A Chance To Learn

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AAFRICA

REG IO N HUMAN

D EVE LOP M ENT SE RI ES

BANK THEWORLD

A Chdnce to Ledrn Knowledgednd Finance for LCducdtionin SuL-Sdhardn Africd 22005 February 2001

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Other Tit(esin This Series Education and Health in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Sector-Wide Approaches Adult Literacy Programs in Uganda

Knowtedge andFinance for Education in Sub-Saharan Africa

SectorAssistarnce Strategy RegionalHumanDevelopmentFamily Africa Region WorLdBank

Copyright© 2001 The International Bankfor Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington,D.C.20433, U.S.A. ALLrights reserved Manufacturedin the United Statesof America First printing February2001 1 2 3 4 04 03 02 01 The findings, interpretations,and concLusions expressedin this book are entireLythose of the authors and should not be attributed in any mannerto the World Bank,to its affiliated organizations,or to membersof its Boardof ExecutiveDirectorsor the countriesthey represent.The WorLdBankdoes riot guaranteethe accuracyof the data incLudedin this publicationand acceptsno responsibilityfor any consequence of their use. The materiaLin this pubLicationis copyrighted.TheWorLdBankencouragesdisseminationof its work and wilLnormaLLy grant permissionpromptly. Permissionto photocopyitems for internaLor personaLuse,for the internaLor personaLuseof specific clients, or for educationalcLassroom use,is grantedby the WorldBank, providedthat the appropriate fee is paid directLyto CopyrightClearanceCenter,Inc., 222 RosewoodDrive,Danvers,MA01923, U.S.A., telephone978-750-8400,fax 978-750-4470.Pleasecontact the CopyrightCLearance Centerbefore photocopyingitems. For permissionto reprint individuaLarticLesor chapters,pleasefax your requestwith compLete information to the RepublicationDepartment,CopyrightClearanceCenter,fax 978-750-4470. All other querieson rights and licensesshould be addressedto the WorLdBankat the addressabove or faxed to 202-522-2422. The cover photographof schoolchildren in Ethiopiais by Aminata Maiga-Toure. ISBN: 0-8213-4907-4 Libraryof Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Datahas beenappliedfor.

The requirementfor faster developmentof the new nationsin Africa . . . is moreeducationand training at all Levels-a moregeneraLLy Literateworking force, moreskiLLed artisans,moremembersof the [earnedprofessions,moreentrepreneurs,moreskilled governmentadministrators.UntiLthe hiuman resourcesof the new African nations are morefuLLydeveloped-and no hugeinjection of moneycan greatLyacceLerate that process-the opportunitiesfor the wise and effective utilization of ifreign investmentwiLLnecessariLy remain Limited. -Eugene Block,Presidentof the WorldBank,1949-62 Addressto the UnitedNationsEconomicand SocialCouncil,1960 ALLagreethat the single most important key to developmentand to povertyalleviation is education. This must start with universalprimaryeducationfor girls and boys equally,as well as an open and competitive systemof secondaryand tertiary education. . . . Adult education,Literacy,and LifeLongLearning must be combinedwith the fundamentalrecognitionthat educationof womenand girLsis central to the processof development. . . pre-schooL educationmust be given its full weight . . . developmentsin scienceand technologyand knowLedge transferoffer a uniquepossibiLityto countriesto catch up with moretechnologicallyadvancedones. -James D. Wolfensohn,Presidentof the WorldBank, 1995-present "A Proposalfor a Comprehensive DevelopmentFramework, " 1999

Thisstrategy paperwaspreparedby AdriaanVerspoor,educationleadspecialistin the Africa Regionof the WorldBank,with the assistanceof Angel Mattimoreand PatrickWatt. Thepaperis basedon an eartier version by Wadi Haddad,Ruth Kagia, and associates,that was discussedwith a focus group of African educationspecialistsin May 1998. A revisedversion wasfurther discussedat a consultation meetingorganizedin October1999at Unesco,Paris,with Africanministersof educationas well as with other educationspecialistsand representatives from NGOs,parentassociations,and teachelunions.We wouLdlike to thank those who participatedin those meetingsfor their comments,as welLas DavidBerk, EduardBos,NichoLas Burnett,SamCarLson, DavidCourt,BirgerFredriksen,Alan Gelb,WadiHaddad,Jon Lauglo,AminataMaiga-Toure, Mmantsetsa Marope,DzingaiMutumbuka, John May,Alain Mingat,Bettina Moll, PaudMurphy,SusanOpper,RobertProuty,StefanQuenneville,NanditaTannan,DanielViensand the membersof the EducationSector Board (all of the World Bank), PeterWilliamsof I]nstitute for DevelopmentStudiesat the Universityof Sussex,TonyReadof InternationaLBookDevelopment,and EamonCassidyof the Departmentfor International Development.We would also tike to thank the NorwegianEducationTrustFundfor providingfunding for both consuttations.

Contents Foreword Preface Executive Summary 1. AfricanEducation on the ThreshoLd of the 21stCentury StalledProgressin EducationDevelopment Accessto primaryschooling 9 Masteryof basicskills 11 BeyondPrimaryEducation 13 HigherEducation 14 Efficiency 15 PrivateEducation 15 LimitedEducationAttainment 17 LimitedImpact of ExtemalAid 18

ix xi 1 7

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2. TheChallenges of the AfricanDevelopment Context PervasivePoverty 21 Economiesat the Peripheryof the GlobalEconomy InadequateFinancingforDevelopment 23 Insufficient ScientificKnowledge 24 ExtensiveArmedConflicts 24 TheHIV/AIDSPandemic 26 High Fertility 29 Overcoming Adversity 30

21

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3. CountryResponses: A Quantum Leapin Education DeveLopment RelentlessPursuitof Quality 34 Leamingenvironment 34 Curriculaand instructionstrategies 36 Trainedand motivatedteachers 38 Newtechnologies 41 Studentreadiness 42 Measuringprogress 43 UnwaveringCommitmentto Equity 44 Up-FrontEmphasison Institutional Strengthening 50 ToughChoicesto EnsureFinancialSustainability 54 Settingprioritiesfor public spending 55 Spendingresourceseffectively 55 Diversifyingfunding sources 55 Providingadditionalpublicfunding 57 TheWayForward:National Reform,RegionalCooperation, and Intemational Partnerships

4. TheWorldBank'sResponse: DoingMoreandDoingBetter Opportunities-and Challenges-forExpandedLendingServices GreaterEmphasison NonlendingServices 64

CONTENTS

32

58

60 61

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Refocusing economicond sectorwork 64 Reorientingpolicy discussions 65 TheImperativeof Better Portfolio Performance 66 Sharpeningthe strategicfocusof lending 67 Improvinglendingdevelopment 70 Promotingpartnerships 75 Matchinglendingstrategiesto countryconditions Applyingstate-of-the-artknowledge 78 Enhoncingtechnicalskills ond knowledge 80 A Commitmentto Act 81 Conclusion 82 Bibliography

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FIGURES, TABLES, AND BOXES Figures 1.1 PrimaryGrossEnrolLmentRatiosHaveFaLLen in ManyAfrican Countries 1.2 Resultsof ReadingAchievementTestsin SeLectedCountries 1.3 EstimatedEnroLlment Ratiosof 12-17-Year-Oldsby Region 1.4 ReLationshipbetweenthe Numberof Teachersand Studentsat the PrimaryLeveLin Niger 1.5 AverageYearsof Adult SchooLingHaveStagnatedin Africa 1.6 OfficiaLDeveLopment Assistanceto Education,1996 2.1 Annual PopuLation Growth Ratesfor DevelopingRegions 3.1 PrimaryEnrolLment Ratiosby Gradefor RuraLand UrbanChiLdrenin Niger 4.1 NewCommitmentsfor BankLendingto African Education 4.2 SubsectorDistribution of Lendingin the Africa RegionEducationSector

10 12 13 16 18 19 30 45 61 62

Tables 1.1 GrossEnrollmentRatiosin Africa, 1960-97 (percent) 1.2 PrimarySchoolNet Enrollmentand Intake Rates,1990, 1995,and 1998 1.3 ComparativeIndicators of EducationSpendingEfficiency,1993 2.1 BasicSociaLIndicators by Region 4.1 Debt ReLiefRelativeto Spendingon Education(milions of doLLars)

8 9 17 22 63

Boxes 1.1 TextbookAvailability in Africa 2.1 Africa'sInformation Infrastructure 2.2 Educationand AIDS: Experience in Zambiaand Uganda 3.1 Uganda'sNational Commitmentto BasicEducation 3.2 Lessonsfrom the 'ADEAProspectiveStocktakingReviewof Educationin Africa" 3.3 TheWorldLinks for DevelopmentProgram 3.4 Guinea'sPre-serviceTeacherEducationProject 3.5 Technologyand Educationin Sub-Saharan Africa 3.6 EarlyChiLdhoodDevelopmentin Kenya

11 25 28 33 35 38 39 40 43

vi

CONTENTS

3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

SouthernAfrican Consortiumfor the Measurement of EducationalQuality SuccessFactorsin GirLs'SchooLing Nigeria-DeveLopingEducationProgramsfor Nomads The DualSystemof Face-to-Face and DistanceEducationat the Universityof Namibia ProvidingBasicEducationOpportunitiesto ReduceILLiteracy:Senegal'sExperience MakerereUniversity:A ModeLof InstitutionaLReform TheAfrican VirtuaLUniversity GovernmentSponsorshipof Studentsat PrivateInstitutions: A Caseof Demand-Side Financing Privatizationand DecentraLization of TextbookProvisionin Kenya A CoLLaborative Effort to Preparea Strategy Paperin Madagascar The FRESH Start Partnership:FocusingResources on EffectiveSchooLHeaLth IncreasingSupportfor EducationTechnology SectorwideApproaches BankSupportunder DifferentCountryConditions Building a KnowLedge Basefor SkiLLDeveLopment

CONTENTS

44 46 48 50 51 53 54 56 57 65 68 70 72 76 79

vii

Foreword

ensure national ownership and sustainability of innovation and reformprograms. WhetherAfrica canindeed"claimthe 21st century," TheWorldBankhasa long recordof supporting as a recentreport(WorldBank2000b)proposes,wiLL educationdevelopmentin Africa. But the impact of dependlargely on the effectivenessof its investour assistancehas often been lessthan expected. ment in education. Progresstoward better gover- Given the critical contribution of education to nance,moreeffective conflict resolution,increased acceleratedgrowth and developmentin Africa, we competitiveness, reduced fertiLity, improved have in the past two years carried out an internal health-including fewer people with HIV/AIDSprocessof analysis,reflection, and discussionon and most important, acceleratedpovertyreduction the impact of our assistancein this sector.In addiis intimately related to progressin educationand tion, we have consultedwith representativesof training of Africa'schildrenand adults. Africangovernments,civil society,and UNagencies ClearLy, Africa will not be abLeto sustain rapid on how to becomemore effective a; a partner in growth without investing in the education of its educationdevelopmentin Africa. people.Manylackthe educationto contributetoThisreport is the productof these processes. It and benefit from-fast economicgrowth. Yet in arguesthat there is a strong casefcr the Bankto many countries in the region education develop- expandand broadenits supportfor educationdevelment has stagnated in the past two decades. opment in Africa. This implies continuedand susUnabated growth of the school-agepopulation, tained supportfor basiceducationde\elopment.But severeconstraintson public resources,and policy it also implies expandingour support:for the other reformsthat too often weretoo little and too Late, educationsubsectors,especiallyhigher education. contributed to a widening educationgap between Thereportalso makesit clearthat suchan expanded Africa and the rest of the world. Almost 40 percent programonly makessenseif we step Lup our efforts of the popuLationis iLLiterate.EnroLLments at alL to addressthe central issues of quaLity,equity, leveLsare lowerthan on any other continent. Many capacity,and sustainabiLity.Becausewe cannot do chiLdrencomplete schooLwithout masteringthe this alone, we are deepLycommittedt:o workingin knowLedge and skills prescribedin the curricuLum. government-Led partnershipsfor acceleratededucaFewschoolspreparestudentsfor an economydomtion development. inated by information and communicationtechAt the WorLdEducationForumin Dakarin April noLogies. And most tertiary institutions are 2000, World Bank President James Wolfensohn isoLatedfrom international knowLedgenetworks. reaffirmedthe readinessof the Bankto work with Ensuringthat no child is denied accessto school governmentsand other deveLopmentpartners to becauseof her or his inability to payremainsa disaccelerateprogresstoward the Educationfor AlL tant goal in manycountries. goals. He pledgedthat the Bankwould makeevery Reversingthese trends wiLLnot be easy.The effort to ensurethat no country with a credibLe challengewill require a major effort by Africans planwill be unableto implementit Lecauseof lack and their development partners over a long of external support. This commitmentwill govern period-often a decadeor more. Many govern- our support for basiceducationin the next decade. ments will need to implement changes-often At the sametime we are equallycommittedto propoliticaLLycontroversiaL changes-in the wayeduviding assistanceto ensurethat studentsgraduatcation is financed and managed. Governments, ing from secondaryschools, vocational training civil society, and external funding agencieswill programs,and universitieshave the skills and scineed to estabLishor reconfigure partnershipsto entific and technicaLknowledgeto *nter the 21st

FOREWORD

ix

century'sworld of work. RegionaLcooperationwill often be essentiaLto acceleratedprogressin many of these areas.We intend to deveLopinstruments that will alLowus to support regionaLprograms moreeffectiveLy. At the cuspof the 21st centurythe opportunity to addressthe often intractabLe probLemsof educationin Sub-Saharan Africa are perhapsbetter than at any time in the past two decades.Growth has resumed in many countries. The poLitical commitment to education deveLopmentis strong aLmosteverywhere.The rising tide of democracy has created a morefavorabLeenvironmentfor the participation of civiL society and communitiesin policy formuLationand program implementation.

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Information and communicationtechnology offer new opportunities to overcomeconstraintsof distance and time. And there is more. For severaLcountriesadditionaL resourceswiLLbecome avaiLableunder the HeavilyIndebted PoorCountries(HIPC)debt relief initiative. Manyfunding agenciesare committedto increasingtheir supportfor educationin Africa. New aid reLationships are being piLotedin the context of sectordeveLopment programs.I expectthis reportto set the stagefor rapidly acceLerating Banksupport for educationdeveLopment in this newenvironment. Callisto Madavo Vice-PresidentAfrica Region

FOREWORD

Preface

to collaboratemore effectiveLywith one another, with governments,and with civil sociEtyto support The World Bank'sAfrica Region first outLinedits educationdeveLopment in Africa. The prospectsfor views on education developmentin Africa in the educationdevelopmentmay be better now than at 1988 paper, "Education in Sub-SaharanAfrica: any othertime in the past decade.Since1995 ecoPolicies for Adjustment, Revitalization, and nomic growth has resumedin many Sub-Saharan Expansion"(World Bank 1988). The paper chalAfrican countries. Since 1994 the primary gross lengedAfrican countriesto formuLatecomprehen- enroLLment ratio hasincreased,and recentdata from sive and coherent education development the UNESCO Institute of Statisticssuggestthat the programswith balanced policies for adjustment, trend may be acceLerating. At the Wcrld Education revitalization, and selective expansion. Several Forumin April 2000 countriesconfirmedtheir comcountries movedin this direction. In a few, finanmitment to the goal of universaLprimaryeducation ciaLadjustment poLiciesset the stage for better by 2015. Accelerateddebt relief and moreeducation quality, sustained progresstoward universal priaid can helpmobilizethe necessary resources. maryeducation,and seLectiveexpansionat higher The policy dialogue since 1988 has been a levels. Yet in manycountriesprogressin revitaLiz- modeLof effective donor-governmentpartnerships. ing their educationsystemswasdisappointing. Thedialoguewasinitially coordinatedloythe inforIn six African countries-Burkina Faso, maLgroup Donorsto African Educatirn,which has Ethiopia, Liberia, Mali, Niger, and Somalia-less since becomethe Associationfor the D)evelopment than half the school-agepopulation is enroLledin of Educationin Africa (ADEA).Membersinclude all primaryschooL.In 20 countriesmorethan one-haLf African ministersof education and 17 donors. Its of womenare illiterate. LowLevelsof learningperobjective is to providea forum in which the minissist throughoutthe region.Thepotentialof distance ters can lead the discussionwith donors on key education programshas yet to be tapped. Many educationissuesand on the needto aciaptexternaL vocational and technical programsremain ineffiaid policies to national needs. ELeventhematic cient. Andthe quality of researchand post-graduate working groupsstudy and report on zreas of broad training hasnot improved. interest. ADEAreviewedprogressin education in Analysis, dialogue, and internal consultation Sub-Saharan Africa since 1988 through a participaoften havetaken muchlongerthan anticipated.Still, tory process based on country stuiies and the a growingnumberof countriesare formulatingpoliactive involvementof African educationspecialists ciesto addressthe issuesraisedin the 1988 paperand policymakers.The result of this process,the of the Jomtien "Prospective,Stocktaking Reviewof Educationin and to respondto the chaLLenges Africa," was presentedat ADEAsbianriuaLmeeting DecLaration of the WorLd Conference on Educationfor All (1990),the targetsof the WorldSummitfor Social in Johannesburgin December1999. DeveLopment (1995), and the DakarFramework for The WorLdBank has actively supported the ADEA-Ledassessmentand is a member of the Action, adoptedat WorLdEducationForum(2000). Morethan 40 African governmentshave prepared steering committee estabLishedto rianage it. In action plansto achieveeducationfor all, and at least addition,the Bank'sAfrica RegionEducationFamiLy six countriesare piloting sectorwideapproaches to has refLectedon its nonLending experiencesand on educationdevelopment. waysto increasethe effectivenessof its Lendingand Since1988 donorshavespent considerabLe time nonLendingsupport.The first draft o.:a discussion paper was preparedand discussed ri 1998 with reassessing aid prioritiesand procedures.Mosthave now completedthis processand are exploringways senior education officials from Africa as well as

PREFACE

xi

otherstakeholders. In October1999a secondconsultationwasheldin Pariswith Africanministers andpolicymakers aswellasmembers of civil society organizations. Both consultations werefundedby the Norwegian Education TrustFund.Thefindingsof the ADEAassessment contributedsignificantlyto this process, and a numberof casestudiesenrich this document. Thisreportis intendedprimarilyto proposea strategyand a programof action for the Africa

xii

Regionof the WorldBankas it strivesto support countriesin their effortsto accelerate education development. It incorporates muchof the advice providedin theseconsultations. Theauthorssummarizethe challenges facingeducation development in Africa,suggest keyelements of countryresponses,discussthe implicationsof theseresponses for the Bank,andpropose actionsfor makingthe Bank a moreeffectivepartnerfor education development in Africa.

PREFACE

ExecutiveSummary In the knowLedge-based gLobaleconomyof the comingdecades, educationwiLlbethe cornerstone of broad-basedeconomicgrowth and poverty reduction-providing the meansfor peopLe to confront new deveLopment chaLLenges and improve their Lives.Withoutmajoradvances in education AfricawiLLnot be abLeto takeadvantage of trade and deveLopment opportunitiesin a technoLogydriven and rapidLyintegrating worLdeconomy. Education is aLsothe mostimportantinvestment for makingprogress towardthe internationaL social deveLopment goaLs adoptedby the world'sgovernmentsfor 2015. Without rapid and substantiaL improvements in educationaccessand qualityin Sub-Saharan Africa,where40 percentof people struggLe to surviveon Lessthan $1 a day,broader povertyreductioneffortswiLL be bLunted.

AfricanEducationTrends TheeducationdeveLopment recordin Africasince 1988hasbeendisappointing. SeveralcountriesincLuding Botswana, Cape Verde, Mauritius, Namibia,Seychelles, SwaziLand, and Zimbabwesustained progress in the 1980sand1990s.Others haveinitiated promisingLong-termprogramsof reformand deveLopment. But the reaLityfor too manyAfricansis aneducation systemcharacterized by LowquaLityand Limitedaccess. Forthe regionas a whoLe,progresshasLargeLystalledsince1990,faiLingto reversethe setbacksof the 1980s. Everylevel has too few educationfaciLities,and those that exist are often in poor repairand inadequateLy equipped. Teachers,often underpaidand underqualified, rareLyreceivethe supportand supervisionthey needto be effective.TheannuaL numberof hours spentin the cLassroom by mostAfricanstudents is far belowinternationaL standards. Instructional materialsareoften in desperateLy shortsuppLy. It

A CHANCE TOLEARN

is not surprisingthat learningachievementis Limited. Thisrecordis especiallydisturbingwhenset againstotherregions.Africahasthe lowestenrollmentrateat everylevel,andit is the onLyregion wherethe numbersof chiLdren out of schoolare continuingto rise.TheaverageAfricanadult has fewerthanthreeyearsof schooLing, Lower thanthe attainmentfor any other region.Thereare aLso growing education inequaLitieswithin Africa betweenincomegroupsand betweenurbanand ruraLpopuLations. PoorchiLdren, especially thosein ruraLareas,arethe mostdisadvantacled in education accessandquality. Educationtrends have a direct bearingon povertyreductionefforts in Sub-Sanaran Africa. Africa'sshareof gLobaL povertysince1987 has risen,anda growingproportionof Africanscannot meettheir basicneeds.Morethan 24(0miLLion people Liveon Lessthan $1 a day.Wilh its rapidLy growingpopuLation, the region needs5 percent annuaL growthto keepthe numberof )oor fromrising. HaLving the incidenceof povertyby 2015wiLL requireannuaL per capitagrossdomesticproduct (GDP)growthof at Least7 percent-urilikeLy, without accelerated progress at aLLLeveLs of the education system. Withouta quantumleapin educationat the nationaL LeveL, AfricawiLLmissthe 2315target of universalprimaryeducation by a marqinof 55 miLLionchiLdren. Enrollment trendssincethe Jomtien conference in 1990indicatethat in 2015AfricawiLL accountfor 15 percentof the world'sprimary school-age children,but 75 percentof childrennot in school. FaiLingto extendthe benefits of education deveLopment to the poor is thus LikeLy to prove highLycostLy-economicaLly, sociaLLy, andpoliticalLy.AcceLerating educationdeveLopment in Africa thereforeneeds to bepartof broaderproverty reduction and rural deveLopment strategies.Thereare pLentyof exampLes of educationalsuccesses and promisinginnovationsin Sub-Saharan Africa to

1

showwhat canbe achievedif countriesshowa genuine commitmentto educationdeveLopment.

unLessit can meet three other key deveLopment chaLLenges-ending extensive armed confLict, reversing the HIV/AIDS pandemic, and reducing TheAfrican developmentcontext fertiLity rates. Recent confLict in Africa has caused massive human and economic devastaThe broad deveLopment context for African educa- tion. At Leastone African in five Livesin a countion has changeddramaticaLLy in the past decade. try severeLydisrupted by war. Between1990 and Most important, economic performance has 1994 morethan 1 miLLionpeopLedied becauseof improved markedLysince 1995, with consecutive conflict. In 1998 more than 20 milLion Africans years of per capita growth in many countries for were either refugees or displaced. Restoring the first time since the 1970s. peace and stabiLity in the region is thus an * In some countries,such as Uganda,growth is urgent priority. beginning to providethe resourcesneededto Africa has aLsobeen the region hardesthit by expandeducationopportunities. AIDS,which hasevoLvedfrom a heaLthissueinto a * Many countries can expect significant addidevelopmentissue. By kiLLingpeoplein their most tional national resourcesfor educationdevelproductiveyears, the pandemicis destroyingthe opment as debt relief is granted under the social and economicfabric of countries. Reversing enhanced HeaviLy Indebted Poor Countries hard-won human deveLopmentgains, repLacing (HIPC)program. educationsector staff Lostto AIDS-reLated iLLness* WhiLeconfLictshavedevastatedthe economies es, providingeducationto AIDSorphans,and inteof severaLcountries, many others are steadily grating AIDS education into school programsare movingtoward better governanceand particiurgent chaLLenges. patory democracy. MeanwhiLe, rapid populationgrowth consistentThesechangesmakethe prospectsfor acceler- Ly frustrates efforts to achieve universaLprimary ating education deveLopmentbetter than at pereducation. Notwithstandingthe impact cf AIDS, hapsanytime in the past decade.Andat the World Africa'spopuLationwill continueto grow rapidLyby EducationForumin Dakar,the 185 participating internationaLstandards.Its dependencyratio is the countries adopteda Frameworkfor Action toward highest in the world, placing an unusualLyheavy the 2015 goal of Educationfor ALL,giving special burden both on the pubLicpurse and on houseattention to the needsof Sub-Saharan Africa. hoLds.Africa mustfaceall these chaLLenges to move Evenso, the regionfacesdauntingdeveLopment forwardand createeducationsystemsthat meetthe chaLLenges. Poverty,pervasiveacrossthe region,is a needsof the 21st century. barrierto expandingeducationaccessand improving Learningoutcomes.Wastein the pubLicsector and Countryresponses weak governancestructurescontinue to hoLdback many countries and urgently require reform. Given the deveLopmentchaLLenges facing Africa UnsustainabLe externaLdebt has diverted scarce and the widespreadfaiLureof currentapproachesin resources from priority socialneeds-at a heavycost the educationsector to deliver the desiredresults, for the poor.Thisis whythe resourcesfreedthrough nationaL governmentsmust respond cLearLyand the HIPCinitiative haveto be genuineLy additional decisiveLy.The nationaLeducation challenge has and directedtowardmeetingthe needsof the poor. four main dimensions: Africa cannot sustain any of the necessary * Creatinga frameworkfor reform. investments in education and infrastructure * Identifying strategicpriorities.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

* *

Developing investmentprograms. ActingseLectively basedona fewclearprincipLes. Whatdo thesefour dimensions meanfor governments? First, creatinga framework for reform requiresbold poLicies,sustainedover time and impLemented in broadpartnership with civil society andwith donors.Thereformsneedto beframed in a sectorwideperspectivethat promotesbalanceddevelopment of education andconsiders the Linkages betweendifferentpartsof the system.The chaLLenge is to developLocalsolutionsto financial, educational, andinstitutionalissues-all informed by internationalexperience. Second,because Africahassucha diversityof contexts,the process of identifyingstrategicpriorities will have to be country specific.But to achievea quantumLeapin education development, any country'spriority objectivesmustincludean increase in the educational attainmentof the labor forcethroughuniversaL primaryeducation-anda gradualexpansion of accessto the fuLLeducation cycle.Twootherkeyprioritiesareespecially important now that the world of work is increasingLy dominatedby information and communication technologies: enhancing vocationaL and technicaL skills, and strengtheningpost-primaryscience, mathematics, andtechnology. Third,designinginvestmentprograms to make this happen wiLL often require fundamentaL changes in the management andfinancingof educationsystems: * Exploring aLternatives to existingservicedeLivery approaches that are currentlybasedon assumptions inappropriate in muchof Africa. * MovingpLanningand resourceaLLocation in manycasesfrom central ministriesto local officesandcommunity organizations. * Allocatingadequateresourcesto nonsalary needs. * SharingresponsibiLity for the financingand provisionof schoolingstrategically amonggovernments,privateproviders,parents,andnongovernmentaL organizations (NGOs).

A CHANCE TOLEARN

Fourth,actingseLectively to makea quantum Leapin educationdevelopment will be achieved and sustainedonly whereeffortsare underpinned by genuinecommitment to a clearset of guiding principLes: * A relentlesspursuit of quality. Withoutthis, expanded educational opportunities areunlikely to achievetheir purpose-impiartinguseful knowledge, reasoning abilities,skiLls, andvalues. * An unwaveringcommitmentto equity. Thisis vital to ensurethat disadvantaged groupsespecially ruraL residents,the poor, and femaLes-have equalaccess to Leairning opportunitiesat all levels.Thiswill demand explicitly targetedstrategies for hard-to-reach groups and better analysisof the mechanisms that excLude peopLe fromeducation. *

A willingnessto maketough choicesto ensure financialsustainability.Africancountries needto

ensurethat educationdeveLopment strategies are arefinanciallysustainable. Toughdecisions neededin settingspending priorities,spending effectiveLy the resources that havebeenaLLocated, diversifyingfundingsources, and in many casesmobilizing additionaL fundinc.Oncemade, thesedecisions will haveto beadhered to. *

An up-front emphasison instituticral strengthening. Effectiveplanning,implementation, and

evaLuationof reformsdependon effective incentives,reasonable rules,efficientorganizational structures, and competent staff. Withoutthem,no strategyfor educationdevelopmentcansucceed. Theagenda for reformandprogress is challenging. Yetthe emergence of newtechnoLogies is creto move ating opportunities for Africaneducat-ion forwardin waysthat only a decadeagocouLdnot beimagined. Theextentto whichAfric3will beable of thesenewopportunitiesto to take advantage participatein the gLobalknowLedge economy will systems to dependon the capacityof its education harness the potentialof informationaid communicationtechnologies.

3

But the processof identifying priorities and designingand implementingreformsmust be country led if it is to succeed.NationaLdirection and ownershipis wideLyrecognizedas a key ingredient of successfuL impLementation. Much is already under way. Burkina Faso, Guinea,Mozambique, Senegal,and Ugandahaveall initiated promising Long-termprogramsof reform and developmentat the primarylevel. Ugandahas also impLementedfar-reaching changesin higher education. SeveraLSouth African Development Communitycountries are piloting reformsin secondary educationand in math and scienceteaching. Madagascar and Zambiaare pLanningradical reformsin the wayvocationaLand technical education are financed and managed.South Africa has formulateda comprehensive nine-point programfor sector reform. Suchefforts derive from a recognition that without equitabLe,high-quaLity,and efficient education systems,Africa cannot meet the developmentchaLLenges of the 21st century. Newtechnologiesare creatingopportunitiesfor Africaneducationto moveforwardin waysunimaginabLeonLy a decadeago. The extent to which educationsystemspreparethe studentsfor participation in an economyincreasingLydependenton electronic information and communicationtechnologieswill be a keyfactor in the ability of African countries to take advantageof the opportunities offeredby the new global economy. The WorldBank's response Supportingacceleratededucation developmentin Africa is pivotaLto the WorldBankmissionof eliminating poverty. The Bank has two comparative advantagesfor education sector development:a strong macroeconomic and public expenditureperspectiveand an unusualdepthand breadthof internationaLknowLedge and expertise. Evenso, the scopeand effectivenessof World Bank support often have been Limited. Lending commitmentshave stabilized at a lower level than

4

is consistentwith the institutional commitmentto eLiminatingpoverty.Theneedto baLance the developmentof different leveLsof the educationsystem has not aLwaysbeenobserved.Policyrecommendations have often restedon weakanalytical foundations. The linkages to broader poverty reduction efforts have not been well developed.And too few interventions have generatedsustainableinstitutional benefits. Bank evaluations cLearLyshow the limited impactof manypastinvestmentsand emphasize the need to Learnfrom these experiences-at a time whenthereare strongcaLLs on donorsto contribute to broad-basedcountry-Ledpartnershipsfor education deveLopment. Democracyhas createda space for stakehoLder diaLogueon educationreform, and severaLcountries have either sustainedreformsor embarkedon promisingnew programs.At the same time, donorsare Learningto work morecloseLywith government,with eachother, and with civil society, in pursuit of commonobjectives.The deveLopment of sectorwideprogramsin particuLaris an encouraging newapproach. To graspthesenewopportunities,the Bankmust do more-and it must do it better. Becominga more effective partner involvesboth pursuinga strategy and identifying specific goaLs.The Bank'sstrategy shouldgive priority to encouraginginnovation and changeand expLoitingits comparativeadvantage. The Bank can be an effective lender only if it increasesthe effectivenessof its nonlendingservices, by sharingits knowledgeand by recognizing and promotinglocal capacityfor soundanaLysis and pLanning.The strategy shouLdaLsoemphasizethe Bank'skey institutional priorities for the education sector:equitableaccessfor the poor,especiaLly girls; broadening the portfolio to include combating HIV/AIDSas a centraleLementin the Bank'sassistance; and improvingthe quality of provisionmeasured by Learningachievementand sustainable financing. ALLthis requiresthat educationinvestments be designedas an integral part of overall poverty reduction programs.So education sector

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

staff wilt have to work in a more integrated way PromotingLong-termpartnershipswith governacrosssectors. mentand civil societywilLrequirea sectorspeciaList In pursuingthis strategy,the Bankneedsto: in the field officeof everycountrywherethe Bankhas * Providecomprehensive supportfor sectordeveL- a significant invoLvementin the educationsector. opmentpriorities at the nationaLLeveL. Thisis a chaLlenge in Africa,wheremany countriesare * Improveportfolio performance. smatLand operationsare often adverselyaffectedby The Bank'ssupportwilLincreasingLy be designed economicand politicaLinstabiLity. to promotethe balanceddeveLopment of the entire Matchingsupportstrategiesto couritryconditions sectorand considerthe tinkagesbetweenall partsof requiresa moreflexibLeand responsiveBank.Where the educationsystem-from earLychildhoodto post- the conditions exist for success,it could provide graduateprograms.Investmentpriorities wiLLrefLect Large-scaLe budget support for educationdeveLopthat universaLprimary education is necessaryfor ment.WherepoLicyenvironmentsare weak,it could meeting national social and economicdeveLopment supportreformwith small,specificinvestmentLoans. goals. They wiLLaLsorecognizethe importanceof Bank operationsshould provideenough assistance graduaLand seLective expansionbeyondthe primary and incentivesto countriesemergingfrom conflictto level. Policiesand targetssupportedby theseinvest- aLLow themto developas quickLyas possiblethe conments wiLLbe highly country specific, reflecting a ditions for viable sectordeveLopment programs. political consensus on prioritiesandtrade-offsbased Many neededreforms and innovations can be on human and financial resources,deveLopment moreeffectivein cooperationwith neighboringcounobjectives,LabormarketsignaLs,and the demandsof tries facing simiLarproblems.This cooperationwill society. aLLow programsto expLoiteconomiesof scaLe,recruit Better portfolio performancewiLtrequireaction studentsfrom a muchLargerpooLof czrididates,and in five areas: Learnfrom impLementation in different settings. To * Improving LendingdeveLopment. supportregionalor subregionaL programseffectiveLy, * Promotingpartnerships. the Bankwill needto deveLop instrumentsthat fit the * Matchingsupportstrategiesto countryconditions. specificrequirements of these programs;. * AppLyingstate-of-the-art knowLedge. The Bank can only meet these chaLlengesby * Enhancingstaff skills. appLyingstate-of-the-art knowledgeto its operaImprovingthe lending deveLopment processwiLL tions, somethingthat clients demandand are entirequirea focus on heLpingcountriesimpLementthe tLed to. KnowLedgecan be effecl:ive if it is policy reformsthey haveidentified. With morethan underpinnedby sector analysisof economic,finan40 potentiaLborrowers,the Bank needsto respond cial, educational,and institutional issues.Technical to a range of developmentsituations and develop solutions must be based on locaLconditions and Lending strategies to match. Improving tending reflect LocaLknowledge,whiLeincorporatinginterdeveLopment wiLLaLsorequiremorenonLendingser- nationaL experience. Indeed, far greater priority vices and cLearstandardsat entry. Also crucial is shouLdgo to strengthening countrs capacity to greaterfLexibiLityin appLyingBankpoliciesand pro- deveLopand appLynew knowledge. cedures,enabLing the Bankto be moreresponsiveto To aLignits staffing with the new sectorstratthe new program priorities of budget support, egy, the BankwiLLassembLe an apprcpriate mix of decentraLizedimpLementation, and community economists,education speciaLists,aid staff with invoLvement.In particuLar,the Bank wiLLneed to speciaLizedskiLLsin areas such as institutional support programsthat include recurrentexpendi- analysis and implementation. The strategy aLso tures such as teachers'saLaries. requires a good mix of experienced staff and

A CHANCE TOLEARN

5

younger staff eager to experiment and innovate. Increasing technical and operational knowledge about educationin Africa is centralto the success of the proposed action program. Achieving this goal will requireintensifying efforts in the region to hire staff-from inside and outside the Bankranging from top-quaLity, experienced staff to promising young taLent. It wiLLaLsorequire making expLicit arrangementswith senior staff to mentor and coach LessexperiencedcoLLeaguesand implementing an Africa-specific staff deveLopment program. Noneof these goaLswiLLbe achievedunLessthe Bank becomesat once morecomprehensive in its anaLysisand more seLectivein its approach.The

6

Bank needs greater seLectivityin the context of increaseddialogue and partnershipwith governmentsand with other deveLopment actorsthe Bank is Lessaccustomedto working with. Experience showsthat educationfor all can be achievedand sustainedonLywheregovernments,donors,and civil society work coLLectively toward shared priorities. The DakarWorLdEducationForumand the Social Summitinjected new urgencyinto coLLective efforts to achieveeducationfor all. TheBankis determined to graspthis opportunity.It will providethe maximum possibLecontribution to achievinguniversal primaryeducationin Africa by 2015 whiLestepping up supportfor broaderdeveLopment of the education sector.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1. AfricanEducationon the Threshold of the 21st Century

Conventionon the Rightsof the Child, ratified by everynation exceptSomaLia and the LlriitedStates, recognizeschildren'sright to educatiorand requires The WorLdBank'sAfrica Region comprisesthe 41 signatories to provide free compuLsorybasic countries (Djibouti is part of the Middle Eastand education. Educationis aLso the cornerstoneof North Africa Region)on the continent south of the deveLopmentand the foundation of economic Sahara and the six isLand nations cLoseto it. competitivenessand social well-being. Numerous Africa's rich cultural and ethnic traditions refLect studies show that education,particLLarLy primary different heritages in aLL countries-an earLy education,hasa significant positiveimpact on ecoChristian heritage in the Nile Basin, a strong nomicgrowth(Barro1991; Lau,Jamison,and Louat Islamic infLuencein the north, and Christianinflu1991; Nehru and Dhareshwar1994), earnings encesdating from coLoniaLism in manycentral and (PsacharopouLos 1985), and productivity(Lockheed, southernAfrican countries. EachisLandnation has Jamison,and Lau1980).By increasingthe vaLueand also developedits own cuLture. efficiency of Labor,educationheLpsraise the poor GeographicaLLy and economicaLLy,Africa is from poverty.By increasingthe overaLL productivity diverse and fragmented. In 1998 the region's andinteLLectuaL flexibiLityof the labor force,it heLps popuLationwasabout 630 milLion,with two-thirds ensurea country'scompetitiveness in worldmarkets. in rural areas.Sevencountries have fewer than 1 Almost aLLthe newLyindustriaLizedeconomies million peopLe. Nigeria has 120 miLLion and that have experienced dramatic growth in the Ethiopia 60 miLLion. Within the continent past 25 years-such as Hong Kong, China, the communicationsand traveLare difficuLt, and interRepubLicof Korea,and Singapore-achieved uninaLtrade is Limited.GNPper capita averaged$488 versaLor near-universaLprimary education by in 1998, ranging from about $100 in the 1965. This helped increaseproductivity and Laid DemocraticRepubLicof Congo, Ethiopia, Eritrea, the foundation for an equitable distribution of and Mozambique to more than $2,800 in the benefits of rapid growth. In contrast, counBotswana,Gabon,Mauritius, and South Africa. On tries with uneducatedpopulations cannot expect the whoLe,the region's GNPgrowth and human to increase incomes and weLL-being(Lockheed deveLopmenthave Laggedbehind those of other and Verspoor 1991; WorLdBank 1990, 1999a). regions, especiallysince 1980. Education is thus intertwined inexl:ricably with Despitegainsin the secondhaLfof the 1990s, economicdevelopment.It is both a sourceand a Sub-SaharanAfrica enters the 21st century with consequence of development, fcr economic manyof the worLd'spoorestcountries. Canit rise growth providesthe resourcesto e>pandeducato the chaLLenges of this new century?The answer tion opportunities. will dependLargelyon the scopeand effectiveness Primaryeducationcannotexpandandeconomies of investmentsin education. Decadesof research cannotgrowwithout an educationsystemthat trains and experience in Africa and eLsewherehave a Largenumberof studentsbeyondthe basic cycLe, shownthe pivotal roLeof a weLL-educated popuLa- incLudinggraduatestudentsat universities.To be tion in initiating, sustaining, and acceLerating sustainable,education deveLopment must be baLsociaL and economic deveLopment. Education anced.It mustensurethat systemsproducestudents deveLopmentis unquestionabLyof cruciaLimporat different LeveLs with quaLifications that respondto tance for Africa. the demandof the labormarket,producinga continEverycountryin the worLdrecognizesbasicedu- uous suppLyof skiLLed workers,technicians,profescation as a fundamentalhuman right. The 1989 sionaLs, managers, and Leaders.

A CHANCE TOLEARN

7

In additionto its economicreturns,educationparticuLarlyof girLs-has a positive impact on a variety of nonwageactivities that increasehousehoLdwelfare. For example,the schooLingof girls attersbehaviorin waysthat LaterreducefertiLityand infant and child mortality, improve househoLd heaLthby influencing nutritional and heaLthcare

parts of the system-make a difference.Third, the returnsto these investmentsmaterializeonLyin an environment of good governance,political and macroeconomic stabiLity,and broad and equitabLe accessto sociaLservices.

practices,and improvechiLdren's schoolperfor-

Stalled Progress in EducationDevelopment

mance.Severalbenefitsof thesebehavioralchanges aLsoaccrueto society, such as tower incidenceof communicabLe diseases.Furthermore,educationcan increasesocial cohesionby teaching chiLdrento Learnand work together with othersfrom different social or ethnic groupsearly in life, contributingto nation-building and personaL toLerance.Broad and equitabLeaccessto educationis thus essentialfor sustainedprogresstoward democracy,civic participation, and better governance. Threecaveatsare clear, however.First, education deveLopment is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for development.Second, onLy investments in quality education-baLancedamong aLL

In 1960-about the time most African cDuntries gained independence from colonial ruLe-the region tagged far behind the industriaLwortd in nearly everystandardindicator of educationdeveLopment. Efforts to redressthis situation yieLded dramatic resuLts in the 1960s and 1970s. Since 1980 enroLLments have declined.Accessto educationhas risen sLowly.The quaLityof faciLities and teaching is poor in many areas. Repetition rates are high, compLetionrates Low.Whileregionat trendshide Largenationalvariationsin education development,they are indicative of the challenges Africa faces.

Table 1.10Grs EnrolltmentatiosinAfrica, 1960 97 (percent)

Primarytotal Primaryfemale

43.2 32.0

52.5 42.8

79.5 70.2

74.8 67.6

76.8 69.4

Primarymale Primaryfemaleas shareof totaL

54.4 37.0

62.3 41.0

88.7 44.0

81.9 45.0

84.1 45.0

Tertiarytota Tertiaryfemale

0.2 0.1

0.8 0.3

1.7 0.7

3.0 1.9

3.9 2.8

TertiarymaLe

0.4

1.3

2.7

4.1

5.1

20.0

20.0

22.0

32.0

35.0

Tertiaryfemaleas shareof total Note.All data include Sout Aficaexcep Source:UNESCO1984,1999b.

8

0:

AFRICANEDUCATION ON THETHRESHOLD OF THE21st CENTURY

Accessto primary schooling

cent for Afrca, comparedwith 51 percentfor all developingcountries.The tertiary enrollment ratio EnroLLments quintupLedin the 1960sand 1970sin 1997 reached3.9 percentfor Africa, compared from 12 million to 62 million. PrimaryenrolLments with 10 percentfor all developingcourtries. jumpedfrom 11 mitlionin 1960to aLmost53 miLLion FemaLeprimary enrollments increasedby 55 in 1980, while the primary gross enrollmentratio percent between1980 and 1995 and almost kept exceeded79 percentin 1980 (table 1.1). Growthat up with population growth. At the se.ondaryLeveL the secondaryandtertiary levelswasevenmoredrafemaLeenroLLments more than doubled, while at matic, with secondaryenroLlments increasingby 15 the tertiary Level female enroLLmertsincreased times and tertiary enrollmentsby 20 times. morethan fourfoLd.Despitethese in-reases,genFrom 1980 to 1995 enrollmentscontinued to der inequaLitiespersist at all levels.Femaleenrollincreasein absoLuteterms, but much moreslowly ments are onLy80 percent of male einroLLments at than durng the initial post-independence period. the primary and secondaryLeveLs and lessthan 55 Thenumberof prmary schooLstudentsincreasedby percent at the tertiary level. 52 percent,to 76.5 miLlion.Thenumberof secondary WhiLegross enrollment rates have stagnated, schoot studentsdoubLedto 18.8 miLLion.And the intake and net enroLLment rates shovwed considernumberof tertiary studentsmorethan trpLed to 1.9 abLeimprovementin the 1990s (table 1.2). Net miLLion. enroLlmentratesincreasedfrom 54 percentin 1990 At the primary Level, however, enrollment to 60 percentin 1998, apparentintake ratesfrom growth did not keep up with popuLationgrowth. 70 percentto 81 percent,and net intake ratesfrom Theprmary grossenrolLment ratio fell from 80 per33 percentto 43 percent.The countrycoverageof centin 1980to 75 percentin 1990, [argelya resuLt these indicators,though incomplete,suggeststhat of dectiningmaLeparticipation rates.In the 1990s moreschool-agechiLdrenare in school,the decline enroLlments,especiallyfor boys, beganto recover, in boys' participation has reversed,inore chiLdren reaching77 percentin 1997.At the secondarylevel are enroLLingin grade 1, and the proportion of the grossenrollmentratio in the 1990swas26 peroverage and underage children has dropped-

Tabte1.2 PrimarySchool Net Enroltmentand Intake Rates, 1990, 1995, and 1998 1990 Boys

Netenrollmentratea 59.8 Apparent intakerateb 75.7 Netintakerate* 34.7

Girls 49.9 65.3 31.9

1995 Boys Girts 64.2 52.9 83.4 70.0 41 -4d 40 .6 d

Boys 67.6 88.3 44.5

IMMl Girts 54.2 73.5 41.6

a. Net enrollmentis the proportionof school-age children-excduding underage or overage children-asa percentage of the school-age popuation b. Apparent,or gross,intakeis the numberof childrenenteringgrade1, regardless of age,asa percentage of t6epopulation of offcial entryage. c. Netintakeis the numberof school-age childrenenteringschoolasa percentage of the officialschool-age population. d. Because no datawereavailable for 1995,thesefiguresarefor 1994. Source: UNESCO 2000b.

A CHANCE TOLEARN

9

possibly refLectingthe decLinein repetition rates reported by UNESCO (2000a). But many children enroLL Late(only two-thirds of the new entrants in 1998 were the official age for schoolenroLLment), the gap in girLs' initiaL enroLLmentrate has increased,and morethan 40 percentof school-age children are not in school. Botswana,CapeVerde,Mauritius,Namibia,the SeycheLLes, SwaziLand,and Zimbabwe sustained educationprogressdespiteconcernaboutthe quaLity of teaching and Learning.MaLawi,Mauritania, and UgandaimplementedpoLiciesthat resulted in a suddenincreasein primary enroLLments and now are struggLing to deal with consequent quality challenges. Burkina Faso, Guinea, Mozambique, and Senegalopted for a more graduaLapproach. Manyothers-Nigeria amongthem-are formulating comprehensiveLong-termstrategiesfor education deveLopment,incLuding universal primary education.

Figure1.1

Despitethe progressin somecountries,access to primaryeducationremainsprobLematic in much of Africa. The economicproblems of the 1980s causeda dramaticdecline in primary participation ratesthat wasredressedonly partiaLLy in the 1990s (figure 1.1). Of the 44 countrieswith datafor 1996, only 10 (Botswana,CapeVerde, Congo, MaLawi, Mauritius, Namibia,South Africa, Swaziland,Togo, and Zimbabwe)had a primarygrossenrollmentratio of 100 percent.Six (BurkinaFaso,Ethiopia,Liberia, MaLi, Niger, and SomaLia)had a primary gross enrollmentratio below50 percent.And since 1985 the primary gross enroLLmentratio has actuaLLy declined in 17 countries-Angola, Burundi, Cameroon,CentralAfrican RepubLic, Comoros,C6te d'Ivoire, the DemocraticRepubLic of Congo,Kenya, Lesotho,Liberia,Madagascar, Mozambique, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, SomaLia,Tanzania, and Zambia. Together,the 17 are hometo more than haLf of Africa'sschooL-age popuLation(UNESCO 1998d).

PrimaryGrossEnrotlmentRatios HaveFallenin ManyAfrican Countries

Percent 120

-..

1985 . > ~ _. ............... s =ffil=......;u

t;00

1990 1997 60

10

v

E

A

E

AE

T

0

IV0

Sre:UNESCO 199a.~

10

AFRICAN EDUCATION ONTHETHRESHOLD OFTHE21st CENTURY

The chaLLenge is clear.In aLmostalL countries, access has expandedfar too sLowLyto achieve international education targets for gender equity and universaLprimaryeducation.(Thetarget datesof the Organisationfor EconomicCo-operation and DeveLopment, DeveLopment AssistanceCommittee are 2005for genderequity in primaryand secondary enrollment and 2015 for universaLprimary education;OECD, DAC1996.) About12 percentof the worLd'schildren ages 6-11 Livein Africa, yet the regionaccountsfor morethan a third of chiLdrenout of school. Unlesscurrenttrendsreverse,Africa will accountfor three-quartersof the world'schiLdrenout of schooLin 2015 (Oxfam1999). Mastery of basic skills Leamingconditions.ManyAfrican countriesfaiLto provide an environment for effective Learning. ChiLdrenare taught in overcrowdedcLassrooms by underqualifiedand unmotivatedteachers who are often poorLyand irregularLypaid and receivelittLe manageriaL support. Teacherabsenteeismis widespread,disrupting Learningand erodingpubLicconfidencein the vaLueof education.

Learning is further constrained by Limited LearningmateriaLs(box 1.1). MateriaLsthat are avaiLabLe are often in Languages that moststudents do not speak at home. A recent study (UNESCO 1998d) foundthat in 10 of 11 countries surveyed, morethan a third of students had no chalkboards in their cLassrooms. In 8 of the 11 morethan haLf the students in the highest grade i,ad no math books.Most African childrenspendrcughLyhaLfas muchtime in the cLassroom over the academicyear as chiLdrenin the industrial countries. Poverty-reLated deprivation contributesto low education attainment in Africa. Foor chiLdren spendmoretime than other chiLdrencontributing directly or indirectLyto household income.As a result they are LessLikeLyto spend out-of-schooL hours on schooLwork,more LikeLyl:o be absent from school during periodsof peak Labordemand, and more LikeLyto be tired and iLL-preparedfor Learningwhen they are in the cLassroom.More than 40 percent of chiLdrenin Africa are stunted, whiLe aLmosta third are underweight. Primary schooL-agechiLdrenare especialLysusceptibleto iLLnesses that affect poor people mcst, in particuLar gastrointestinal and respiratory probLems.

Box1.1 TextbookAvailabiity in Afrca Textbookavailability is generaLlypoor in most African countries. Somecountries (Lesotho, for exampte)havehad well-managed revolvingtextbook fundssince the early 1980sand have managedto sustainhightextbookplrovision. Butthesecountries areexceptions. In Uganda field surveysin 1999discoveredthat despite significant donor-supported textbook suppLies,actual textbook:studentratios wereas Lowas 1:30 in somecases,towerthan the official estimateof 1:7. Themainreasonfor the discrepancyappearsto be a lower-than-expected book life causedby poorstorageconditionsandhighloss-

A CHANCE TOLEARN

es and damages.Delaysin book suppLies and the rapid increasein primaryenrollmenthavealso contributedto the lackof adequate textbooks. Textbooks aretypicalLyscarcerfartherawayfrom distributioncenters:the differencein textbookavailability betweenrural and urban areasis marked. TextbookavailabilityaLsovariesamonggradelevets and subjects.At the secondary leveLmorebooksare avaiLabLe for core subjects, suchasLanguage andmath, than for scienceandhImanities.Althoughofficialcurricula usuallyspecify between8 and 10 subjects, donorstendto supplybooksonlyfor coresubjects.

11

MaLnourished and sick chiLdrenare tessLikeLythan healthy chiLdrento Learnin schooLand are more Likely to be absent from Lessons(Lockheedand Verspoor1991). Andif private costs for education are substantial, parents in poor householdsare morelikely to withdraw their children from school early in the schooLcycLe(UNICEF1999). All these effects are exacerbatedby the rapid spread of HIV/AIDS,which affects the attendanceof teachers and studentsand strains househoLdresources. Monitoring and assessment. Unsurprisingly, studentswho compLeteprimary schooLoften have an unacceptablylow level of learning. The few reguLarassessmentsof learning achievement in Africa are not encouraging.In 1990-91 Botswana, Nigeria, and Zimbabwe participated in a 31country survey of grade 9 reading skiLLs(Elley 1992). Students in these three countries registered the lowest scores, performing considerabLy worsethan studentsin the other four non-African deveLopingcountries participating in the survey, (the PhiLippines,ThaiLand,Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela).

Figure 1.2

MorerecentLy,the SouthernAfrica Consortium for Monitoring EducationalQuaLityassessedthe reading skiLLsof grade 6 students in Mauritius, Namibia, Zimbabwe,and Zanzibar,Tanzania.The meanfor reading achievement-that is, the average percentageof correct answers-ranged from 38 percent to 58 percent (figure 1.2). In SenegaL onLy 25 percent of students recentLytested on proficiency in material from the officiaL curriculum achievedmasteryleveL-defined as a scoreof 75 percent correct or higher-in science and French(INEADE1997). Retention. The poor Learningenvironment in many African schoolsoften resuLtsin high repetition rates and low completion rates (UNESCO 1998a). A few African countries have Lowrepetition rates. Someof these, for example, Zambia, have adopteda policy of automatic promotion. In others, such as Mauritius, effective instruction resuLtsin lessthan 10 percentof studentsrepeating each year. But in 15 countries more than 20 percentof studentsare repeaters-in C6ted'Ivoire morethan haLfof aLLprimary studentsare repeat-

Resuts of Reang AchievementTests in SelectedCountries

Percent 60 Narrative 50

Expository

Z ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

40

U TotalTest

30

20 10 0 Namibia

at

Zanzibar, Tanzania

Zimbabwe

Source:Saito 1998.

12

AFRICAN EDUCATION ONTHETHRESHOLD OFTHE21stCENTURY

ing a gradeat any time. Repetitionis an inefficient useof scarceresources.In 11 of 33 countrieswith data, the input-output ratio (the number of student-years spent by a cohort entering primary school divided by the theoretical number of student-yearsgraduatesneedtaketo completepri-

mentary Literacy and numeracyskill;. For exampLe,in Chad,Ethiopia, and Madagasc3r morethan a third of the chiLdren who enter school never complete grade 2.

maryeducation withoutrepeatingordroppingout)

BeyondPrimaryEducation

is more than 1.5. The cLoserthe vaLueto 1, the ideal, the moreefficient the system.Thesecountries spend50 percentor morethan wouLdbe necessaryin an ideaLsystem. Repetition is aLsoa major factor in students' dropping out of school, since Learning rareLy improves after students repeat grades. In Africa onLy Mauritius, the SeychelLes,and Zimbabwe have primary compLetionrates of more than 90 percent. In 14 of 32 countries for which data are available, more than a third of schooLentrants fail to reach the finaL grade (UNESCO 1998a). In the CentraL African RepubLic, Chad, Congo, Madagascar,and Mozambiquefewer than haLfthe chiLdrenwho enroll in primary school complete five years. Manyof the studentsdrop out early in the primary cycLe,before they acquireeven rudi-

Fewcountries provideadequateoppor-tunitiesfor education and training needed by 12-17-yearoLds(figure 1.3). WhiLesome youths in this age cohort have never attended school. and others have dropped out, in many countries an increasing proportion have compLetedprimary education and are looking for opportunities to either continue formal schooLingor acquireskilLsthat wiLL equip them to enter the world of work. This is the age when peopleacquire habits of Lifelonglearning and deveLopskiLLsand interests. The education and skiLLsof this age group wiLLbe cruciaLin shaping national deveLopmentwell nto the 21st century. Educationand training for youths is not onLyan economicimperative.In manycountriesyoung peo-

Figure1.3 EstimatedEnrollmentRatiosof 12-17-Year-Oldsby Regioni Percent 80

&O

~~~

~

~

~

~

~

~

~

gjg

~~~~~~~~~~~MaLe

El.... iFemale _ g.. .......

..... 60 50 40 30 20

Af1ica

Arab States LatinAmerica and Caribbean

Eastern Asia/

Southern Asia

Oceania

Source: UNESCO 1995.

A CHANCE TOLEARN

13

........

pLe'sdissatisfactionand disillusionmentwith their prospectsfor education and work threaten social cohesion and stability. Reachingthis age group through formal and nonformaLeducation is aLso vital to the successof targeted interventions in such areasas HIV/AIDSand reproductiveheaLth educationand programsto raise awarenessof civic rights and responsibilities.Yet only one-fourth of youths in this age group have accessto secondary education,and only 6 percentare reachedby vocational and nonformaL educationprograms.Moreover, the quaLityof pubLicLy funded skiLLsdeveLopment programsis usualLypoor. Theseprogramsdepend heaviLyon externaLfinancing and carry high costs per student (Middleton, VanAdams,and Ziderman 1993). Suchprogramsoften are alsopoorly attuned to Labormarketdemandand fail to Leadto incomeearningopportunities.SkiLLs training programstypically are gearedto formalsector employmentat a time whenthe formaLsector in most African countries absorbsonly a smaLL minority of Labormarket recruits (Mingatand Suchetforthcoming). Accessto new communication, information,and computer technologyis Limitedin secondaryand pubLictraining institutions in Africa. The Lackof instructional equipment and materiaLs further inhibits Learning.Parallelto public training institutions, aLmostaLLAfrican countrieshave a large private training sector that trains people for empLoymentin the formaLand informal sectors throughon-the-joband school-based training. While manyof theseprivatetraining approaches havebeen successful,manyothersare of poor quaLity.Only a few givestudentsthe skiLLs they needto workin the emerginginformationand communications economy.

HigherEducation In manyAfricancountries universitiesare the only national institutions with the skilLs, equipment, and mandateto generatenew knowledgethrough researchand to adapt global knowledgeto solve

14

locaLprobLems.Yet African universities are reLatively new and weakinstitutions. EarLycurricuLum links to reLigiousstudies and civiL service needs haveoften promotedthe humanitiesand socialsciences at the expenseof the natural sciences, applied technoLogy,business-reLatedskiLLs,and researchcapabiLities(WorLdBank1998a). Manycountrieshave found it difficuLt to move away from the coLoniaLmodeLin which the state wasthe onLyLegitimateprovider of higher education for a small priviLegedeLite.The effectiveness of university educationhasbeenfurther hampered by poor national economicperformance,inappropriate governing structures, weak nationaL poLicies, weak manageriaL capacity, politicaL interferencein universities,and campusinstabiLity (ADEA1999b).MeanwhiLe, often Limitedregional cooperationamonginstitutions further restricts teaching and research capacity. Nevertheless, enroLLment growth in higher education has been unprecedented.In 1960 Africa (excluding South Africa) had six universitieswith fewer than 30,000 students.In 1995the regionsupportednearLy120 universitiesenrolling aLmost2 miLLion. Dwindlingresourcesduringthis periodof growing enrollments(ADEA1999a) has had a sharpLy negative impact on the quaLity of education in African universities. Expenditure per studentmeasuredin units of GNPper capita-decLined in 10 of 15 countriesfor which data are avaiLable.In countriessuch as Mauritania and Zambiaexpenditure per student fell by morethan 50 percent.Yet on average African higher education remains expensiveby international standards.In 1992 public educationspendingper pupiLas a percentageof per capita GNPwas 15.1 percent at the pre-primary and primary Levels,53.7 percent at the secondary leveL, and 507 percent at the university Level.This disparity makesthe strategic management of higher educationresourcesa centraLconcern of any education developmentpolicy. Some universities have begun to develop aLternative methodsof servicedeLiverythrough distance edu-

AFRICAN EDUCATION ONTHETHRESHOLD OFTHE21stCENTURY

cation programs for ruraland sparselypopulated incomeLeveL the cost per studentof secondary areas,disadvantaged students,and studentswho schoolingvariesconsiderabLy betweencountries workfuLLtime.A numberof universities arebegin- and within countries.In fact, secondary schoolning to use Internet-basedtechnoLogies. These ing is mostexpensive reLativeto GNF'percapita optionsofferanalternativeto the traditionaL high- in countrieswith the LowestenroLLment rates.In er-educationmodelof fuLL-timepre-empLoymentAfrica secondaryschoolsuseresourcessuch as trainingon residentialcampuses, but in mostcases teachersandbuiLdingsmuchLessefficientLythan the potentiaLof the newtechnoLogies is under- primaryschooLs. Onereasonmaybe that in the used. poorestcountries,secondaryschooLsare stiLL organizedaLongtraditionaLLinesto educatea smaLL elite. Efficiency Limitedpublicresources and cornpetingpubLicspendingprioritieshavepreventEdmanygovThe efficiencyof educationexpendituresvaries ernmentsfrom addressingthe challengesof considerabLy, as do the reasonsfor differences educationdeveLopment. Sincethe mid-1980sthe within and betweenfrancophone andangLophone share of educationspendingin the GDPhas countries.In somecountries,especiaLLy in the increasedin 14 of the 26 Africancountriesfor Sahel,high teachersalariesmakeit difficuLtto whichdataareavailable,remained the samein 1, mobiLize the resources to reachuniversalprimary and decreased in 11. Perhapsmoresignificant, education in the foreseeabLe future.In othercoun- this shareis stilL Lessthan 3 percentin 8 countries teachersaLaries areso Lowthat teachersare tries (UNESCO 1998c).At a givenlevel of educaforcedto takeadditionaL jobs. tion spendingasa shareof GDP,participationand TeacherdeploymentpoLiciescanaLsoleadto attainmentlevelsin Africa comparEunfavorabLy inefficient and inequitable distribution of with thosein other Low-income countries(tabLe resources. Oftenteachersarenot depLoyed accord- 1.3). Inefficient and inequitabLeuse of scarce ing to numberof students,yearsof experience, or resources in a contextof high populationgrowth saLary. Theteacher:student ratioin Niger,for exam- and demandfor generaL pubLicfinancingof edupLe,varieswideLyfrom schooLto schooL(figure cation by politically powerfuLpressuregroups 1.4). Forexample, in primaryschooLs of 200 stu- addsto the fiscal chaLLenge. Thuscountriesmust dents,the teacher:student ratio ranges from1:100 set priorities for pubLicspending,achieveeffito 1:20.Thesituationis simiLarat the secondary ciencygainswherepossible,and identify opporlevel.These discrepancies canjeopardize the effec- tunities for mobilizing additional pubLicand tive operationof the entireeducationsystemand privateresources. aLmost invariabLy resultin lowstudentLearning and participation rates. DetaiLedcountry-specific anaLysisis neededfor an appropriatepoLicy PrivateEducation response. A recent study (Lewin and CaiLLods 1999) The private sectoris an increasincily important arguesthat deveLoping countrieswith low sec- providerof educationin Africa.Privateproviders ondaryenrollments, includingmostAfricancoun- rangefromcommunity-run schoolsreLyingon intries, cannot finance substantiaLLyhigher kindcontributionsto for-profitschooLs runfor the participation rates from domestic public weaLthy. TodaymostregisteredprivateschooLs in resources with currentcoststructures.At a given Africa are nonprofit communityarid reLigious

A CHANCE TOLEARN

15

at the betweenthe Numbefrof leachersandStudents Figure1.4 Retationship PrimaryLev:el inNiger Numberof teachers A

22 A

2120Q

A

A

19:

AA AAA

A

18

A

AA

17

A

1615

B

14

A

A

A

10

k

BA A

9 7

A BA

6-

-

AD

:}0EtD

A A

ABCt BAA A

:A

AB!tGIKXJJLGECCCBA

A AAA

AAAA ACAA AA

BBACAA CA A

A A

ABABBBCCAAAOAA

A

~AAA

A

A AA AC

AA

AA A

A

AA A AA BA

A

AA A AA

Mt>BBA

OBAA AAAAA

BB BACD B AB

8-

A

A A

AAB C AAAAA

A

Ac~ BAADBAAA

11-

B

ABAAACAR

13:

12-

AA

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

AMA A -

-

A _

_

ABBDMHKFkFHCQCxA

5 4

=HGdOGMGEHCBA C

3-

EZZZZZZZUO::BBA

2-

ZZZZZYVIGC: LZZKCCB

1-

0

A

2200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Number of students Z = 26 schools. Note:A - 1 school,B = 2 schools,C = 3 schools;.. Source: World B3ank forthcomingb.

schooLs(IIEP 1999). The private sector plays a smalLroLeat the primary level, but its share in meeting secondary,vocational,and tertiary education needs has increased significantly in recent years. In C6te d'Ivoire 36 percent of generaLsecondary students and 65 percent of technical students are enroLled in private schools (Vawda, Yaaub, and Patrinos 1999). In Zambia almost 90 percentof studentstaking technicaLand vocationaLexaminationswere trained outside pubLicinstitutions. Privateeducationcan reducethe financiaL

16

burdenon governments,give parents more choice and control, and improveaccountabiLity. Somecountries are also increasing the role of private providers in deLivering support services such as textbook publishing, classroomconstruction, and university catering. Countrieswill need detaiLedanalysesof these programs,organizational arrangements,and cost structuresas they consider affordable poLiciesfor expanding accessto secondaryeducation, vocationaLtraining, technicaLeducation, and higher education.

OFTHE21st CENTURY EDUCATION ONTHETHRESHOLD AFRICAN

1993 Efficiency, Spending of Education Indicators Table1.3 Comparative

Country

Primary Yearsof Teacher Schooling Education PrimaryEducation Gross Enrollment per 1 Percent Salary/GDP Spending/ Spending/ per capita GDP(percent) GDP(percent) Ratio(percent) of GDP

BurkinaFaso Chad Mali Niger Senegal Average

2.7 2.4 2.8 3.1 4.2 3.0

1.13 1.03 1.32 1.43 1.85 1.35

38 59 25 29 59 42

1.06 1.75 0.69 0.73 1.15 1.08

8.4 5.5 10.3 9.7 7.2 8.2

1998c). (UNESCO maLesand three yearsfor femaLes In aLmostall countries the situation is worse for in the 1980s girLs. AveragemaLeand femaLeLiteracyrates in TheeconomicshocksAfricaexperienced and early 1990sare stiLLfeLt in educationsystems. Africa differ by aLmost10 percentagepoints, whiLe FollowingearLierprogress,education deveLopment averageprimarygrossenrollmentratiosdiffer by 14 percentage points (UNESCO1998c). Only five Manycounstagnatedand in severalcasesdecLined. African countries (Botswana,CapeVerde, Kenya, tries stilLcannotprovidetheir populationswith equiLesotho,and Namibia)have female primary gross a resuLt As education. table opportunitiesfor good ratios equalto or abovethosefor males. manypeopLestiLLhave Littleor no education,skiLLed enroLlment of literacy and As disturbing as the LowLeveLs workersare Lacking,and the regionis increasingly educationattainment is the markeddecLinein the isoLatedfrom gLobalknowledgenetworks. capacityof manyAfricancountriesto generateknowLTheaverageAfricanadult has fewer than three for tertiary Levelinstructionandfor yearsof education(figure 1.5). Onein three males edgeas a resource A 1992study coun- researchand technologydevelopment. is illiterate. In severaL and one in two femaLes has onLy Afric:a that 1999a) estimated can expectto receive (UNESCO tries the averagesix-year-oLd fewerthan threeyearsof formaleducation.Average 20,000scientistsand engineers,or 0.36 percentof educationattainment in BurkinaFasois estimated the worLd'stotal. In Nigeria,with 20 percent of only 15 scientistsanidengineers at threeyearsfor malesand two yearsfor females; Africa'spopuLation, in researchand developengage per miLlionpeople in Mozambiqueit is estimated at four years for Limited Education Attainment

TOLEARN A CHANCE

17

Figure1.5

Averag X Yearsof AdultSchooing4 HaveStagnatedin Africa 6 \:

0 0000_ ;00 0 0000000 000

0:

X

1980

5

1985

4

1990

3

Africa

Asi &l Paciffc

t fAmeEast Lt A ca&

Caribbean

e East& NorthAfrica

SouthAsia

Source:Barro and Lee 1996; EDsTATS.

ment,comparedwith 149 in India, 350 in China,and 3,700in the UnitedStates(UNESCO 1998c). A continuing brain drain exacerbatesthese probLems. Reasons varyfrom countryto countrybut usuaLLy reLateto a Lackof empLoyment opportunities in the modernsector, Limitedresearchbudgetsin universities,and the Lackof freedomof speechand the fear of politicaL repressionin countries with authoritarianregimes.AvaiLabLe figuressuggestthat about 30,000 Africans holding Ph.D. degreesLive outside the continent, and 130,000Africansstudy in higherlearninginstitutions outside Africa. Many of those who find employmentabroadneverreturn.

LimitedImpactof External Aid Africa has consistentLyreceivedmoreexternal aid than other regions.Between1996and 1997 over a third of totaL officiaLdeveLopment assistanceflows went to Sub-SaharanAfrica despite the fact that the regionaccountsfor onLy12 percentof the totaL deveLopingcountrypopuLation.Africa aLsois more aid dependentthan other regions.In 1997 official

18

deveLopment assistancerepresented6.7 percentof Africa'sGNP,comparedwith an averageof Less than 1 percentfor all deveLoping countries(UNDP1999). Worldwide,about 10 percentof aid supportseducation and about 1.5 percent supports basic education. Since1992, however,aid flows havedecLined, and since 1994 aid to Africa has droppedby $3.7 billion (Oxfam1999).Theeffect of this reductionin aid on educationaccessand quaLityis not cLear. The 1990 WorLdConferenceon Educationfor All was an important impetus for a review of education deveLopment strategies and assistancepriorities. WorLdBank Lendingfor basic education, having increasedin the Late 1980s,jumped considerabLyafter the conference.UntiL1990 biLateraLsupport for basic educationwas Limited.After the conferenceaid agenciesbeganto reordertheir priorities and formuLate policies for increased assistanceto basiceducation.The result wassubstantiaL biLateraL support for basic education deveLopment,especiaLLy in Africa. In 1996, 42 percent of the $668 million Africa receivedin aid to educationwent to basiceducation (figure 1.6), an important increasefrom the Late 1980s. Yet

AFRICANEDUCATION ON THETHRESHOLD OF THE21st CENTURY

official deveLopment assistancerepresentsonly Shortcomings in donorapproache;havecon3-4 percentof totaLexpenditureon educationin tributedto the mixedrecordof aid for education. Africa.This averagehideslargevariations:some Oftendonorshavepaid insufficientattentionto countriesreceivevirtually no foreign aid, while countries'capacityto managedeveLopment proothers receiveaid from severaldonorsand can grams, sothat aidhasnot beenusedasefficientLy as fund muchof their pubLicexpenditureon educa- it couldhavebeen.DonorshaverareLy coordinated tion fromexternaL sources. In somepost-conflict their educationaid programs, and manyprojects countries,suchas Mozambique, aid to education remainenclaveoperationswith LimitednationaL has roughLy equaLed spendingfrom domestically ownership.WherenationaLownershipis Lacking, generated revenuein recentyears. donorsandgovernments oftenhavedifferentobjecExternaLLy assistededucation deveLopment tives. In this situationfungibiLitycan becomea programshavea mixedrecord.Manyprograms- probLem, and aid is moreLikeLy to substitutefor, incLudingthose supportedby the Bank-have rather than compLement, governmentefforts failed to achievethe expectedresults,especially (Feyzioglu, Swaroop,and Zhu 1998; WorLdBank in strengtheningnational policiesand institu1998a).Programs haveoften failed to take into tions. SustaininginitiaLpositiveresuLtshaseven accountnationaLmacroeconomic and institutionaL beenmoredifficuLt.In onLya fewcaseshasexter- environments, focusinginsteadon specificinvestnaLassistance broughtaboutsystemicreform.The mentsrefLecting externaL agencies' agendas rather reasons for this mixedrecordarevariedand com- thannationaL prioritiesandoftensupporting thecrepLex.In manycountriespoLiticalupheaval andvio- ationof unsustainabLe paraLLeL systems. VWeak coordiLent confLicthave disruptedreforms.In other nationof externaL aid programs hasrruLtipLied the countries governmentshave faced formidabLe demands on domestic institutions,Ledt) fragmented poLiticaL oppositionto sectorreform,particuLarLy anddupLicated efforts,distortedspending priorities, reform that challengestraditionaL modesof andproduced gapsin coverage andfunding. financing and deliverythat benefit priviLeged These probLemsare wideLyrecognizedby minorities. donors and governments. In response,severaL

Figure1.6 OfficialDevelopmentAssistanceto Education,1996 ByLevel:

ByEducation Sector: Pre-primary 7%

AduLt educatian 19%

Vocational 20%

1 TechnicaL17%

\

=

/

riay22%

General 42%

Secondary20%S

euaon 201%

Nor-format 21%

Post-secondary 12% Source: ADEA 1998.

A CHANCETOLEARN

19

countries, including Ethiopia, Mozambique,and Zambia, have designed sectorwide approaches. But experiencewith these approachesis Limited, and not aLLagencieshave sufficient staff with the anaLyticaL,poLicy,and operationaLskiLLsrequired to contribute effectively to the design of these programs.SimiLarLy, many countries do not have the nationaLcapacity to managethe design and implementation of these programsor coordinate the assistanceof severaLdonors-especiaLLywhen donor poLiciesand proceduresdiffer. Thecasefor increasingaid flows to education, particuLarLybasic education, is strong. But perhaps the most urgent challengeis ensuring that aid programs produce visibLe and sustainabLe resuLtson the ground.A recentreviewof aid effectivenessarguesthat aid shouLdfind the right combination of finance and ideasto addressdifferent situations and problems(WorLdBank1998a). This report finds that: * Financialaid worksin a strong poLicyenvironment.In weakpolicy environments,moneyhas Lessimpact.

20

PoLicy-based aid shouLdbe providedto nurture better policies in countries with credibLe reformersand strong domesticLeaders. * DeveLopment projectsshouLdstrengtheninstitutions and poLiciesby increasingthe efficacyof pubLicspendingand by promoting partnerships with civil societyto repLace top-downapproaches to projectdesignand impLementation. * Projectsshould createand transmit knowLedge and capacity and incLudeevaLuationas part of the process. * In distorted policy environments,ideas are moreusefuLthan Large-scaLe finance. * Ideaswill havethe greatestimpact wherepartnershipsbetween governmentand dcnors are genuineand groundedin diaLogue. The WorLdBankstudy of aid effectivenessrecommendsthat aid agenciesbecomemoreselective, more knowLedgebased, better coordinated, and moreseLf-critical.WhiLethey do not focusspecificaLLy on education,the findings are a usefulframework for rethinking approaches to aid for education (see chapter4). *

AFRICAN EDUCATION ONTHETHRESHOLD OFTHE21st CENTURY

2. TheChallenges of the African Development Context

* *

Newscientific knowLedge is sLowtoDpenetrate the continent. Armedconflicts disrupt civit societY. HIV/AIDS is spreading rapidly, and disease exactsa heavytoLL. FertiLityrates remain high.

Economicgrowth wasslow in Sub-SaharanAfrica in the 1980s and earLy1990s. Rising oil prices and weakening export markets in industrial countries, along with drought and civil strife in many African countries, resulted in baLanceof

*

payments deficits and decliningand often nega-

PervasivePoverty

tive economic growth rates. These probLems refLected years of poor economic management and exposedunsustainablestructuraLweaknesses in the economies.Average real GDPgrowth in the region dropped from about 5 percent in the 1960s to less than 2 percent in the 1980s and 0.1 percent during 1990-93. Becauseof rapid popuLation growth, this drop represented an annual averagedecLineof 1 percent in per capita GDPbetween 1980 and 1995. As a result, by the mid-1990s onLy12 countries in the region had a higher per capita GDPthan they had in 1975. Many African countries had to adjust their economies to the changing economic environment. But during 1994-97 growth rates gradualLy recovered, and reaL GDP growth per capita averaged2.9 percent. In 1997 per capita growth averaged3.1 percent and was positive for 35 of the 47 Sub-Saharancountries for which data are avaiLabLe.Notwithstanding the worLdwidefinanciaL crisis, half the countries in Sub-Saharan Africa showed a positive growth in 1998. The economiccrisis of the 1980shad a severe impact on the education sector (chapter 1), adverseLy affecting householddemandfor and pubLic suppLy of education. Without acceLerated improvementsin the sector,the region'sLong-term deveLopmentprospectswill remain dim. Yet the contextfor educationdeveLopment in the regionis daunting: * Povertyis pervasive. * Economiesfunction at the periphery of the gLobaleconomy. * DeveLopment financeis difficuLt to mobiLize.

Economic stagnation in the 1980s and earLy 1990s had a devastating impact on the progress of human deveLopmentin Africa. Most basic social indicators stiLl lag behind thDse of other regions (table 2.1). Of the 35 countries the United Nations DevelopmentPrograimme(UNDP) classifies as having Lowhuman development,28 are in Sub-SaharanAfrica (UNDP 1999). More than 40 percent of Africans Live below the $1 a day poverty Line,and the incidence of poverty as well as the absolute numbersof people Livingin poverty have increased since the Late 1980s. Extreme poverty and deprivation both impede investments in education by governmentsand househoLdsand are a result of Low educationaL attainment. DeveLopmentstrategies designEd to reduce poverty must thus be grounded in sound economic policy and centered on hLrnan capitaL deveLopmentprograms.With its rapidly growing popuLation,the region needs an annuaLgrowth per capita of 5 percent to keep the number of poor from rising and it must do so in such a way that increased production expandsemployment opportunities and improves access':o sociaLservices for the poor. To haLvethe incidence of poverty African countries wiLLhave to sustain annuaLper capita growth rates of a: Least7 percent untiL 2015 (WorLd Bank 2000b). Human deveLopmentprograms must be based on cLear anaLysis of who the poor are and what mechanismsexclude them from social services, incLudingeducation.

A CHANCE TOLEARN

*

21

Table2.1 BasicSocialIndicatorsby Region I

1;.1;

1

.s.L..

1

I' I

iLL

1.

ILLI1

_~~~ni

_

South Asia EastAsia and Pacific

94

N76

:ill

115

a

Latin Ampericton

Afrcanm Middle E~ast and Nohder

~

105

Caribban NNNNNN

contie

N

110 74tt

77s

84

o

ecnmiaL

N

N

fia(oLdBn i'

'\

97.Mn hNn

199NNi Source:UNICEF

andspoL,Ariapoue

the ut

ecn

f

Economiesat the Periphery of the Global

I019) NcieLbrfrc

With 18 percentof the worLd's[and and 11 percent of its people, Africa producesjust 1 percent of gLobal GoP. The international economy has expandedand changeddramaticaLly in the past 20 years,with shifting patternsof trade and competition and continuous technotogical innovation. Togetherthese changesare creating a high-speed, knowledge-driven,and competitive global economy. Africa has not beenable to maintainits share in this new global economy. During1980-96 as world GDPgrew 3.3 percent a year,GDPgrowthin Africa averagedonly 1.7 percent a year. Worldwideexports of goods and services(in currentdollars) almosttripled duringthis period, but Africa's exportsstagnated, causingits shareof the total to plummetfrom about 4.0 percent to 1.3 percent(World Bank1999c).The rapid increasein foreign direct investment since 1990 has Largelybypassedthe region, reflecting in part the overhang effect of unsustainable externaL debts. Between1990and 1996 Lessthan 3 percent

of foreign direct investment flows to developing countries went to Africa (WorldBank 1997). Many African economieshavea smallmodernproductive sector,typically absorbingno morethan 30 percent of the economicallyactive labor force (ILO 1998). Increasingthe productivity and competitivenessof the informal and modernsectorsis a challengethat few African countriescan afford to ignore. As noted, however, rost African economies have experiencedfaster growth since 1994. More flexibLeand competitive exchangerates, healthier fiscaLbaLances,and an icproving export market indicate that the recent trend can be sustained overthe next few years.Furthermore,the continent can makehugegainsif it cantake advantageof its catch-up potential in the returns on new investment (KiLlick1998). Longer-termeconomicperformancewill depend on improvementsin humanicapital and the associated ability to use moderntechnology,as well as on improvementsin public institutions and infrastructureat nationaLand regional levels.The most important determinant of the pace of Africa's developmentmay be its abiLityto create, acquire,

22

CONTEXT OFTHEAFRICAN DEVELOPMENT THECHALLENGES

Economy

absorb, and communicateknowledge(WorLdBank taxes, but trade LiberaLizationis eroding these l999c). This processcan accelerateif the region instruments.Thecontractionof the formialeconomy can Leapfrogto new technoLogies,skipping inter- and the concomitantgrowth of the informal sector mediatestages.But without concertedeffort, coun- in many countries pose further chaLLenges to tries wiLLbe unabLeto adapt to the demandsof a resourcemobiLization,given the difficLlty of taxing gLobalizedeconomyand wiLl risk further marginal- smaLL-scale enterprisesin the urban gray and black ization. Africa needsto improve its macroeconomic economy(Grunberg1998). poLicies,governance,and export performanceand TheresourceenveLopeavailableto governments to invest more in human capital. And in several often has been further constricted by weak ecocountries deveLopmentpoLicy needs to recognize nomicperformanceand the voLatiLityand declineof that peopLeare the most important-sometimes export receiptsfor primarycommoditiesexports,on virtuaLLythe onLy-resource they have. Thus the which most countriesin the regionde3endheavily. deveLopment of education-at aLLleveLs,from basic The combinedeffect of these constraints has been to tertiary-is the centraLdeveLopment imperative. faLLingper capita expenditureson priority sociaL services,including education. Between 1985 and 1995regionalspendingper student on primaryedu-

Inadequate Financingfor Development

cationfell by 6 percent.In starkcontrastto this

Sustainedeconomicgrowth and povertyeLimination dependon strong and effective government.UnLess governments can mobilize finance from stabLe sources,they wiLl be unabLeto meet their core responsibiLitiesin the sociaLsectorsand in infrastructure or to providethe institutional framework needed for deveLopment.Education financing is typicaLlyone of the largest items of government expenditure,often claiming as muchas one-fifth or more of the total budget. Spendingon education increases in line with popuLation and income growth and is a long-terminvestmentthat requires a predictabLeincomesource. In recent years many African countries have improvedmarkedLy the efficiency,equity, and transparencyof their tax regimes.Yetthe countries stiLL face enormouschallengesto resourcemobiLization, and Africa's unmet needsare greaterthan those of any other region. Taxrevenueis low even by developing countrystandards,typicalLyabout 10 percent of GNP.Domesticcapacityto raise revenueis often Limited,and the tax base is smaLL in the region's predominantLyruraLand nonwageeconomies.This small tax base traditionally has led to favoring other tax instruments, in particuLar trade-based

decrease,primary education spendinigincreased approximatelythreefoLdin every other deveLoping region over the sameperiod. Per student spending feLLsimiLarlyat the secondaryand tertiary Levels (UNESCO 1998d). UnsustainablepubLic debt has further constrained the mobilization of developTientfinance acrossmuch of the region. Debt overhang has created uncertaintyfor domesticand foreign investors and restrictedgrowth. UnsustainabLe Jebt has also imposed a direct fiscal burden in many heaviLy indebted poor countries(HIPCs)by diverting Limited public revenueto debt repaymerts.Debt has acted as a further brakeon growth by undermining public investment in social and economicinfrastructure. ManyAfrican HIPCshave spent three to four times as much on debt servicin(gas on basic social servicesin recent years. ResoLutionof the debt impasseis now in sight. Thecurrent HIPCdebt reLiefinitiative, which providescomprThensive debt stock reduction, is expected to relieve almost 20 Africancountriesof unsustainabledebt burdensand significantLyincreasetheir nationaLedication budgets within the next five years. Falling aid fLowsto Africa have mirrored chaLLengesto mobiLizingdomestic revenue. Between

A CHANCETOLEARN

23

1990 and 1998 per capita net aid flows to Africa felLfrom $32 to $19, refLectingthe gLobaL decLine in aid fLows since 1991 (WorLdBank 2000b). FalLingaid fLowshave reducedthe proportionate contribution of aid to deveLopingcountryfinancing needs,but the decline has beenaccompaniedby a surgein private capital fLowsto developingcountries. Yet Africa hasbeen Largelybypassedby these private fLowsand stiLLdependsheavily on official deveLopment assistance.In 1996 net aid flows to the region-excLuding South Africa-equaLed 8.6 percentof regional GNP,comparedwith [essthan 1 percentin other deveLopingregions. Whetherthe HIPCinitiative providesreaLadditional finance for African countriesor simpLyrecycLesexisting aid budgets will determine whether downwardaid trendscan be reversed.In the longer term, the extent to which debt reLief boosts investor confidencein Africa and the abiLity of African governmentsand creditors to avoid future debt criseswill be crucialin shapingprospectsfor economicgrowth, povertyaLLeviation,and reduced aid dependency.

of its childrenare out of school.SecondaryenroLLments are Low,especially in science and math cLasses.And the scienceand technology base of most African countriesis inadequate. Public investmentsin scientific researchand development are estimated at 0.2 percent of regionalGNP,one of the LowestLeveLs in the worLd. The region is responsibLefor onLy0.8 percent of the worLd'sscientific pubLications (UNESCO 1999a). Most African universities tack sufficient resources to carryout effective teaching and research. To take advantageof the new knowledgeeconomy, Africa needsweLL-trainedscientific, technological, and processingpersonnel-incLudingsome with sophisticatedresearchskiLls-who can participate in advancesin key fieLds(physics,materiaLs science,computer science,technoLogy,engineering) and who canassessand developLocalappLications of new technoLogy.WorLdclass centersfor scientific education and research,abLeto suppLy and retain these personnel, wilL be needed at regionaLand subregionalleveLs. Weakcommunicationnetworksand information flows further constrain Africa's use of new knowLedge.TheseshortcomingsLimit information on the

InsufficientScientificKnowledge

quaLityof productsandservices,inhibit monitor-

The globaLexplosion of knowledgegives African countries an opportunity to narrow information and knowLedge gaps, thereby raising incomesand living standardsmuchfaster than previousLy imagined. But to take advantageof the gLobaL stock of

ing, and impedeexchanginginformation with beneficiaries (box 2.1). Addressingthese information gaps will be an essentialeLementof every nationaLknowledgemanagementstrategy.

knowledge, countriesneedto deveLop the techno-

ExtensiveArmedConflicts

logicaLcompetence-typicalty in universities and other pubLicand private researchinstitutions-to select,absorb,and adapt importedtechnoLogyand pursuea researchagendafocused on local problems.Creating,absorbing,and communicatingnew knowLedgerequires basic education (pre-primary, primary, and adult) for all and opportunities to continueLearningand to acquireadvancedtechnicaLand scientific skiLLs (WorLdBank1999b). Africa lags behind on both counts. Morethan 40 million

In 1996 alone a third of African countries experiencedarmedconflicts. OneAfricanin five lives in a country severelydisrupted by war. Theseconflicts causeenormoushumansuffering, materialdevastation, human capital depLetion,and damageto the social and cultural fabric that holds nations together.ConflictshaveaLsodestabiLized the region as a whole,erodinginvestor confidence,disrupting trade routes, acceleratingthe spreadof HIV/AIDS,

24

THECHALLENGES OFTHEAFRICAN DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT

-

Box2.1 Africa'sInformationInfrastructure *

*

*

*

Dailynewspaper circulationper 1,000peoplein AfricarangesfromI in Benin,BurkinaFaso,and Mauritania to 28 in Gabonand 31 in Botswana (compared with 135in Argentina, 246 in Latvia, * and800in HongKong). Thenumber of radios per1,000people averages 198, ranging from34in Angola to 231in Ghana and316 in SouthAfrica(compared with163in China,404in * Lithuania,and 469 in Malaysia). Threeof five Africans livewithinreachof a radiotransmitter. Thenumberof televisionsetsper 1,000people averages 36,rangingfromlessthan 1 in Eritreato * 96 in Swaziland and 123 in SouthAfrica(comparedwith322in TrinidadandTobago, 469in the CzechRepublic,and 805 in the UnitedStates). Television is limitedmaintyto majortowns. Thenumberof personal computers per1,000people averages3, rangingfrom tess than 1 in

BurkinaFasoto 7 in Zimbabwe and 37in South Africa (comparedwith 38 in Chile, 172 in Singapore, and408in SwitzerLand). Thenumberof telephone mainlines per1,000peopteranges from2 in Nigerand8 in Kenya to 48in Botswana and I00 in SouthAfrica(compared with 75in Brazil,166in Malaysia, and335in BuLgaria). Thenumberof fax machinesper 1,000people rangesfrom 0.1 in the CentralAfricanRepublic andGuineato 2,5 in CapeVerde(compared with 113in Japan). Forty-seven Africancountrieshaveaccess to the Internet.However, anaverage of onlt 1 personin 5,000usestheInternet, compared with 1 in 40 globallyand1 in 6 in Europe andNorthAmerica. Thenrumber of Internethostsper 1,000people ranges from0.01in BurkinaFasoto 3.82in South Africa.

Source:UNESCO 1998c; UNOP 1999.

and sendingrefugeepopulationsinto neighboring countries.The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugeesestimated the number of refugees, returnees,and personsdisplacedwithin their own countriesat 22.3 million in Africain 1998.Between 1990and 1994, morethan 1 million peopledied as a result of conflict. By conservativeestimate, 200,000Africansdied becauseof war in 1998. Most of those who died were civiLians,and a growing numberof the perpetratorsof violenceare chiLdren. The rising numbersof chiLdcombatantsin Africa pose enormouschallengesfor post-conflict social rehabilitation and economicdevelopment. Beforecountries affected by conflict can move forward economicalLyand politically, they must end civil strife, not only stopping hostilities but

A CHANCE TOLEARN

aLsoaddressingthe causesof conflicts. Countries wilL then have to rebuild and expaid the infrastructure neededto increaseeconomicproductivity; improve human welfare, mobility, and communication;and reintegratedifferent population groupsinto a dynamicand vibrant society.At the sametime, democracyhas to take root in civiL society,and governmentsmust continue to deveLop and adhere to systems of good governance, accountability,and responsibiLity. Thechallengefor educationeffortsin countries emerging from conflicts or civil repressionis to support confLictresoLutionand instill civic vaLues and principlesof democracy, tolerance,and cooperation. Restoringand improving basic social services, especialLyeducation, is crucial to the post

25

conflict transition. Education helps normalizean often chaotic environmentand is a powerfulsymbol of confidencein the future. EducationaLsoheLps restorethe stock of humanand sociaLcapital that is depletedduring conflicts. To becomeproductive membersof society,former combatantsmust have viable opportunitiesto securea livelihood without taking what they want or need by force. To avoid becominga Lostgeneration,chiLdrenwhoseeducation has been disrupted need opportunities to catchup, often requiringnontraditionalapproaches to learning.In manycountriesNGOsplay a key roLe in deLiveringnonformaLeducationto suchchiLdren, both in post-confLictand confLictsituations.

the individual Level.A child born today in Zambia or Zimbabweis morelikeLythan not to die of AIDS, while in severalotherAfricancountriesthe Lifetime risk of dying as a result of AIDSis greaterthan one in three. Declininglife expectancyacrossmuch of central and southernAfrica refLectsthe spread of the virus. In nine African countries with aduLt prevalenceof 10 percent or more, life expectancy is projected to regressto an averageof just 47 years by 2015 (WorldBank1999b). An especiaLLy devastatingaspect of the pandemic is that it usually affects peopLein their most productiveyears. A mortality rate of 3 percent in the 20-30 age group-in which infection rates are highest-transLates into half of the age cohort dying within 14 years.In the most severeLy The HIV/AIDSPandemic affected countries, spreading from eastern through central and southern Africa, HIV/'AIDSis The burden of diseaseis dramaticaLlyhigher in reversing years of investment in education and Africa than eLsewhere in the worLdand an obstacLe training, creating shortagesof skilled Labcrin the to regional economic and human deveLopment. modern sector, and burdening already overexMaLaria,onchocerciasis(river bLindness),and trytended health budgets.In Botswana,with a prevapanosomiasis (sleepingsickness),though they occur lence rate among aduLtsof cLoseto 25 percent, eLsewhere in the worLd,are essentiaLLy African disthe epidemiccould reverseyears of buoyant ecoeases.MaLaria,which accountsfor about 11 percent nomic growth by creating severelabor shortages, of the burdenof diseasein the region, exactsboth reducing governmentrevenue by 7 percent and a humanand economictoLL,costing many African increasing expenditures by 15-20 percent, and countriesover 1 percentof their GDP(Leightonand reducingthe GDPgrowth rate by 1.5 percentage Foster1993; GaLLup and Sachs1998; Shepardand points. Within 25 years the economywouLdbe 31 others1991). percent smallerthan it would have been without But HIV/AIDSis the condition that most prothe epidemic.In Tanzania,with a prevalencerate foundLythreatensAfrican deveLopment, having hit of aLmost20 percent,GDPwiLLdecLinebetween15 Africa harderthan any other region. In 1998 the and 25 percentby 2015 if the epidemiccontinues region accountedfor 70 percent of all new HIV to spreadat its presentrate. infections and 80 percent of all AIDS-related The demographicimpact of HIV/AIDSon the deaths.Two-thirdsof the worLd's33.4 miLLion peoregionis lessclear. However,most expertsbeLieve pLeLivingwith HIV and 9 of 10 chiLdrencarrying that the pandemicmaynot significantly affect the the virus are African (UNAIDS1999). dependencyratio (Stover 1999). HIV/AIDS has The 21 countries with the highest prevaLence increasedthe adult mortaLityrate,but this increase rates are found in Africa. In Botswana and will be largely offset by fewer births and an Zimbabweone in four adultsis infected.In at least increasein child mortality resultingfrom perinatal 10 other African countriesprevaLence rates exceed infection. WhiLeHIV/AIDShas Led to significant 10 percent.The data are perhapsmost alarmingat downwardrevisions of growth projections in the

26

THECHALLENGES OFTHEAFRICAN DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT

most severeLyaffected countries, fertility wiLLnot drop rapidly enoughin any countryto causenegative growth (Decosasand Adrien1999). Theimpact of HIV/AIDSin Africa hasimportant impLicationsfor pLanningand providing education (box 2.2). First, HIV/AIDSforcesmiLLionsof chiLdrenout of schooLand into work. As aduLtsbecome sick and die, househoLds face a double squeezethey havemoreneedsbut LessabiLityto meetthem. Householdshavebeenforcedinto increasingLy desperate coping strategies as a resuLt. Traditional family structuresare frayedand in the worst cases disappear.TwelvemilLion chiLdrenin Africa have been orphanedby HIV/AIDS,many of them cared for by elderLyrelatives ilL-equippedto providefor the chiLdren'sdeveLopment. Most of these orphans wiLLsuffer permanentLy as a result of Leavingschool, enteringthe worLdof workearly, and eating Less.In the worst-affectedcountries,incLudingBotswana, Malawi,Zambia,and Zimbabwe,about 30-35 percent of chiLdrenhave Lostone or both parentsto the disease.Providingthese childrenwith genuineLy accessibLe forms of educationthat are fLexibLe and sensitiveto their speciaLneedsand the trauma many of them have experiencedis an urgent and ongoing chaLLenge for everyAfricansociety. Second, AIDS threatens to reinforce gender disparities in education in Africa. GirLsin AIDSaffected househoLds are more LikeLythan boys to remainat hometo nursesick relativesand perform tasksthat werepreviousLy the responsibiLity of other famiLymembers.Giventhe importanceof girls' education for gainsin nutrition, fertiLity, and health, this trend seriousLythreatens wider deveLopment prospectsin the region. Third, AIDSis devastatingthe teachingprofession. Morethan 30 percentof teachersin MaLawi and Zambiaare infected. In 1996 Zambiareportedmore than 600 teacherdeaths;by 1999this numberhad morethan doubLed.Teacherdeathsfrom AIDS-related iLLnesses now outstrip the numberof teachers trained in the country'straining colleges.Similarly, academicstaff at universitiesaredying at an alarm-

A CHANCE TOLEARN

ing rate. This depLetionof scarcehumancapitaLis both a humantragedy and an econormicdisaster. AIDSaLsoaffectsthe quaLityof teachinc.Thedisease resuLtsin ListLessness and prolonged absenteeism amongsickstaff and a widespread senseof heLpLessness.Learningoutcomesare further affectedby Low attendanceratesamongchildrenandthe diversionof resources to heaLthexpenditures and awayfromvitaL educationinvestments(such as learniigi materiaLs) at householdand nationaLLeveLs. Education pLansurgentLyneed to factor in expLicitly,at every Level,the LikeLypersonneL and financial costs of the pandemicand llhe changing nature of educationdemand.Growthprojectionsof Zambia'sprimary school age populaton iLLustrate this urgency.In 1998Zambiahad about 1.9 million school chiLdren.With HIV/AIDS, the country is expectedto haveover 2.2 million in 2015.Without HIV/AIDS,the projection would have reachedfar more than 2.9 miLLion.IncreasingLy,schooLswiLL need specialarrangementsto heLpensurecontinued effective instruction, and universities must pLanto replacemanyfacuLtymembers. At the same time, education systems have a vital roLein reversingthe spreadof HIV/AIDSby addressingsome of the key underlying causes: poverty,lackof knowLedge, and genderinequaLities. Until the worLdhas a vaccine or therapiesthat deveLopingcountries can afford, AICS,prevention strategieswill depend largeLyon edication campaignsto persuadepeopLeto changetieir behavior. Providinginformationon HIV/AIDSand othersexuaLLytransmitted diseasesand reproductiveheaLth issuesin formaLand nonformaLprogrmrns for youth and adults can combat the spread of the virus. Schools can provide many of these services. ChiLdrenare a windowof hopein efforts to combat the disease:most canbe easiLyreacheithroughthe educationsystem,and because90 percentof HIV infection is sexuallytransmitted,infection ratesare Lowamong 5-14-year-olds.Experienceshowsthat if HIV/AIDSprevention is to succeed,educators mustseekeveryopportunityto includethe topic in

27

EducationandAIDS:Ex0perence in Zamhbia andUganda In the Africancountriesmostseverelyaffcted by AIDS,

for monitoring and coping with the impact of

the socialand econmi changesbroughtabout by the pandemicare so vast that educationSystemsfacecolLapseunlessthey

placeASatte

centof

ther

AIDS,and0deveLopintrasectoralinformation syst

ems as weUas sensitivepoliciesfor dealingwith the needsand humanrights of AIDS-affectedper-

national education agendas.AVhuman development

sonneL.

emergency on thi scalerequiresemergencyrpses.

The cotry Th

Educationsystemsface a doubte chaLtenge: they need

effective financial managementat all leveLsto

will needmoreaccountableand cost-

to plan to cope with the effects of AIDSon the fu:nc-

respond to reducd national, community, and

tioning of the system(Zambia)and at the sametime

household resourcesfor education. Households

mobilizeit to cti

to the fihta4

spread

of AIDS(Uganda).

haveLostincomeand divertedresourcesto health National-level fundsaretied downby sc and inactive sector staff who remainon the

0ependitures.

The implications of AD for edu

lan-

payrotl, andare again divertedto health care.At

ning-Zambia

thesame: im, communities mostaffectedby AIDS

Countriessuch as Zarbia,: whereone-third of aLLchil-

can contribut lesslabor to schooldevelopment.

dren havelost a parentto AIDSand children now head

AIDS-affectedcountries will also need to rethink

7 percentof alt households,need first to factor the

the traditionaLschool model and apply more flexible

impactof AIin

andsensitivemodets that meetthe needsof children-

planining at everyLevelof 00t0e d

cationsystem andin eachsubsector: * Asa resultof AI thereare ewerchir

*

28

to

especiallyorphans-whohavebeentraumatized, impovershed, stunted, andalienated by the sickness

eduate fewercdren canaffordeducation, And fewerchildrencanc lteeducation. By 200 Zambia will haveabout25 pecentfewerchildren

and Lossof familymembers. Assumptions aboutthe n e curricuLum content,andadvisabilityof bringingtogether large numbersof youngpeoplein

to educate thanitwouldhavehadWithout AIDS.

oftenhigh-sksituations wiLlhaveto bechallenged.

Thecountrywillneedto deployresources to reflect shiftingpatterrsof demand for edc 4-across The role of educationin combating AIDSsubsectors, regions, andcommunities. Uganda OutputfromteachertrainingcollegesinZambia Education, canplaya vital rolein reversing the spread cannoteven replaceteacherswho are lost to of HIV/AIDSby reachingchidrenwith healtheducaAIDS.Manof mostexperienced profesionals, tion messages beforethey becomesexualLy active. includingheadteachers, managers, planners, and Uganda hasexperienced one of the mostsevereAIDS inspectors, aredying. TheVprofile of staffis chang- :epidemicsin Sub-Saharan Africa,but sincethe early ing. Setor staffareon average youngerandless 1990sthe rateof newinfectionin that countryhas experienced than andrctivtyiso been fling. HIV seroprevalence among pregnant because of the largenumbe rsoscnant Kampala almosthalvedbetween1989and staff. To6addrs "thittion,d Zbw he 19 and reportedbehaviorof young peoplehas to reviseplanningof staff n ld capad markedlyBetween1989and 1995the per-

THECHALLENGES OFTHEAFRICAN DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT

Box2.2 (continued)

-

centageof 15-19-year-otds whohadhadsexualintermoveawayfromthe didacticteachingstVlecommon coursefelt from69to 44 percentamongmenandfrom to most schooLs in Ugandaby usingtheatre,group 74to 54 percentamongwomen. Condom usehasrisen discussions, andmassmediato engagestudents. significantlyin the sameagegroup,andthe percentUganda's experience showsthat community supageof peoptewithcasualsexualpartnershasfatten. port is vital to the success of HIV/AIDSeducation. Thesetrendsevolvedin the contextof a nation- PTograms that aggressivety chaLLenge community valat AIDSstrategythat hadfulLpoLiticalbackingat the uesandattitudestowardsuffererscanbecounterprohighestLevel.In the educationsectorteachingabout ductive and generatetong-termresentrrment against sexuallytransmitteddiseases,including HNV/AIDS, public sector interventions. The participatory wasintroducedinto the primarycurriculum.Messages approaches usedin Uganda-tistening to and answeremphasized not only the facts of transmission but ing peopte's misapprehensions andworkitng with chitalso sexuaLbehaviorand genderreLations. District dren and parents to design mateials about healtheducators workedcloselywith teachers, super- HIV/AIDS-have overcomesuspicion and heLped vising the contentof ctassesand supportingschool changebehavior. healththroughvisits. Meanwhile, educatorstried to Source:Kelly 1999; Barnett, de Koning, and Frances 1995,

schooLand training curricula at aLLLeveLs. Such efforts are unLikeLy without cLearand open politicaL commitmentand adequateresources.Wherethese havebeenforthcoming,as in Senegaland Uganda, the spreadof the virus has beenchecked.

Suchrapid popuLationgrowthtransLatesinto an especiaLLy high dependencyratio. The schooL-age dependencyratio (the number of children ages 6-14 as a shareof aduLtsages15-64) is 47 percent in Africa comparedwith 41 percent in the MiddLe Eastand NorthAfrica, 37 percentin SouithAsia,and 33 percent in Latin Americaand the Caribbean. HighFertility Africa'sLargerschool-agepopuLationrelativeto the working-agepopulationmeansthat universaleduAfrica has 11 percentof the world's peoplebut 19 cation would consumea largershareof GNPthan in percent of its births. TotaLfertility rates in Africa other regions (ColcLoughand Lewiri 1993). This are the highestin the worLd-at 5.5 in 1997 com- burdenaffects not onLypubLicfinances-in counparedwith 1.8 in EastAsia and the Pacific,2.7 in tries that aLreadyface multipLe challengesto Latin Americaand the Caribbean,and 3.3 in South resourcemobiLization-but also househoLds, which Asia. Africa is the only region whose schooL-age typically meet a Large proportion of education costs. EspeciaLLy heavy are the demandson poor populationis projectedto increaserapidly over the next 20 years (figure 2.1), aLthoughthe rate of and rural househoLds,which usually have many increasewiLLbe affectedby the extent to which the dependents. Rapid popuLation growth has consistentLy spreadof AIDScanbe stemmed.By 2015Africa will probablyhave 45 percentmorechildrenthan it did thwarted the goaLof universaLaccessto primary education in Africa. In 1961 African ministers of in 1996.

A CHANCE TOLEARN

29

Regions 2.1 Anuat Population GrowthRatesfor Developing fFigure Percent 2.5 ----2.0

...

1.5

l

_ |

|

.

\

-

.\ . .\.........

.

'

---------

-

-

1995-99

E2000-04

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2005

1.0

D2010-14

0.0

. -..-...........

2015-19

1.0 --

-2.0

Afnrca

SouthAsia

& EastAsia& MiddleEast& Latin America Pacific NorthAfrica Caribbean

Source:World Bank 1999c.

OvercomingAdversity

education set 1980 as the target year for universaL primary education. At that time peopLe thought that the region wouLdneed 33 milLion extra school pLacesby 1980. By the target date, the number of chiLdrenin schooLhad exceeded the goal, and countries provided 45 million places.But, becauseAfrica's population increased much faster than expected, the gross enrolLment ratio was just 78 percent by the target date, faLLing11 milLionschooLpLacesshort of the number needed to achieve universal primary education. Effective reproductive heaLthprograms,combined with efforts to ensureaccessand continued participation of girls in primary and lower secondary education, have been the key to slowing population growth in other regions. Achieving lowerfertiLity ratesis important not Leastbecause of the education and heaLthimpLicationsof frequent and unpLannedpregnanciesfor womenand their children. Thus educationis a beneficiaryof, as weLLas an essentiaLeLementin, effective population poLicies.

context The chalLenges of the African deveLopment are daunting. Yet the experienceof countriessuch as Botswana,Namibia,Mauritius, SwaziLand,and, in the years immediateLyfoLLowingindependence, Zimbabweshow how effectiveLya combinationof sound macroeconomicmanagementand effective investmentsin human resourcedeveLopmentcan overcomemanyof the constraintsdiscussedin this chapter.The positive developmentcontext emerging in severalcountrieson the continent is encouraging. Prospectsare perhapsbetter today than at any other time in the past 10 years. * Economic growthhasresumedin manycountries. * An end to the crisisof unsustainabledebt is in sight with expandeddebt reLiefunderthe HIPC initiative. * NewtechnoLogies mayhelpaddressproblemsof accessand quaLity. * Thepolitical landscapehaschangedin similarly dramaticways: apartheidhas ended;the press has more freedom; many countries have

30

THECHALLENGES OFTHEAFRICAN DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT

*

madea rapid transition to eLectedgovernments;and increasingequity, participation, human rights, and good governancehave received moreattention. Between1990 and 1994, 38 countriesheld competitivenationaLelections.SouthAfrica's

A CHANCE TOLEARN

democraticallyeLectedgovernmentis well estabLished, and recent political changein NigeriahasimproveddeveLopment prospects greatLy. Giventhe regionaL importanceof these two countries,the effectsof these changes couLdspread far beyondtheir nationiaL borders.

31

3. CountryResponses: A Quantum Leap

basesuch reformson a comprehensiveanalysisof educationissuesand embedthem in a macroeconomicdeveLopment strategy.TheywiLLalso needto To breakthe viciousdevelopmentcycleof the 1980s, identify policies and investment programs to meetthe deveLopment challengesof the 21st centu- achievestrategicobjectives.And they will needto ry, and narrow the scientific and digitaL divide formuLateimpLementationplans aimed at rapid betweenAfrica and the rest of the worLd,the region progressand explicitly designedto take intervenwill needequitable,efficient, and high-quaLityedu- tions to scale. cation systems. This will require many African In formulating strategies and interventions, countriesto makea quantum Leap-a significant priority shouLdgo to promoting the baLanced accelation-in their educationdevelopmentoverthe developmentof the sector, with attention to the next 10 years,with thesepriorities: Linkagesbetween aLLparts of the education sys* RapidLyincreasingthe educationattainment of tem, from early chiLdhoodto post-graduate prothe Laborforce by enroLLing aLLschooL-age chiL- grams. At the same time, the system wiLl not be drenin good primaryschools. able to contribute to national sociaLand econom* GraduaLlyexpandingaccessto the full basic ic developmentgoaLswithout the strong basis of education cycLefor primary schooLgraduates rapid progresstoward universalprimaryeducation. and giving youth and aduLtswho LackessentiaL Beyondthe primary Level,expansionwiLLtypicaLly Literacyand numeracyskiLLs the opportunity to be more gradual and selective, in Line with participatein aduLtbasic educationprograms. country-specific poLiciesand targets. ThesepoLi* Enhancingthe vocational and technical skills cies will need to reflect a poLitical consensuson of youth and aduLtsthrough continuousjobpriorities and tradeoffsbasedon avaiLabLe human reLatedskilL deveLopment programsoffered by and financial resources,developmentobjectives, demand-drivensystems,including pubLicand labor market signals,and social demand. private providers. Second, African countries should formuLate * Preparingmore selected students for further Localstrategies,policies, and reformsto acceLerate education,especiaLLy for scientific and technoeducationdevelopmentrather than adopt internaLogical careers, by strengthening math, scitionaL solutions customized to Localconditions. ence, and technoLogyprogramsin secondary However,knowledgeand experiencefrom other and post-secondary institutions. African countries and from outside Africa shouLd * Revitalizingnationalresearchand deveLopment strengthen and enlighten local strategies. This programs. approachwiLLaLLowcountries to design programs Businessas usuaLwiLLnot achievethe desired that are appropriate, affordabLe,and sustainabLe results. Bold policy reforms-sustained over time without repeatingthe mistakesof others. and impLementedin partnershipsamong national Third, strategy formulation is about choice. governments,civiL society, and donors-will be Countriescan onLyacceLerateeducation deveLopessential. This is not an impossible chatlenge. ment if their reformsand investmentsfocus on priBotswana, Cape Verde, Mauritius, Namibia, ority objectives and reflect a willingnessto make Swaziland,and Zimbabwehave madeconsiderable difficult poLicytrade-offs.Typically,the most critistridesin educationdeveLopment. Manymorecoun- caLchoiceswiLLbe targeting public spendingand tries-for exampLeGuinea,Mozambique,SenegaL, selecting nontraditionaLmodesof servicedeLivery. and Uganda(box 3.1)-have started implementing Fourth, Africa should formulate education far-reaching reforms. But countries wiLLhave to strategieswith explicit referenceto wider poverty

in EducationDeveLopment

32

COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAPIN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT

-

Box3.1 to BasicEducation Uganda's NationalCommitment In 1994thegovernment of Uganda issueda whitepaper outtiningits long-termvisionfor education reform.This papersetthe stagefor majoTpolicyreforms: * Eliminating"ghost"teachers, increasingteacher salariesto realistic Levels,and training and deployingteachers.Thenumberof teacherson the payroltby a third and increased teacherpay tenfol over three years.Teachercompetency to aUuncertifiedteachtestswereadministered ers. Thosedeemed trainablewereto receiveinserviceupgradingand continuousprofessional t support.Supportto teachers is deLivered by 560 for 20schools. tutors,eachresponsible the responsibility for primaryedu* Decenrtralizing cation to Uganda's45 districts. Eachdistrict deploysand paysteachers,althoughit receives fundsfromthe centralgovernment. Thedistrict classroomconstructionusing tevelalsomanages a community demand approach. and provision * Liberalizing textbookprocurement in 1995.SchooLs can now choosefrom lists of booksvettedbythe Ministryof Education, in line As basedonenrollments. withbudgetallocations and a resuttanactiveprivatetextbookpublishing marketingsectorhasemerged. As a steptoward has sustainable bookprovision,the government allocated3 percentof the recurrenteducation budgetto instructionalmaterials. in 1997for upto four * Introducingfreeschooling childrenper household. Schoolsare nowfunded and throughdirectgrantsbasedon enrollments, associations are contributionsto parent-teacher

reductionstrategies. Povertyis a key obstacle to expanding access to education and improving Learningoutcomes in Africa, whiLe education is instrumentaLin eLiminatingpoverty.Clearlyunder-

TOLEARN A CHANCE

voluntary.Thereduced financialburdenon famitiesresutted in a doublingof primaryenrotlments, teaching to 5.2 mitlion. Pitotingof muLtigrade beganin 1999to bringsmatter schooLs closerto communities in sparsely poputated areas. * Limitingthe numberof studentsin hithereducation whomustpayfor theircourses. Today75percentof univetsitystudentsareprivatelysponsored Scholarships aretarby famiLies or communities. to afford the fees. getedto studentsunable Recruiting keystaffthroughopencormpetition to restructure the Ministryof Education. rhegovernintegratepromentis takingstepsto completely ject implementationenclaves,which serve into the donor-fundedoperationsexctusivetV, mainministryin 2000.Thegovernment will use its evolving EducationStrategic Investment Program to coordinate all futuredonorsupportto education in Uganda. of the program hasstayedmostImplementation politicatcommitment ty on trackthanksto a massive andsustained budgetsupport.Education wasthe prinMuseveni in 1996, cipatelectoralplatformof president andthe shareof education in thebudgetrosefrom22 percentin 1995to 31 percentin 1999.Yetthe numcannotkeepup with berof teachers in basiceducation the enormousincreasein enrNolmenti.Learning veryLow. Budget achievement in manyschoolsremains increasesto fund moreteachers,build moreclassinstructionalrnaterials are rooms,andensureadequate released throughthe HIPC a high priority.Resources initiativewill be usedfor thesepurposes.

that excLudepeopLefrom standingthe mechanisms education and identifying interventions in other sectorsthat contribute to educationdeveLopment must be part of nationaLeducationstrategies.The

33

aims and budget needs of education strategies must be consistentwith those of other sectors. Progresstoward these strategic priorities will requirepoLicyand institutional reformsthat: * Improvequality,measuredby enhancedlearning achievementand goodinstructionalpractice. * Provideequitable accessto [earning opportunities. * Build national, Local, and school capacity to managethe delivery of educationservices. * EnsuresustainabLefinancing through a coherent system of compLementary pubLicand private financing and provision. BeLowthe main reform options and action priorities avaiLabLe to African poLicymakers are summarized, based on researchfindings and Lessons from Africa and other regions (Lockheed and Verspoor1991; and other workscited in the text). Another important sourcewas ADEA'sstocktaking exercise,which brought together case studies of successfulexperimentsin education deveLopment and suggestsone promisingapproachto increasing nationalcapacityto analyzeand disseminateeducation experienceswithin the continent (box 3.2).

tion to increaseLearningachievementand retention and survival rates wilL be critical for reachingthe Educationfor All goalof universalenroLLment in and compLetionof basic education. Investments in quality often providethe highest returnsin education becausethey not onLyresuLtin higherlearning achievementbut aLsopartLy pay for themselves throughefficiencygains(InternationaLConsultative Forumon Educationfor All 1998; Harbisonand Hanushek1992). Providingquality educationis dauntinc because the knowLedge and skillsexpectedfromgraduatesare changing.The successof educationis increasingly judgedby students'abiLityto appLyknowLedge, think independently,exerciseappropriatejudgment, and collaboratewith othersto makesenseof newsituations. Thepurposeof educationis not simpLyto convey knowledgebut to teach how to learn, soLve probLems,and synthesizethe old and the new. Educationpolicy is movingrapidLybeyondits traditionaLconcernwith initial schooLing of youngpeopLe towardprovidingopportunitiesfor lifeLongLearning. To improve quality, countries first must ensure that the basic conditions for Learningare in pLace.CurricuLaand instructional strategies must take into account the context of schooling

RelentlessPursuitof Quality

and preparestudentsfor the worLdof workand

Translatingexpandededucation opportunitiesinto meaningfuldevelopmentdependson whetherpeopLe learn-acquire useful knowledge, reasoning abilities, skills, and values-as a resuLtof those opportunities (WorLdConferenceon Educationfor ALL1990). High participation rates and efficient student flows are necessarybut imperfect indicators of educationprogress.ActuaLLearningachievement is the real measure.Poor quaLity almost inevitably resuLtsin widespreadrepetition and numerousdropoutsand discouragesparents from enroLlingtheir chiLdren.Oftenqualityimprovements are a prerequisitefor increasedenrollment. As the intake ratio approaches100 percentin manycountries(seechapter 1), improvinginstruc-

34

further Learning.Teachersmust be trained both in muLtigrade and monograde pedagogy and given necessaryteaching materials and guides and reguLarprofessionalsupport. ChiLdrenmust be readyfor school whenthey enrolLat the usual schooLage of six. TeachersshouLdmeasurestudents' progress regularly. Schools in rural areas often will need moreflexible curricula and teaching approaches,such as muLtigradeteaching, to meet the needs of poor, sparseLypopuLatedruraL areas. Learningenvironment Effective instruction and high Learningachievement requirethe folLowingbasic conditions:

COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAPIN EDUCATION DEVEL OPMENT

Box3.2 Lessons from the "ADEAProspectiveStocktakingReviewof Educationin Africa" of for the DeveLopment In 1998the Association irnAfrica (ADEA)invitedAfricangovernEducation countrycasestudiesof successfuL mentsto produce biennialmeetingin of the ADEA practicein advance 1999-Theaimof theexerin December Johannesburg solutionsand * cisewasto beginidentifyingeducation fromthe Africancontext,to wellpolicyresponses, counTwenty-five and probtems. knownconstraints findingsfromthese Thesynchronized triestesponded. studiesrevealthat the educationsectorin many Africancountriesis richin innovationandpromising included: that emerged Keylessons approaches. * is development context of education potitical * The to needto becommitted Governments important. gender,ethnic,andothersociat closingincome, to education wherethesearebarriers inequalities for alL Strongand sustainedpoliticalcommitmentt universalbasiceducationis vital, as is a

*

*

*

*

anda ctearvision set of coreguidingprinciples development, of thedirectionof education to developpolicy shouldbe prepared Countries andbuitdcapacityby sotutions astheyprogress 'doing.' Theyneedto makesurethat planning * and realizethat doesnot slowimplementation, everythingneednot be in ptacebeforeimptecanstart.Ftexibilityanda wiltingness mentation of this approach. to takerisksarehallmarks is morelikelyto succeed development Education amongall the stakeon consensus if it is based plannirtgshouldbe basedon * holders.Education whichfostera senseof principles, participatory of policies, andunderstanding ownership on depends educationdevelopment Accelerated donors, government, among partnerships effective andthe civit societyorganizations, communities,

can privatesector.Eachof thesestakeholders of ideasandfinanceto a combination contribute arealsocruPartnerships devetopment. education level,bothwithinAfrica datat the international Africaandotherregions, andbetween havea vital roteto playin educaCommunities to Theyneedopportunities tion development. needsandprioritiesand identifytheir education Often to playa largerrolein schoolmanagement. reformscan help achievethis decentralization participationshouldnot objettive.Community objectives. equityandefficiency jeopardize andplanningmustbegrounddevelopment Poticy ed in soundresearchand analysis.Education on robustdata shouldbe founded interventions sothat theirimpact monitored andsystematically areinternalized. is knownandkeypolicylessons holisAll paTtsof the sectorshouldbe addressed

ticalty,Eachcountrywilt needto establishan balancebetweenthe needsof each appropriate betweendifferent andensuresynergy subsector interventions. subsectorat is a blindspotin thecasestudCost-effectiveness of firancingand a futl assessmernt ies. Without costs,thestudycoulddrawfewconmanagement or thescopefor aboutcost-effectiveness clusions the to scate.Strengthening takinginnovations anatysisin the education capacityfor fiRnancial sectoris an urgentpriorityin muchof the region. stress Many of the. innovationsexcessi;vely andpaytoo tittle attentionto access expanding improvingquality.Interventionsthat neglect quatityare unlikelyto be sustained, education is ctoselyrelated foTeducation sincelowdemand to poorqualityprovision.

Sourmt::ADCA 1999b.

TOLEARN A CHANCE

35

*

*

*

*

*

36

At least 800-1,000 hours of instruction each year.Africancountriescannotexpectstudentsto achievethe Learningspecifiedin most nationaL curricuLa with onLy400-500 hoursof instruction. Better supervisionand morecommunitymonitoring, modified schooLcaLendarsto better matchagriculture caLendars, and schoolheaLth programsand meaLs.ALLthese can heLpto bolster regularschoolfunctioning. EnrolLmentat the usuaLage for school entry. Late enroLLment-commonafter enrollment drivesor in countrieswith biannuaL,triannuaL, or even Less frequent admissions-usuaLLy leadsto early dropouts, especiaLLy amonggirLs (LLoyd,Mensch,and Clark2000). Accessto adequatetextbooksand other Learning materiaLsfor every chiLd.Effectiveinstruction requires textbooks, notebooks, Library books, wall charts, and maps. Despite donor support,few countries have establishedfinanciaLLyand institutionally sustainablesystems for book provision.TextbookpublishinghastraditionaLLybeen a state monopoly in many African countries. This situation is changing becausemost countries recognizethe importance of a thriving pubLishingindustry,a network of private booksellers,and poLiciesthat give schooLsthe authority and resourcesto choose betweencompeting series offered by pubLishers. Maximumstudent-teacherratios of 40-45 students per teacher in primary education and size 20-25 in uppersecondaryeducation.CLass should be kept within a reasonablerange of the averages.Most African countries have student-teacherratios at the high end of these ranges,aLthoughsomehavemuch higheraverages.But in many countriesthe key chaLLenge is to ensure the equitabLedistribution of teachers among schooLs and students. Redeployingteachersfrom administrative and otherjobs to the cLassroom and from urban to rural areashas a Lowfinancial cost-aLthough

*

sometimes a high political price-and can increase instructional effectiveness considersalaries,on time, ably. Paymentof reasonabLe is aLsoimportant. PhysicaL infrastructuremeeting minimumstandards for safety and comfort. Many African to countries do not have enough cLassrooms meet the demand for education. Existing schooLsare often in poor condition and Lack cLean water and basic sanitation. Wellmaintained, clean, and attractive cLassrooms symbolizea commitmentto quaLityeducation and are the hallmark of well-managed, effective schooLs.Sanitation and cLeanwater provide a heaLthyLearningenvironment and can be a significant factor in girLs'attendance.

Curriculaand instructionstrategies to CountrieswiLLneedto expLore flexibLeaLternatives and the monograde teachingmodeL-six classrooms six teachers,with studentsattending schooLfive hoursa day,200 daysa yearand masteringat entry the basicvocabularyand grammarof the languageof instruction. African curricula, textbooks, teacher manuaLs,and teacher training are often designed aroundinstructionaL objectivesand assumptions that fit neither the operationalconstraintsof the typical schoolnor the Learningstylesor needsof most students. In many countries curriculaare overloaded with content and often stress knowLedge of facts overstrategiesto promoteunderstandingand appLication. Preparationfor high-stakesexaminations that determineaccessto the next Levelof education often drives instruction. Systematicassessment of school, and system student Learningat cLassroom, leveLsis rare,Limitingthe scopefor targetedreforms to improveLearningoutcomes. CurricuLa rarelytake into accountthe fact that most studentsenter schoolwith littLe or no knowLedgeof the languageof instruction. Studentslearn better whentaught in their mothertongue.Studies haveshownconsistentLy that studentsLearnto read

RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAPIN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT COUNTRY

and acquireotheracademicskiLLs faster in their escuelanueva,andthe schoolsof the ElangLadesh ownLanguage (UNICEF 1999).But in manyAfrican RuralAdvancement Committee haveyieldedLessons countriesfluencyin a secondLanguage-French, for designingaLternative approaches (WorLdBank English,or Portugese-isan essentialrequirement 1996).Theinstructional strategiesof thesemodels for admission into secondary educationand a key refLectthe linguisticand otherexperience of the instructionaL objectiveof the primarycurricuLum. childrenwho enroll;aLLow chiLdren to proceedat Studies of bilingualpilot programs in MaliandNiger their ownpace;monitorlearningcarefully;promote suggest that chiLdren taughtin theirmothertongue cooperative Learning andpeerteaching;eliminate Learna secondlanguage morequickLy than chiLdren repetition;includestrategiesto dealwith student taught in a Language otherthan that spokenat absences; aimto develop citizenskills;andemphahome(ADEA 1999b). sizeunderstanding, applyingknowLedge, andsoLvHowever,muchof the evidencefrom mother- ing problems. tonguepilotsis tentativeand derivedfromquesPreparing studentsfor the worLdof workand tionablemethodology. Thesepilots urgentlyneed lifeLongLearning invoLves teachingskillsto analyze strongermonitoringandevaLuation. Moreover, cost probLems, synthesizeinformation,arid tackLea andmanagement constraints havemadeit difficuLt widerangeof tasks.Primary studentsneedcorelitto scaleup biLinguaL pilots.BiLinguaL programs typeracy,numeracy, andlife skilLs,aswelLas commuicaLlyrequirea broadrangeof materialsand spe- nicationskiltsand civiceducation.Asthe number cially trained staff. And mother-tongue teaching, of peopleinfectedwith HIV/AIDS grONS, students like the traditionalinstructionalmodel,is unLikely andyouthneedknowLedge about HIV/AIDS transto be effectivewithout the basicconditionsand mission and prevention.Educationon health resources for effectiveinstruction. issues, especially reproductive heaLth and Governments needto expLore these resource HIV/AIDS, shouLd be anintegraLpart of curricuLa. issuesfuLLy whentheyreviewpoLicy optionson LanThechaLLenge beyond the primaryLeveL is to preguageof instruction.Language of instructionissues parestudents for a worLd that wiLL demazrid advanced arealsooften politicallyandculturallycontentious. understanding and achievement in theseareas, SelectingoneAfricanlanguage for instructionmay probLem-solving skills,andthe abilityta Learn. Most marginalize sociaLgroupsin Linguistically diverse Africancountries will haveto designsecondary curcountries.Governments will also haveto consider riculaandhighereducation programs to respond to the demandfor educationin European languages, theseemergingprioritiesand aLigntextbooksand whichmanyparentsseeasopeningdoorsto further teachermanuaLs with the newcontentandinstruceducationand professionaL empLoyment. In sum, tion strategies. Africahasalreadymadeprogress in instructionaL poLiciesmust begin with LocaL Lan- this regard. In Zimbabwe, for exampLe, cost-effective guageandcuLture to improvestudents' performance, teaching strategiespromotedby the secondary especiaLLy in the earLygradeswhenmostchiLdren schooLscienceproject(ZIM-SCI)-which useslowdropout and repeatgrades.But successfuL impLe- cost equipment,LocaLLy producedtextbooks,and mentationwiLL aLsorequirean effectivestrategyfor extensive in-service training-successfuLLy expanded transitionto a secondLanguage of instruction. education access to scientificlearningwithoutcomManydeveLoping countriesin AfricaandeLse- promising quaLity in the yearsimmediateLy foLLowing wherearequestioning the effectiveness of the tra- independence. New technologyprovidesfurther ditionaLmodelof schoolingand areimpLementing scopefor deveLoping cost-effective waysto deliver other,oftenmorecomprehensive, alternativemod- teachertrainingandteachadvanced subjectsat the eLs. MaLi'spedagogie convergente, CoLombia's secondary anduniversityLeveLs (box3.3).

A CHANCE TOLEARN

37

The WorldLinksfor DevelopmentProgram TheWorldLinksfor Devetopment (WorLD)program is a grant-based initiative sponsored by the WorldBank Institute that usesthe Internet to link secondary schoolsin Africawith counterpart schoolsfor collaborativelearning.Theprogram's goaLsareto improve educationopportunities for Africanstudents,develop technologyskills amongAfricanyouthto accelerate economic and socialdevelopment, and build culturaL understanding aroundthe world. Since1997WorLDhas providedcomputerLabs, Internetconnections, andteacher trainingto morethan 140 schooLsin seven African countries (Ghana, Senegal, SouthAfrica,Uganda, Mauritania, Mozambique, andZimbabwe). Theprogram hasreached morethan600 teachers and5,000students. In 1999-2000 theprogram wilLexpand to two moreAfricancountries, BurkinaFaso andBotswana, workingwithat least20 schools in each country.Senega'Ministryof tEducation hasrequested education techWorLD supportto designa nationwide nologyprogram. OverthenextfewyearsWorLD hopesto expand this collaboration with Bankoperations to reach andstudents. manymoreAfricanteachers

Vocationaltraining must reflect the evolving worLdof work. Programsneed to respondto the demands of employersandbe flexibleenoughto help somestudentspreparefor employmentor apprenticeshipin the formalor-more often-informal sector and helpotherspreparefor self-employment. Vocationaltraining and technicaleducationprogramshavea differentdynamicfrom traditionalsecondaryeducationand are best managedoutsidethe formaleducationsystem(Middleton,VanAdams,and Ziderman1993). Programs often needto be tailored to the requirements of a specificclientele,with duration and delivery mode guided by instructional objectives.In many countries private providers-

38

A recentevaLuation by a leadingfirm in the assessment of educational technology initiatives(SRI InternationaL1999) reported enthusiasmfor the WorLD programamongteachers, students,andadministrators.Morethan 70 percentof teachers andalmost 80 percentof studentsgave the highestpossible scoresto the program's impactonstudents'communicationskilts,ability to reason,and attitudestoward schooL A visitor to MengoSecondary Schoolin Uganda capturedthe spirit of the WorLDprogram:'Even thoughit wasa Saturday afternoonand no one was compeLLed to be there,the little roomwas packed with painfulLyshy kids, cLusteredfive or six to a machine, designing educational Webpagesin PageMiLL with 486processors andfloppydisks.Everything was taking forever,but they waitedfor the screensto redraw,pixel by pixel, with the patienceof angels" (Barlow1998).In otherWorLDprojectsstudentsin Uganda train localwomen's groupsin computerliteracy, and teachersin SenegaL havedownLoaded Web sitesfor biologylessons.

empLoyersas well as for-profit and nonprofit agencies-aLready pLaya centraLroLein skilLsdevelopment.Thepolicy challengein developingeffective vocationaltrainingandtechnicaleducationprograms is creatingan environmentin which public and private providerscan competewith and complement eachother in respondingto the demandof a clientele with widelydifferent training needs. Trainedandmotivatedteachers To improve the quality of teaching in Africa, teachers'salariesmust be paid on time and must cover the cost of living to allow teachers to

COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAPIN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT

commit themselves fuLLtime to teaching.Work conditions-administrative and managementsupport and the availabiLity of teaching materials, suppLies,and equipment-must enabLeteachersto carry out their work as expected. ProfessionaL recognition and support wiLLheLpmotivate teachers once the first two conditions are met. Finally, teacher training needs radicaL reform so that teachersacquirethe skiLLs and motivation to apply better instructional methods. Practice-orientedpre-servicetraining, continuous demand-driven in-service training, and instructionaLLeadershipby principaLscan enhance teaching skiLLs(Craig,Kraft, and du PLessis 1998). ManycountrieswiLLhave to reevaLuate pre-service and in-service training. Teachertraining can no longer be perceivedas an extensionof secondary education, only LooseLy connectedto rural cLassroom conditions and practice. In-service training cannot continueto be an event that teachersparticipate in for a few daysevery 5-10 years. SeveraLcountries are expLoringshorter preservice training, longer classroompractice, and continuous in-service training (box 3.4), often through a network of decentraLizedresourcecenters compLemented by school-basedsupport from headmastersand inspectors or special resource providers. In all these models,teacher training becomes a process of lifelong Learning. New opportunities are arising as new technoLogical changemakesit possible to support teacher education programswith quality audiovisuaLmaterials, transmitted over the Internet or in more traditionaL ways, including audio and video cassettes (box 3.5). The quaLityof staff at the secondaryand higher LeveLs is equaLLy important. Secondaryteachers are often underqualifiedor too narrowLyqualified to teach morethan one subject, leading to gross inefficienciesin teacher depLoyment-apparentin LargecLasssizes and Lowstudent-teacherratios. More and more university facuLty members Lack Ph.D.s.QuaLifiedteachers-especialLyin math, sci-

A CHANCE TOLEARN

Box3.4 Guinea's Pre-service Teacher Education Project Toachieve°Education for Att Guineawitt need to recruitabout25,000newteachers overthenext12 years.Toincreasethe efficiencyof trainingandthe qualityof newteachers, the governmenl: needsnew approaches to pre-service teachereducation.Two newapproaches werepilotedin 1998: * Short-term intensive summer courses, for which teachersreceivedprovisional certification.For permanent certification,teachersmustparticipate in in-servcetrainingwithin a specified period. * An intensiveprogramlastingan entireschooL yearand focusingon cLassroom pTactice, with student-teachers spending30-40 percentof their time in primaryschoolclasirooms,fotlowedby teachermentoringand Linkedinservicetraining. By August1999the teachereducation program had trained morethan 3,000 new teachers-20 timesas manyasweretrainedin theyearbeforethe programstarted.Theteacherstrainedirnthe intensive summercourse in 1998 helped increase 1998-99enrottments by 52,000studenti,morethan half of them girls. In 1999,1,500moretrained teachersbeganteaching,and the program planned to train 3,000moreteachers duringthe 1999-2000 schoolyear.

ence,and technoLogy-are rare,refLectingan inadequatesuppLyof graduatesin these discipLinesand moreattractive income-earningopportunities outside the educationsector.As a resuLtappropriately quaLifiedstaff are difficult to recruit and retain. Many countries need to consider upgrading staff, creating moreattractive employinentconditions, recruiting part-time staff or staff with non-

39

in Sub-Saharan Africa Technology andEducation Underthe right conditions, tethnoLogy-including traditionaltechnology-canhelpTemovethe constraints of distance,time, and r lified tacherson the deliveryof education services. Whilemanyof the new computer-based technologiesare inaccessibleto reasons, Africanschoolsfor cost and infrastructure thesetechnologies havesuchgreatpotentialthat Africa especiallyat shouldexploretheir cost-effectiveness, the secondary and universit levelsand for teacher training.Someof the mostpromising applications of below. education technology aredescribed Primary education The primaryschoolhasno technoilbgy-based alternative, but technologycan enrich primaryinstruction and helpteachersfill gapsin subjectmatterknowledge.InteractiveRadioInstructionin Lesothoand with SouthAfricabroadcasts highlystructuredlessons periodicpausesfor studentresponses or learning activities.Theprogramhasbeenan effectivetool for improvingthe quality of Englishand mathematics teachingin primaryclassrooms. Despiteits success, however,few countrieshave adoptedInteractive RadioInstructionbecause of high programdevelopmentcosts,annualrecurrentcostsof as muchas $2-3 a year,andthe difficulty of adjustingschooL schedulesto the broadcasts.

to thoseof the traditional low but roughlyequivalent schools.Unfortunately, fundingconstraints forcedthe radiobroadcasts andlimitedits collegeto discontinue ability to providemateriaLs. Television also can expandaccessto secondary TeLesecundaria is a education and improveits quaLity. ruralsystemin Mexicothat offerssectelevision-based SeveraL ondaryeducation aspartof thenationalsystem. the program, andsomeare othercountries haveadopted making it available to secondary schools in remoteareas in math to enrichand improveinstruction,especially would result in and science.Regionalcollaboration of scaleanddrivedowncostperstudent. economies

Teacher training Teachertraining is amongAfrica'smost formidable educationchallenges.Educationtechnologiescan hetpaddress this challenge. Teacher trainingaccounts for the bulk of distance education activity in Africa, using a combinationof printed materials, and-increasinglyradio,audioandvideocassettes, the Internet. Typically,teacherresourceand study centersanddistricteducationofficesserveasvenues for face-to-facetrainingsupported by tradionaltechnologiesas well as computerand Internet access (RobertsandAssociates 1998).Usingeducation technologiesin distanceteachertraining has multiple benefits.Wherethereareeconomies of scale,distance Secondary education teacher training is cheaper than conventional Distanceeducationcanbe a cost-effective education approaches. alternativefor studentswhofail to gainadmission to Overthe past10 yearsin-serviceteachertraintraditional secondaryschool. Distanceeducation ing hasusednewtechnologies and takenadvantage coursesare typicallydeliveredthroughprinted selfof the scopethey offerfor regionalandinternational instructionmateriaLs supported and supplemented by collaboration. Forexample, in WestAfricathe Gambia radiobroadcasts andstudycenters.TheMalawiCollege College, the NationalTeachers ColLege in Nigeria,the of DistanceEducation for manyyearsprovideda good Universityof Ghana,and the FreetownTeachers modelof this strategy.Examination passrateswere Collegein SierraLeonesharelearningmaterialsand

40

COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAPIN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT

Box3.5 (continued) expertisein teachertrainingand otherdistanceeducation programs. SimilarLy, the AfricanNetworkfor DistanceLearning(RESAFAD), a consortiumof technology-orientedagenciesin Benin, BurkinaFaso, Gabon,Guinea,Mali,andTogo,usesthe Internetfor distancetrainingof schoolprincipals. Applyingnewtechnologies to distanceeducation canalsoimprovegenderequityamongteachingstaff by giving womenhome-based trainingopportunities and givingteachersboth a wayto communicate and shareexperiences with colleaguesand accessto a wealthof studymaterials.

expandtherangeof resources available to students and academics and to allowuniversities to participatein gLobaL knowledge networks.Forexampte, Pennsylvania StateUniversity in theUnitedStatescanprcvidea comprehensive digital collectionof resources for $1.2mitlion, one-tenthof the costof a conventionaL library (WorldBank2000a).

Lifelonglearning An importantprivatesectorin Africanurbanareas provides trainingin the applicationof a widerangeof computertechnologies.Moreover, the WorLdBanksupportedGlobatDistanceLearningNetworktrains Highereducation publicand privatesectormanagers. SeveralAfrican Distanceteachingcanexpandthe pool of university countriesare developing community informationand fax,andincreasgraduates andpeoplewith advanced degrees (seebox teamingcentersthat offertelephone, 3.12).In addition,Internetaccess canfacilitatepartic- ingly e-mailand Intemet access,usuatlyfor a smaU ipation in the internationalresearchcommunity. fee. Thesecentersmaybe ableto providelearning Meanwhile, digitatlibrariesarea cost-effective wayto opportunities for peoptein remoteareas.

traditional backgrounds, and usingdistanceeducation technoLogiesand self-instructionalmaterials. New Internet-based technologies (see box 3.5) hoLdconsiderablepromisefor deLiveringaffordabLe in-service programsto Largenumbersof teachers and university faculty. New technologies Attempts to improve education access and quality through technologies-distributing printed materials by surface mail, radio, and television-have proved disappointing. Taking even demonstrablysuccessfuLpiLot projects to scaLeoften has been difficult. Without continuing external support, few countries have been abLeto sustain the highercost per student of programsto improve the quality of education. Expandingeducation accessthrough eLectronicmedia can onLy

A CHANCE TOLEARN

reduceunit cost through economiesjF scaLethat require large target audiences, rarely avaiLabLe within the nationaL boundaries of Sub-Saharan African countries, and that aLso puLshup totaL expenditures.In other cases,to be financially sustainable, programshave to shift coststo students, who then pay for a servicethat studentsin traditional schoolsusually receivefree. Technologiesoften have been inflexible, and take classteachershavefeLt that the technoLogies room control awayfrom them. Finally, administrative and programdesignskills to supporteducation technology are often in short supply. The new information and communication technoLogiespersonalcomputers,wireLesscommun-ication,and the Internet-may remove some ol: these constraints, but their large-scaleapplicc,tionrequires the same preconditionsas that of the old technoLogies:

41

*

Changesin the cost structureof educationsystems, especiallyincreasesin nonsalaryexpenditures and declining reliance on external funding. * Institutions with the financial and human resources to designhigh-qualityprograms, deliver them efficiently to target audiences,and providetrainingandapplicationsupportto teachers. * Regionaland subregionalcooperationto reatize economiesof scaleessentiaL to reduceunit cost. Moreover,muchof Sub-Saharan Africa lacksthe power and telecommunicationsinfrastructure to realizethe potential of the new technologies.Also, although the cost of new technologiesis falling rapidly,cost is still a barrierto widespreadapplication in the poorest countries. ManycountrieswilL haveto reformtheir telecommunications and power sectorsbeforethey cantake educationapplications of new technologies to scale. Finally, education television and computer-assistedinstruction are likely to be high risk if they invoLveleading-edge technoLogy:education will probably be moresuccessfuLin termsof cost and servicingof equipment if it follows rather than leads entertainmentand commerce(Perratonand Creed2000).

by complementary activities that faciLitatecommunity managementand influence the competencies and behaviorof adults and oldersiblingswho shape young children'senvironments. Early childhood developmentprogramscover only 5 percentof African childrenbelowthe age of six. Given the critical role of such programsin raising enrollments and improving learning outcomes,early childhooddevelopmentdeservesmore support as part of a baLancedapproachto education development(box 3.6). Becauseof the pay-off of better performancein primary school and the reduction of repetition and drop-out, low-cost early childhooddevelopmentprogramscan pay for themselves. Community-basedmodels of early childhood education and care in Latin American have shown that such programscan be Lowcost and effective. In these modelsparents are usually responsiblefor providing physical facilities and instructors or facilitators. Governmentagencies, often in collaborationwith NGOs, train the parents and facilitators, organizeregularhealth checkups, and provideinstructionaLmaterials,medicine,and nutrition support. A number of African countries are developing similar programs. In Zanzibar, Tanzania Student readiness community-managedand -funded Islamic schooLs provideearLychildhoodlearning to almost 80 perThe quality of early childhood development cent of the relevant age group. Somecommunity programs-especiallythose that include health and groups have worked with international NGOsto nutrition interventions-correLatesoverwhelmingly improve the learning environment in these with primary school enrollment rates, enroLLment schoolsand introduce elementsof seculareducaage, academicperformance,and dropoutand repe- tion to preparechildren to move into the primary tition rates. The introduction of school readiness schoolsystem.Thesesuccessfulexperiencesteach activities in early childhooddevelopmentprograms two important Lessonsabout promoting student for four- and five-year-oLds and instruction policies readiness. First, early chiLdhood development that begin with local languageand culture are cruprograms need to approach child development cial in improvingthe performanceof studentsin the comprehensively,incorporating cognitive, health, first grade,wheredropoutand repetition ratesare and nutrition needs.Second,for a strong senseof often high. Earlychildhooddevelopmentprograms community ownership,programsneed to be senaLsohelp ensurethat children moveon to primary sitive to cultural values. Programsthat take local school when they have reachedthe officiaL entry culture and practicesinto account are morelikely age.Theimpact of theseprogramscanbe enhanced to be sustainable,affordable, and accessible.

42

COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUMLEAPIN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT

Goodhealthandnutritionarealsoessentialfor childrenin primary school. Experimentsare underway in a number of countries to pilot low-cost waysto target schoolhealth programsto the poorest and most disadvantagedchildren. Measuring progress Effective reform programsneed reliable data on inputs and outcomes of education investments and on classroomprocesses.The absenceof such data, a problem not unique to the Africa region, seriously impedeseffective remedialaction when students do not meet standards for learning achievement or when pilots or innovations are introduced. Although standard indicators on inputs (enrollments, teachers, and schools) and student fLows are usualLy available, they are often unreliable or insufficiently detailed. For example,despite a major international effort to assess progress on key indicators for the Education for ALl 2000 assessment,only a third of countries in Sub-SaharanAfrica could provide data on pre-primary enrollments, half did not have age-specific data to calculate net enrollment ratios, and a quarter did not have data on girls' participation. Moreover, information about what actually happens in schools and classrooms-teaching methods,use of instructional materials, and patterns of student interaction-is often not colLected and analyzed regularly. Evaluations of innovations are often superficial and questionable. In particular, outcomesof pilots are rarely related to cost-incomprehensible in a region where almost all education systemsface severe resourceconstraints. The 1999 stocktaking exercise of the Association for the Developmentof Educationin Africa documentedthis point convincingly. These shortcomings inhibit effective reforms,not least becausecountries cannot easily gaugethe impact of policies and expendituresor the scopefor taking pilots to scale without rigor-

A CHANCE TOLEARN

B Box3.6 EarlyChitdhood Development in Kenya ILIheatthandpoornutritionduringintfancy andearly childhoodare major factorsin the late enrollment, lowsuccess, andhighdropoutratesamongKenya's poorestschool-age chitdren.ToimprovethephysicaL and intellectualdevelopment of thesechitdren,in 1997 the Ministry of Education,together with DistrictCenters for EarlyChildhood Devetopment and the NationaL Centerfor EartyChildhoodt Education, established a comprehensive earlychildhooddevelopmentprogram in poorcommunities in partnership withthe WorldBank. Theprogramprovidesteachertrainingfor some 17,000eartychiLdhood devetopment instructors who havenoformattraining;workshops to raiseparenatal andcommunity awareness andsupportforearly childhooddevetopment programs; nutritionandheatthservicestargetedto infantsin 10 districts,community grantsfor 2,000community-operated eartychildhood deveLopment centers;andcapacitybuiLding in monitoringandmanagement in theMinistryof Education. Morethan a miLtionchitdrenfrom poorhouseholds shoutdbenefitfromthe program, whichwilt improve schoot enrotlment, attendantce, andachievement rates oftowerprimaryschootlstudents.

ous assessmentof student learning or financial and managementcosts. Several African countries, recognizing the importance of measuring education inputs and outcomes,participate in initiatives sponsoredby the United Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization(UNESCO) to improve national educationstatistics and monitor student learning through standardized tests (box 3.7). In francophone countries the Program to Analyze EducationSystemsimplements simiLarinitiatives

43

Southern AfricanConsortium for the Measurement of Educational Quality Lackof technicalcapacityhaskeptAfricancountries For each countrythe exercisegenerateddetailed fromparticipating in comparative internationaL assess- reportson progress in readingandrelatedthis informentsof learningachievement To remedy this situa- mationto key variables,includingthe child'ssociotion, a fewcountries in southernAfrica recently formed economicbackground andthe schoolenvironment. the SouthernAfricanConsortium for the Measurement Theresults? Pupils performed poorly whenjudged of Educational Quality.In a promisirng example of what by standardsof masteryset by nationalreading canbe achieved throughregionalcooperation, five of expertsand selectedgrade6 teachers.Achievement thesecountries(Mauritius,Namibia, Tanzania, Zambia, differenceswithin countriestendedto surpass those andZimbabwe) havecamred out sample-based nation- betweencountries. Differencesbetweenregions, atassessments of readingin grade 6 of primaryschooL socioeconomic groups,and schoollocation(rural or Theexercise wassupportedby the International urban)weremuchmoreimportantthan genderdifferInstitute of Educational Planning.The assessments' ences.A secondexerciseto measurelearningoutadherence to hightechnicalstandards allowedthese comesin other subjectsand other gradesis being countriesto compare learningachievemeitt with that undertaken for an expanded groupincludingfrancophof othercountries at a similarlevelof development. onecountries.

with the support of the Conferenceof Ministersof Education with French as a Common Language (CONFEMEN). Such initiatives build countries' capacityto collect and analyzekey educationindicators. Educationassessments that regularly measurethe performanceof samplesof chiLdrenin key gradesand subjects enablepolicymakersto determine progressover time and comparethe outcomes of different groups of children. Regular assessmentsalso can often point teaching in a positive direction. In recent years several institutions and networks focusing on education research have emergedin Africa. Theseinclude the Council for the Developmentof Social Science Researchin Africa (CODESRIA) in Senegal, the Pan African Center for Study and Researchin International Relations and Education for Development (CEPARRED),and the Educational Research Network for East and South Africa (ERNESA). Severalrecently launchededucationjournals con-

44

tribute to wider knowledge and discussion of education researchfindings.

Unwavering Commitment to Equity Unless widely and equitably available, effective basiceducationwill not boost social and economic development.Today'sout-of-schoolchildren are typically membersof hard-to-reachdisadvantaged groups, almost always poor (Filmer and Pritchett 1999), and often in remote areas.Nearly60 percent of out-of-schoolchildrenin Africa are girls. Countriesneedtargeted strategiesthat stimulate demand,removeadministrative obstaclesto schooling, and adapt curricula and instructional strategies to rural conditions. Opportunities for learningand advancededucationmust reflect equity concernsto avoid perpetuatingsociallyembedded disparities basedon gender,region, or other groupings.Africa will haveto closethe ruraL-urban

COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAP IN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT

gap to makerapid progresstoward educationfor all. Grossenrollment ratios in urban areas,especialLycapitaLcities, are typicalLymuchhigherthan those in rural areas; for example,90 percent in Niamey, Niger, 85 percent in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and 80 percent in Bamako,MaLi,comparedwith 20 percentor lessin the rural areasof these countries. Living in rural areas usually affects schoolenrollmentmorethan gender(figure 3.1). Parentsin rural areasoften are askedto contribute more than parents in urban areasto the cost of schooling.Their contribution can take the form of labor, usually for school constructionand maintenance,or paymentof official and unofficial fees and Levies.In many community schooLsin countriessuch as Chad,these fees must cover the salariesof teachershired by parents. Ruraldisadvantageis refLectednot only in the high household cost of educationbut also in the poor quaLityof

in the primary gross enrollment ratio exceeds20 percentagepoints. Within countriesdifferencesin female participation rates largely relate to urban-ruraldisparities. A long journey to schooLis a major obstacLe to the enrolLmentof girls becauseof the perceived dangersinvolved and the opportunity cost of losing femalelabor to performhouseholdchores,care for young children or sick family members,and work on family land. Thus a key priority for much of Africa is to increasethe initial enrollment of girls in rural areas,both for social equity and the positive impact girls' education has on agricultural productivity, fertility, family health, nutrition, and the schoolingof the next generation. Raisingfemaleenrollmentrateswill requirecarefully targeted programsinvolving supply-sideinter-

absenteeism is morecomruraleducation.Teacher

Ratiosby Gradefor RuralandUrban Childrenin Niger

mon in rural than in urban areas,especiallywhere staff must travel long distancesto collect salaries. The educational attainment of staff is typically Lower,and textbooksand other instructional materials are supplied erratically or not at all. are often poorlybuilt and unusabledurClassrooms ing the rainy season.Thesefactors result in low student learning and high failure rates in secondaryschoolentranceexams. Education inequalities between maLesand femalesis a further chalLenge if Africa is to accelerate its education deveLopment.The gendergap in the primary gross enrollment ratio in Africa stood at 13.6 percentagepoints in 1995-lower than in the Middle East and North Africa (16.1 percent) and South Asia (23.4 percent) but considerably higher than in East Asia and Latin America.Theregionalgendergap concealsconsiderable country variation. In 11 countries (Benin, Central African Republic, Chad, C6te d'Ivoire,

Democratic Republicof Congo,Ethiopia,Gambia,

Figure 3.1

PrimaryEnrollment

Percent 90 80 Urban Boys 70 \ Urba

50 40 30 20 20

roys

_

RuralGirLs

=

0 K

1

2

3

4

5

Source:WorldBank2000c.

Guinea,Guinea-Bissau,Nigeria,and Togo)the gap

A CHANCE TOLEARN

45

SuccessFactorsin Girls'Schooling Thewidespread genderenrollmentgap in developing countryeducation systems hasbeenthe focusof considerableresearchand policy discussionin recent years.However, genderrelationsin the cLassroom have not receivedthe sameattention.To understand the keyfactorsin girls' performance at the pnrmary level, the WorldBankstudiedinterventions in BurkinaFaso, Guinea,MaLi,and Mauritania. Thestudyshowedthat girLsperformbetterwhen: Parents * Makea deLiberate effortto reduce theworkload at home. * GivegirLstimeandspaceto dotheir homework. * AreinvoLved in the chiLd'sschooL Lifeandfollow herworkat home. *Requestutorng0by a fa ily memberor by a teacheror a neighbor. Teachers * Donot shoutat studentsor humiliatethem. * Callon girls to contributeto classes evenwhen they do not volunteer. * Donot underestimate girls'at

Workwith students'familiesto tutor them and providefurthersupport. * Receive gendersensitivitytrainingor havemany yearsof experience. Grassrootsinitiativessuchas the followinghetp girls stayin school: * Parent-teacher associations sensitizeneighbors to the importance of girls'education,contributeto schoolconstruction andmaintenance, andworkwith schooladministrators to solvediscipline problems. * Mothers of Students Associations in BurkinaFaso, whosemainobjectiveis to raiseenrollmentand success rates,particularlyof girLs,offerencouragement, advice,andfinanciaL supportfor girLsin school. T study ultshalsoshowedthat girls aremore likely to participateactiveLy in classestaughtin the locaLLanguage, andthat religioustraditionsneednot be a barrierto genderequity in education.Islamic Mauritania,for example,has morethan halvedthe genderenrollment gapto only6 percentat the primary leveloverthe pastfive years. *

Source: World Bank2000c.

ventionssuchas recruitmentof femaLeteachersand early childhooddeveLopment programsfor sibLings. HigherfemaleenroLLment will also requiredemandside interventionsto reducecuLturalconstraintsto girls' schoolingand increasecommunityawareness and support for the enroLLment of girls (box 3.8). Zambia'sProgramme for the Advancement of Girls' EducationhaspiLotedseveralsuccessful demand-side interventions,incLudinginviting parentsto observe lessonsand introducingsingle-sexcLasses, that seem to have increasedfemale participationin primary schooL.SimiLarLy, Benin has increasedgirls' primary

46

enroLLment and narrowedthe genderenroLLment gap by lifting official schoolfeesfor girls. Primarycompletion rates and transiticn rates from primary to secondaryeducation show no clear evidence of systematic disadvantage to African girLs (International ConsultativeForumon Educationfor ARl1998; UNESCO 1998d).Yetvariations within and betweencountries are considerabLe,and higher repetition and dropout rates, as weLLas lower Learningachievement,for girls have beenfound in severalcountries.At the sametime a study of literacy in Mauritius, Namibia,

COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAPIN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT

Zimbabwe, andZanzibar, Tanzania foundnodifference between boys' and girls' reading (Saito 1998). Clearlymoreresearchis neededon how and how muchlate enrollment,droppingout earLy,and in-schooLfactors affect girls' schoolperformance. While culturaLconstraintsfrequentLycontribute to educationinequaLities,recentresearchsuggests that poor parentsin rural areasare morereadythan previousLy thoughtto enrolltheir chiLdren-including girLs-in school,providedthe schooLs are of acceptabLequaLity,fairly close to home,and affordable (Glewwe1994; PROBE Team1999). BuiLdingschooLs cLoserto girls' homesis often an effective way to redressmany gender inequaLities.CLoserschooLs reduce the opportunity costs of girLs' schooLing, accommodate absencesmoreeasiLy,and makeinteraction with teachersLessformaland threatening,so that girLsfind it easierto enroll and stayin school. Theseresearchfindings also suggestthat a significant obstacleto greaterequity in educationhas been the faiLureto adaptthe traditionaLsix-classroom, six-teacher school to local conditions. Expectingchildren to enroLlat a specific age and cometo schooLin uniformwith textbooksand basic suppLies does not fit the constraintsfaced by poor peoplein low-densityrural areas,especiallyin the SaheLian countries and parts of East Africa. These probLemsare particuLarLy serious in areas where nomadic customsprevent chiLdrenfrom reguLarly attendingtraditional schools.In manypartsof rural AfricaaLternativemodeLs suchas mobileschooLs and muLtigradeschoolsare moreappropriatefor these chiLdren(box 3.9). Multigradeschoolingis especialLy effectiveif instruction is personalizedand based on cooperative Learning and peer tutoring. Multigrade pedagogicaLtraining and specialLy designedmaterialsare essentiaLfor the successof such an approach.Suchinstruction heLpseliminate grade repetition, accommodates student absences, and aLLows studentsto proceedat their own pace. SeveraL Latin Americancountries,followingthe Lead of CoLombia'sescuela nueva, impLement this approachto ruralschooLing.

A CHANCE TOLEARN

After teachersaLaries, infrastructjreis the largestcost associatedwith the provisionof schooling andcanadd 25-50 percentto operal:ingcosts.To provideplacesin schoolfor all school-agechiLdren, African countries will need to build more than 150,000new classrooms a year,manyin rural areas, overthe next15 years.To ensurethe accessof childrenin sparselypopuLated areas,educationwill have to be providedin schooLs with three or fewercLassrooms.Manyof Africa'sschoolconstructionprograms have been unnecessarily costLy(an initial reviewof WorldBankprojectssuggeststhat the cost of classroomconstructionin Africais two to threetimesthe cost in SouthAsia)and not designedior the needs of rural areas.Achievinguniversalaccessto prmary education will requireinvolving comrnunitiesand NGOs in constructingsmaLL, dispersedf3ciLities.This strategy couLdbuiLd many cLassrooms at a much Lowercost andincreaseenroLLments witliOutcompromisingsafety or learning. Strategies to invoLvecommunities in schooL construction are part of a broader shift toward decentraLizedpLanning, resource rianagement, and deLivery.Thisshift is basedon the recognition that highly centraLized education systems are unLikeLyto meet the needs of ruraL, disadvantaged, and hard-to-reachgroups. Expandingthe roLeof district educationoffices and communities requiresa shift both in resourcesand responsibilities linked to concertedcapacity bui.ding efforts. Rapidprogresstoward universaleducationaLso wiLLrequire many more teachers. In 1995 SubSaharanAfrica had about 3 miLlionteachers,representing 3.6 percent of the nonagri(ULturaL Labor force.Two-thirdsof theseteacherstauqht at the primary LeveL. Morethan haLfof the region'sprimary teachersareLikeLy to leavethe teachingforcein the next 15years.At Least1 million additionalteachers pimary educawill be requiredto achieveuniversaL tion by 2015, meaningthat African countries will haveto train about 200,000newteac[ers a year for the next 15 years,assumingan attrition rate of 2.5 percent. This numberis probabLyunderestimated,

47

Nigeria-Developing EducationPrograms for Nomads Nomad communities account for 8.5percentof Nigeria's population, or 9.3millionpeople.Onethirdof this populationis of schoolage,anduntil recently few nomadic childrenreceived an education. Asa resuLt literacyrates amongnomadgroupsrange from .2-2.0 percent Nomads facea rangeof constraints to hher levelsof educational attainment. Theconstant search for pasture, andamongcoastalcommunities, for fish,togetherwith the importance of child lbor makemostformaland nonformal education systems ill-suitedto the nomadic wayof Life. Recognizing these constrainrtsthe government created the National Commissionfor Nomadic Education in 1989.Thecommission is responsible for providingnomads with functionaland elnt education andimprovingtheir survivalsills.k Thecommission first gatheredaccuratebaseline daa to prvovea solidf ton ford arnativemodeLs to meetthe needsof nomadchildren. Thesemodelsincludeprimaryeducation in collapsible mobiLeclassrooms and boatschools,extensionaduLt education cLasses,and radio listening groups. Alternativecurriculahavebeendevel usin flexibLetimetables, andteachershavebeenrecruitedfrom

the nomadcommunities andgivenspecialisttraining. Commnitieshave a centralrole in managingthe schools,andthe programhascollaborated with NGOs anddonors. Enrollmentresultshave been impressive,with 155,000childrenenrolledin 1998 comparedwith 18,000in 1990.Theproportionof girls enrolledhas also risenmarkedly, the parityrate reaching85 percentin 1998.AdultliteracyclassesnowenrolL2,600 womenacross12 states. Challenges remain:quaLityis poor,and the proportionof trainedteachers hasfatlensincethe system rapidLyexpanded.Fundingis insufficientto provide everyschoolwith booksfor the newcurricula,and as a resultmanychildrenaretaughtthe sedentary school curriculum.Dropoutratesareexceptionally high,with fewer than one-fifth of chiLdrengraduatingin the a dime Someproblems arebeyondthe control of the commission. In manyareasvioLence between nomadsandfarmershasprevented communities from participatingin educationaL programs. Despitethese challenges,the programhas demonstrated that if schoolmodelsare adaptedto the needsof nomad communities, demand for education is high.

giventhe high attrition ratesamongteachersin the decisions,and implementationresponsibility in a countriesworstaffectedby HIV/AIDS.Suchdemand small group of officials in central education minoutstripsthe capacityof traditional teachertraining istries. Nor wiLL universal primary education be institutions, especialLy in countrieswith Lowgross achievedwithout strategies that explicitly target enroLlmentratios.In manycasescountrieswill need the needsand constraintsof excLuded groupssuch alternative, cost-effectivestrategiesto train Large as the poor, ruraL populations, and girls. numbersof additionaLteachersto accelerateeduca- MeaningfuL progresswill require: tion deveLopment (seebox 3.4). * DeveLoping modelsof quaLityschooLingapproIn sum, education systemsthat continue to priate for rural conditions. operatein traditionaLwaysare unlikeLyto achieve * DeveLopingeducation strategiesthat address universal primary education. Neither are systems the demand-and supply-sideobstaclesfacing that concentratepoLicymaking,resourceaLLocation hard-to-reachgroups.

48

COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAPIN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT

*

Mobilizing and empowering communities to manageclassroomconstructionand be actively invoLvedin school operations. * Increasingin-servicetraining of teachersand restructuring the teaching profession, with decentraLized provisionof teachersupport. * DecentraLizing pLanningand resourcemanagement responsibiLitiesto communitiesand district educationoffices. Without equity in accessto quaLity primary education,significant progressin equity at higher LeveLsis impossibLe.Countriesmust ensure that girLshave the sameopportunities as boys to continue their education beyond the basic cycLe. Marriagecustomsand cuLturaLpracticesassociated with the onset of puberty are often seriousobstacLesto girls' education.Overcomingthese demandside obstacLeswiLLrequire determinedefforts by those who infLuencepubLicopinion and political and reLigiousLeaders. PoLicyoptions incLudeseparate schooLsfor girls, schoLarships for girLs,and strategiesto shorten distances between homes and schools. CountriesaLsowiLLhave to improve the participation and performanceof girLsin math and science classes.Girls accountfor lessthan 25 percentof all studentsenroLLed in these cLasses in BurkinaFaso. In Chadin 1997-98 onLy4 percentof the students enroLLed in sciencewere girLs. Girls aLsohave a Lowersuccessrate than boys in sciencesubjects (UNESCO 1998b). Tutoring and exposureto roLe modeLsare possibLeremediesfor this probLem. Femalesare most underrepresented in highereducation, as a direct resuLtof their disadvantageat the secondaryLevel.Affirmativeaction programsin higher education may heLp,but a LastingsoLution dependsboth on tackLingequity issueswith determination at the primary and secondaryLevelsand on deveLopingmorefLexibLemodelsof Learningat higher educationLeveLs that allow womento combine study with househoLdresponsibiLities.Where such approacheshave been deveLoped, they have successfuLLy expanded opportunities for women

A CHANCE TOLEARN

and other groups with traditionally Liniited access to higher education(box 3.10). Evenif aLLchildrenages6-11 wele enroLLed in school today and all completedthe primarycycLe, Africa would needas long as 25 yearsto raisethe averageeducationaLattainment of its aduLtpopuLationto five years.Thusthe region needsto give aduLtsand youths who have not attendedschool, or who havedroppedout earLy,the opportunity to continuetheir educationand acquireskills needed in work and society.ExpandingeducationaLopportunities for Africa's 140 miLLioniLilterate aduLts, and for millions more whoseeducation has been Limited in duration and quaLity,is an imperative on both equity and human deveLoprnentgrounds in particuLar,as one of the most important effects of aduLtbasic education is the suppcrt that successfuLparticipants provide for the schooLingof their chiLdren. Continuing education programs should deveLopnot onLyLiteracyand occupational skiLLs, but also Lifeskills in areassuchas HIV/AIDS prevention. Whilethe importanceof aduLtbasic education programsfor acceLeratingeducation deveLopment is wideLyaccepted,suchprogramshave a variabLe track record.Manyhave had high dropout and low pass rates, aLthough recent approaches have improved these rates considerabLy.However,the Lackof good data and evaLuationcoistrains judging the effectivenessof such programs(Oxenham and Aoki 1999; LaugLo2000). Theevidencethat is availabLesuggeststhat aduLtbasiceducationprograms are more effective if they t3rget specific audiences, receive strong support from government, and maximize opportunities to deveLop partnerships between governmenl: and NGOs. SeveraL countries have invoLvedNGO;by contracting out basic education programslbox 3.11) or inviting NGOparticipation in nationaL programs (Namibia,Mozambique,Uganda).Instructors who receive a stipend-and sometimes voLunteer instructors-usuaLLy deliver these programs in national languages.

49

The DualSystemof Face-to-Face and DistanceEducation at the Universityof Namibia Thedistanceeducation degreeprogram offeredby the Centerfor ExternalStudiesat the Universityof Namibia is a promisingexample of howdistanceeducation programs canexpandopportunities to groups whohavetraditionallyhadlittLeor no access to higher education.Sincepolitical independence in 1990, distancelearninghas beena key dimenslion of the Universityof Namibia's expansion program.Thedual system-offeringthe samequalifications to full-time anddistancelearners-reflects thegovernments commitmentto makeeveTy Levelof education availableto peopleexcluded underthe apartheidregime. Since1997the Centerfor ExternalStudieshas offereddiplomacourses in educationand Bachelor of Educationand 8achelorof Nursingdegrees,and in 1998introduced a Bachelor of Business Administration degreeon a pilot basis.TheBachelorof Education

College to supplement existingcourses. Linkswith the University of SouthAfricaandBritishinstitutionsfunded bythe Commonwealth of Learning enhanced capacity building.Nineregionalprogram centersacrossthe countrycollectstudentfees,organizeface-to-face sessions, handleexaminations, and advertisecourses among local communities.Distancelearnersnow accountfor a third of Universityof Namibia students. TheCenterfor ExternalStudieshas beenparticuLarly effectivein reachingwomen.Seventy-five percentof distancelearners arewomen,manyof whomwouldbe unableto attendtraditionalcampus-based programs because of household responsibilities. Costsaremetentirelyby thestudentsandareset at thesamelevelasfor full-timestudents.Asa result the centeris 40-50percentself-financing. Whilestudentretentionandtest resultsare not as highas for

coursewasdesignedto increase4the numbersof highly

ful

qualifiedsecondary teachers in the priorisuts of mathandEnglish,wfhilethe nursingcoursewasa pragmaticresponse to the factthat the Ministryof Health couldnolongeraffordto release trainednurses for futimeupgrading. Theuniversityhopesthat intermediate qualifications will motivateexternalstudentsfor whom a six-yearpart-timecoursecanbe uting. Theprogram hasbenefited fromwidespd collaborationwith otherinsttions. Courses werebought from the Polytechnik oftNamibia,0 the Brits On pn University,and the Cambridge National Extension

so that 80 percentof distanceteamersnowcomplete their courses. Passratesamongdistance studentshave alsoimproved,reachingalmost70 percentin 1998. Students andacademics agreethat the distancelearning programhasmaintained quality.Thekey lessons fromNamibia's dual-mode distancelearningprogram? Strongleadership fromthe highestuniversityleveland an emphasis on staff development, decentralization, andqualitycontrolcanmakea significantcontribution toexpanding access to highereducation in Africawithoutcompromising quality.

Up-Front Emphasison Institutional Strengthening AcceLerating educationdevelopmentaLmostaLways requiresan explicit action pLanto strengthen the capacity of nationaL and locaL institutions to

50

itudets

dropout rates havefalLenmarkedly,

design and deliver education deveLopmentprograms. To deliver education effectively and efficientLy aLLstakehoLdersneed sensible incentives and must operate according to reasonableand transparent ruLeswithin efficient organizationaL structuresand with competentstaff.

COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAPIN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT

Box3.11

-

ProvidingBasicEducation Opportunities to ReduceIltiteracy:Senegal'sExperience Senegals Literacy Program PrioritizingtheParticipation of Women (PAFP) is partof the NationalDirectorate of Literacyand BasicEducation's nationalliteracyprogram.Theprogram supports functionalandpost-literacy courses in five regionsof Senegal andperiurban areas of Dakar.Since1995 PAFPhas reachedmorethan 150,000learners.In the mostrecent(fifth) intakefor thefunctionaL literacycourses, 54,000enroled. The post-literacyprogramhas enrolled15,500 learnersin three intakes.Demandis large:183,000 appliedat thelast intake.Morethan80 percentof the leamersare15-39yearsold,andaboutthree-quarters arewomen.A majorachievement of the program is the low dropoutrate,estimatedat 10 percent Thefunctionalliteracyclassesprovideat least 300 hoursof instructionin local languages over 18 can monthsfor at least20 peopleper class.Providers choosefrom a list of curriculaapprovedby the Ministryof Education. PAPF alsosupportslocalnewspapersin eachregionin the local language andprojects retated to agriculture, health, and the environment. PAPF plansa Linkto microcreditaccess andto locallearningresource centers,whichwilLserve a targetgroupwiderthan the program's own partici-

Accountability of providersto beneficiariesis increasinglyrecognizedas centraLto institutionaL effectiveness in the public sector (World Bank 1999b). In education this finding has Led to a move away from traditional, highLy centralized managementmodeLs.SeveraLcountriesare deconcentrating managementauthority to fieLd-leveL governmentofficiaLsresponsiblefor specific geographicareas(Crooke1997). Othersare searching of the for waysto increaseautonomyat the LeveL school, training center, or university. A few are doing both.

A CHANCE TOLEARN

pants.Ofthe total volumeof PAFP publications (101 books/booklets,including a dictionaryin Wolof) 187,000copieshavebeensold. Teaching is outsourced to morethan 420 local nongovemrnment providers, upfrom77providers in 1995. Theincrease showsthat a rapidlygrowingmarketof trainingproviders can be createdovera short period. Prospectiveliteracy operatorssubmit applications according to a procedures manualandarescreened and nominated by a nationalselectionboardappointedby the ministerof education. Financial management of the contractuaL reLations with operators (andsomeroutine monitoring)hasbeenoutsourced to AGETIP, a state parastatalagencyexperienced in projectadministration. Throughits executing agency,the ministryconcentrateson planningand programdesign,program implementation (includingtrainingof the operators), capacitydeveLopment, and qualityassurance. Every10 Directorateof cLasses hasa supervisor. TheNationaL Literacy andBasicEducation is primarilyre;ponsible for evaluating andmonitoring thenationatliteracyprogram of whichPAPFis part. Eachcontracting NGOhiresits ownteachers, mostof whomarelocalLyrecruitedand havea lowersecondary schooldipLoma.

As more countries assign responsibiLityfor managingeducationdeLiveryto subnationalLevels and institutions, they need to redefine roles and responsibilities and establish new incentive systems and financiaL and personnel management rules. CapacitybuiLdingwiLLinvoLveall Levelsof the system.At the national Levelthe priority wiLL be to strengthenthe capacity to analyzekey sector issues, plan national poLicyand institutionaL reforms,and support their implementation. EquaLLy important are capacities to establish benchmarksfor policy reform and to monitor and

51

evaLuateprogresstoward these benchmarks.In particuLar,countries need stronger researchand deveLopmentcapacities to experiment with and pilot programs,developcurricuLaand instructionaL materiaLs,formuLate teacher training programs, and design schooLfaciLities. At the local andinstitutionaLLeveL they wiLLneed to deveLop capacityfor new responsibiLities suchas allocating resources,managingteachingstaff, and planningand impLementing investmentprograms. SeveraL countries are experimenting with empoweringcommunitiesto managethe deLiveryof education serviceseither partially or compLeteLy. TheseexperimentstypicaLLy invoLveestabLishing or revitaLizingschooLmanagementcommittees,parent-teacherassociations,or village educationcommittees and alLowingthem to decide how to use public subsidies and community resources.Such decisions have often been limited to schooLconstruction but increasinglyinvolve nonsaLary operating costs and other servicedelivery issues.Where communitiesare given a greater role in education management, supportfor community-LeveL capacity buiLdingis usuaLLy a condition of success(Colletta and Perkins1995). Somecountrieshave gone even further, aLLowing communitiesto decideon the hiring and firing of teachers. Others have asked communitiesto deveLopschool improvementpLansthat can be funded from pubLic resources.In a number of African countries communitieshave started their own schooLswithout public subsidies. However, these faciLities, whiLea testimonyto the commitment of poor, mostLyrural communitiesto education, are generaLLy of [ow quaLityand are attended by a minority of chiLdren,usualLyfrom poor families. Becausethey provideservicesthat the state typically provides free to weaLthier parents in urban areas,these schooLshavea regressiveeffect on pubLicspendingcounter to the centraLeducation equity objective of excLudingno chiLdfrom education opportunities for financiaL reasons. Evenwhere governmentsprovide pubLicsubsidies

52

with the expectationof complementarycommunity contributions, poor househoLds should not face excessiveburdensthat wiLLrisk excluding disadvantagedchiLdren. Often governmentscan use pubLicfunds to contract private providersof essential education services.This is a good wayto reducethe burden on public institutions without jeopardizingequity objectives because it concentrates government provision on activities with no aLternative providers(see box 3.10). Governmentagenciescan then focuson policy, planning, and contract management, turning to service deLiveryonLy where private providers are not cost-effective. Several countriesare exploringwaysto contract the deLivery of adult basic education and vocational programsto parastataLor private providers. SimilarLy,anaLystsand university administrators agree on the benefits of making universities responsible for managing their resources and defining institutional policy. The nature of needed poLicyreformsis reasonabLy cLearand accepted by most stakehoLders,but the political will and sustained support for these urgent changes is often Lacking.Somecountries, however,are making progress in this direction. Universities in Burkina Faso, C6te d'Ivoire, and Senegal have started on the reform path. Uganda'sMakerere University is probably Africa's most impressive exampLeof institutional reform in higher education (box 3.12). Urgentreform of the managementand financing of highereducation needsto be accompanied in many countries by a radicaL rethinking of approachesto broadeninguniversity access.Most Africancountriescannotmaintaincurrent university enrollment Levelsof under 5 percent.The emergence of a globaLLyintegrated knowLedge-based economy,and the needfor LifeLonglearningopportunities for workers to upgrade their skills and maintain their competitiveness,are creating new pressuresto raise universityenroLLments. Yet with severe resource and management constraints,

COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAPIN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT

expanding the traditionaL residentiaL campus modeL-students pursuing a fuLL-time degree coursefor three or moreyears-is unlikely to be feasibLe. Instead Africa needs new institutional arrangementsthat can overcome current cost, access,and quaLityprobLemsin higher education and enabLeits universitiesto competesuccessfuLly with institutions in other countries that recruit studentsfrom a globaLpool through distanceeducation programs.Theregion also needsmorefLexibLe and cost-effective Learning modeLs that harnessnew technoLogiesand aLLowstudents to enter degree programsthat combine work and study. Accessto computers is onLy part of the solution. Countriesthat want to take advantageof new technologies will need to invest in curriculum-reLatedsoftware.An exampleof this approach is the Confederationof OpenLearningInstitutions in South Africa (COLISA),a partnership of the country's three main higher education distance Learning institutions. COLISA is deveLoping Internet-based courseware,a Web-basedstudentteacher interaction system, and a series of local Internet accesspoints for students. Such experimentsoffer scope for enhancingaccessto higher educationwithout compromisingquaLity. Traditional universities are testing promising innovationsusing new technoLogyto deliver quaLity education services. For exampLe,the African VirtuaLUniversityis beginningto deLiverhigh-quaLity degree coursesin science, engineering, and businessthrough satellite networks (box 3.13). Open universities are aLso broadeningaccessto higher educationthrough moretraditional means, as in Namibia(seebox 3.10). Strengthening institutions and implementing education reforms and related investments wilL take time-often as long as 10-15 years.Thetime objecframe for performancetargets, deveLopment tives, and financiaLand institutionaLsustainabiLity goals should refLect this Long-term view. ImpLementationstrategieswiLLhave to be expLicit-

A CHANCE TOLEARN

Box3.12 B MakerereUniversity:A Modelof InstitutionalReform Sincethe early 1990sUganda's Makerere University has morethan doubledits enroltmertt,improved much of its physicaland academicinfrastructure, system,andestabtished new introduced a semester and facLitties. ARlof courses, degrees, departments, despitedecliningfinarncial support this wasachieved fromthegovernment. Theuniversitycarriedout fundamental financial reform,intensifiedthe use of and administrative facilities, dramaticaltyincreasedfee-payingstuunits and an dents,and createdfive commercial associated consultancy company. Accom Danying and facilitatingthesechanges hasbeena newrelationshipwith the government that givesthe university morecontrol over internal institutiorialmatters. Makerere's dramaticpaceand shapeof enrollment expansion, financialdiversification, acadlemic development,administrative reform,andgeneraL revitalizationofferseveral lessons. Reformshave included alternative financing strategies(encouragingprivatelysponsoredstudents,commercializing serviceunits, institutionalizing consultancyarrangements), demand-driven academicreforms(attractingprivate sftudents by providingcoursesfor which individuaLs, families, and companies are willingto pay),and decentralizedandparticipatory management (enhancing academic development,research, planning, and to increase staffing by restructuringmanagement autonomy andinternaLdecentraLization).

ly designed to Learn from experience and to support programsLongenough to aLLowthem to build capacity. The timeframe for institutional strengtheningilLustratesthe importance of longterm government-donorpartnerships.In addition,

53

TheAfricanVirtualUniversity TheAfricanVirtuaLUniversity,a universitywithout waUls,usesmoderninformationand communication technologiesto give the countriesof Sub-Saharan Africa direct accessto someof the world'shighest qualityacademic facultyand learningresources. The AfricanVirtualUniversitybndgesthe digitaLdivideby trainingworld-class scientists,engineers, technicians, businessmanagers, and otherprofessionals whowill promoteeconomicand sociaLdevelopment and heLp Africaleapfroginto the knowledge age. Sincethe launchof its piLot phasein 1997, with World Bank support the African Virtual Universityhas providedstudentsand professionals in 15 Africancountriesmorethan 2,500hoursof interactiveinstructionin Englishand French.More than 12,000studentshavecompleted semester-long coursesin engineeringand the sciences,and over 2,500 professionalshave attendedexecutiveand professionaL management seminarson topicssuchas strategy and innovation, entrepreneurship, globaL competencies, and e-commerce. TheAfricanVirtual Universityalsoprovidesaccessto an on-Linedigital

strategiesfor innovation and reform wiLLneed to be tested in experimentaL settings but designedfor Low-costrepLication.Countriescannot afford muLtipLe high-cost experimentsthat end up as permanent pilots (Verspoor1989).

ToughChoices to EnsureFinancial Sustainability African countrieswill haveto ensurethat programs for acceleratededucationdevelopmentarefinancially sustainabLe.Externalassistancecan narrowthe financing gap that aLmostinevitabLydeveLops just

54

Librarywith over1,000full-text journals,and a Web site (www.avu.org) that alLowsaccessto e-mail for over 10,000free accounts. Buildingon the success of its pilot phase,the AfricanVirtualUniversityhasbecome an independent nonprofitorganization withheadquarters in Nairobiand a supportingofficein Washington, D.C.Theuniversity planstwo mainproductlines:the academic channel, whichwiUofferundergraduate studentsdegrees in computerscienceandelectricalandcomputerengineering as of October2001andthe business and technoLogy channel,whichwill delivershort courses in management,information technology, andforeignlanguages as of October2000,as well as an executiveMasters in Business Administration soonthereafter. In the next three years the AfricanVirtuat UniversitypLans to expandto morecountries in Africa andreachundergraduate students, faculty,and professionaLs throughlearningcentersin pubLicandprivate universities, private franchises, and on-site proesional learningcentershousedin corporations andNGOs.

after the adoption of significant policy reforms. Countrieswith LowenrolLmentmayneedsuchassistance for 10-15 years. But to sustain education deveLopment over the Longterm, countrieswiLLneed to mobiLizethe domesticresources(pubLicand private) that the educationsystemneedsto operate, as well as to ensureefficient useof these resources. Nevertheless,even when opportunities for efficiency gains and private financing are fully expLoited,programsto acceLerate educationdeveLopmentwilL usualLyhave considerabLe impLications for government budgets. Thus countries must changethe way education is financed and managed. A quantum leap in education development

COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUMLEAPIN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT

will demandfinancial policiesthat define cLearpriorities for public resourceallocation, increasethe effectivenessof public spending,include strategies for diversifyingfunding sourcesbeyondthe public sector, and allocate additional resourcesto the sector.Thesetough choiceswill be feasible after extensive consultations with stakeholdersin a democraticand participatoryenvironment.

Settingpriorities for publi spending Manycountries, especiallythe poorest, can only meet the demandfor educationif they makeclear and consistent choices about allocating public resourcesto purposesthat no private resourcescan fund. The top priorities for public spending will typically be: * Protectingequity by ensuringthat poor people are not excLuded from educationbecausethey cannot payfor it. Basiceducationtypically will be providedfree to the poor and adequatesupport will be availableat higherlevelsfor capable poor students. * Allocating resourcesto deLiverquality service, by protecting nonsalaryspending even when resourcesare scarceand managingadmissions beyond the basic education cycle to provide sufficient funding for all necessaryinputs for quality instruction. * Providingresourcesand personnelto strengthen the capacity of national and local institutions to design and impLement reforms, including resourcesand personnelfor evaluation and knowledgedissemination. * Developing and disseminating lessons from innovations, particularly those involving new technologies that can improve quality and expandaccesscost-effectively. Spendingresources effectively Reducingdropout and repetition rates through moreeffective instruction can achievemajor effi-

A CHANCETOLEARN

ciency gains. Better instruction will often require increasing annual costs per student, usually for nonsalaryspending,but shouldresultin moregraduates, tower costs per graduate,and a more efficient flow of studentsthroughthe system.In many countriesteacher pay and deploymentare sources of inefficiency.TeachersaLariesmay be peggedat levelsthat effectively precludethe enrollmentof all children, or teachersmay be underpaid.In several countriesthe student:teacherratio is Linnecessarily low; in othersit is inefficiently high. Almost all African countries allocate too few resourcesfor instructionalmaterialsand the professionaldevelopmentof teachers.In severalcountries administrativeexpendituresare growingfasterthan any other expenditurecategory. Many countnes spendtoo muchpublic moneyon too few students in institutions of highereducation,often providing poorlytargeted supportfor living experdituresand inadequately funding teaching and research. Reallocatingsuch spendingtoward better instruction usuallywill makeresourceusemoreefficient. Diversifying fundingsources Operationof educationsystemsin Africa has traditionally been funded primarily from centrally managed public resources. Many governments needto expLorewaysto broadenthe resourcebase for educationand training and set clear priorities for public funding. The casefor public funding of basic educationis strong (Lockheedand Verspoor 1991), but even at the basic education level, financial pressureshave led governmentsto rely on parent contributions-school fees, contributions to school developmentfunds, aid textbook purchases-to defraythe direct costs of instruction. Combinedwith other private costs associated with schooLing (school un iforms, the opportunity cost of labor), educationhas become too expensivefor many poor people. In Burkina Fasoand Ugandathe private out-of-pocketcost of sending one child to schoolamountsto as much

55

as 20 percent of per capita income (Mehrotraand Delamonica1998). Thus free basic education sometimes combined with targeted support-in the form of free books and scholarships-wiLLoften be neededto ensurethat the poorest children, especiallygirls, are enrolled in basic education. At higher Levels, usually beyondtower secondaryeducation, selective cost sharing is often a policy option, with a strong equity justification. Studentsat these 1evels are typicaLLybetter off. Need-basedscholarships and student loan programscan assurethe equitable accessof poor students, and universities can often generateresourcesby seLLingservices (see box 3.12). Anotherimportant eLementof pubLiceducation spendingis reguLation that maximizesopportunities for servicedeliveryby privatefor-profit and nonprofit providers.Many such providersexist, but their quaLityis extremeLy variable.Better reguLationand

m!.

incentivescould enhancetheir contribution to education deveLopment. Ensuringequitable accessto quality primaryeducationfor all is a publicresponsibility, but governmentdoes not alwayshaveto be responsiblefor financing as well as deliveringthe completegamutof educationservices.Wherepublic authorities,privateproviders,and communitieswork in partnership,a wide rangeof alternativessuch as concessions to NGOsand block grantsto communities operatingtheir own schoolsmaybe feasible. Private operators are increasingly important partnersin educationservicedelivery in Africa, as democraticchangeand free market policies across the region create a new space for civil society organizations and commercial providers. Private institutions run by for-profit operators provide vocationaLand technical training, especially in business skills, computer skiLLs,and Languages. Large employers usuaLLytrain their workers inhouse.Many NGOsoperate basic skill training for

A lA

Government Sponsorshipof Studentsat PrivateInstitutions:A Caseof Demand-Side Financing Studentsponsorship in privateinstitutions is a good exampleof the pubLicand privatesectorsworking togetherto heLpachieve important educational and socialobjectives. Thenumberof placesin publicinstitutionsin C6ted'Ivoireis insufficientto meetstudent demand.ToheLpbridgesomeof thegap,thegovernmenthasbegunsponsoring publicstudentsto attend privateinstitutions. Private institutionsplayan important roLe in the Coted'Ivoire education system, wheretheyrepresent 12percentof primaryschooLs, 36 percentof secondary schooLs, and67 percentof technicaltrainingcolleges. Underthe sponsorship program, thegovernment pays privateschoolsfor each publicstudentplaced.The government sponsors studentsin Lower and upper sec-

56

ondary schooL andalsoin technical andprofessional training.Students canbe sponsored to attendboth religious andsecular privateschools. Student pLacementdependspartLyon the educationaL performance of the schools.Only"chartered'institutionsareeLigibleto takeonsponsored students. Thepayment varieswith the student'seducation level:126,200 CFAF ($200)peryearforlower secondary students and147,023CFAF ($233)peryearfor upper secondary students. Untilrecently students wereeligible for partialsubsidies (50 percent),but thesearebeing phasedout. In 1997the government paidabout$10.3 millionto sponsor over162,000 students in privateprimaryandsecondary schooLs. In 1995-96,40 percentof students in privateinstitutions werestatesponsored.

COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAPIN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT

youth and adults. The numberof private secondary schoolsis increasingrapidLyin manycountries,and about 40 private universities have been estabLishedin the 1990sin Africa. Severalcountriesgive students attending private institutions public financial supportthrough scholarshipsor vouchers. This kind of demand-sidefinancing (box 3.14), especialtywhen targeted to eLigibLestudentsfrom poor families, canincreasethe equity and efficiency of public expendituresfor education. Governments mayalso want to reconsidertheir invoLvement in pubLishingtextbooks,buiLdingclassrooms,and providingcateringservicesto secondary schoolsand universities,alL of which the private sectorusualLydoesmoreeffectively.SeveralAfrcan countries have started to move in this direction, with promisingresuLts.Examplesinclude textbook provisionin Kenya(box 3.15), cLassroom construc-

tion in WestAfrca, and prvatization of food and housingservicesin institutions of high2reducation in BurkinaFaso,C6ted'Ivoire, and Seneqal. Providingadditionalpublicfunding Macroeconomic strategiesmust prioritize improving and expandingeducation.To achieverapid progress in educationdeveLopment, manycounties will have to increasepubLiceducation expendituressignificantLy,even after redirecting public resourcesto high-priority areas.Oneestimateof suchexpenditures is an increaseeach year over the next decade by 5-6 percent in reaLterms (Mehrotra 1997). Anotheris an annualadditionaLexpenditureof $3.6 billion to put Sub-SaharanAfrica on track toward universaLprimaryeducationby 2015 (Oxfam1999). ThesecaLcuLations ilLustratethe magnitudeof the

-

Box3.15

Privatization andDecentratization of Textbook Provision in Kenya In recentyearsa growingnumberof Africancountries haveshiftedthe responsibilityfor textbookprovision from governmentagencies to privatepublishers.In mostcases this shift hasinvolveda movefrommonopolyto competitive textbookprovision.As partof this process,governments havehad to devetopsystems that give schoolsthe purchasing powerandresponsibility for selectingtextbooks. Kenyaundertook a pilot projectin textbookprovisionduring1996-98,covering533primaryschools in the districtsof Machakos and Laikipia.Theschoots weredividedinto threegroups,eachgroupgivena percapitabudgetfor textbookpurchase andselection basedon a list compiledby the Ministryof Education andSports.Thefirst groupreceivedcashdepositedin a schoolbankaccount.Thesecondgroupreceiveda localpurchase order.Thethird groupschoolsreceived an orderformon whichtheycouldorderbooksup to

A CHANCE TOLEARN

the limritof their allocatedtextbookbudget.School orderswere then consolidated at the d4strictlevel, and supptycorntracts were awardedbased on tocal competitivebidding. A detailedevaLuation of the threemethodsof selectionandprocurement, aswellasthe performance of publishers andlocalretaiLbooksellers, showed that all threeapproaches produced goodresults,atthough district procurement createddistribution problems, and the local purchase orderscreatedadministrative problems.Publishers and bookselters performed wetl, and schoolsnoted that decentralizedsupptyand school-based decisionmaking ledto lowerprices,efficientandfastdeliveryby booksetlers,and rapidcorrection of order inaccuracies,benefitsthat were lackingduringthe periodof statepubtishing andsupply.Thepilot projecthassincebecome partof Kenya's nationaL textbookprovisionpoLicy,

57

expense,but in practicea sustainableframeworkfor each country wiLLrequire country-specificcaLcuLations. Not aLLcountries will be abLeto produce national plansfor reformand financingframeworks in the sametime frame. Africa'shigh dependencyratios and its needto catch up with educationsystemseLsewhere makeit aLmostinevitabLethat it will spendmoreon education as a shareof GDPthan other regions.The$3.6 billion figurejust mentionedrepresents2 percentof the GNPof the region, excLuding SouthAfrica,or an increaseof 35 percentover currentregionaLspending. By comparison,debt paymentstotaL 14.5 biLLion a year and miLitary expenditures$7 biLLion (Oxfam 1999). However,improving both internaL efficiency(by reducingdropoutand repetition rates and high teachersalaries)and aLlocativeefficiency (by shifting spendingbiasawayfrom secondaryand higher education and administrative and salary expenditures)can achieveenormousgains. Better economicmanagementwiLLbe essential to ease constraintson public spendingdecisions. PublicexpenditurereviewswiLLneedto pay special attention to the needsof the educationsector,in Linewith equity objectives. ConverseLy, education financing strategiesshouLdlink expLicitlyto overaLLpubLicspendingreforms,including the development of medium-term expenditure frameworks. Debt reLiefin the frameworkof the HIPCinitiative wilLheLpcountriesreordertheir resourceaLLocation priorities to ensurea soundand sustainabLe financiaLframeworkfor the sector.Similarly,the end of war and civil strife can free money spent on weaponsand miLitarypersonneL.

Bold reformsare needed,as welLas a strongerbase of knowledgeand capacity for effective action. Educational,institutionaL, and financial reforms must reinforceeach other. Many countries in the region have started the reform processand are readyto moveahead,but they have difficuLtchoices to makeand country-specificlessonsto Learn. RegionaL cooperationand internationaLpartnerships can acceLerate education developmentin at Leastthree areas. First, regional and subregional forumscan helpcountrieslearnfrom eachotherand strengthenthe AfricanknowLedge basein education. Although countries exchange some information abouttheir educationdevelopment experience,more systematicand rigorousevaluationwouldadd vaLue to these exchanges. The Association for the Developmentof Educationin Africa and its working groupsareincreasingLy effectivefor suchexchanges. Moreover,programssponsoredby UNESCO and CONFEMEN have createda frameworkfor regionalcooperation. As these programs expand, they can contributeto poLicyand planning. Second,a region with manysmall, Low-income countrieshasconsiderablepotentiaLto take advantage of economiesof scaLethrough muLtinational cooperationin activities suchas book production, distance education, and research, analysis, and evaluation.A strongAfrican pubLishingincustry is an imperativethat wiLlrequireremovingtrade barriers betweencountriesand allowing pubLishersto competefreely in the region. Distanceeducation programscan improve quaLityand access,but will haveto spreadhigh upfront costs over manyusers to be financiaLLy viable. Third, a few worLd-classcentersfor graduate educationand basicand appliedresearchcouldcon-

The WayForward:NationaLReform, RegionaL Cooperation,and International

tribute significantLy to regionaleducationdeveLopment.AlthoughAfricahasatraditionof cooperation

Partnerships

in higher education,such arrangementspLacedisproportionateburdenson the host countrieswhen partnercountriesfaiLto maketheir contributions.A regional network of institutions that can sustain regional cooperationprogramswiLLrequireinstitu-

The poorperformanceof educationsystemsin many African countries impedes sustained economic growth, povertyreduction,and sociaLdevelopment.

58

COUNTRY RESPONSES: A QUANTUM LEAPIN EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT

tions that can generatetheir own resourcesfrom student fees, consuLtancy,and researchand offer internationaLLy competitiveremunerationto attract AfricanschoLars in the diaspora. Thusa quantumleapin educationdeveLopment wiLLrequirea radicaLshift in the priorities, scaLe, speed, and impLementationof education reform, adjustment,and investment,as weLLas in education financeand management. Thesechangesare unLikeLy to succeedunLessgovernment-Led partnerships repLace traditional, narrowLy focused,externallydriven aid programs.Countriesmust invest in the entire sector, including early chiLdhooddeveLopment, basic education,secondaryeducation,skiLLs training, highereducation,and aduLteducation. Becauseeach leveLis important, the question is not whether to providethese services,but how fast and through what financing and management mechanisms.Investmentsmust be groundedin a soLidunderstandingof what worksand what does not. Tothis end, countrieswiLLneedstronger analyticaL and evaLuationcapacity. This broad, sectoraLapproachto educationdeveLopment must be Linked to sound macroeconomic policies and

A CHANCE TOLEARN

embeddedin a stabLepublic expendituleprogram. At the sametime, countriescan take ztcdvantageof the knowLedge, experience,and resourcesof internationaLpartners.The challengewiLLbeto manage donor contributions to maximumnaticnal advantage. Eachdonor-incLuding the Bank--wiLLhave to give up some pride and prejudice 'to create a frameworkfor effective cooperation. After a Longperiodof disappointingprogressin manyAfricancountries,the prospectsfor education deveLopmenthave improved. Many countries are testing newwaysof deLivering,financing,and managing education services.NewtechnologiescouLd acceLerate this processdramatically.Moreover,the successof some countries in improving Learning and equitabLeaccess is heLping o:ihers design nationaL programs of innovation and reform. Governments and donorswilL needtc renewtheir commitment to transLate these prospects for changeinto genuinelyimprovedlearning opportunities. The centralchallengeis to developnationaL capacity in pLanningand implementationto give the miLLionsof Africans currentLyexcludedfrom educationthe chanceto learn.

59

4. The WorldBank'sResponse:Doing Moreand DoingBetter

oritiesthroughdonorforums,country-specific analytical and projectdeveLopment work,anddiscussions with national economic and financial It is unacceptabLe, at the beginningof the 21st authorities.TheBank's1988regionaL poLicypaper century,that 40 miLLion Africanchildrencannot "Educationin Sub-Saharan Africa: PoLiciesfor exercise their rightto education. It is equalLy unac- Adjustment,RevitaLization, andExpansion" (World ceptable that a continentof morethan 600milLion Bank1988)initiateda dialoguebetweenaidagenpeopLe is not participatingin the globalknowledge ciesandAfricanministersof educationthat eveneconomy andthat morethan40 percentof its pop- tualLyled to the estabLishment of the Association ulationLiveson lessthan a $1 a day(WorldBank forthe DeveLopment of Education in Africa.A sense 2000b).Accelerating educationdevelopment must of partnershipbetweennationalpolicymakers and be a keyelementin efforts to eliminatepoverty the internationaL educationaid communityis now andprovideAfrica'schiLdren with brighterfutures. weLL-estabLished. Since1994progress in education development In manycountriesthe chalLenges of education has resumedin manycountriesin Sub-Saharan development havebecomeevenmoreurgentand Africa.Thedisappointments of the 1980s;the exam- morecruciaL to growthandpovertyelimination than pLesof countriesthat havebeenabLeto movefor- theywerein 1988.Governments, civil society,and ward;the increasing recognitionof the importance the education aidcommunity-incLuding the Bankof educationfor povertyelimination,competitive- aresearching forwaysto worktogetherto breakthe ness,andeconomic growth;the prospect of acceler- stagnationof the pasttwo decades. But questions ated debt relief-all havecreatedan environment havebeenraised-insideand outsidethe Bankmorefavorableto educationdevelopment than at aboutthescopeandeffectiveness of Bankassistance anytimein the past10years.Manycountries in the to educationin Africa.Forexample, Oxfam(1999) regionarereadyto moveforwardwith much-needed characterizes the Bank'srecordin supportof basic poLicyreformsand innovations.But few countries education in Africaas"underperformance." will be abLeto tacklethis challenge alone. Manyof these questionsare valid and have TheWorLd Bankis readyto supportactiveLy the encouraged the AfricaRegionto reflecton its priacceLeration of education development in Africa.To orities and approaches to Lendingfor education. do this effectively,the AfricaRegionof the World WorLdBankLendingfor educationin Africa has BankwilLexpandits supportfor educationdevel- stagnatedat Lessthan $200million a year since opmentand move aggressiveLy to improvethe 1995.Strategies to ensureequitableaccessof the scopeand effectiveness of its Lendingand non- poorto education serviceshaveoftenbeenunderLendingservices.It will ensurethat a strategic designed.Secondary, vocationaL,and technical focus on povertyeLimination,technicalquality, educationmayhavereceivedtoo little attention. and support for government-Led partnerships The educationaL potentiaLof oLdand new techbecome the definingfeaturesof the Bank'sworkin noLogies hasrareLy beenexploited.TheBank'spoLthe sector. icy support often rests on narrow analytical The WorLdBankis one of manysourcesof foundations.Linkagesto macroeconomic reform externalassistance to educationin Africa,provid- have often been weak. The sustainabilityand ing 20-25 percentof externaL aid (Ridker1994, institutional impact of Bankinvestmentscause ADEA1998). In addition to providingfinancial concern,aLthoughthe impLementation perforsupport,the Bankhas madeimportantcontribu- manceof the currentportfoLiohasimprovedsigtionsto the discussion of poLicyissuesandaidprinificantLysince1998.

60

THEWORLD BANK'SRESPONSE: DOINGMORE ANDDOING BETTER

Thischapterdiscusseshowthe Bankproposes to Bank's expLicit centraL mission, education has be a moreeffectivepartner for educationdevelop- gained prominencein the lending program for mentin Africa.In summary, the BankpLans to be an Africa. The BankmademoreLoansfor educationin activeparticipantin country-Led partnerships for eduthe 1990sthan in the previous27 years-$2.9 biLcation deveLopment, inspiringinnovationand change Lion, or 9 percent of Lendingto the region comwith a focuson fosteringLearningopportunitiesfor paredwith a Bankwideaverageof 8 percent. the poor in systemsthat measureperformanceby ThecurrenteducationportfoLiocontains35 prolearningachievementand financiaLsustainability.To jects invoLvinga commitmentof $1.13 jiLlion. These this end, the Bank wilL draw on its comparative projectsare implementedin 27 countriescontaining advantage-its macroeconomic and pubLicexpendi- about 70 percentof Africa'spopulation. In about ture perspective,its sectorwideview of poLicy half of the 21 countrieswithout educationprojects, reforms,and its abilitiesto identify anddeveLop linkprotractedconfLictand economicchaos have preageswith other sectors,andto tap into a widerange cLudedBank investment. Most of the remaining of internationaLknowLedge and experience. countries are not eligibLe for ]:nternationaL Development Associationfundsand, with oneor two exceptions,have eLectednot to borrcvwfor educa-

Opportunities-and Challengesfor ExpandedLendingServices

tion on InternationaL Bankfor Reconstruction and DeveLopment (IBRD)terms.

Banksupport for educationin Africa beganin 1963 and hastotaLed$4.8 biLLionfor alLleveLsof the formaLsystemas weLLas for aduLtLiteracy,earLychiLdhood education, and skilL development.Over the past 10 years, as poverty elimination becamethe

Bankcommitmentsfor educationLendingaveraged Lessthan $150 miLLiona year in the Late 1980s, increasedto about $350 milLion a year in the earLy1990s, and decLinedto Lessthan $200 million a year during 1995-00 i'figure 4.1). Disbursements haveaveragedabout $200 miLLion a

Figure4.1 NewCommitments for BankLending to AfricanEducation _

AFR Cobmitments

I_-& AlR DistCFR 450

. ....

----- -.

400 350 300~ 0

2500

19861987198 198919901991199219931994199519961997199819992000 Fiscal year Source: WortdBankdata.

A CHANCE TOLEARN

61

year since 1995. EducationLendinghas declined since the mid-1990sfor severalreasons,including the turmoil in somelargecountries,the reluctance of othersto reformeducationpolicy, and the weak absorptivecapacity of key institutions throughout the region. Moreover,the 1995 reorganizationof the Bank'sAfrica Regionand the time requiredto "retool" the sector in the face of intensifying challengesand evoLvingpriorities madequick responses to new requestsfor funding support difficult. In addition,the Bankmight havefocusedits limited staff resources too narrowlyon basiceducation at the expenseof other subsectorsand portfolio diversity.The difficulty of designingand sustaining impLementation of investmentprogramssupporting reformsin vocational,secondary,and highereducation reinforcedthis trend. As a result, the composition of educationLendingshiftedin the 1990s(figure 4.2). In 1985-89Lessthan 25 percentof Banklending wasfor primaryeducationin Africa, whiLemore than 50 percentwasfor vocational,secondary,and highereducation.Sincethen the emphasison primary educationhasincreasedmarkedly.In 1995-99,48 percentof Banklendingfor educationin Africa supported pre-primaryand primaryeducation,and less

Figure4.2 Sb

o

iLndingi

than 30 percentsupportedvocational,secondary, and highereducation.TheBank'scommitmentto provide balancedsupportto all parts of the systemin line with nationaLprioritiesmakesa primafacie casefor developinga morebalancedportfolio of education projects.Thiswill involveincreasingsupportfor postprimaryeducationwhile maintainingstrongsupport for basiceducationdevelopment. NewLendinginstrumentsare changingthe way the Banksupportseducationdevelopmentin Africa. Of the 16 projectspresentedto the Boardin fiscal 1999 and 2000, 4-for The Gambia, Lesotho, Senegal, and Zambia-were adaptabLeprogram loans designedto support long-term, sectorwide educationdevelopmentthrough a seriesof investments.In all four the first loan tranchefocusedon primaryeducation.Investmentsin otherpartsof the systemare expectedto be funded by future tranches activatedby predetermined poLicytriggers.Seven of the fiscal 1999/2000projectswere Learningand innovation loans designedto test new approaches to technicaland policy problemsin primaryteacher training in Guinea,adult literacy in the Ivory Coast, nationaLlanguageinstruction in Mali, and distance educationin four countries(see box 3.4).

intheA

IFY 85-89:

Rgion Eatio

Sector

FY95-99: Permary 0%Pre-prnay2

Other24%Ote19 Primary 29% Hgher7%~-

Higher17%-9

riig5 Vocational 4%~P'm4y~46 Teacher training 12%

General ~~~secondr 7

rmr

6

SouceWork Bankdaa

62

THEWORLDBANK'SRESPONSE: DOINGMOREAND DOINGBETTER

Opportunities exist to expand support for education development. The reemergence of Nigeria as an active borrower could have an important impact on lending commitments.And a number of IBRD countries in the region are considering borrowing for education. Several countries are readyto makethe tough decisions and impLementthe poLicy reforms needed to accelerate education deveLopment.In war-torn countries such as Burundi and Rwanda where poLiticaLagreementsresuLtin increasedstabiLity and peace the Bank wiLL support post-confLict reconstruction. Lending for education deveLopmentthrough traditionaL direct investments in the sector is currentLyprogrammedto increaseto an average of around $300-350 million a year over the period 2000-03. In addition substantial support for educationis programmedthrough budget support programsas part of the HIPCdebt initiative, and through Public ExpenditureCredits(PERC)or Poverty Reduction Support Credits (PRSC). Expandeddebt reLief under the HIPCinitiative presentsopportunities to free funds to strengthen the nationaLresourcebaseto sustain acceLerated education deveLopment.Uganda, an early beneficiary of debt stock reduction under the HIPCinitiative, is a promising exampLe:budget savings from debt relief have been channeLed into the national poverty action fund and have heLpedfinance the drive for quality basic education for alL chiLdren.Approximately 20 countries in the region shouLdbecome eLigibLefor HIPC relief in the next five years. In each case debt relief will be able to contribute to expandededucation opportunities (tabLe4.1). For exampLe,in MaLi education expenditures are expected to increasefrom 24 percent to 27 percent of a larger budget, while in Niger an increasein education expenditurefrom 3.6 percent to 4.5 percent is being considered.PoLicyreform and increased budget aLLocationfor education typically are priorities in PERCsand PRSCs,which the Bank is

A CHANCE TOLEARN

considering in several Africa countries such as Benin, Chad,and Uganda. The Bankstrategy thus wiLLbe to heLpcountries build the human capital foundation for accelerated growth and poverty alleviation through a combination of direct inve;tments and budget support. The total of this su)port wouLd represent a significant increase--possibLy a tripLing of the LeveLsof education financing of the Late 1990s. This will allow the Bankto contribute to acceLerating African education developmentin line with its internzationalcommitments and institutionaL emphasison poverty eLimination. Reachingthese Levelsof support for education deveLopmentwiLLrequire changesin the way the Bank conductsits business.It wiLLrequire much cLoserLinkagesbetweenmacroeconomicand sectoraLpoLicydiaLogueand financial support as welL as changesin internaLpracticesand lending poLicies and priorities. It will also requireadministrative budget and staffing levels that wiLLalLowthe Bank to support these programsfinancially and professionally.But ultimateLythe feasibility of a major increase in Bank support for education deveLopmentin Africa will aLso depend on the willingness of countries to pLaceeducation high on their poLicyagendas,initiate nationaLprogams

Table 4.1 Debt Relief Relative to Spendingon Education : (millions of dotlars)

Country

AverageAnnual Debt Relief 2000-09

Mauritania Mozambigue Tanzania Uganda l_l_______X__

34 72 150 220

63

of innovation and reform, strengthen nationaL capacity for poLicyformuLationand impLementation, and resoLveconfLictspeacefully.

poLicyimpact of these reports wasusuallyLimited. A review of education sector anaLysisin Africa (UNESO 1996) found that manystudies by internationaL funding and technical assistanceagencies, including the Bank, have had Little nationaLown-

GreaterEmphasison NonlendingServices

ership,haverarelybeenusedby poLicymakers, and

Tobe an effectiveLender for educationdevelopment, the Bankmust be an effectivesourceof knowledge, ideas, and poLicyadvice. Bankstaff have provided suchnonlendingservicesthroughtheir workon Lending operationsand throughseminarsand workshops, often in coLlaboration with the WorldBankInstitute. EffectivenonLending servicesare an important part of the Bank'sassistancepackagebecausethey can helpcountriesbuild a solid analyticalfoundationfor expanded lending and strengthen the nationaL knowledgebasefor poLicyreformand the capacity for effectiveimpLementation. Refocusing economic and sector work GoodanalyticaLworkcan contributesignificantlyto project outcomes.A recent analysisof Bank projects showedthat anaLyticaL work hasa high payoff: even after controlling for country, sector, and economic conditions and staff preparation and supervisioncosts, benefits were nine times staff costs (Deininger,Squire,and Basu1998). Thesame study found that the Bankunderinvestedin these activities and recommended shifting resourcesfrom project preparation to anaLyticalwork. ALthough this approachwouLdLikelylead to fewer projects and Lowercommitments,projects wouLdbe better designed,better impLemented, and moresuccessful. FormaLanalysestypically have been the foundation of the educationdiaLoguebetweenthe Bank and its cLients.Before 1990 most Bank-sponsored sector analysis was done by Bank staff (or by UNESCO staff under a cooperativeagreementwith the Bank), with varying but usually limited involvementof national staff, and funded from the Bank'sbudget for economicand sector work. The

64

have focused on issues that were high on the agencies'policy agendasbut of LimitedreLevance to pressingnational poLicy.Takentogether, these studies show considerabLeduplication without much national capacity building. There have been exceptionsto this approach, however.In 1972 an Ethiopianteam undertooka national educationsector study. In 1980 a Sierra Leonianteam's review of educationissuesformed the basisfor a nationalbasiceducationdeveLopment programsupportedby the Bank, and in the mid1980sthe Bankand UNESCO collaboratedto support country-ledsector work in severaLFrench-speaking countries.Startingin the late 1980s,the Bankmade a moreconsciouseffort to deveLopthe capacityof national staff for analytical work in the context of sector studies and project preparation. In many instances,however,internationaLconsuLta-itshave continuedto play a Largerole. Problemswith the traditional approachto economic and sector workin the educationsectorare widelyrecognized.TheBankis now trying to ensure a Leadership role for nationalanalystsandresearchers in sectoranaLyses (box4.1). In somecasesworkshops with nationaLeducationspeciaLists have been the basisof study design,reviewof findings,and developmentof an action plan. In recent years budget aLLocationsfor economic and sector work on African education have declined drastically. Bank-fundedsector wvorkis, however,onLya small part of the Bank'sanaLyticaLwork. National staff carry out many studies with funding from the PoLicy and Human ResourcesDevelopmentfund estabLishedby the Japanesegovernmentfor project preparation, or from funds earmarkedfor that purposein existing projects.

THEWORLD BANK'SRESPONSE: DOING MORE ANDDOINGBETTER

-

Box4.1 A Collaborative Effortto Prepare a Strategy Paperin Madagascar In late 1992the Government of Madagascar and the WorldBankagreedto developan operational strategy for reforming primaryandsecondary education. A working group of 12 professionals from the Ministryof Education's Research andPtanning Unitwasestablished in early1993to studyquatitative improvements at both tevels. Followinga 10-dayworkshopin July 1993,the workinggroupdeveLoped a research framework to test waysto improvethe qualityandefficiencyof primary andsecondary education. flataandobservations werecotlected duringtwoday visits to 36 publicschoolsin all six regionsof Madagascar. The data werethen anatyzed,and the resultswerediscussed and vatidatedin 1994before draftversionsof the reportswereprepared and circutated in eary 1995.

Thesestudies are, however,rarelyreviewedby peersor by Bankstaff otherthan task managers. As a resuLttheir quaLityis extremelyvariabLeand their coverageuneven. ClearLythe Bank wiLLneed to rethink the pLaceof sector work in its assistance package, as weLl as funding arrangementsand reviewprocedures,if it wants to play an effective cataLyticroLefor reformand innovationin Africa. In fact, new processeshave been estabLishedin the Africa Regionto improvethe management and quaLity reviewprocessesof economicand sectorwork. Reviewsof recent project appraisaLdocuments suggestthat financial, institutional, and technicaL issueshave not been anaLyzed routineLyor in sufficient depth. Moreover,most project appraisal documents point out continued weaknessesin national capacity for education data collection, poLicyanaLysisand evaLuation,and programimplementation. Addressing these weaknesseswill

A CHANCE TOLEARN

Theprocess had threeimportantfeatures.First, the Bankwasableto leveragehigh-qualitydomestic expertise andqualityresearch withlimitedbutstrategic inputs. Bankresources incLuded four short visits to Madagascar (about eight staff-weeks).Second,the researchcontributedto capacity building in the Ministryof Education andinstitutionaL strengthening in its Research and PlanningUnit. Expertise developed duringthis research hasbeenusedin siriilar research sincethen,aswellasin severaL otherAfricancountries, includingComoros, Mtali,andSenegaL. Third,the results and recommendations of the study shapeda pilot school-baseddevelopmentprogram impLemented between 1994and1998.Thatprogram fornedthebasis for a revisednationatstrategyfor education improvement adoptedby the government of Madagascar in December 1997.

require nationally implementedsector anaLysesas weLLas formal and informaL Bank reports that include arrangementsfor peer reviewto heLptask managerscontribute state-of-the-art knowLedge and experienceto poLicy discussions. A smaLL, recentLyestabLishedregionaLteam wiLL support task managerswith the economic and financial analysisrequiredto underpinthe educationcomponent of HIPC-supportedreform programs.This supportalreadyhas noticeabLyimprovedthe depth of economicanaLysis. Reorientingpolicydiscussions In recentyearsthe Africa Regionhas tried to support subregionaL and nationaLdiscussionsof poLicy obstacLes to basic education deveLopment. Seminarsand training workshopsfor borrowerstaff and Bank task managershave been organized

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under the United Nations Special Initiative for Africa (UNSIA),which targets the 16 African countries with the Lowestenrollments.UNESCO and the World Bank are co-Leadersof the education componentof UNSIA,which is impLemented in coLlaboration with UNESCO and the United Nations Children'sFund (UNICEF),with support from the NorwegianEducationTrust Fund.This component will focus on the 16 countries with less than 60

unless national staff internalize the findings of the analytical work and exchangesof experiences and translate them into action, they are unlikely to reaLizethe potentiaLbenefits. The chaLLenge is to ensurethat these activities build local capacity and generateanalytical workrelevantto national policy reformand used by policymakers.

percentof their childrenin primaryschool.

The Imperativeof Better Portfolio

The Bank'sAfrica Regionwill continueto support these discussionsand to encourageregional and globat developing country partnerships. Important regional experience and expertise shouldinform national strategiesand foster mechanisms for regional and subregionalcooperation. Severalregional partnershipshave been influential, such as the Forum for African Women Educationatists(FAWE)on policy discussionson female education, and the EducationalResearch Networkin Easternand SouthernAfrica (ERNESA) and the Council for the Developmentof social Science Researchin Africa (CODESRIA) on the exchange of information on education development issues. In addition, Latin America, South Asia, and other regions can teach important lessons on such key issues as early chiLdhood deveLopment,adult education, multigrade teaching, and school management.Severalstudy visits have been organized in collaboration with the WorldBankInstitute to give African plannersand policymakersan opportunity to reviewinnovations suchas Colombia'sescuelanuevaand the Republic of Korea'seducation developmentstrategy. The Africa Regionintends to continuesuchefforts and intensify them as appropriate. The BankhasaLsoactively supportedthe ADEA working groups that promote capacity buiLding and analysis.All of these activities can add to the local knowledgebase for innovation and reform and createan environmentfor deveLopingnational solutions-informed by regionaLand internationaL experience-to national problems. But

Performance

66

Implementationratingsof Bankeducationprojects in Africa have traditionalty been lower than those in other regions.WhiLethere have beenfew meaningful assessments of project impact, there is a perception-and mounting evidence-that Bank Lendinghas not been as effective as it could have been.Portfolio ratingsimprovedsignificantlyin fiscal 2000 when all probtemprojectswere targeted for intensivesupervision,severatwere restructured, and others were closed. Only 3 of the 41 current education projects are rated as unsatisfactoryor highly unsatisfactoryin terms of implementation and progresstoward developmentobjectives. Yet nearLy a third of Africa's education projects-twice the Bankwide average for education-are consideredat risk by the Bank's QualityAssuranceGroup,mainly becauseunfavorabLe country conditions may affect impLementation. In addition, performanceratings by the Bank's Operations Evaluation Department for African education projects completed during 1993-2000show that 61 percent achievedsatisfactory outcomes(the Bankwideaveragefor education is 69 percent), and 22 percentare likely to be sustained(comparedwith the Bankwideaverageof 49 percent). But only 10 percentshowsubstantial institutional deveLopment impact (comparedwith the Bankwide34 percent). Theseresultsin part reflect exogenousfactors beyondthe Bank'scontrol, especialtywidespread armed confLictin the region. Yet the BankcouLd

THEWORLD BANK'SRESPONSE: DOING MORE ANDDOINGBETTER

do muchto improveprojectperformance. A 1998 Bankwidereviewof quaLityat entry found that including systematicinstitutionaLanaLysisand socialassessments in the preparation workcouLd improvethe initial designof projectsin Africa significantLy. ThesegeneraL findingsareundoubtedlyfully applicabLe to the educationportfolio. In recentyearsthe Africa Regionhastaken stepstowardmoreeffectiveandextensivesupport for educationdeveLopment in Africa.Lendinghas becomemorecountryfocused,portfoLioratings have improved,and targeted supervisionhas improvedimplementation performance. Morestaff arebeingrecruited,andexperience with nearLy 10 yearsof supportfor sectorinvestmentandadjustmentprograms is beingusedto guidethe design of sectorwide assistance strategies.Severalcountries areexpLoring the possibilityof implementing suchstrategieswithin a comprehensive developmentframework.ColLaboration with otherdonors is stronger,andincreasinglyborrowers aretaking responsibilityfor sector analysisand project deveLopment, implementation, andsupervision. But the BankcouLddo moreto improvethe effectiveness of its assistance. First,it shouLd contribute to educationdevelopment in Linewith its comparativeadvantage-its macroeconomic and pubLicexpenditure perspective, its sectorwide view of poLicyreforms,andits abiLitiesto identifyand developlinkageswith other sectors,and to tap into a wide rangeof internationaL knowledge and experience. Second, it shoulddesignits operations, consistent with its overaLL objectivesin the sector (WorldBank1999a),to emphasize: * Equitable access of excluded groups-thepoor, rural popuLations,girls-to reaL learning opportunities. * QuaLityservice, as measuredby Learning achievements. * SustainabLe financing. TheBankmustensurethat it responds effectively to emergingopportunitiesand matches countries'commitmentto acceleratededucation

A CHANCE TOLEARN

development with a better performingand more diversifiedportfolio.If the Bankis to continueto pLayits roLeasa keysourceof sectorpoLicyadvice, improvethe performance of its educationportfolio, andexpandsupportfor education development, the AfricaRegionwilLneedto changethe wayit does business. Specific actionsareproposed on the developmentandimplementation of lendingoperations in five areas:sharpening the strategic focusof Lending, improving the Lending development process, promoting partnerships, matchingLendingstrategiesto countryconditions,and applyingstate-of-the-art knowLedge. In addition,and perhapsmostimportant, the regionwilLhaveto enhance st:afftechnicaL skilLsandknowledge for a betterandlairger program of supportto education development in Africa. Sharpeningthe strategicfocusof lending An expanded lendingprogramshouldheLpcountriesimplementpolicyreformsthat wiLLhelpthem movetowardthe strategicobjectivesdiscussed in chapter3: * ImprovingLearning, notjust expanding access andmeetingenroLLment targets. * Providing equitableaccess to educationopportunities,especiaLLy for the poorandfor girLs. * BuiLdingcapacityand strengthening institutions. & AchievingLong-term financialsust,ainability so that successful reformscanbetakento scale. Withmorethan40 potentialborroNers in Africa, regionaL Lending prioritieswill be neithersimplenor uniform.Thusthe Bankshouldbeready to respond to a wide rangeof education development situations, depLoying differentstrategies for differentcountries. Nevertheless, formaL primaryeducatiorwill remaina top priorityfortheBank's investments iriAfricaneducation.Education deveLopment cannotbe balanced withouta quaLity systemof basiceducation accessibleto alLchildren of primary schooL acge. OfparticuLar concernarethe 16UNSIA countries withoutthe capacityto enroLL morethan 60percent

67

The FRESHStart Partnership:FocusingResources on EffectiveSchoolHealth Goodhealthand nutrition areessentialfor Learning. Effectiveschoolhealth programs wilL contributeto reduced absenteeism anddrop-out,andtheenrollment andretentionof moreof the poorestandmostdisadvantae childrenin schoo.Tee rnanyof whomaregirls-are oftenthe leastheatthyandmost maLnourished, andhavethe mostto gaineducationally fromimproved health. An interagencyinitiative of UNESCO, WHO, UNICEF, and the WorldBankhasidentified a core groupof activities,eachalreadyrecommended by the participatingagencies, that capturesthe bestpracticiesfromprogram experiences. Effective E curriculum and schoolpolicieson health issuessuch as tobao, epro e health, and HIV/AIDS. * Safewaterandsanitationin alt schools.

of the age groupin primaryschool.SeveraL of these countriesare emergingfrom civiLstrife and needto rebuild systemsthat have atLbut coLLapsed. They often face acute resourceconstraintsand require major financiaL assistance in the immediate post-confLictperiod. But others, incLudingmany francophoneWestAfrican countries,requireradicaL reformsin deliverymodes,resourceallocationpriorities, and managementsystemsto Laythe foundation for education systems that contribute to sustainedeconomicand sociaLdevelopment.Several are preparingambitious sector deveLopmentprograms-with primaryeducationdeveLopment as the top priority. In manyother countries-incLudingthose that already have the capacity to enrolL aLl their chiLdren-continuedsupport for primaryeducation will be essentialto ensurethat this capacityis used efficientLyand effectivelyto allow studentsto com-

68

* SkillsbasedhealtheducationtargetsHIV/AIDS, goodnutrition,andhygiene. * Schoolbasedhealthandnutrition servicesthat deliversafe,simple,and familiarinterventions, such as deworminr andgoodnutrition. Bank-fundedprojects exist today in Guinea, BurkinaFaso,and Coted'Ivoirewhile a numberof other countriesin Sub-Saharan Africa are developing school heaLthcomponentsto be folded into existingprojects.Theprogramprovidesan unprecedentedopportunityfor new partnershipacrosssectors andtraditional boundaries, suchas the private sectorsupport from SmithKlineBeecham.Overall, the interagencyaction is perceivedas focusing resourceson effectiveschoolhealth,and giving a FRESH Start to improvingthe quality and equity of education.

pLetethe basic educationcycLeand graduatewith the knowLedge and skiLLs specifiedin the curriculum. Reducingrepetitionis cruciaLto achievingthis goaL, since high repetition rates resuLtnot onLyin occupiedschoolpLaces that could otherwisebe takenby other chiLdrenbut aLsoin high dropoutrates.Sofar Bank lending has typicaLlyemphasizedproviding inputs into the educationprocess,which is clearLy insufficient. Henceforththe BankwilL give priority attention to the processand outcomesof learning. Achieving quality basic education for all wiMl require morethan reformsof and investmentsin the formaLsystem. It wiLLaLsorequire broad support for basic education through investments in earLychiLdhoodeducationprograms,school health (box 4.2), and aduLtliteracy. In all three areasthe Bank and its borrowerswill need to Learnlessons from international experienceas well as from the few Bank-supportedprogramscurrentlyimpLement-

THEWORLD BANK'SRESPONSE: DOINGMOREANDDOINGBETTER

ed, whiLediversifyingprogramdesignsand experimenting with new approachesthrough [earning and innovation Loans. CentralLymanagedsystemshave typically had great difficulty in respondingto different locaL needs and effectively managing rapid system expansion.The effectivenessof Bank support for acceLerated deveLopment of basiceducationin SubSaharanAfrica wiLLdepend largeLyon how well Lendingoperationscan be designedto heLpgovernmentsmobiLizecommunitiesfor educationdevelopment. This will invoLvesupport for strengthening community organizationssuch as parent-teacher associationsand viLlageeducationcommittees,creating mechanisms to transferresourcesand responsibiLity to these organizations, and deveLoping working reLations with locaLgovernmentauthorities who will be increasingLy invoLvedin deLiveringeducation and training services. Thus Bank support for basic education wiLL increasinglycoverthe full rangeof basiceducation serviceswhiLegiving priority support to programs that: • Ensure equaL opportunities for excLuded chiLdren-poor, ruraL,and femaLe-to access quaLitybasiceducation. * Adapt service modeLs-muLtigradeschooLs, flexible staffing arrangements,local language instruction, choice of textbooks and instructionaLmateriaLs-to locaLconditions. * DeconcentratemanagementresponsibiLityand empowercommunityorganizationsto support education. Thereis increasingLystrong demandthroughout the region to expandaccessto upper primary (sometimes called Lower secondary)programstypicaLlygrades6-9. Manycountriesconsiderthis Levelto be part of the basic education cycLe. Expansionat this LeveLwilL be particuLarLy rapid where the primary gross enrollment ratio approaches100 percent. Bank support at this leveLwiLLstress the need to deveLopmore costeffective delivery modes, improve teaching and

A CHANCE TOLEARN

Learning,and ensureequitabLeaccessfor girLsand ruraLresidents.In countrieswith LowqrossenroLLment ratios or significant underfinancing and quaLityprobLemsat the primary Level, Banksupport will be set in the context of a sectoraLpolicy and financiaL framework that ensures sustained progresstoward universaLaccessto and compLetion of primary education. WhiLeBanksupportfor educationdeveLopment in the past two decadeshas not excLudeda priori any subsector, the Africa Region's ending and nonLendingwork needsto give higher priority to educationbeyondthe basic cycLe.Recognizingthe importance of opportunities for continued Learning and skill acquisition for youth, the Bankplans to strengthenits capacity to supportthe development of secondary education, particularly the teaching of math, science, and techriology. The Bank wiLLalso be readyto support seill deveLopment systems that respond to Labor market demand.An emerging Lendingarea is continuing education, incLudingaduLtbasic education. Bank support will be directed especiaLlyto programs that target poor people. But much is still to be Learnedabout cost-effective delivery modesincluding the role of the private sector and the potentiaLof new technologies. In higher education, considerablepoLicywork has been done by the Bank and other organizations, incLudingADEAsHigher EducationWorking Group. In most countries the options for policy reform and institutional strengthening are reasonabLycLear.The challengehasbeer to makethe tough decisions required to revitaLizekey higher education institutions and develop the necessary stakehoLder(especiaLLy student and faculty) support. As a resuLt,reformimpLementationhas been slow, and the Bank's portfolio and lending for highereducationin Africa remainrelativeLysmalL. The Bank wilL continue to expLoreopportunities to support higher education development,including graduate programs and scientific research. Suchsupport is expected to focus crl reformsto

69

improve teaching and research,in part through Improvinglending development moreeffective useof new educationtechnologies. ThesereformswiLLneedto be implementedin the Recentchangesin the Bank'soperationaland sector context of a long-term, financiaLLysustainabLe work are designedto foster client ownership,put framework for institutionaL strengthening and borrowersin the driver'sseat, encouragenational selective expansion. (ratherthan international)solutions,and emphasize EducationtechnoLogy,when usedjudiciously, the transfer and adaptation of knowledge.These can broadenaccessto and improve the quality of new approacheswill need further development. education services (see box 3.5). The record of Ideally, nationaLspeciaLists wouldcarryout all opereducation technoLogyprojects has been disapational tasksexceptappraisal,with Bankstaff servpointing however,and BankLendingfor this puring as a soundingboardfor ideasand contributing pose has been Limited. Yet much has been international expertise.This is an important shift Learnedabout the potential of education techfrom the Bank'straditional way of doingbusinessnoLogyand the pitfalls of its impLementation. staff and internationaLconsultantstaking primary Newinteractive computerand Internet technoloresponsibilityfor sector anaLysis,project preparagies are creating promising but still untested tion, and supervision,with varyingbut often Limitopportunities. The Bank will ensureits readiness ed colLaboration with nationalstaff (seechapter3). to assist countries with the introduction of eduIn somecountriesthe Bankhas madeconsidercation technology and distance Learningsystems ableprogressin this direction, but it needsto inten(box 4.3). sify its effortsto ensurethat the ideaLbecomesthe

lncasing

ot o fductonTechnotogy

Witha fewe exceptions, educatioechnology hasnot beena prominent ei l n ucation in Sub-Sah so te gies that use surfacemail, radaio, tlviso,adoaand videocassettes, andothe newour andtd basedtechnoo lp at developmet,th Ba n * Strengtthen tekoldebsbycmisoiga paperviewing ti * Establishcls w n t organizations suchastheCmowat of Leanin and theAfrican r Buil in-housec tion;specialiststo supporttask teamleadersin the designof distanceeducation andeducation technology coponaentsin newlen atios.

70

EnsurethatTheexperiencen of the AfricanVirtuat Univesity, WorldLinks,and the Global Distance Lea g is availableto countriesand task is adequatelyconsidred in the f newlendingoperations. siderthe impliions of introducin educat ies in the designof education fiancing ndapcity-buitding strategies. * Mov aggressivelytosupport the large-scale indcte ce t technologies as partofeducationlendin suppotthg project and innovation loans for promisingexperiments and innovationsthat require further testing and piloting-especiallythwosusing n communicatnd computertechnology *

THEWORLD BANK'SRESPONSE: DOING MORE ANDDOING BETTER

norm.The Africa Regionwill needto think through the implicationsfor managingthe project cycleand adapt its operationaLproceduresand staff performanceexpectationsto the fact that controLover project deveLopment and processingwiLLrest largeLy with the borrower.The Bankwill needto communicate expectationsfor quality at entry standards clearly to staff and agree on them with clients. Thesechangeswill require: * Building capacity for country-led education development. * Greateruseof sectorwideapproaches. * Better quality at entry. * MorefLexibility in applying Bank poLiciesand procedures. * Enhancedfield presence. Building capacity for country-led education development.BankLendingand project preparation assistance will be structured to help develop national capacity to analyze sectors, prepare investment programs,and supervisetheir impLementation.Processes and timetableswiLLneedto be designedso that national staff can carry out quality work. The Bank has an array of instrumentslearning and innovation loans, adaptableprogram loans, and institutional developmentgrants, in addition to traditional investment loans-to support intensive capacity building as countries embarkon Large-scaLe investmentprograms. Greateruseof sectorwideapproaches. Bankassistanceincreasinglywill be designedin the contextof a sectorwideapproachto education deveLopment. Sectorwideapproaches have beenusedto meetseveral objectives.Mostimportant,they havebeenused to developa broad policy frameworkwithin which donorsand governmentworkin partnershipto accelerateprogresstowardkeypolicy objectives,with the aim of fostering countryownershipand sustainable nationalsolutions.Thesectorwideapproachalsoprovidesa foundationfor investmentprogramsthat seek to accelerateprogresstowardkey policy objectives. Although experiencewith sector investment programsin education is limited (box 4.4), such

A CHANCE TOLEARN

programsare clearly promisingfor coherentpolicy reform and more effective externaLaid. However, sectorwideprogramscannot be expectedto soLve aLLthe problems that have affectecl education deveLopment projects,nor are they suitable for alL countries. Moreover,sectorwide approachesshould not divert attention from the continuing importanceof experimentationand pilots in the developmentof policy frameworks. The sectorwide approach usually increases demandson national planningand imFlementation capacity. Giventhese demands,the Bankis ready to design flexibLefinanciaLassistancepackagesto help governmentsmoveforwardexpeditiouslywith reform programs,even when all parts of financing planshave not been formallyagreedon. Moreover, the needto reachconsensuson a range of poLicy issueswith a large numberof stakehoLders usually meansmoretime and resourcesfor programdevelopmentand preparation. Giventhe time framesinvolved, the successof sectorwideprogramswill dependon deepeningand strengtheningthe Bank's long-term partnerships with governmentsand other donors.Countriesand donorswill needto reviewcarefullythe lessonsfrom first-generationsector investmentproqramsand be flexible in the designand implementationof new programs.SincemanyAfricancountriesdo not have sufficiently strong institutions to simultaneously designand implementall elementsof often technically complexand politically sensitivesectorinvestment programs,investmentswill often have to be sequencedby subsector.But even these caseswill demandfinancialanalysiscoveringthe wholesector. Others will need aLternativeapproachessuch as longerterm subsectoralinvestmentprograms. In addition, financial assistancestrategieswiLL need to recognize that sectorwide reform and developmentprogramstake a long time (often 10 years or more) to implement and institutionalize. Adaptableprogramloans provide a f:rameworkfor supporting Long-termsector investment programs.

71

Sectorwide Approaches A recentstudy(Johanson2000)reviewsthe Bank's at reviews.Duringimplementation problemsare the stilt-limitedexperience withsectorwide approaches in ruLeratherthan the exception. the Africa Regionto identify strengths,weaknesses, Goodpracticerecommendations include: andgoodpractice. * OnLyundertake a sectorwide approachwhenthe Strengths of sectorapproaches were noted in countryis cLearly committedto coLLaborating and has severalareas.All casesrevieweddeveloped compre- demonstrated a minimumlevel of implementation hensiveplansand strategies,and in somecountries capacity. capacitywas developed for decentralized planning. * EstabLish a government-ted collaboration fromthe Strongerlinks wereforgedbetweenpolicies,alloca- outsetbasedona clearunderstanding of therightsand tion of funds,andperformance. Stakeholder consulta- responsibilities of all partners,mutuaL trust, andadetions werestrengthened and frameworks for donor quatetimeto reviewpoLicies anddiscuss agreements. coordinationestablished.Donorsadoptedcommon * Establisha comprehensive policyframeworkfor procedures, especialLy for joint missions,monitoring, analyticpurposes, recognizing that policyanaLysis will and progressreporting,thus reducingthe burdenof beongoingandthat an initiaLinvestment maybe limaid administration for governments. Someprograms ited to a particuLar subsector. have begunto moveto budgetsupportby pooLing * Developfinancialparameters, whenever possible external resourcesand channeLingthem through basedon publicexpenditure reviews,to ensurereanationalbudgets.Resources altocatedto the sectors sonable intrasectoraL resource allocations with a cLear increased. longer-term commitment to pooledfunding. Weaknesses includedthe lackof rigoroussector * Buildmarnagement systems andcapacitybasedon analysisin somecases,the lackof systematic analy- explict institutionaLandcapacityanalyses, incLuding sis of institutionaLand implementationcapacityin monitorng;andevaluation systemsasweLlas arrangemost cases,and inadequatedesignof monitoring mentsfor financialmanagement, commonprocedures indicators.OtherprobLems wereweakdatacoLLection for joint reviewand reporting,and contingency plananddisappointment with the outcomes of semiannu- ningand risk analysis.

An increasingshareof support for Africa's education investment programsis expected to come through these kinds of loans. Better quality at entry. The initial design of Lendingoperations,referredto in the Bankas quaLity at entry, is an essentialelementin translating sector anaLysisinto results on the ground. Clear standardsmust be established,and staff must be awarethat thesestandardsmust be refLected in project appraisaldocuments.Minimumstandardswill include a crediblequality improvementstrategy, a

72

financial frameworkwith monitorabLeparameters, an agreedplanfor organizationalstrengtheningand capacity building with monitorablebenchmarks,a sociaLassessment for every project that focuseson the needsand constraintsof sociallydisadvantaged groups,and a projectimplementationplan. To help staff achieve these goals, the Africa Regionwill: * Strengthenits peer reviewprocedures. * Enhancetechnical adviceto country directors and sector managersthrough a review by the

THEWORLD BANK'SRESPONSE: DOINGMORE ANDDOING BETTER

educationsectorleaderor otherseniorstaffof all economic andsectorwork,projectconcept documents, andprojectappraisaL documents. * Establishmechanisms for systematicaLly providing adviceand guidanceto inexperienced staff. TheBankwill makea speciaL effort to invoLve senioreducationspecialists from otherregionsin peerreviews.Forprograms that address especially difficult challenges-strategies for universaL primary education,the renewalof vocational training, better secondaryscience and math teaching-speciaL advisorygroupswith staff from outsidethe regionand outsidethe BankwiLLbe createdto supporttask teams.VoLuntary Quality Assurance GroupreviewswiLL be requested as needed. ProjecttimetabLes wiLLbe designedto ensure adequate time betweenthe projectconceptdocumentandthe projectappraisaL document to foLLow up on the comments of the peerreviewers. Effortsto ensurequaLityat entry arewasted without effective impLementation. WhenprobLemsare understoodand soLutionsare known, implementation issues can and should be addressedbeforeLoanapproval.But whereprojects supportinvestmentsor strategiesfor which the knowLedge baseis weak,or wherethe economic and political environmentis uncertain, projectdesignswiLLneedto be fLexible.TheywilL needto includemechanisms for adjustingproject designsin light of lessonslearnedduringimplementation,throughpreparationof annuaL action pLansand midtermreviews.In addition, managersshould recognizethat the need for peer reviewandsupportdoesnot endoncea Loanhas been approved.SeveralBankregionshavehad positive experiences in estabLishing reviewand supportgroupsfor task managers overseeing atrisk andprobLem projects.Thisapproachwill also be tried in the AfricaRegion.

educationdevelopmentprograms.This includes poLiciesandprocedures for incremental. operating costs(includingteachersaLaries), communityconstructionof classrooms, procurement andaccounting (whenresponsibility for implementation and spendingis highlydecentralized), budigetsupport in the contextof multidonorsectorinvestment programs, andlendingfor regionalprcgrams. WorLdBank Lendingfor educationdeveLopmentin the AfricaRegionhasLargeL~ beenlimited to support for investmentcosts. Only in exceptionaLcaseshave loans supportedincrementaLteachersalariesand recurrentcosts.In reaLity,the distinction between capitaL and recurrenteducationexpendituresis often an arbitraryone, whiLesupportingrecurrentcosts suchasteachers'payroLLs maybethe mosteffective contributionto a country'shumancapitaL base(CoLcLough andLewin1993).Moreover, in a rapidlyexpandingsystemsuchcostscan be significant, and underfundingthem can undermine the effectivenessof donor interveritionseLsewherein the educationsector. In the contextof sectorwide investmentprograms,in which alLexternalresources are channeLed throughthe government budgel: andthusare fungibLe,the reluctanceto fund operatingcosts hasno cLear justification,providedtnerearecLear agreements on a financiaLframeworkandteacher remuneration and deploymentpolicy.WhereprogramsincLude suchagreements, the AfricaRegion wiLlbe readyto supportspendingon incrementaL teachersalariesand other recurrentexpenditures in accordance with established BankpoLicy. IncreasingLy, responsibilityfor implementing keyeLements of educationdeveLopment programs, often accompanied by a transferof authorityfor resourceaLLocation, is beingassignedto Lowerlevel governmentofficials, schools,and schooL management committees.ThesegrIoupswill be Flexibility in applying Bankpoticiesand proce- expected to takeresponsibiLity for buildingclassdures. Operationalpolicies and procedures wiLL rooms,maintaininginfrastructure, andbuyingfurneedto be appliedfLexibLy to supportacceLerated nitureandinstructionaL materiaLs.

A CHANCE TOLEARN

73

This shift has important implications for procurement,financial management,accounting, and auditing. The Bank's traditional approach to contractor-executedconstruction-supervised by national departmentsor ministriesand awardedon the basis of national competitive bidding-is inappropriatefor buiLdingthe tens of thousandsof two- and three-classroomblocks that wiLl be requiredto provideeducationopportunitiesto ruraL children.Experience in SouthAsiashowsthat community-managed constructioncan resultin the construction of a Largenumberof small schoolsat Low cost-provided there is adequatetechnicalsupport (DPEP1999). Similarly, procurementproceduresmust recognize that local needsfor goods and serviceswiLL differ in kind, in quantity, and over time. Thus bulk procurementis often impracticaLand inconsistent with community or other forms of decentralized managementof resources, making LocaL shopping the preferredmethod. Procurementproceduresin credit agreementsneed to be formulated so that community construction is allowed for the bulk of construction in rural areasand so that Local shopping is recognized as the most cost-effective way to procure small amounts of building supplies and instructional materials. Accounting and auditing proceduresneed to be designed to aLLoweffective financiaLcontrol of expenditures by a large number of dispersed implementing agents. Procurement and financial management arrangements in sector investment programsinvoLving severaldonorsoften are not easily accommodated within traditional Bank guidelines. Special arrangements involving compromises by all parties, includingthe Bank,mayneedto be negotiated.More flexibiLityimpLiesthe needto agreeat appraisalon a procedures manualfor procurement,financialmanagement,accounting,andauditing.Financialofficers in district educationoffices,headteachers,andtreasurersof schooLmanagementcommitteesmust be trained in procurement and basicaccounting.

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A constraint on Bank Lendingso far has been the difficuLty of supportingregionaLor subregional programs.Yet such programs have considerable potential in a fragmentedregionwheresubregionaLcooperationoften can yield substantialbenefits through pooLingknowledgeand skills, tapping into economiesof scale, and reducing unit cost. The potential benefits of regionaLprogramsare especialty attractive in highereducation-in particular at the graduateand post-graduatelevels, in curriculum deveLopmentfor programs with limited country-specificcontent, and in the useof education technoLogyto support math, science, and technology education in secondaryschools and undergraduateuniversity programs. Efforts are underwayto developnew lendinginstrumentsand proceduresdesignedspecifically to overcomethe obstacLes to Lendingfor regional programs. Enhancedfield presence.Changesin the way the Bank carries out its operational work will require makingadequatetime and resourcesavaiLable to ensure: * First-ratetechnical support for nationalteams. * Sufficient time for clients to work through analysis and project designs to ensure that technicaLinterventions are viabLe. * Effective monitoring of impLementation progressand use of resources. Washington, D.C.-based teams that visit a countrytwo or three times a year for two weeksof discussiondriven by the needto reachagreement and closurewilLfind it difficult to sustainthe support and dialoguethat suchefforts entail and that are essential to building colLaborativebusiness procedures.Muchof this work canonly be done by local and international technical specialistsbased in BankfieLd offices. Sucha needposesan important chalLengein Africa, wheremost countries are smaLland operationsare often affected by politicaLand economicinstability. The strategy to test will be one of posting senior educationspecialists in the fieLd offices of major education borrowers and locally recruited education professionaLsin

THEWORLD BANK'SRESPONSE: DOINGMORE ANDDOING BETTER

the fieLd office of every country wherethe Bank has or is preparing a major education program. ThesespeciaListswouLdthen aLsosupport Locally recruitedand Lessexperiencedstaff in neighboring countries.

With the movetoward more open, democratic societies in Africa, broader goverminent-donor partnershipsand engagementof civiL societyincluding nationaLNGOs,trade unions,and student organizations-in an opendebate about education poLiciesand deveLopmentstrategies will become Promoting partnerships more important. The Bank and its borrowerswill needto enterinto a systematicdiaLogue? with these Thedauntingdemandsof educationdeveLopment in stakehoLders and deveLopnew modesof coLlaboraAfrica can onLy be met when donors and govern- tion and partnershipappropriateto the capacity mentswork together toward commongoaLs.At the and needs of civiL society organizations. The regionaLLevel,donorsand governmentscan coLLab- strengtheningof civiL society institutions during orate in severaLorganizations-ADEA, UNESCO, the 1990s has greatLy faciLitated this process, UNICEF,CONFEMEN, the Organizationfor African which needsto be supportedby externalfinancing. Unity, and international NGOs. At the countryleveL, The Bankhas begunsuch dialogueand collaborahowever,muchremainsto be done to promotecoL- tion with the support of the NorwegianEducation Laborationand partnership.In programssupported Trust Fund,but needsto intensify its efforts. by multipLedonors,governmentswill haveto take chargeof donor coordinationand work with donors Matching lending strategies to country and nationaL stakehoLdersto define the rules. conditions Donorsand governmentsneedto shareinformation and frankLydiscussanalytical findings. Wherever Improvedportfolio performanceand rEsuLts orientafeasibLeand desirabLe,the Bankwill be ready to tion wiLLrequirethe Bankto be selectiveabouttarcoLLaborate cLoselywith governmentsand other get countries, support, and conditions. Different donors.Overtime, suchcoLLaboration shouLddeveL- country conditionswill requirediffereit assistance op into full partnership,basedon commonobjec- strategies(box 4.5). Soundmacroeconomic and fistives and a readinessto share risks and rewards caLpoLicies,a demonstratedcommitmentto good with partners. governance, a cLearLy specifiedsectorpoLicyframeIn a numberof instancesin which the Bankhas work, and readinessand capacityto impLementthe workedwith partners,its role has been limited to often difficuLt poLicydecisionsassociatedwith eduthat of "Lenderof Lastresort," especiallyin the concation and financiaLpoLicyreformsmust be prereqtext of sectorinvestmentprograms.Whileappropri- uisites for large-scale Bank investments in ate in pureLyfinancial terms,this roLeoccasionally education. has beenmisinterpretedand has resultedin a disIn countries that meet these conditions,the proportionateaLLocationof Bank funding for civiL Bankis readyto providebudgetsupportundercofiworksspending.This hasreducedthe Bank'sabiLity nancingarrangements or in cLosecoordinationwith to support the design and impLementation of key the support provided by other exterrial financiers poLicyand institutional reforms. IncreasingLy,the and NGOs.In many casesthe Bankwill be able to BankwiLLseekto cataLyze innovationand reformby support broadsectordevelopmentstiategiesover a contributing its knowledgeto the design of sector long periodthrough adaptabLe prograrnloans.Such investment programs,when possibLeunder cofiLoansprovidea frameworkfor Lendng operations nancingarrangements,and otherwiseby targeting based on clearLyagreed benchmarksand triggers its financiaLresourcesto key programeLements. over a periodas Longas 10 years.

A CHANCE TOLEARN

75

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THEWORLDBANK'SRESPONSE: DOINGMOREAND DOINGBfETTER

FewAfricancountrieshavein placeall the conditionsrequiredfor successful large-scaLe budget supportfor educationdevelopment. SeveraL countries haveimprovedmacroeconomic management and governance, but the framework for education policy reformsoften remainsunspecified.Even moreoften,countrieshaveinsufficientcapacityto impLement neededreformsand absorblarge-scaLe externalassistance. In countries with cLearly specifiedsectorpolicy frameworksbut weak institutions and Limited impLementation capacity,it maystill be possibLe to supporta sectorinvestmentprogramor a Longtermsubsector programsupported by an adaptabLe programloan, providedan institutionaldevelopmentprogramis cLearlyagreedand implemented up front. InstitutionaLdeveLopment benchmarks wouLdthentriggerlarger-scaLe financialsupport. Where the direction of poLicy reform is uncLear or unsustainable, the transferof knowledgeand experience becomes an additionaL task to tackLein conjunctionwith capacitybuiLding. But the absenceof a clearlyagreedpolicyframework will precludedesigningan adaptableprogram Loan.Instead,a Learningand innovation loanor a moretraditionaLinvestmentloanwill be the best vehiclefor supportinginnovationand policydevelopment. Soundeconomic policiesarea necessary condition of sustainabLe educationdeveLopment. Even with a weLl-designed sectorpoLicyframework and

In countriesemerging fromcivil waror unrest, investingin education hasa vitaLroLeto pLayin the transitionto peace.In the short tern7countries emerging fromconflictoftenrequirequickresponsesto helprestartthe deliveryof educalionservices. Emergency interventions impLemented in colLaboration with a rangeof actors,whichmayincludegovernment, United Nations agencies,NGOs,and communities, will typicallybe neededto rehabiLitate physicalinfrastructure and provicle emergency suppLies. At the sametime,suchoperations shouLd supportthe Long-term resumption of rormaLoperationsin the education sector,recognizing the continuumbetweenreliefanddeveLopment. TheBankmustworkmoredeLiberateLy to help preventconflictand to assistcountriesemerging fromconfLict.Confronting equityissues-especiaLLy in education-is often an important preventive measure, giventhe roLeof inequaLities in fomenting vioLentconfLict.Wherethe Bankis forcedto withdrawfrom a country,it maybe ab.eto protect aspectsof its educationportfoLiothroughmore activecoLlaboration with humanitarian agencies and NGOs. TheAfricaRegionis preparinga paperthat reviewsissuesand strategies for supportingcountries in conflictand post-conflictcountriesin the socialsectors, incLuding education. Support for education development--in termsof publicspendingandlendingopportunities-should be expLicitLy discussed in the countryassistance strategies prepared bythe Bankin collaboration with

impLementation capacity,a country mayhave such a weak macroeconomicenvironmentthat broad support for education is unlikeLy to succeed. Though there may still be opportunities for the

country authorities. In many countries education shouLdbe a keyeLementin the macroeconomic poLicy diaLogue. Thishasnot beenalwaysthe case.Often fiscal targets have been set-particularLy under

Bankto providesupport,undersuchconditionsthe priority must be sharing knowLedge and ideas ratherthanfinancinglargeprojects.It maybepossibLefor the Bankto workwith potentiaL reformers,

adjustment programs-without properconsideration of the needto protectprioritysocialinvestments. Increasingly, it is recognized that choicesaboutthe aLLocation of pubLic resources andtargetingof Bank

to pilot innovations,and to lay the foundationfor rapid progress once macroeconomicconditions improve.In manycasesNGOsand communitieswill be key partnersin these efforts.

resourcescannot be decidedsolely at the sectoral Level,andthat thesechoicesarea keypart of national resourcealLocationdecisionsand countryassistance strategies.

A CHANCETOLEARN

77

The Bank's Comprehensive Development Frameworkprovidesa powerful analytical tooL to addressthese social and economic development issues in concert, in the context of country-led partnerships.The introduction of national Poverty ReductionStrategyPapers,which will enablecountries to set poverty reductiongoals as a basisfor collaborationwith the Bank, is an important step towardimplementingthis approachon the ground. Similarly, the replacementof the InternationaL Monetary Fund'sEnhancedStructural Adjustment Facility by the new PovertyReductionand Growth Facility will further help createeducationdevelopment strategiesconsistentwith and supportedby wider macroeconomic reforms. In countries where the absenceof a credibLe educationdevelopmentstrategyjeopardizesoverall prospectsfor deveLopment, educationdeveLopment shouldbe at the centerof the macroeconomic policy dialogue, especiallyin the context of issuesof competitivenessand poverty reduction. In such countriesthe Bankwill not be ableto Lendfor education development,but it may have to consider progressin educationdevelopmentas a key factor in determiningtotal Bankassistance.Conversely, wherean effective and efficient educationprogram is integrated in the macroeconomicdevelopment framework,the Bankcan help developthe necessary medium- and long-term public expenditure frameworksand mobilizeexternal resources. Applying state-of-the-art knowledge Much has been Learnedabout what works in education development(see chapter 3). There is a growingbody of knowledgeon the key eLementsof effective instruction, on organizational arrangementsfor efficient servicedelivery,and on strategies for ensuring equitable access.Yet in many casesprogramstrategies and project components do not reflect the latest technical knowledge.The main issues-poor quaLity, insufficient and inequitable access,weak institutions, and inade-

78

quate and poorly used resources-are well-known and discussedin aLmostevery project conceptdocumentand project appraisaLdocument. But these diagnosesoften are not groundedin thorough sector analysisthat addresses economic, financiaL,educational,and institutional issues.Nor are they often translatedinto operationaLinterventions. Sectorinvestmentprogramstypically should be basedon public expenditurereviewsbeforethey can addresssociaLsector spendingand fiscal sustainabiLity.And meetingequity and efficiencyobjectives requiresa moredetailedanalysisof subnationaL and school-levelvariation. Moreover,the Bankcannot expect to play a crediblepartnershiprole, let alone exerciseleadershipin external support programs,if it cannot providethe first-rate technicaL knowLedge that clientsdemandand deserve. NevertheLess, severalissuesrequire moreanalytical work and review of experience. These incLudethe usesof educationtechnologyand sectorwide approaches(see boxes4.3 and 4.4), Bank supportin post-conflict settings, skill development (box 4.6), secondaryeducation,and strategiesfor institutional development and quality improvement. Reviewsof education technoLogy,quaLity improvement,and post-conflict support are under way; work on skill developmentis about to start; and work on secondaryeducationis scheduledfor fiscal 2002.A work programfor institutional development and capacity buiLdingis being prepared. Within the Bank,the Africa Regionwill collaborate with the Development Economics Vice Presidency,the World Bank Institute, and the Human DevelopmentNetwork EducationTeam to ensurethat Africa-specificknowledgeis generated and disseminated.Workhas started on the design of early childhoodprograms,strategiesto improve teaching and learning, documentation of good practicein support of private education,and more effective approaches to capacitybuilding. In addition, educationstaff will needto build their understanding of effective aduLt basic education programsand post-conflictinterventionsas well as

THEWORLD BANK'SRESPONSE: DOINGMORE ANDDOING BETTER

-

Box4.6 Buildinga KnowledgeBase for Skill Development Banklendingfor educationandtraininghassupported skill deveLopment at the post-basic tevel through "practicatlsubjectsin secondary curricula,specialized secondary technicalschools,and vocationaltraining institutes.Theperformance of this technicalandvocational training portfolio has beendisappointing.A 1990Bankwide reviewrecommended strongerjustificationfor publicfundingandevidence of labormarket demand for the skills. Partly in response to this policy work, Bank investments in Sub-Saharan Africa for technicaland vocationaltraining-oncethe mainstay of the education portfolio-decliriedin the 1990sto lessthan 6 percentof lendingfor educationand training. Yet clientsare requestingmorelendingand nontending assistance for technicalandvocationaL training,in part because of the iUusionthat trainingcansolveyouth unemployment. Otherreasonsfor the risingdemand incLudeconcernsabout Low productivity,personnel shortages (exacerbated by the AIDScrisis),and more demand for furthereducation and trainingfrom basic educationgraduates. Because of the lackof analysis andconsensus aroundtheseissues, the Bankhasfound it difficultto rebuiLd its technicalandvocational training portfolio. TheAfricaRegion'sknowledgebaseon technical and vocationaL training is weak.Knowledge of recent experiencewith technicaLand vocational training in Africa or from other partsof the world

expLoreoptions for improving skill development programsand math and scienceeducationin secondaryschooLs. The Africa Region's capacity-building efforts wiLLgive high priority to deveLopingthe analytical skilLsof its borrowersand staff. Links with other education units in the Bank are being strength-

A CHANCE TOLEARN

hasnot beenupdated.TheBankhasgatheredLittle evidenceon the effectiveness of innovationsintroduced in the 1990s: consolidationof training authorities,estabLishment of labor marketinformation systems,supportfor privatetrainingproviders, useof vouchersand trainingfunds,and supportfor trainingfor the informalsector. TheBankplansa regionalreviewof technical and vocationaL training in 2000-01to examinethe performartce of its portfolio,exploreindividualcountry cases,highlight and assesssector issues,and collectinternationalandregionalexperience to form a solid knowledgebasefor dialoguewith clients. DFID,ILO, and UNESCO have expressed interest in collaboratingin the review.Keyquestionswill be: Whatbestpracticesare suggested by recentexperiencein Africa and elsewhere undera variety of circumstances? What adviceshouldthe Bankgive to supportthe development of countrytechnicaland vocationaltraining strategies?Specificquestions includethe impactof labormarketpolicieson training needs,the effectiveness of supply-sitte interventions, the implications of different curriculum of reforms choicesin formaleducation,the outcomes in training provision,the role of privatetraining marketsand enterprisetraining,the effectiveness of training for the informal sectorand entrepreneurship, and Lessons learnedin usingdifferentfinancing mechanisms.

ened to ensurethat the best of the Bank'sknowLedge is availabLeto task managers.Except for emergencyoperations, sector unit rnanagerswill be expectedto ensurethat every investment and adjustmentoperation is groundedin a strong sector anaLysisand reflects the best availabLetechnicaLknowLedge. Learningand innovation Loansand

79

similar operationswiLLbe expectedto incLudeprovisions for sector anaLysisas needed.

region, with cLoselinks to the Bankwideeducation knowledgemanagement system. Second,the Bank wilL have to incorporatethe knowLedge and experiEnhancingtechncal skillsand knowledge ence of African and internationaLspeciaListsand institutions, including other donors,and internaLize The proposed action program will require the the lessonsof experience.The poLicyanaLyses and Africa Region to draw on high-quality internal reviewsof experiencereferredto aboveare expected expertise for poLicy discussions,sector anaLysis, to makean important contributionto this process. and operationalwork. Forthis purpose,the region The region wiLL also move aggressiveLyto needsan appropriate mix of economists,educa- explore with borrowersthe most promising applition speciaLists,and staff with specializedskills cations of traditional and distanceeducationtechin areassuch as institutionaL analysisand implenologiesto enhancethe deLiveryof educationat aLL mentation. It aLsorequiresa good mix of experilevels of the system. In many parts of the worLd encedstaff and youngerstaff eagerto experiment new technoLogies-especiaLLythose that are and innovate. Internet based-are changing traditional patterns At the momentthe region is suffering from a of teachingand learning,broadeningopportunities severeshortageof experiencedtask managerswho for accessto educationbeyondthe basiccycle,and can conduct effective policy diaLogue,contribute creating an environmentfor lifeLong Learningfor state-of-the-art technicaL knowLedge,and Lead manymorepeople (seebox 4.3). teams of highLy qualified speciaLists. UnLess The Bank has initiated and will continue to staffing issues are addressedimmediately, the deveLopa numberof promisingactivities, includBankwill not be abLeto pLayits potentiaLrote in ing the African Virtual University (see box 3.13), the education sector. Increasing technicaL and WorLdLinks (see box 3.3), and continuing educaoperationaLknowLedge about educationin Africa is tion through distancetechnologies(see boxes3.5 centraLto the successof the proposedaction proand 3.10). The technical feasibiLity and educagram. Achievingthis goal wiLl require: tionaL valueaddedof severaLof these innovations e Intensifyingefforts in the regionto hire staffhave been estabLished.The chaLLenge is to take from insideand outsidethe Bank-ranging from these to scaleand estabLishtheir financiaLviabiLtop-quality, experiencedstaff to promising ity in the face of intensifying competition for youngtaLent. scarceeducationresources.The Bankwill issue in * Makingexplicit arrangementswith senior staff 2001a best practicepaper on newtechnoLogiesin to mentor and coach less-experiencedcolAfrican education.A distanceeducationspeciaList leagues. is expected to join the Africa Region. Several * Implementingan Africa-specificstaff develop- countries are readyto pilot new technologiesto ment program. addressthe old chaLLenges of quaLityand access. Staffing issues wiLLbe the central concernof Evenunder the best circumstances,improving human developmentsector managementteam in the analyticaLunderpinnings of lending operathe Africa Region.Strategieswill be deveLoped in tions, adopting moreparticipatory approachesto coLLaboration with the EducationSectorBoard. project development,and makingimplementation In addition, it wiLLbe important to strengthen support more effective will be costLierthan the the knowLedge basefor sectorwork and poLicydiatraditionaL way of doing business.To move forlogue.ThiswilLrequirefirst estabLishing an effective ward, the Africa Region must think of ways to knowLedge management systemfor educationin the impLementthe strategy described above in an

80

THEWORLD BANK'SRESPONSE: DOING MORE ANDDOINGBETTER

increasinglybudget-constrained environment. As Africanby 2015.It witl heLpdevelopthe knowlnoted,borrowers wilLneedto takemoreresponsi- edge,buildthe commitment, andtakethe actions bility for managingthese tasks.Bankstaff wilt neededto achieveuniversalprimaryeducationby needto learnto identifyareaswheretheycanadd 2015in everycountryin the regionthat is readyto the mostvalue. moveforward.Withan increasingly strongfoundaBut perhaps the mostimportantchallenge will tion, the systemwiLLbeabLeto provideopportunibeto provideeffectiveassistance for designing and tiesto poorchiLdren-especiaLly girLs--tocontinue implementing institutionaL deveLopment andcapac- their educationbeyondthe basicLevel.TheBank ity-buiLdingstrategies.Often this supportwiLL wiLLaLsosupportcountrypoLicies that moveprovirequire addressingpubLic sector management sion at this LeveL towardequity,quaLity,and susissues-suchas Lowsalariesand compressed pay tainabiLity. scales-thatgo beyond the education sector.But in To achievethesegoals,the Bankwill work manycasesconsiderabLe improvements canbe real- with publicandprivateprovidersandotherstakeizedevenwithin theseexistingmacro-constraints holders.It will build a cadreof economists and through more rationaL resource allocations, technical speciatistswith the experienceand improvedfinanciaL management and accountabiLity knowLedge to providethe high-qualityservicethat systems, revisionof personneL management reLated cLientsdeserve.Andit wilLstrengthenthe knowlto depLoyment andredepLoyment of staff,outsourc- edgebasefor poLicyadviceandinvestmentin the ing of services and contracting of non-civilservice sector. providers,moreeffectivework procedures, better TheAfricaRegionwiLLimplement the foLLowing peopLemanagement, and targetedincentives.To actionsin fiscaL2001-02: workeffectiveLy in this area,the BankwiLL strength- * Strengthen the capacityfor institutionaL analyen its capacityfor analysis anddiaLogue by: sis by recruitingat leastone additionaL insti• Increasingthe numberof staff with specialist tutional development specialist,training and skilLs. mentoringstaff interestedin this area,and • Workingwith staff from other agenciesand startingto reviewexperience. governments to synthesizeexperienceand * Strengthenthe technicalreviewof economic identifysuccessful approaches. and sectorwork and lendingoperationsand • Traininga core groupof staff in anaLyticaL coordinateknowledge workon secondary edumethods, policy issues, and development cationandskill development. strategies. * Promote the participationof all staff in the * Makinganinstitutionalanalysis anddeveLopment professional development programofferedby strategywith clearbenchmarks a mandatory part the Institutefor DeveLopment Studies. of theprojectappraisal document, similarto eco- * EstabLish a professionaL educationr presence in nomicandfinancialanalysis. the fieLdofficeof everycountrywith a significantBank-supported educationproject. * Make business procedures moreparticipatory, fLexA Commitmentto Act ible,andconducive to community participation. * EstablishcLearstandardsfor qualityat entry TheBankis determined to do whateverit canto and supporttask managers in meetingthese help countriesin Africareversepasttrends and standards. avertOxfam's projectionthat three-quarters of the * BuiLdknowLedge anddocumentgoodpractice world's70 milLionout-of-schooL chiLdrenwilLbe in key areas:educationtechnology,primary

A CHANCE TOLEARN

81

classroomconstruction,adult basic education, skill development,secondaryeducation, and strategiesfor quality improvement.

yearsago. Promisingnew country-led reformsand innovations are going forward in a range of contexts. Donors,including the WorldBank, are recognizing the need to work in partnership with governmentsand civil society, providing compreConclusion hensive and flexibLe support that complements national efforts. Sincethe pubLicationof the Bank's1988 education The 2000 WorldEducationForumin Dakarwas sector strategy for the Africa Region(World Bank an opportunity for the international communityto 1988), the African development context has renewits commitmentto working with Africangovchangeddramatically.As the 21st century begins, ernmentsand civil societyto acceLerate the deveLdemocratization and a resumption of economic opment of basic educationin the region. To back growth in many countries hold out the promiseof up this commitment,the Presidentof the World a better future for the region. At the sametime, Bankpledgedat this conferencethat no developAfrica faces sobering development challenges. ing country that comes up with a good plan to More than 200 million people Live in extreme acceLerate progresstowardthe 2015goaLof educapoverty, and Africa has so far been excLuded from tion for aLLwiLl LackBanksupport. many of the economicbenefits of globalization. Takingadvantageof these new opportunities Higher-levelskills are a prerequisitefor participa- will require fundamental reform of education tion in the globaLknowledgeeconomy.This chalfinancing and management.For many countries, lenge must be met in the context of AIDS,conflict, nothing short of a quantumleap in educationis high fertiLity, indebtedness,and weakgovernance, required to meet the developmentneeds of the all of which threaten to thwart povertyelimination 21st century. For its part, the Bank needsto do efforts. more and do it better. The Bank must be more SubstantiaLand sustainable improvementsin strategic and seLective,matching knowLedgeand the quaLityof Life of all Africans dependon confinanceto countryneeds.Takingrisks, engagingin fronting the underLying causes of poverty. ongoing dialogue, and learning by doing need to Foremostamongthese causesis the region'slow becomeintegral to the Bank'sway of working if educationalenrollment and attainment. Ten years long-term partnershipsare to succeed. after Jomtien, more than 40 million children are Millionsof Africansliving in povertyhavepaid a not in primary school, and a third of the children heavy price for the slow progresstoward the who enroll drop out before having acquiredbasic Jomtien vision of educationfor all. Governments literacy skills. Closingthe educationgap in Africa and donorsshareresponsibiLity for achievinga break must be treated as a matter of urgency.Without with the past. Africa cannot afford to fail in its accelerated education development toward the efforts to accelerateeducationdevelopment.As the 2015 target, Africanswill be condemnedto repeat Comprehensive DeveLopment Frameworkstates, `al the vicious developmentcycleof the past20 years. agreethat the single most important key to develThe disappointmentsof the past need to be opment . . . is education." The collective chatset against the opportunities for change. The tenge is to ensure that Africa's deveLopment prospects for accelerating Africa's education outcomesreflect this consensusover the coming developmentare far better than they were 10 decade.

82

THEWORLD BANK'SRESPONSE: DOING MORE ANDDOING BETTER

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Without rapid and substantial improvementsin educationaccess and quality,broader povertyreductioneffortsin Sub-SaharanAfrica will be thwarted. A Chance to Leam: Knowledgeand Finance for Educationin Sub-Saharan Africa arguesthat at the cusp of the 21st century,the opportunityto addressthe often intractableproblemsof educationin Sub-SaharanAfrica is perhapsgreaterthan at any time in the past two decades. Economic growth has resumed in many countries; the political commitmentto education developmentis strong; and new democracies have created a more favorable environmentfor the participationof civil societyand communitiesin policy formulation and program implementation.Also, information and communicationtechnologyoffernew opportunitiesto overcome the constraintsof distance and time. Finally,increaseddebt relief and strongerinternationalpartnershipsin favor of educationwill help ease the financing constraints on accelerating education development. This book proposesa strategyand a programof actionfor the WorldBank'sAfrica Region,which is strivingto support countriesin their effortsto accelerateeducationdevelopment.It summarizesthe challenges facing education developmentin Africa, suggests key elementsof country responses,discussesthe implicationsof these responses, and proposes actions for improving the Bank's effectivenessas a partnerin educationdevelopment.In doing so, it lays the groundworkfor future increasesof World Bank supportfor educationdevelopmentin Africa.

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