Doc Martens and bucket hats, now parts of the typical “London” style. The London College of Fashion, one of the world’s best fashion schools sends out fresh new talent which has shaped what is shown at fashion week. Bond Street and Oxford Street serve as the shopping district in London.

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A tag, a slogan, and a rallying cry, "Youth quake" exemplifies the slickness as well as the conviction, the spontaneous ebullience as well as the commercial aggression that during the 1960s marked the triumph of London ready-to-wear. Powered by the momentum of a cresting youth culture, a cadre of British designers, mostly women, wrenched dominance away from the Paris couture houses and profoundly altered global fashion. The Youth quake silhouette was less determined, less sculptural, less constructed, and usually less decorated. "Our clothes had to be comfortable," Tuffin recalled. "That was the main requirement" (conversation with author, November 1988).

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While the Paris couture continued to take itself very seriously, the kingdom of Youth quake teemed with humour and irreverence. Quant gave droll names to her clothes and arranged gag tableau in her store windows. Foale and Tuffin put Y's across the front of shift dresses- "Yfronts" were men's underwear briefs. Pants for women were concerned, London was more adventurous than the Paris couture or even the "yeyes," the young ready to wear designers of Paris.

• New York New York wasn’t the first to gain access to ready-to-wear fashion, however, they were the first capital to begin showing fashion week, which is why they are always the first to show each year. In America, textile and clothing production didn’t begin until the 1800s, with the Industrial Revolution and factories coming to the Northeast. This really allowed for mass production of clothing to happen. Ready-towear fashion began with menswear in the mid1800s with work clothes from companies such as Levi Strauss. Women's wear came about in the 1900s, reflecting the couturier styles of the rest of the world. New materials such as rayon and synthetic dyes were developed which helped to be able to mass produce clothing. Charles James was really America’s first couturier in the 1940s-1950s, producing extravagant ball gowns with a focus on the structure. New York City was also home of the Garment District, where the majority of the garments were produced.

During World War II, the couture houses in Europe closed, so the production of uniforms was moved to New York. New York challenged the couture of Paris with producing sportswear, something that Europe never really saw, in the 1940s and 1950s. This remarkable rebellion put New York City on the fashion map for the rest of the world to watch. Additionally, they were the first to host a fashion week. Originally called “Press Week,” fashion week was originally for American designers to showcase their work for the fashion industry insiders who were unable to travel to Paris due to the war. Coming off as a success, American designers were showcased for the first time in Vogue. Currently, New York Fashion Week is the first of the four major fashion weeks, showcasing many designers over the 7-9 day period. Additionally, 5th Avenue is generally regarded as the high end shopping district of New York City since most designers have flagship stores.

• Milan Italian fashion dates back to the 11th century with hitting it’s peak during the Renaissance, where women such as Catherine de Medici were the fashion icons at the time. Fashion declines in the 17th century and lasted all the way until the mid 20th century. Florence emerged in the 1950s and 1960s as a fashion capital that specialized in couture for the rich and famous, similar to the Paris at the time. Milan then emerged in the 1970s and 1980s as a location where ready-to-wear garments were made. Because Milan was more affordable and stylish, it became the fashion capital, with its first fashion week showing in 1958.

Milan and Florence aren’t the only two fashion cities that can contribute to Italy’s fashion history; Rome is regarded to as the third fashion city in Italy since it is home to houses such as Bulgari and Fendi. Italian fashion can boast the success of Dolce & Gabbana, Bottega Veneta, Gucci, Prada, Gucci and many others. Italian fashion is known for being rather edgy and sexy compared to that of the other fashion capitals. Quadilatero della moda, or fashion quadrilateral, is the major shopping district in Milan.

There is continuous competition among the fashion capitals as to who is the biggest fashion capital in the world. Currently, the title is held by New York City, but has been passed among all the capitals at one point or another. Each city has developed their own unique style and it has translated to the clothes they show at fashion week. They all contribute something different to the worldwide view of fashion, which is something that will be carried on for a long time to come.

RETAILERS MANUFACTURERS

CUSTOMERS

Retailing Retailing helps to up the economic growth in every country by offering goods directly to the customers and persuading them to buy and use the products and services which are beneficial and fulfil their needs. If customers spend more to purchase goods from retailers, the suppliers push to produce more stock this will help the economy boom.

Retailing consists of the set of business activities involved in selling products and services to consumers for their personal, family, or household use. Traditionally, a retailer serves as the last distribution channel that links manufacturers and consumers.

CATEGORIZED BY CHARACTERIZATION

Retailers are characterized by their retail mix, including the type of merchandise sold, the price of the merchandise, the variety and assortment of merchandise, and the level of customer service. Retailers are also categorized by a primary channel that they use to reach their customers such as storebased (specialty stores, department stores, discount stores) or nonstore (catalogue, TV home shopping, Internet) retailers.

Store-Based Retail Channel • Store-based retailers use brick-and-mortar stores as primary modes of operation. • Major types of store-based retailers include : -department stores

-specialty stores, -category killers, -discount stores, -off-price stores, -outlet stores, and -boutiques.

STOREBASED

Department Stores This type of retailer provides a large variety of goods with different prices; department stores will be very useful for people who have no time to go round searching through multiple shops because they provide different collection of brands under one roof. •

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Department stores target consumers with household incomes that are at least average. Two types of department store are commonly noted: the full-line department store and the specialized department store. Full-line department stores Specialized department stores or limited-line department stores

Full-line department stores

Full-line department stores such as Macy's and Marshall Field's carry both hard goods (such as furniture, house wares, and home electronics) and soft goods (apparel, accessories, and bedding).

Specialized department stores

Specialized department stores or limited-line department stores restrict their inventories rather than carry full lines. For example, Saks Fifth Avenue, Neiman Marcus, and Nordstrom focus on apparel and wearable accessories

STOREBASED

SPECIALITY STORES •Specialising only in one particular type of product or service, customers will expect a high quality of product and service; speciality retailers must check all their products and make sure that their staff are trained properly to be able to deliver the best customer service possible. •Specialty stores also feature a high level of customer service with knowledgeable sales personnel and customer service policies and intimate store size and atmosphere. For example Schuh offer shoes with different brands, styles and prices. •The largest U.S. specialty stores in sales include GAP brands, which includes Gap, Baby Gap, Banana Republic, Gap Kids, and Old Navy

Speciality stores Schuh offer shoes with different brands, styles and prices.

STOREBASED

SUPERMARKET •

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Generally focusing on selling different types of food and household products. Today some supermarkets have changed from being simple stores which only sell food and household products to mega stores which also incorporate technology, stationary and clothing. Examples include: Tesco, Sainsbury’s, Morrisons, M&S, Waitrose, Lidl and Aldi.

STOREBASED

WAREHOUSE RETAILING Included in mass market, this type of retailer offers products at discounted prices. Warehouse retailers are commonly located in retail or business parks where the rental prices are lower; lower rental prices enable warehouse retailers to offer a large variety of stock at very competitive prices.

STOREBASED

Category Killers Also known as category specialist, category killers combine attributes of both specialty stores and discount stores because they feature a great breadth of assortment in one classification of merchandise (e.g., toys, electronics) and low prices. Because of the large volume of merchandise they require from suppliers, category killers can use their buying power to negotiate for low prices. The largest U.S. category killers in sales are Home Depot, Lowe's and Best Buy.

Home Depot and Lowe's offer equipment and material used to make home improvements while Best Buy carries consumer electronics.

STOREBASED

Discount Stores •

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Discount stores offer customers broad assortments of merchandise, limited services, and low prices. Discount stores are also referred to full-line discount stores or discount department stores. Discount stores usually sell on only one floor rather than in a multi-floored building, as traditional department stores do. The maintenance of low prices and lean gross margin contribute to the fast growing business of discount stores. Due to intense competition from category killers, the trends for discount stores are to create attractive shopping environments, to provide consumers branded merchandise (such as Levi Strauss in Wal-Mart)

STOREBASED

Off-Price Stores •

Off-price stores offer an inconsistent assortment of fashion-oriented and brandname products at low prices and limited customer services.

• Most merchandise is purchased opportunistically from manufactures or from other retailers late in a selling season in exchange for low prices. • This merchandise might be end-of-season excess inventory, unpopular styles and colours, returned merchandise, or irregulars. • The leading U.S off-price retailers are T.J. Maxx and Marshalls, Ross Stores, and Burlington Coat Factory.

STOREBASED

Outlet Stores •

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Outlet stores are retailing units owned by manufacturers or by retailers that sell their leftover, low-quality, discontinued, irregular, out-of-season, or over-stock merchandise at prices less than full retail prices of their regular stores. Manufacturer-owned outlet stores are frequently referred to as factory outlets.

• Popular designers such as DKNY, Ralph Lauren, Calvin Klein, and Gucci use outlet stores to dispose of leftover items.

STOREBASED

Boutiques • •

A boutique is a small store that concentrates on a specific and narrow market niche and features top of-the-line merchandise. "Boutique" is a French term for little shop; the term was first used for small stores run by Paris couturiers.

• American boutique retailers include many top designers, such as Donna Karan, Calvin Klein, and Ralph Lauren. • Boutiques offer high-priced, fashion-oriented merchandise and attract customers who want more sophisticated and individualized products than mass-produced goods. • Key to a boutique's attraction is its personal one-to-one service.

FASHION SHOWS Fashion designers and manufacturers promote their clothes not only to retailers (such as fashion buyers) but also to the media (fashion journalists) and directly to customers. By the early 20th century, not only couture houses but also department stores regularly put on fashion shows with professional models. In imitation of Parisian couturiers, ready-to-wear designers in other countries also began mounting fashion. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, fashion shows became more elaborate and theatrical, were held in larger venues with specially constructed elevated runways (“catwalks”) for the models, and played an increasingly prominent role in the presentation of new fashions.

Runway models exhibiting a collection of designer Isaac Mizrahi at a fashion show, 2010

Nonstore Retail Channels • Nonstore retailers utilize their retail mix in environments that are not store-based. • The major appeal of nonstore retailers is the convenience of shopping: shopping anytime and anywhere. • Major types of nonstore retailers include: -catalogue retailers, -electronic retailers (e-tailing), and -television home-shopping retailers.

NON STOREBASED

Catalog Retailers Catalogue retailers promote products by mailing merchandise directly to a target market and process sales transactions using the mail, telephone, or fax, or Internet. • Many catalogue retailers embrace the Internet. • When customers are mailed a catalogue from the retailer, they either can order products by telephone or mail, or through the retailer's Web site.

NON STOREBASED

Television Home-Shopping Retailers Television home-shopping retailers use a program to promote and demonstrate their merchandise and process transaction over the telephone or Internet or through the mail. • The two biggest home shopping retailers are QVC ("Quality, Value, Convenience") and HSN (Home Shopping Network). • The best-selling merchandise of TV home shopping is inexpensive jewellery.

NON STOREBASED

E-Retailers Electronic retailers interact with customers and provide products or services for sale using the Internet. • •

In this modern era everybody uses the internet, once companies became aware about this businesses started to promote and sell their products or services online. The fastest-growing form of nonstore retailing is electronic retailing (e-tailing).

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