6b Cell Cycle & Cell Division.pdf

Cellular Division 1

Cell Division All cells are derived from pre-

existing cells New cells are produced for growth and to replace damaged or old cells Differs in prokaryotes (bacteria) and eukaryotes (protists, fungi, plants, & animals) 2

Keeping Cells Identical The instructions for making cell parts are encoded in the DNA, so each new cell must get a complete set of the DNA molecules 3

DNA Replication

DNA must be Original DNA copied or strand replicated before cell division Two new, identical DNA Each new cell strands will then have an identical copy of the DNA

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Identical Daughter Cells

Two identical daughter cells Parent Cell 5

Chromosomes

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Prokaryotic Chromosome The DNA of prokaryotes (bacteria) is one, circular chromosome attached to the inside of the cell membrane

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Eukaryotic Chromosomes

All eukaryotic cells store genetic information in chromosomes

Most eukaryotes have between 10 and 50 chromosomes in their body cells Human body cells have 46 chromosomes or 23 identical pairs

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Eukaryotic Chromosomes

Each chromosome is composed of a single, tightly coiled DNA molecule Chromosomes can’t be seen when cells aren’t dividing and are called chromatin

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Compacting DNA into Chromosomes DNA is tightly coiled around proteins called histones 10

Chromosomes in Dividing Cells Duplicated chromosomes are called chromatids & are held together by the centromere Called Sister Chromatids

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Karyotype A picture of the chromosomes from a human cell arranged in pairs by size First 22 pairs are called autosomes Last pair are the sex chromosomes XX female or XY male 12

Boy or Girl? The Y Chromosome Decides

Y - Chromosome

X - Chromosome 13

Cell Reproduction

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Types of Cell Reproduction

Asexual reproduction involves a single cell dividing to make 2 new, identical daughter cells Mitosis & binary fission are examples of asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction involves two cells (egg & sperm) joining to make a new cell (zygote) that is NOT identical to the original cells Meiosis is an example 15

Cell Division in Prokaryotes

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Cell Division in Prokaryotes  Prokaryotes such as bacteria divide into 2 Parent cell identical cells by the process of binary fission Chromosome  Single chromosome doubles makes a copy of itself  Cell wall forms Cell splits between the chromosomes dividing the cell 2 identical daughter cells

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Prokaryotic Cell Undergoing Binary Fission

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Animation of Binary Fission

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The Cell Cycle 20

Five Phases of the Cell Cycle G1 - primary growth phase S – synthesis; DNA replicated G2 - secondary growth phase

collectively these 3 stages are called interphase

M - mitosis C - cytokinesis

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Cell Cycle

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Interphase - G1 Stage 1st growth stage after cell division Cells mature by making more cytoplasm & organelles Cell carries on its normal metabolic activities

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Interphase – S Stage

Synthesis stage DNA is copied or replicated

Two identical copies of DNA

Original DNA 24

Interphase – G2 Stage 2nd Growth Stage Occurs after DNA has been copied All cell structures needed for division are made (e.g. centrioles) Both organelles & proteins are synthesized

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What’s Happening in Interphase? What the cell looks like

Animal Cell

What’s occurring 26

Sketch the Cell Cycle DNA Copied Cells Mature

Daughter Cells

Cells prepare for Division

Cell Divides into Identical cells 27

Mitosis 28

Mitosis

Division of the nucleus Also called karyokinesis Only occurs in eukaryotes Has four stages Doesn’t occur in some cells such as brain cells

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Four Mitotic Stages

Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

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Early Prophase

Chromatin in nucleus condenses to form visible chromosomes Mitotic spindle forms from fibers in cytoskeleton or centrioles (animal) Nucleolus

Cytoplasm

Nuclear Membrane Chromosomes

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Late Prophase Nuclear membrane & nucleolus are broken down Chromosomes continue condensing & are clearly visible Spindle fibers called kinetochores attach to the centromere of each chromosome Spindle finishes forming between the poles of the cell 32

Late Prophase Chromosomes

Nucleus & Nucleolus have disintegrated 33

Spindle Fiber attached to Chromosome Kinetochore Fiber

Chromosome 34

Review of Prophase What the cell looks like

What’s happening

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Spindle Fibers

The mitotic spindle form from the microtubules in plants and centrioles in animal cells Polar fibers extend from one pole of the cell to the opposite pole Kinetochore fibers extend from the pole to the centromere of the chromosome to which they attach Asters are short fibers radiating from centrioles 36

Sketch The Spindle

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Metaphase Chromosomes, attached to the kinetochore fibers, move to the center of the cell Chromosomes are now lined up at the equator Equator of Cell Pole of the Cell

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Metaphase Asters at the poles

Spindle Fibers

Chromosomes lined at the Equator 39

Metaphase

Aster

Chromosomes at Equator 40

Review of Metaphase What the cell looks like

What’s occurring 41

Anaphase Occurs rapidly Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell by kinetochore fibers 42

Anaphase

Sister Chromatids being separated

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Anaphase Review What the cell looks like

What’s occurring 44

Telophase

Sister chromatids at opposite poles Spindle disassembles Nuclear envelope forms around each set of sister chromatids Nucleolus reappears CYTOKINESIS occurs Chromosomes reappear as chromatin 45

Comparison of Anaphase & Telophase

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Cytokinesis

Means division of the cytoplasm Division of cell into two, identical halves called daughter cells In plant cells, cell plate forms at the equator to divide cell In animal cells, cleavage furrow forms to split cell 47

Cytokinesis Cleavage furrow in animal cell

Cell plate in plant cell

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Mitotic Stages

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Daughter Cells of Mitosis Have the same number of chromosomes as each other and as the parent cell from which they were formed Identical to each other, but smaller than parent cell Must grow in size to become mature cells (G1 of Interphase) 50

Identical Daughter Cells What is the 2n or diploid number?

2

Chromosome number the same, but cells smaller than parent cell 51

Review of Mitosis 52

Draw & Learn these Stages

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Draw & Learn these Stages

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Name the Mitotic Stages: Interphase

Name this? Prophase

Telophase Name this?

Metaphase Anaphase 55

Eukaryotic Cell Division  Used for growth and repair  Produce two new cells identical to the original cell  Cells are diploid (2n)

Prophase

Metaphase

Chromosomes during Metaphase of mitosis

Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis 56

Mitosis Animation Name each stage as you see it occur?

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Mitosis in Onion Root Tips Do you see any stages of mitosis?

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Test Yourself over Mitosis 59

Mitosis Quiz

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Mitosis Quiz

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Name the Stages of Mitosis: Early Anaphase

Early prophase

Metaphase

Interphase

Late Prophase

Late telophase, Mid-Prophase Advanced cytokinesis

Early Telophase, Begin cytokinesis

Late Anaphase 62

Identify the Stages ? Early, Middle, & Late Prophase

?

? Metaphase

Late Prophase

Late Anaphase

Anaphase

?

? Telophase

?

? Telophase & Cytokinesis

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Locate the Four Mitotic Stages in Plants Anaphase Telophase Metaphase

Prophase 64

Uncontrolled Mitosis  If mitosis is not controlled, unlimited cell division occurs causing cancerous tumors  Oncogenes are special proteins that increase the chance that a normal cell develops into a tumor cell

Cancer cells 65

Abnormal Cell Division • Tumor – Mass of undifferentiated cells not normally found in a certain part of the body a. Benign tumor – cell mass that does not fragment and spread beyond its original area of growth; can become harmful by growing large enough to interfere with normal body functions

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b. Malignant tumor - nonencapsulated growth of tumor cells that are harmful; they may spread or invade other parts of the body •

cells of these tumors move from the original site (metastasize) and establish new colonies in other regions of the body

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Cancer term used to refer to refer to any abnormal growth of cells that has a malignant potential Carcinogens agents responsible for causing cancer

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Factors associated with cancer • Radiation – X rays and gamma rays – UV light (UV-B)

• Sources of carcinogen – Tobacco – Nickel – Arsenic – Benzene – Dioxin – Asbestos

- uranium - tar - cadmium - chromium - polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

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• Diet – Alcohol – Smoked meats and fish – Food containing nitrates (e.g. bacon)

• Viruses – Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and liver cancer – Herpes simplex (HSV) type II and uterine cancer – Epstein – Barr virus and Burkitt’s lymphona – Human Y-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV-1) and lymphomas and leukemias 70

• Hormonal imbalances – Diethylstilbestrol – Oral contraceptives

• Types of genetic and familial cancers – Chronic myelogenous leukemia – Acute leukemias – Retinoblastomas – Certain skin cancers – Breast, endometrial, colorectal, stomach, prostate, lung 71

Treatments of cancer • Surgery • Chemotherapy • Radiation

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Chemotherapy • Uses various types of chemicals to destroy mitotically dividing cancer cell • Types of chemotherapeutic drugs a. Antimetabolites – compounds interfering fatally with the cell’s metabolic pathways – methotrexate (prevents the synthesis of new DNA)

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b. Toposiomerase inhibitors – prevent the”unzipping” of DNA (doxorubicin) c. Alkylating agents – form chemical bonds within the DNA of cancer cells resulting in breaks and other damage not easily repaired (cyclophosphamide & chlorambucil) d. Plant alkaloids – disrupt the spindle apparatus, thus disrupting the normal separation of chromatics at the time of anaphase (vinblastine) 74

Radiation Therapy • Uses powerful X rays or gamma rays • From outside • Implanting radioactive “seeds” into the tumor

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p53 • Guardian of the genome • Tumor-suppressor p53 gene • Stops a damaged cell just before the S phase so that it can be repaired • Directly involved with the DNA repair process • Gives a cell the ability to be genetically healthy

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Radiation • Destroys cancer cells • Apoptosis – Programmed cell death (death that has a genetic basis) – Occurs in many cells of the body because they might be harmful or it takes too much energy to maintain them

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• When p53 initiates apoptosis, the cell’s DNA is cut into pieces and the cytoplasm and nucleus shrinks; this is followed by engulfment by phagocytes

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Meiosis

Formation of Gametes (Eggs & Sperm)

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Facts About Meiosis Preceded by interphase which includes chromosome replication Two meiotic divisions --- Meiosis I and Meiosis II Called Reduction- division Original cell is diploid (2n) Four daughter cells produced that are monoploid (1n) 80

Facts About Meiosis Daughter cells contain half the number of chromosomes as the original cell Produces gametes (eggs & sperm) Occurs in the testes in males (Spermatogenesis) Occurs in the ovaries in females (Oogenesis) 81

More Meiosis Facts  Start

with 46 double stranded chromosomes (2n) After 1 division - 23 double stranded chromosomes (n) After 2nd division - 23 single stranded chromosomes (n)  Occurs in our germ cells that produce gametes 82

Why Do we Need Meiosis? It is the fundamental basis of sexual reproduction Two haploid (1n) gametes are brought together through fertilization to form a diploid (2n) zygote

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Fertilization – “Putting it all together” 2n = 6 1n =3

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Replication of Chromosomes Replication is the process of duplicating a chromosome Occurs prior to division Replicated copies are called sister chromatids Held together at centromere

Occurs in Interphase

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A Replicated Chromosome Gene X

Homologs

(same genes, different alleles)

Sister Chromatids (same genes, same alleles)

Homologs separate in meiosis I and therefore different alleles separate. 86

Meiosis Forms Haploid Gametes  Meiosis must reduce the chromosome number by half  Fertilization then restores the 2n number from mom

from dad

child

too much! meiosis reduces genetic content The right number! 87

Meiosis: Two Part Cell Division Sister chromatids separate

Homologs separate Meiosis I

Meiosis II

Diploid Diploid

Haploid 88

Meiosis I: Reduction Division

Spindle fibers

Nucleus Early Prophase I (Chromosome number doubled)

Late Prophase I

Nuclear envelope

Metaphase Anaphase Telophase I I I (diploid) 89

Prophase I

Early prophase Homologs pair. Crossing over occurs.

Late prophase

Chromosomes condense. Spindle forms. Nuclear envelope fragments. 90

Tetrads Form in Prophase I Homologous chromosomes (each with sister chromatids)

Join to form a TETRAD

Called Synapsis 91

Crossing-Over  Homologous chromosomes in a tetrad cross over each other  Pieces of chromosomes or genes are exchanged  Produces Genetic recombination in the offspring 92

Homologous Chromosomes During Crossing-Over

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Crossing-Over

Crossing-over multiplies the already huge number of different gamete types produced by independent assortment 94

Metaphase I Homologous pairs of chromosomes align along the equator of the cell

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Anaphase I

Homologs separate and move to opposite poles. Sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres. 96

Telophase I Nuclear envelopes reassemble. Spindle disappears. Cytokinesis divides cell into two.

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Meiosis II Gene X

Only one homolog of each chromosome is present in the cell. Sister chromatids carry identical genetic information.

Meiosis II produces gametes with one copy of each chromosome and thus one copy of each gene. 98

Meiosis II: Reducing Chromosome Number

Prophase II

Metaphase Telophase II Anaphase 4 Identical II II haploid cells 99

Prophase II Nuclear envelope fragments. Spindle forms.

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Metaphase II

Chromosomes align along equator of cell.

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Anaphase II Equator

Pole

Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.

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Telophase II Nuclear envelope assembles. Chromosomes decondense. Spindle disappears. Cytokinesis divides cell into two. 103

Results of Meiosis Gametes (egg & sperm) form

Four haploid cells with one copy of each chromosome One allele of each gene Different combinations of alleles for different genes along the chromosome 104

Gametogenesis Oogenesis or Spermatogenesis 105

Spermatogenesis Occurs in the testes Two divisions produce 4 spermatids Spermatids mature into sperm Men produce about 250,000,000 sperm per day 106

Spermatogenesis in the Testes Spermatid

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Spermatogenesis

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Oogenesis Occurs in the ovaries Two divisions produce 3 polar bodies that die and 1 egg Polar bodies die because of unequal division of cytoplasm Immature egg called oocyte Starting at puberty, one oocyte matures into an ovum (egg) every 28 days 109

Oogenesis in the Ovaries

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Oogenesis First polar body may divide (haploid) a

Mitosis Oogonium (diploid)

X

A

X

Primary oocyte (diploid)

X a

X a

a

Polar bodies die

X

Meiosis I Meiosis II (if fertilization A occurs) X A

X

Secondary oocyte (haploid)

Ovum (egg) Mature egg A X

Second polar body (haploid) 111

Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis 112

Comparison of Divisions Mitosis

Meiosis 2

Number of divisions

1

Number of daughter cells

2

4

Yes

No

Same as parent

Half of parent

Where

Somatic cells

Germ cells

When

Throughout life

At sexual maturity

Growth and repair

Sexual reproduction

Genetically identical? Chromosome #

Role

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Sources of Variation • Mutation • Crossing-over • Segregation • Independent assortment • Fertilization

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Mutation • Point mutation – Change in a DNA nucleotide results in the production of a different protein

• Chromosomal mutation – Genes are rearranged

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Crossing-over • Occurs during Meiosis I • Is the exchange of a part of a chromatid from one homologous chromosome with an equivalent part of a chromatid from the other homologous chromosome • Explains why a child can show a mixture of family characteristics

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Segregation • Involves the separation and movement of homologous chromosomes to the poles • During anaphase 1 • Characteristics of both parents

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Independent Assortment • Combination of chromosomes • 2n where n is the number of pairs of chromosomes • Variation is possible because each pair of homologous chromosome assorts independently of the other pairs of homologous chromosomes

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Fertilization • Offsprings

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Nondisjunction • A pair of homologous chromosomes does not segregate properly during gametogenesis and both chromosomes of a pair end up in the same gamete • The cells usually die • If not, trisomy or monosomy occurs

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Translocation • The transfer of a piece of one nonhomologous chromosome to another – 14/21 translocation is monosomic and has only 45 chromosomes; one 14 and one 21 are missing and replaced by the translocated 14/21 – 15% of the children of carrier mothers inherit the 14/21 chromosome and have DS – Children born to fathers with 14/21 are Downic

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