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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN AS TOOL FOR TRUSTWORTHY RESEARCH E. Schurink Sanlam Centre for Public Management and Governance University of Johannesburg

ABSTRACT

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his article introduces the reader to the fundamental elements and process of a qualitative research design. It argues that a research design is more than a researcher’s plan to do qualitative research. The importance of the interrelatedness of the elements in the research undertaken is explained from an insider perspective. As a starting point and basis to understand the development of a qualitative research design, this article firstly provides background information on the meaning of design in qualitative research. Following this the theoretical approaches in qualitative research, the formulation of the research question, research strategies, the choice of a research setting or sampling, and the different qualitative research methodologies that could be followed to develop a conceptual framework for the research, are discussed. Lastly, attention is given to the importance of the research design as tool for trustworthy research.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN iterally, design is a researcher’s plan of how to execute a particular study from identifying the topic to interpreting the results. But unlike the quantitative paradigm, qualitative design is more than a plan or set of data-gathering methods. In short, if properly designed it could be used as a tool or model to help the researcher to unlock the empirical world (Taylor and Bogdan, 1984). Particularly important is that designing and executing a qualitative research study, should be treated as a process whereby the steps taken by the researcher is based on his/her assumptions of how the research question could be answered most truthfully1. These assumptions are based on the researcher’s background and knowledge and on his/her theoretical and methodological approaches. However, it is important to note that on the other hand these assumptions shape the researcher’s actions, approaches taken and the issues to be focused on. In this E. Schurink

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way a qualitative research design provides the markers, parameters and tools helping the researcher to proceed (Taylor and Bogdan, 1984). It is therefore crucial to also see the research process as a reflexive one during which the researcher critically analyses all decisions and actions taken during the execution of the study. In practice, this means that the researcher must continuously reflect upon each action taken to help him/her to gain a better understanding of the phenomenon under study, deciding whether a particular decision is the best possible step to answer the research question truthfully, and in view of the decision taken at that point decide what to do next. Etherington (2007:601) emphasises the importance of reflexivity in qualitative research by explaining that reflexivity could be regarded as: “… a tool whereby we can include our “selves” at any stage, making transparent the values and beliefs we hold that almost certainly influence the research process and its outcomes. Reflexive research encourages us to display in our writing/conversations the interactions between our selves and our participants from our first point of contact until we end those relationships, so that our work can be understood, not only in terms of what we have discovered, but how we have discovered it”. It is clear from the preceding argument that designing qualitative research is a flexible, cyclic, and ongoing process that involves moving back and forth between the different components of the design, assessing the implications of the goals set, of the theories and research approach chosen, of the research questions, methods, and the quality implications of the research (Maxwell, 2005). Not only is the character of a qualitative research design fluid but it is unique to the study. This viewpoint is in direct contrast to researchers suggesting that qualitative researchers have a choice of design2. By placing your study within a research design means that you situate it within a specific framework with interrelated assumptions, concepts, values and practices that comprise the way you think reality should be viewed (ontology) and studied (epistemology). By choosing just one design and sticking to it means that the chosen research design has to serve as an all purpose vehicle and thus be suitable for any type of research road. Given the rough terrain through which qualitative researchers have to pass, this will not always be possible. For example, although following a biographical strategy the researcher may decide to use grounded theory to analyse the data. In reality, the focus in qualitative research should rather be on the research question and the ability of the research design to clarify the research purpose and perspective, and not on choosing one design and sticking with it regardless of whether it is serving its purpose or not. It is important that the research must be designed in such a way that it opens up the inquiry, not narrow it down. The research design, therefore, outlines the possibilities of ongoing changes in the researcher’s ontology and epistemology and thus the assumptions made in the study. The design must therefore be flexible enough to allow the possibility that other conceptual frameworks could prove to be useful (Josselson, 2003). However, not following a specific recipe does not mean that the qualitative researcher has no plan on how to proceed in answering the research question. Therefore, to suggest that qualitative research does not have a design, would be misleading. Furthermore it is important to understand that the flexible nature of a qualitative research design implies that particular decisions taken during the execution of the research, such as selecting

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research participants, gathering data, and analysing data, are not as in the case of quantitative research, restricted to any particular stage of the research. It is also important to note that the qualitative paradigm is constantly in flux and changing. In an effort to answer the unanswered philosophical questions related to the representation of the ‘other’, i.e. the research participant, qualitative research has evolved in discovery and rediscovery. As qualitative researchers strive to make sense of the social world and create new knowledge or revisit what they know, new spaces, new possibilities and new formations are created for qualitative research design (Denzin and Lincoln, 2000). In order to develop a research design that could be used as a conceptual tool in the research process, it is necessary to first gain an understanding of the elements of a qualitative research design. This is the topic of the next section.

FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF A QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN The following elements can be identified: • The research approach guiding the study; • The research question to be answered; • The research strategy or reasoning to be implemented; • The research setting to be studied; and • The methods to be used to gather and analyse the data. However, to do scientific research of the highest quality it is not only important to understand the identified elements but to grasp the importance of the interrelatedness of these elements in the research design and the relationship between them. As is clear from Figure 1, the design is situated between the research question and the theoretical approach, the research strategy, research setting and the methodology of the research (Punch, 2009). This means as depicted that the research questions should be clearly related to the research approach and the research strategy to be followed. The research setting (sample) chosen and the methods of data gathering and analysis must enable the researcher to answer the research question(s) and to deal with possible threats related to the quality of the research (Maxwell, 2005). Differently stated, researchers bring their own specific beliefs to a particular study. This often includes training in a particular field, knowledge of substantive topics, a particular standpoint, and theoretical approaches or a conceptual framework. Depending on their orientation researchers have an idea or way of reasoning on how the study should proceed in order to answer the research question as truthfully as possible. The researcher will then decide who or what should be studied to obtain the best possible answer to the research question. Finally, a decision will be made on how the study will be done, in other words which methods will be used to gather and analyse the data. Although all the elements of the research design are interrelated in practice the first part of the design forms a closely knitted unit focussing on clarifying what the researcher wants to find out (Babbie, 2007). There is a direct relationship between the research E. Schurink

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question(s) the theoretical framework and the proposed research strategy. Differently stated, the research question is informed by the theoretical concepts, models and research strategies that can be applied to gain an understanding of the phenomena under study while decisions about what theory and knowledge are relevant depend on the research question. Similarly the second part of the research design forms an integrated unit focussing on the best way to do the research (Babbie, 2007). Thus, the chosen research setting and the methods of data gathering and analysis should enable the researcher to answer the research questions truthfully (Maxwell, 2005).

Figure 1: An interactive model of a research design

ONTOLOGY

Theoretical framework

Research strategy

Research question

The research setting

Methodology

EPISTEMOLOGY

In the next sections of this article a more in-depth discussion of each of the components of a qualitative research design will be provided.

Theoretical framework The theoretical framework of an empirical study refers to the system of concepts, assumptions, expectations, beliefs and theories that informs the research and is therefore a key part of the

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design (Maxwell, 2005). The function of the theoretical framework is to inform the rest of the design, to guide researchers in assessing and refining their goals, develop realistic and relevant research questions, and to guide their methodological approach. For researchers it is essential to firstly examine the foundations of their thinking. Alternative answers exist to each foundational question. Different beliefs of ontology meaning how one sees reality, and epistemology, that is how the researcher thinks social phenomena should best be studied, will influence the way that he/she will go about doing the research. The same phenomenon could thus be investigated, analysed and interpreted differently depending on the researcher’s belief of what social reality is (ontology) and how social phenomena can best be known (epistemology) (Potter, 1996). The first relevant question that the researcher should therefore ask when designing a study is: “How do I see social reality?” In this regard basic assumptions are made: Human behaviour could be explained from the outside by means of observation through the use of general scientific laws (erklaren). Or, humans are different from things; human behaviour therefore could only be understood from an insider’s point of view (emic) and by gaining insight into the meaning (verstehen) that the research participant gives to his/her lifeworld. Qualitative research aims to understand actors’ subjective meanings and interpretations to explain their behaviour (see Schwandt, 2007). However, how this insight will be gained depends on the world-views or sets of basic beliefs of a researcher on the way he/she believes the research question could be answered most truthfully. That is to generate truthful, and in the case of qualitative research trustworthy descriptions and explanations of the world. Following from this there are two basic answers namely the belief that reality should be seen objectively as an external reality ‘out there’ requiring the researcher to maintain a detached, objective position when studying it. Or the belief that there is no truth ‘out there’ and that reality is subjective and could only be constructed through the empathetic understanding of the research participant’s meaning of his/her lifeworld. Kavale (1996: 41) explains the difference between these ontological viewpoints aptly by saying: “The conception of knowledge as a ‘mirror of reality’ is replaced by the conception of the ‘social construction of reality’ where the focus is on the interpretation and negotiation of the meaning of the social world.” Behind these ontological beliefs lie different theories of epistemology or theory of knowledge and perception. There are basically three different research perspectives or approaches in qualitative research, namely: Objectivism, Realism and Constructionism (http://bgpinqmr.group.shef.ac.uk/workshop/FacilitatorsGuide2.pdf). As is clear from Table 1 each of these research perspectives has its own ontology, epistemology, methodology and methods of data collection and analysis.

Objectivism This perspective is predominant in the quantitative paradigm, however qualitative researchers (most notably realists4 ) believing that the real world should be discovered by means of a systematic methodological approach and that knowledge arises from E. Schurink

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Constructivism/ subjectivism

The story must be lifelike, evocative believable, and possible to enable readers to put themselves in the place of other/have empathy. Interviewing, participant observation, human documents, personal narratives, lived experience, poetic representations and fictional texts. Newer forms of ethnography: auto-ethnography, collaborative enquiry (PAR), personal –reflexive ethnography, narrative inquiry.

Those who are personally experiencing it construct knowledge through a process of self-conscious action.

There is no real world or truth out there only a narrative truth, reality can thus only be known by those who experience it personally.

Grounded theory.

Realism

The researcher provides insights into the behaviour expressed and the meanings and interpretations that participants give to their life-worlds.

Knowledge arises from the understanding of symbols and meaning (symbolic interactionism).

The real world could be discovered by means of a systematic, interactive methodological approach.

Objectivism

Data is gathered by means of participant observation, human documents and interviewing, and analysed systematically.

Report/ writing style

For example: Participant Observation and Interviewing.

Methods of data collection and analysis

Description of day-to-day events experienced in the field, realist tales in an authorial, supreme voice to represent and interpret the other’s story.

Methodology

For example classic ethnography and phenomenology.

Epistemology

The lifeworld of research participants could be discovered in an objective manner.

Ontology

Interpretation arises from the observation of the researcher. With the right methods meaning can be discovered.

Perspective

Table 1: Evolving research perspectives3

observation and interpretation could also be regarded as objectivists (See Schwandt, 2007). This approach is based on the belief that there is an external reality that should be studied objectively. Objectivity in this sense refers to the ability to know things as they really are. Objectivists believe that this is possible if specific methods are followed because following them will place the necessary check on subjectivity and restrain personal judgement and emotions. Method thus plays a key role in enabling the researcher to understand the meaning that people give to every day life experiences in a detached manner. Paradigms associated with objectivism are classic ethnography and phenomenology.

Realism Interpretivists believe that the method of verstehen should be centralised to reach an interpretive understanding and explanation that will enable the social researcher to appreciate the subjective meaning of social action. The assumption is thus made that reality should be interpreted through the meaning that research participants give to their lifeworld. This meaning could only be discovered through language5. Paradigms associated with interpretivism include symbolic interactionism, analytical induction and grounded theory (see Schwandt, 2007).

Constructionism Constructionists believe that there is no truth “out there”, but only a narrative reality that changes continuously. Reality can therefore only be socially and personally constructed and the participant should be actively involved in this process. Reality is thus seen as the result of constructive processes. Paradigms associated with this include newer forms of ethnography, for example, auto-ethnography, collaborative enquiry (PAR), appreciative inquiry (AI), personal-reflexive ethnography and narrative inquiry. From the above, it is clear that the theoretical framework used in designing qualitative research will depend on the researcher’s ontology. If he/she believes that scientific truth can best be discovered and the research question best be answered by studying the phenomenon objectively, the research will be designed according to the theoretical and methodological approaches of classic ethnography or phenomenology. On the other hand, if the researcher believes that the real world should be discovered and the research question answered by means of a systematic, interactive theoretical and methodological approach, grounded theory or analytical induction will be used. In the same way, the researcher’s decision to do an auto-ethnographic study will be underlined by his/her belief that the research question could best be answered by constructing knowledge through a process of self-conscious action such as writing a self narrative of some lived experiences.

Research strategy The research strategy applied by a researcher flows from the research approach taken. It is the logic of the approach or the reasoning process used to link the research question(s), E. Schurink

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methods and evidence (Schwandt, 2007). The research design is driven by the strategy (Punch, 2009). The main question when deciding on a strategy is weather it will enable the researcher to answer the research question truthfully. Researchers should change their strategies when they do not obtain sufficient data (Charmaz, 2007). In practice the following strategies as identified by Creswell (2007) or combinations of it are mostly used in qualitative research: • Biography • Ethnography • Phenomenology • Grounded theory • Case study

Biography6 Biography refers to both product and process (Schwandt, 2007). This approach is based on the assumption that the lifeworld of a person can best be understood from his or her own account and perspective, and “…thus the focus is on individual subjective definition and experience of life” (Schwandt, 2007:22). However, since an individual is part of a social and cultural world, the biographic approach seeks to interrelate these worlds. Older forms of biography include life stories and life histories mainly flowing from an objectivistic perspective. As such, the researcher needs to do the following (Cresswell, 2007). • Collect extensive information from and about the participant; • Have a clear understanding of historical, contextual material; and • Have a keen eye for determining the particular stories or angles that “work” in writing a biography. This strategy is used by the researcher to report on and document the participant’s life and his or her experiences as told to the researcher (solicited documents), or found in documents and archival material (unsolicited documents), narratives and autobiographies. More recently (1995-2000) authors like Carolyn Ellis and Arthur Bochner (1996) have started to experiment with novel forms of expressing lived experience, including literary, poetic, auto-biographical, multi-voiced, conversational, critical, visual performative, and co-constructed representations that flow from a constructivist perspective. Despite the different perspectives taken in biographical research these research strategies have one common aim namely the reconstruction of the history of a life (the unfolding of an individual’s experiences over time and in a specific culture). The methods of data collection applied here are primarily personal interviews and personal docu­ments­ (letters, diaries, etc.) with a detailed picture of an individual’s life being the product of the research.

Ethnography7 Ethnography originally stems from the objectivistic paradigm and is characterised by observation (participant observation) and description of the actions of a small number

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of participants and the meanings that they attached to their actions. The most prominent feature of ethnographic studies is describing and interpreting cultural behaviour (see Schwandt, 2007). The aspirant researcher should be acutely aware of the fact that ethnographic fieldwork is not a straightforward, unproblematic strategy whereby the researcher enters the field, collects the data and leaves the field unscathed. In fact, this type of fieldwork should rather be compared to a journey into a minefield riddled with potential moral and ethical pitfalls. According to Punch (1994: 84–85), ethnography is “…definitely not a soft option, but rather represents a demanding craft that involves both coping with multiple negotiations and continually dealing with ethical dilemmas”. Such pitfalls can, as a rule, not be identified beforehand, but have the potential to totally alter the nature of the research. Punch (1994) emphasises that this research strategy requires the qualitative fieldworker to become involved in prolonged immersion in the life of a group, community or organisation in order to discern people’s habits and thoughts as well as to decipher the social structure that binds them together. The process of gathering data in the field therefore requires time, a deep personal involvement and commitment, the ability to withstand tedious situations of prolonged drudgery and discomfort, skills to resolve conflict situations on the spot, and courage to face and deal with uncomfortable if not dangerous situations. In traditional ethnographic research qualitative researchers wrote “objective” accounts of field experiences mirroring positivism. “They were concerned with offering valid, reliable, and objective interpretations in their writings. The ‘Other’ whom they studied was alien, foreign, and strange” (Denzin and Lincoln, 2005:15). The process has been described as being typically of an ethnographer who similar to the American Lone Ranger would enter a strange territory and report back on his experiences to the “West” or the “middle class” (Seale, 2002). It is clear that the emphasis was put on the researchers’ integrity rather than on applying rigorous procedures. This traditional period has however largely fallen into disrepute because of accusations against ethnographers of supporting objectivism, complying with imperialism, believing in monumentalism (i.e. ethnography would create a museum-like picture of studied cultures) and believing in timelessness (i.e. that what was studied would never change). An important aspect of classic ethnography, which is still found today, is its interpretive methodology, which maintained the centrality of the narrated life history approach. This approach was established by the Chicago school, which the life story and the “slice-oflife” approach. This led to the production of texts that gave the researcher the power to represent the subject’s story (Denzin and Lincoln, 2005). Recent developments in ethnography stem from a constructivist perspective and have been fuelled by the postmodern period (1990-1995). New ways of composing ethnography were explored and researchers experimented with different types of research accounts to represent the “other” (see, or example, Ellis and Bochner (1996) and Ellis (2004). Furthermore, as Denzin and Lincoln (2005) state, the tendency had arisen to abandon the concept of the aloof observer. Consequently, theories were written in narrative terms as “tales of the field”, and the search for grand narratives was replaced E. Schurink

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by more local, small-scale theories fitted to specific problems and particular situations. Action, participatory and activist-orientated research came forward.

Phenomenology8 This strategy stems from the objectivistic paradigm and aims to describe what concepts and structures of experience give form and meaning to the person involved (Schram, 2006). The researcher utilising this approach brackets9 his/her own assumptions and perceptions of how everyday events are experienced in order to first gain an understanding of his/her observations. The main aim is to gain an understanding of the essence of the experiences of the research participants (Moustakas, 1994). The product of the research is a careful description of the conscious every day experiences and social action of the research participants. In order to accomplish a description of lifeworld experiences, researchers should be able to turn from things to their meaning. The researcher therefore turns away from him or herself and try to understand how the world appears to others. This is mainly done by means of naturalistic methods of study, implying that researchers must be able to distance themselves from their own judgements and preconceptions about the nature and essence of experiences and events in the everyday world (Schram, 2006). The researcher should thus assume the attitude of a “disinterested” observer. Researchers using this strategy of enquiry will mainly utilise participant observation and interviewing as methods of data collection. Data analysis is undertaken by means of an inductive and recursive process. Patterns, categories, or themes evolve as data collection proceeds. A later development originating from phenomenology is Garfinkel’s ethnomethodology. This approach draws on the resources of the phenomenological paradigm but flows from a constructionist perspective (Schwandt, 2007:97). By following this design the researcher tries to understand the meaning of the interactions people experience in everyday life. A more recent form of ethno-methodology is discourse analysis.

Grounded theory10 Grounded theory originates from the interpretivistic perspective. Much has been written about grounded theory but in a nutshell, its aim is to develop a substantive theory11 that is grounded in data (Schram, 2006). Rather than being an actual theory itself, grounded theory focuses on generating theory based on the study of social situations. Schwandt (2007:131) emphasises the fact that grounded theory is “…a specific, highly developed, rigorous set of procedures for producing formal substantive theory of social phenomena”. A distinction is made between substantive and formal theory. A substantive theory is a description and abstraction of what goes on in a particular kind of social setting, e.g. hospital wards with dying patients. Analytic abstractions are used in discussing such settings, but no claim is made that the abstractions apply to other situations. In formal theory, abstractions and hypotheses about the relationships among these abstractions are developed. These hypotheses should then explain phenomena in many kinds of settings. Formal theory is concerned with a conceptual area of study, such as deviant behaviour or organisational theory. Ideally, one should begin by developing substantive theory in a

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particular area, and then broaden it to formal theory by using several substantive theories (Schwandt, 2007). Schwandt (2007) emphasises that in the development of theory, grounded theory simultaneously employs techniques of induction, deduction and verification. In this way data generates insights, hypotheses and generative questions that the researcher follows up through further data generation that leads to tentative answers to questions and the construction of concepts which are verified by means of further data collection. According to Creswell (2007), the researcher, applying this strategy, generates an abstract analytical schema of a phenomenon, i.e. a theory that explains some action, interaction or process. This means that grounded theory employs the method of constant comparison where the new data gathered, actions observed and perceptions recorded of the participants, are constantly compared with that of new participants in order to generate theory. The researcher thus constantly asks: “How does what I already know differ from what I have now found?” The aim of this constant comparison method is to look for similarities and differences in the data. From this process the researcher identifies underlying uniformities in the indicators or incidents (actions, events, perspectives) and produces a coded category or concept. These categories are compared with one another and with new incidents to sharpen the definition of the concept and to look for possible new categories. Categories are clustered together to form themes. Theories are formed by proposing plausible relationships between themes. Tentative theories are further explored through additional instances of data and tested by means of theoretical sampling. Theoretical saturation is reached when no new categories emerge (Schwandt, 2007). Strauss and Corbin (1998) comment further that a grounded theory is discovered, developed and provisionally verified through systematic data collection and the analysis of data pertaining to that phenomenon. Therefore, data collection, analysis and theory stand in a reciprocal relationship with one another. The researcher does not begin with a theory, and then proves it; rather he/she begins with an area of study, and what is relevant to that area is gradually allowed to emerge. A systematic set of procedures is used for data collection and analysis. Data is collected by means of interviews with individuals who have participated in a process about a central phenomenon to “saturate” categories and detail a theory. Analysis takes place through open, axial and selective coding in an attempt to deliver a theory or a theoretical model as the product of the research. A grounded theory is one that is systematically developed from the data inductively derived from the study of phenomena. Extending through the post-war years, the 1970s, the mid-1980s, to the work of many contemporary qualitative scholars grounded theory is part of the moment or phase coined by Denzin and Lincoln (2005) as modernist. Modernism is characterised by the interpretation of reality by means of formalised qualitative methods and rigorous data analysis (e.g. analytical induction and grounded theory). Examples of this perspective include the symbolic interactionist perspective as reflected in the well-known textbooks and works of amongst others, Filstead (1970), Bogdan and Biklen (2003), Bogdan and Taylor (1975), Taylor and Bogdan (1998), Glaser and Strauss (1967) and Lincoln and Guba (1985). Knowledge is built by analysing symbols and meaning. E. Schurink

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Case study12 According to Creswell (2007), a case study can be regarded as an exploration or in-depth analysis of a “bounded system” (bounded by time and/or place), or a single or multiple case, over a period of time. The case being studied may refer to a process, activity, event, programme or individual or multiple individuals. It might even refer to a period of time rather than a particular group of people. Different to the other methodological frameworks the case study strategy is more of a choice of what to study than a methodological one. This becomes clear by looking at its ability to adapt to all the theoretical approaches and methodological frameworks such as life history, phenomenology, grounded theory and ethnographic research. However “… whether you consider case study as a way of conceptualizing human behaviour or merely as a way of encapsulating it, its strategic value lies in its ability to draw attention to what can be learned from the single case” (Schram, 2006). The exploration and description of the case takes place through detailed, in-depth data collection methods, involving multiple sources of information that are rich in context. These may include interviews, documents, observations or archival records. As such, the researcher needs access to, and the confidence of participants. The product of this research is an in-depth description of a case or cases. The researcher situates this system or case within its larger context, but the focus remains on either the case or an issue that is illustrated by it (Creswell 2007). Schram (2006) refers to three types of case study, all having different purposes: • The intrinsic case study which is solely focused on the aim of gaining a better understanding of the particular case. • The instrumental case study which is used to provide insight into or elaborate on a theory or to gain a better understanding of a social issue through studying the case. This case study merely serves the purpose of facilitating the researcher’s gaining of knowledge about a social issue. • The collective case study is an instrumental case study extended to a number of cases. The focus is on further the understanding or theorising of the researcher about a general phenomenon or condition. Cases are chosen so that comparisons can be made between cases and concepts and in this way theories can be extended and validated. In concluding this discussion of qualitative research strategies, it is important to note that researchers need to think through the implications of their chosen strategy for their studies. Maxwell (2005: 102) states: “To design a workable and productive study, and to communicate this design to others, you need to create a coherent design, one in which the different methods fit together compatibly, and in which they are integrated with the other components of your design. The most critical connection is with your research questions … If your methods won’t provide you with the data you need to answer your questions, you need to change either your questions or your methods”. Finally, the crucial point as indicated by Mason (1996:33) is: “The big questions about research strategy, and the logic and principles of your methodology, really do need to be

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addressed right from the beginning, so that you are equipped to make further strategic decisions when the right time comes”.

Research questions Research questions form the backbone of the research design (Mason 2002:19). Research questions should be clearly related to the theoretical approach taken, the research strategy, research setting (sample) chosen and the methods of data gathering and analysis. The research design should enable the researcher to answer the research question(s) and to deal with possible threats related to the quality of the research (Maxwell, 2005). Other factors that may influence the research question include personal interest and expertise, ethical standards, and other practical considerations such as available resources. Mason (1996:15-16) provides the following description of a research question: “A research question is a question which the research is designed to address … and, taken together, your research questions should express the essence of your enquiry. Therefore, you need to have done a great deal of thinking about the essence of your enquiry in the sense of its ontology, its epistemology, and most importantly its intellectual puzzle13, in order to be able to formulate research questions sensibly and coherently”. When constructing a research question it is important to address the intellectual and theoretical relevancy and contributions of the study. “Research questions should be clearly formulated (whether or not you intend to modify them or add to them later), intellectually worthwhile, and researchable (both in terms of your epistemological position, and in practical terms), because it is through them that you will be connecting what it is you wish to research with how you are going to go about researching it “(Mason, 2002:19-20). A research question usually originates from a research idea. It is an idea or a notion about what to study. The real challenge, however, is to take an idea and transform it into a research problem or research question. The decision to address a particular research question can either be practical, triggered by some need identified in practice (e.g. at one’s workplace), theoretical or personal. It is important …” to be aware of these goals and how they may be shaping your research, and to think about how best to achieve them and to deal with their influence” (Maxwell, 2005:19). The purpose of the research will indicate whether the answer to the research question requires any of the following activities: an exploration, description, explanation, evaluation, or a combination of these types (Auriacombe, 2005). Once a researcher has formulated a research question he/she is ready to take decisions regarding the research setting and data collection and analysis phases of the research process.

Research setting This section deals with the issue where or with whom the data is located. Consequently, the problem of what/who, or the “unit of analysis” in the study is also dealt with here. Is it an individual, a group, a work team or an organisational unit? Or is the data archival E. Schurink

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by nature, located somewhere in the organisation’s information system? The source of the data should be carefully described. It is important to note that in qualitative research the researcher is not only sampling people but also settings, events and processes (Maxwell, 2005:87). Selecting a research setting will to a large extent be influenced by the researcher’s theoretical approach, strategy of enquiry and research question. A crucial step when preparing for collecting data about a particularly social reality is to identify and decide which boundaries/parameters will be used for data collection and the method of data analysis envisaged – that is, decide how the sample is going to be framed and developed. Different to quantitative sampling which is concerned with representativeness, qualitative research requires that the data to be collected must be rich in description of people and places (Patton, 1990:169). As a general guideline for sampling, qualitative researchers will therefore typically seek out groups and settings where the process to be studied is most likely to occur (Marshal and Rossman, 1995). For these reasons the qualitative researcher will use purposive sampling methods by identifying access points (settings where research participants could be more easily reached) and selecting especially informative ones. Purposeful sampling is thus a “strategy in which particular settings, persons, or events are deliberately selected for the important information they can provide that cannot be gotten as well from other choices” (Bickman and Rog, 2009:235). The goal of purposive sampling is to sample cases or participants in such a way that the sample is relevant to understand the phenomenon being studied and answering the research question as truthfully as possible. Following the typology of qualitative sampling developed by Patton (1990) the following categories of purposeful selection are mostly used by qualitative researchers (Punch, 2009):

Snowball or chain reference sampling Information-rich participants, settings and events are identified by research informants/ members of the same group or subculture.

Theoretical Sampling According to Glaser and Strauss (1967) theoretical sampling is the process of data collection for generating theory. Bryman (1988) stresses the fact that qualitative sampling follows a theoretical rather than a statistical logic. In this regard, Mason (1996: 93-94) states: “Theoretical sampling means selecting groups or categories to study on the basis of the relevance to your research questions, your theoretical position...and…the explanation or account which you are developing”. Additional events, activities participants and incidents are therefore specifically chosen to further the development and testing of emerging theoretical constructs. New cases are continuously analysed and compared to the older ones until theoretical saturation is reached (Schwandt, 2007). This means that the specific category is well developed in terms of its properties and no new or relevant data is emerging for the further development of the category.

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Extreme or deviant case sampling This implies that deviant cases are chosen where the researcher deliberately seeks for negative instances as defined by the developing theory. Choosing the setting, population or phenomenon of interest is crucial to the study’s design and shapes all subsequent decisions (Marshall and Rossman, 1995). Qualitative research could be site-specific such as a study of a particular programme, process, organization, place, and region, or could be conducted in various sites. In cases where a particular setting is decided upon information needs to be provided outlining why the particular setting is more appropriate than others to be studied. When the study focuses on a particular group of people, the researcher should present a selection strategy for selecting that group. Once the initial decision has been taken to focus the study on a specific site, a phenomenon, or social group, various subsequent selection decisions need to be taken to ensure the “information richness” of the data. The qualitative research design allows for far greater flexibility in sampling than the quantitative research paradigm does. To answer the research question, researchers therefore may, as they gain more insight and as a theory emerges, redefine their sample. For example a researcher changing his or her sample during a study of the impact of downsizing on an organization may start off interviewing employees, but by realising the negative impact of downsizing on the worker’s family members, may extend the study to gain an insight into their experiences as well. The size or nature of the sample may change as new factors emerge that should be included, deviant cases are added to develop the theory further; and when the need arises to test the theory.

Methodology This is a theory of how inquiry should proceed (Schwandt, 2007:193). Commitment to a particular methodological frame of reference will influence and inform the study in very specific ways (Schram, 2006). Therefore there should be a synthesis between one’s theoretical framework, research strategy, and methodology and the methods one chooses to gather and analyse data. For example, if you are a constructionist who believes that reality can only be known by those who experience it personally and that social reality should be constructed through a process of self-conscious action, you will conduct interviews in a different manner and analyse them differently than someone who believes that the real world could be discovered by means of a systematic, interactive methodological approach making use of symbols to discover meaning. According to Mason (1996), the key tasks researchers need to perform during the research design stage as it relates to methodology are not only to decide upon appropriate methods and data sources, but also to reach an understanding of the methodological implications of their choices. Particularly important here is establishing the links between research questions and research methods. A researcher needs to be clear about how and why a particular method and data source will assist him or her to address research questions rather than assuming that a particular method will be emphatically enough to E. Schurink

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provide the researcher with the information needed. In addition, the researcher has to specify what he/she regards as constituting knowledge or evidence relevant to his/her research questions (Mason, 1996). Qualitative researchers rely on the following primary methods to gather information: (i) participant observation of the setting under study/ research participants’ activities, (ii) interviewing, (iii) using documents (solicited and/or unsolicited and visual), and (iv) auto-ethnography. You need to indicate and motivate which of these method(s) you plan to utilise. These methods are all methods in their own right (Marshall and Rossman, 1995). Another related exercise researchers need to consider is how the researcher envisages sorting, organising, indexing and analysing his/her collected data. There are various ways of making sense of soft data. While it is not the aim of this article to discuss these, it is important to realise the logical connection between one’s research questions and one’s selection, data collection and data analysis decisions In this regard. Maxwell (2005:102103) emphasises the importance of assessing the compatibility of the research questions and methods of data gathering and analysis.

CONCLUSION esigning qualitative research is a unique process. The product of this process is a conceptual framework that is used as a research tool not only to guide the researcher in his/her research process but to also to manage the research process and to do the internal audit14 The writing up of audit trail, natural history or research story has become increasingly important since the notion of developing criteria of soundness to meet the approval of all qualitative researchers has today to a large extent been discarded, or as Schwandt (2007) states, qualitative researchers have gone beyond it. This does however, not mean that qualitative research has become unscientific and that anything now goes. In fact doing an audit trail should ensure that the research product is developed and produced in the tensional field of (theoretical, conceptual, practical and methodological) creativity and (methodological) rigour in studying phenomena. Therefore, quality should be located in the tensional field between being rigorous and being flexible (Flick, 2007). Since a clear and universal solution to the quality question, or criteria for good qualitative research has to date not been attainable, researchers started to increasingly apply strategies to promote quality in the research process. Thus the notion of management of the research process and transparency with specific reference to the auditing trail and reflexivity has become an important strategy to ensure quality research. Continuous reflection on a researcher’s ontology, epistemology, theoretical framework research questions, methodology, quality of the study and ethical considerations represents a refinement process whereby the different elements of the research design are integrated with each other to form the researcher’s conceptual framework for the study. This framework could be used as a research tool intended to order the researcher’s thinking, decision making and actions taken during the entire research process. The

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researcher’s conceptual framework is the heart of the study and it guides the research process from the beginning to the end by providing clear links from the literature to the research goals and questions, informing the research design, providing reference points for discussion of literature, methodology and analysis of data, and contributing to the trustworthiness of the study (Goetz and LeCompte, 1984). Developing the research design as conceptual tool could also assist researchers in accomplishing the difficult task of writing up the research story since it encourages them to undertake and record a continuous critical analysis of their thinking and feelings concerning their research questions; methods; values and biases; and awareness of their presence in the very situations they want to study as well as of the inter-subjective dynamics between themselves as researchers and the research they are conducting. Bogdan and Biklen (1998:50) write in this regard: “How (qualitative researchers) proceed is based on theoretical assumptions (that meaning and process are crucial in understanding human behavior, that descriptive data are what is important to collect, and that analysis is best done inductively), on data-collection traditions (such as participant observation, unstructured interviewing, and document analysis) and on generally stated substantive questions. In addition, all researchers bring their own specific backgrounds to a study. This often includes training in a particular field, knowledge of substantive topics, a particular standpoint, and theoretical approaches. This shapes what approaches are taken and what issues are focused on. These markers provide the parameters, the tools, and the general guide of how to proceed”. However, what is even more important is that the audit trail could make an important methodological contribution in that other researchers can learn from it. More specifically, it could help inexperienced researchers to begin to understand their own philosophy of social research and to establish congruence between the means of investigating the situation (methodology), the nature of the situation’s reality (ontology) and the form of the knowledge (epistemology) suited to the research and thus to gain insight in the research process and to enhance the quality of their study. In this way a qualitative study can become a building block of science. Using the research design as a model for research it could thus help to solve one of the prickliest issues in qualitative research namely the transferability of a study’s findings.

NOTES 1 According to Mouton (2002) knowledge is regarded as truthful when there is enough evidence to believe that it is an accurate representation or explanation of a phenomenon. 2 For example Tesch (1990) identifies 28 different approaches; Miller and Crabtree (1992) identify 18 types, using a different system of classification, while many other authors merely assess a single tradition (Strauss and Corbin, 1990; Moustakas, 1994 and Stake, 2000). Creswell (2007) identifies five traditions of inquiry, selecting those which, according to him, represent different disciplines, have detailed procedures and, most important, have proved to be popular and frequently used. 3 An expansion of Schurink’s table (1998). 4 See Schwandt (2007: 256-258). 5 See Schwandt (2007: 314-317) for further explanation.

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6 For more information, see Andrews, Sclater, Suire and Tamboukou (2004), Cortazzi (2002), and Plummer (2001). 7 For further information on ethnography see Agar (1996), Atkinson, Coffey and Delamont (2003), Atkinson and Hammersley (1994), Wolcott (1999), and Zou and Trueba (2002). 8 For further information on phenomenology see Benner (1994), Cohen and Omery (1994), Giorgi (1997), Holstein and Gubrium (1994), Seidman (1998), and Van Maanen (1997). 9 Bracketing refers to the means by which researchers try not to allow their assumptions, understanding and constructions to shape their data collection process (Aheren, 2007:130). 10 For further information and clarification, see Bogdan and Biklen (2003), Morse, Noerager Stern, Corbin, Bowers, Charmaz and Clarke, (2009), Clarke (2003), Glaser (1978, 1992), Piantanida, Tananis and Grubs (2004), and Strauss and Corbin (1998). 11 See Schwandt (2007) for an explanation of substantive theory. 12 For more information see Starke (2000) and Yin (1994). 13 “Intellectual puzzles can and do take a variety of forms connected to the ontological and epistemological positions encapsulated in the research, and grounded within the specific context of their research problem. It is also the case that different theoretical and intellectual traditions in the social sciences are preoccupied with different kinds of intellectual puzzle, and consequently different kinds of social explanation” (Mason 1996:15). 14 That is, a systematically maintained documentation process of the researcher’s continuous critical analysis of all decisions and actions taken during the entire research process (Flick 2007).

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