25 Ecclesiastes

II

I 979

INTRODUCTION TO

ECCLESIASTES T he title of this short boo k reads: 'The Wo rds o f Qo helet h, son of David , king in Je rusalem'. 'Qoheleth', cf. 1:2 a nd 12 ; 7:27 ; 12:8-10, is no t a proper nam e bu t a co mmon no un , so met imes preceded by the de finite article; th ou gh fem inine in form it is treated as a masculin e. The most likely ex planation is t ha t Q o helct h indica tes the funct ion o f one who speaks in th e assem bly (qahal; in Greek the ek k lcsia , he nce the book's Latin a nd English tit le transliterated from th e Greek Bible) ; it cou ld therefore be rendered: th e Preacher. T his Preacher is ca lled 'son of Davi d and king in Jeru sa lem', 1:12, an d there is no doubt that he is identified with So lomo n to wh om the text makes clear refere nce, 1:16 (cf. I K 3:12 ; 5: 10-/1; 10:7) a nd 2:7-q (cf. I K 3: 13; 10:23), t hou gh the nam e is not men tioned. T his, howeve r, is no mor e than a convent ional litera ry device; the a uthor co mmends his thou gh ts to th e pu blic under the na me of the greatest sage in Israel. T he boo k's vocab ulary a nd sty le, as a lso its doct rine of which we sha ll spea k lat er, mak e it imposs ible to da te it be fo re t he Exile. It has often been ma intained t hat the a uthor is not one but man y, that two, thr ee, fo ur or even eight ha nds ca n be detected . But there is a growing disl ike fo r an y d issection tha t bet rays a misunders tand ing of the boo k's lite ra ry form and of its theme.

II

As with the other Wisd om Books such as Jo b and Ecclesias ticus, not to mention th e composite Boo k of Pro verbs, th e theme progresses fitfull y: th e idea is stat ed , repeated , amended. T here is no defined plan here, rath er vari at ion s on a singl e th eme, the emptiness of th ings h um an , which is enunciat ed at th e beginning of th e book , I:2, a nd at th e end, 12:8. Kno wledge, wealth, love, life itsel f, all these th ings are illuso ry. Life is no more tha n a successio n of unrela ted and meanin gless events, 3: I-I I, end ing in senility, 12: I-7, and death befalli ng wise a nd foo lish, rich an d poor, man and beast a like, 3: 14-20 . Qo heleth's p ro blem is the sa me as J ob's: do virtu e a nd vice get t heir dese rts on thi s earth? Both Qoheleth and Job answer: No . Experience gives th e lie to t he co nvent ional a nswer, 7:25-8: 14. But, unli ke Job who seeks a mea ning for his sufferings, Qoheleth enjoys good healt h yet disco ver s th at happi ness itself is an empty thing and consoles himsel f with t he limited joys that life has to offer, 3:12- 13; 8:15 ; 9:7-9. Or ra the r he t ries to co nso le himself, for indeed his fail ure is as evident at the end as at the beginning. He taxes his bra in over t he pro blem of a fut ure life, but in vain, 3:21; 9: 10; 12:7. A nd yet he has fa ith in God : th e ways of God to man may dismay him, but G od, he says, do es not need to justify t hem , 3:11,14 ; 7:13, while man for his pa rt must resign himself to accepting th e sor ro ws and joys tha t God send s, 7: 14, in bad times and good keeping the commandments and obeying a God who reads th e hum a n hea rt, 12:13- 14, cf. 9: 1.

IN T ROD U C T ION TO E C CLE S I A S T ES

T he doctrine as we have stated it is drawn from the whole book, including the las t few ver ses which raise doubts even among those who maintain th e un ity of authorship . And indeed its incoherency is obvious. Rather than explain the self-corrections and self-contradictions by a plurality of authors, it would seem preferable to attribute them to the osc illation of one man's mind confro nted with a mystery of mysteries and lack ing the data for a solution. No ans wer could satisfy either Qoheleth or Job but that of reward and punishment beyond the grave, cf. Introduction to Wisdom Books. This book has the characteristics of a per iod of tr ansition. The old conventio nal con victions have been shaken and as yet nothing has taken their place . Hebrew thought is here at the crossroad s and foreign influence on Qoheleth's thi nking has been the object of recent study. Scholars hav e looked to Egypt with its Dialogue of the Man weary of life with his soul and the Sad Songs of the Harpists; they have seen the influence of G reec e (exercised through the Egypt o f the hellen istic period) with its Stoic , Epi curea n, and Cynic philosophies. No detailed comparison carries convi ction b ut all br eat he the sa me at mos phere. Qoheleth is a Palestinian Jew but, being a sage by profession, he is alive to international thought and sensitive to foreign influ ence. We hav e here th e first tho ugh indirect contact with hellenism. T his dates the book. It must ha ve been writt en at some time in th e 3rd century B.C., d ur ing the G reek per iod bu t before the time of t he Maccabees when fre sh fa ith an d a new hope ca me to Isra el. Palestme was then under the suzerainty of th e Ptol emies and therefore orientated towards Alexandria. Ecclesiastes represents only one stage in the religious development of Israel; it cannot be assessed in isolation from what has go ne befo re and what will follow. By underlini ng the inadequacies of earl ier notion s and by compelling reco nsideration of the human enigma, it exposes th e need of a new revelat ion. It warns aga inst attachment to the goods of thi s world and, by den ying that the rich are happy, prepares the world for hearing that ' blessed are the poor' , Lk 6:20.

a::

iii

'"&5

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w

I' 98 1

III

94 : 1 1

R m S:20

1

T he word s o f Qo hclc t h« so n o f Dav id, kin g in Jerusalem ." • Va n ity o f va nities ,' Qo hclct h says . Va nity o f va n ities. A ll is va nity! • Fo r all h is to il, his to il u nde r th e sun, what d oes man ga in by it ?

PART

II

14

ONE

S i 40: 11

Pr 27:20 2: 12: 3:15: 6: 10 2: 16

W s 2:4

A ge ne rat ion goes, a ge ne ra tio n co me s, yet the ea rth sta nds firm fo r ever. 4 T he sun rises, th e sun se ts ; t hen to its plac e it s peeds a nd th e re it rises. - So ut hward ~ goe s t he wind , th e n tu rn s to t he no rth ; it turn s a nd tu rn s aga in ; back t he n to its circl ing go es t he wind . • Into th e sea a ll the rivers go, and yet th e sea is neve r filled, a nd still to t heir goa l t he river s go . • A ll th in gs are wea risome. N o man ca n sa y' t ha t eyes ha ve no t had eno ugh of see ing, ears the ir fill o f hea rin g. • W hat was will be aga in; w hat ha s been done will be don e aga in; a nd th er e is not hi ng new un de r the su n.• Ta ke a nyt hing of which it may be sa id, ' Loo k no w, t his 10 is new '. A lrea dy, lon g before o ur time, it exis ted . -Only no mem o ry rema ins II o f ea rlier tim es, just as in times to co me next year itself will no t be rem ember ed .

The career of Solomon!

.1: 10 G n 3: 17· 19

I, Qo hclc th, have re igned in J e rusa le m ov e r Israel. - W it h t he hel p o f wisdom I ha ve bee n at pains to study a ll that is done unde r hea ve n ; oh , wha t a weary task G od has give n mank ind to lab our at ! · 1 ha ve seen every t hing th a t is don e under t he sun, a nd wha t va nity it al l is, what c has ing of t he wind! "

7: 13

I K 3:12 : 5:9- 10 : 10: 1-[ 3 S i 47: 14· 18

Wh at is twi st ed cann ot be st ra ig hte ned, wh a t is no t t her e ca nno t be counted . , t ho ug ht to m yse lf, " ha ve acq u ired a g rea te r stoc k o f wisdo m t han a ny o f my pred ecessors in Je rusa lem. , ha ve grea t expe rien ce of wisd o m a nd learn ing.' W isd om has been m y ca re ful study ; st u pid ity, too , and folly . A nd no w I hav e come to reco gn ise that eve n thi s is c hasing o f t he wind .

Ws H: 16

P r 14:1 3

1 K 11: 1-3 1 K 3: 13 : 7: 1-12

M uc h wisdom, mu ch gri ef , the mo re k no wled ge, the more sorrow.

2

I t ho ug ht to m yself, 'V e ry we ll, , will t ry pleasure an d see what e nj o yme nt has to o ffe r ' . A nd t he re it wa s: va nity ag a in! -T h is la ughte r, , reflected , is a ma dn ess, th is plea su re no usc at all. · 1 reso lved to ha ve my bod y c hee red wit h wine, my heart still de vot ed to wisdo m ; I reso lved to e mbrace fo lly to see wha t ma de ma nkind happy, a nd wha t me n do und er hea ven in the few da ys th ey ha ve to live . · 1 d id gr eat t hings: bui lt myse lf palaces, p lan ted vi neya rd s; - rnadc

lj 14

15

16

17

1H

2

1 K 9:28: 10

1 K 10:2 3

1:9

Jn 8:12 + l Jn 2:10-1 1

No doubt! But I know, to o , that o ne fat e a wa its them both . · ' T he fo o l's fa te' I thought to myse lf 'will be m y fat e too . O f what use my wisdom, th en ? This, 16 too,' I thought 'is van ity.' -Since the re is no lasting memory fo r wise ma n o r fo r fool, and in the days to co me both will be fo rgo tten; wise man, a las, no 17 less than fool must d ie.• Life I have co me to hate, for wh at is do ne under the I X sun disgusts me, since all is vanity and chasing of the wind . · AlI I ha ve toiled \'/ for a nd now bequeat h to my successo r I ha ve co me to hate ; - who kn ows wh ether he will be a wise man or a fool? Yet he will be master of all th e work into whi ch 20 I have put my efforts a nd wisdom under t he sun. T ha t, too, is van ity. -And hence I ha ve come to despair of all the effo rts I ha ve expended under th e sun. 2 1 Fo r so it is t hat a man who has la bo ured wisely, ski lfu lly and successfully must leave what is his ow n to someon e who ha s n ot to iled fo r it at a ll. T his, too, 22 is va nity and great inj ustice ; -Ior wha t does he gain for all the toil and strain lJ t hat he has undergo ne under t he su n? • What of a ll his laborious days, his cares o f office, his restless nights? T his , too , is van ity . 24 T here is no ha ppiness for man but to eat and dr ink a nd to be co ntent wi th 25 his wo rk . c T his , to o , I see as so me th ing from God 's hand, -si nc e plen ty a nd 2( , penury- both co me from God ; - wisdorn, knowledge, jo y, he gives to t he man who pleases him ; on th e sinner la ys t he ta sk o f gat her ing a nd stori ng u p for a no t he r wh o is pleasing to God .' T his, too, is van ity a nd chasing of the wi nd.

1 a . 'Q oh c le t h ' o r ' Ecclesiaste s' ; the pe rson age of the asse mb ly IHe b r . aahat, Greek ekk lesiat , i.e . the Presiden t o r P re acher ; or possibly t he sp o kes ma n fo r (he assem b ly. per so n ifica tion of th e Public wh ich . wea ried of co nve nt iona l teac hi ng, is no w it self goi ng to cla im a hearing . b. Li ter ar y fiction iden tif yin g [h e au th or with So lom on, model of sages. I K 5:9- 14 . c . T he trad it iona l 'v a n ity' is ret a ine d he re : the He br . term mean s primarily ' m is t' , ' br ea th'. o ne o f (he tr adition al grou p of im a ges (wa ter, shadow. smo ke. e t c. ) use d in Hebr. poetry to describe th e t ra nsit o ry natu re of man . But in Qo th e wo r d ha s los t th is sense and shm ifies on ly th e ill usory n ature of t h in gs a nd hence t he de lusio ns to whic h they subject mankind . d. The det er mi nism of th e cosmos. the mono ton ou s framework of h uman life . T his wea r ies Q o hel et h wh ile excit ing Job to wo nde r a nd a dor ati on (Jb 38-40 : a nd d . Ps 104). e. Or ' a ll is (m ore) wea r iso m e (t han) m an ca n sa y': t his would chan ge the mean in g: o f what foll o ws: 'The eyes h ave not seen e no ugh and the ear s ha ve no t heard the ir fill' .

1 Ch 27:27

10:2

T he wise man sees ahead, t he fo o l walks in the dark .

IS

Prologue" S i 14; 18

2:26

myself gardens a nd orchards, planting eve ry kind of frui t tree in them. - I had pools made for wate ring t he pla nta tio ns; - bo ught me n slaves, wo me n slav es; had ho me-born sla ves as well ; he rds a nd floc ks I had too, mo re t ha n a nyone in Je rusa lem befo re me.• I amassed silve r a nd go ld , t he tre as u res of kings and pro vinces; acq uired singing me n a nd singing wo me n a nd every human luxury, 9 chest on chest" of it. •So I gr ew great, g reat e r t ha n a nyo ne in Je rusalem before 10 me ; no r d id my wisdom leav e me. -I de nied my eyes no th ing t hey de sired, refused my heart no plea sure, a hea rt t hat found a ll m y ha rd work a pleasure ; I I su ch was t he ret u rn I got for all m y effo rts. - I then reflected o n all t ha t m y hands had ach ieved and o n all t he effo rt I ha d put in to it s ac hieving. What vanity it a ll is, a nd ch as ing of the wind ! T here is no t hi n g to be ga ined under the sun . 12 My reflections t hen turned to wisd om, st u pi d ity, folly. b F o r instance, what \) ca n t he succe sso r of a ki ng do ? W ha t ha s bee n do ne already. - More is to be had fro m wisdom than fro m fo lly, as fro m lig ht t han fro m darkness; t his , of co u rse, I see:

ECCLESIASTES 12:X Ps 62:9:

ECCLE SIA ST E S

f . So lomo n h im~ l f, fo r all h is p omp. I K 10:4f. a nd desp ite h is wisdo m . was nOI tr uly happy. ~ . I.e. useless effort , waste o f tim e .

2

a . The meanin g o f t he word in po st- biblic al Hebr. O the rs interpret ' a pri ncess, p rincesses ' o r ' a co nc ubine. co ncu bines' , alluding to So lo mo n' s ha re m . b. W isd om a nd fo lly . of co urse . a rc o f m or e a nd less wo rt h ; but wisdo m does no t sec ure a progeny to be proud o f or a last tn g mem o r y ; nor d oc s it absolve fr o m deat h . Hence, wh y s ho u ld th e wiscc man bot her abou t e ithe r? c . T he ma xim . ep icur ean in flavo ur . is ad d uce d for t he sake of at gumen t : th ou gh t he a u thor uses it as a refr ain . 5: 17 : 8: 15 : 9:7. it does not re present h is who le view o f life : he is no t rccommendlna pleasure. to the ex clusio n of du ty. as t he u lt imat e m ot ive o f human ac ts . d. Tex t co rr . c. Suc h wa s th e ex pla na tio n of t he sages for th e p rob lem of the p rosper ou s wicked . d. P r 11:8 : 13:2 2 : Jb 27: 16f. Qohelcth co m ments iro nica lly o n the insuffici ency of th is doctrine.

6:8 (f)

1: 11 Ws2:4 5 1 44:8- 15

11l

Ps 49:10 6:2

(f)

~

-

U

w

5 1 11: 18f

Ps 39:6 7:2 SI40:5 -6

)b

3: 12-1 3.22 : 5: 17 : 8: IS : 9:7-8 Ps 127:2 5i 14: 14 SI I:IO 27: 16- 17 Pr 1): 22

)b

II I (

3: I

ECCLESIASTE S

9 8]

98 2

Death" SilL45 :

3

The re is a seaso n for everything, a time for every occupation under heave n:

I

A time for giving birt h, a time for dying ; a time for plant ing, a time for uprooting what has been plan ted . A time for killing, a time for healing ; a time for knocking down, a time for building. A time for tears, a time for laugh ter ; a time for mourning, a time for da ncing. A time for throwi ng sto nes away, a time for gathering them up; a lime for embracing, a time to refrai n from em brac ing. A time for searching, a time for losing; a time for keepi ng, a time for th rowing away. A time for tearing, a time for sewing; a time for keep ing silent, a time for speaki ng. A time for loving, a time for ha ting ; a time for war , a time for peace.

I I

) ,,.I

What does a man gain for the efforts that he makes? -I contemplate the task tha t God gives mankind to labour at. · AlI that he doc s is apt for its time ; but though he has permitted man to consider time in its who leness, I, man cann ot comprehend the work of God from beginni ng to end . I know ther e is no happiness for man except in pleasure and enjoyment while 2:24 + he Jives. -And when man eats and dr inks and finds happiness in his work, thi s is a gift from G od. ~1~U: I know that what God does he doe s consistently.« To this not hing can be added, fro m this noth ing taken away; yet God sees to it that men fear him. • Wha t 1:9 is, al ready was ; what is to be, has been already ; yet God cares for the persecuted. 4 :1.3 : 5:7 But I still observe that under the sun crime is where law should be, the cr iminal where the good shoul d be. · 'God' I thought to myself 'will judge both virtuo us and cr iminal , because the re is a time here for all that is purp osed or done.' .1 also thought that mankind behav es like this so tha t God may show them up for what Ps 49:12 ,20 they a re, and expose the m for the brute beasts they arc to each oth er. -I ndeed, 9:4 the fate of man a nd beast is identical ; one dies, the other too, and both have the selfsame breath ; man has no advantage over the beast, for all is vanity. G n 2:7 ; 3:19 J b 34:15 Both go to the sam e place; both originate from the d ust and to the dust bo th 12:7 return. •Who knows if the spiri t of man mounts up ward or if the spirit of the Jb 14: 10 Pr 15:24 beast goes down to the earth?« Si 16:29 I see there is no ha ppiness for man but to be happy in his work, for thi s is 2:26~i2 the lot assigned him. Who then can bring him to sec what is to happen a fter his time? 1:13 : 8:1 7: 11:5 Ps 139:17 Sl 11:4: 18:6 Is 55:8·9 R m 11:33

ECCLES I ASTES

5:5

Societ y" I come aga in to contemplate all the oppression that is committed under the sun . Take for instance the tears of the oppressed, with no one to prote ct them ; the power their oppressors wield . N o one to prot ect them! -So, rather than the living who still have lives to live, I salute the dead who have already met death ; •hap pier tha n both of these is he who is yet unb orn and has not seen the evil things that are done unde r the sun. • I see that all effort and all achievement spring fro m men's mutu al jealousy. This, too, is vanity and chasing of the wind.

4

1

2

3

4

The fool folds his ar ms a nd cats his own flesh away.

3:16: 5:7

Jb 3:11 -23 : 10:18-22

6:3

Jr 20:17,18 3:16

Pr 6:9_11

- Bett er one handful of repose tha n two hands full of effort

10 11

12

in chasing the wind. •And I observe another vanity unde r the sun : -a man is quite alone-no son , no bro ther ; and yet there is no end to his efforts, his eyes can never ha ve their fill of riches. For whom , then, do I work so hard and grudge myself plea sure? This, too, is van ity, a sorry business. Bett er two than one by himself, since t hus their work is rea lly pro fitable. If on e sho uld fall, the oth er helps him up; bu t woe to the man by himself with no one to help him up when he falls do wn. -A gai n: they keep warm who sleep two together, but how can a man keep warm alone? •Where one alone would be overc ome, two will put up resistance ; an d a threefold cord is not quickly broken.

15

16

15 11

17

12

who will no longer ta ke advi ce. -T he lad may well step fro m prison to the th ron e, or have been born a beggar in the kingdom he now owns. ·1 observe that all who live and move under the sun side with that lad, the usurp er who has succeeded. He takes his place at the head of innumerable subjects ; sad , if later no one has cause to be glad of him. This too , most cer ta inly, is vanit y and chasing of the wind. When you go to the Te mple, be on your guard . Go near so that you can hear ; the sacr ifice is more valuable than the offering of fools, even if they are un aware of doi ng wrong . Be in no hurry to spea k ; do not hastily declare yoursel f befor e G od ; for God is in heaven , you on earth. Be spa ring, then , of speech:

5

13

Dreaming co mes from much worryin g, foo lish talk from a multiplicity of wor ds.

14 15 3 16

4

17

5

18

If you make a vow to God, discharge it without delay, for God has no love for fools. Dischar ge your vow. • Better a vow unmade than made and not discharged. Do not allow your own words to brin g guilt on you, nor tell your angel afterwards it was uni ntent ional. " W hy should a word o f yours give Go d occasion to be ang ry, a nd destroy what you r han ds have worked for?

19

3

20 21

22

a. H alf man 's occupations are ill-om en cd , ha lf h is th an th e co m mon lo t ; moral co nside ra tio ns a rc Ir r eleact ivities have LO do with sorrow. D ea th cast s its shad o w va nt. T he fa te o f m an and beast is iden tical. Even on life. wh ich is a ser ies of contradic tory acts, vv. I-S. in the realm of ju st ice. migh t is t he cr iterio n o f right. wit ho ut any ot her goal . vv, 9- 13. than deat h, itsel f VV . 16,I H. t ho ug h G o d h imself s ho ws pr eference for th e weak , v, I Sb. mea n tngtc ss. vv. 14-22. d . Th is pas sin g do ub t is en ou gh to inv est d eath b . Or ' G o d has set eternity in thei r he art' . Thi s with terror. T he conclu di ng word s of the b ook are less phrase. ho wever, is not to be taken in t he C h rist ia n sens e ; it mea ns s im ply: God has given the hu m a n he art wild: th e life of man ret urn s to God who ga ve it , 12:7. (m ind) awar eness of
'"~ '"~

Better a lad beggarl y yet wise, than a king old yet foolish

13

14

Pr 18:19 Si 6:14 Lk 10:1

S1 1I :5

Si 7:14 : IB: 23 M 16:7 P r 10:19

Lv 27:1 + Nb 30:3 D t 23:22-24 Pr 20:25 Si I B:22

U

W

I'l y6

E CCLES IA ST E S

Si 34: 1-5

12: 13 3:16 : 4: 1

9 85

984

Fo r eve ry dre am , a vanity to match ; too ma ny words, a cha sing of the wind. b

E C C L ES IASTE S

T I2

dispute wit h one stronger than hims elf. •T he more words, th e grea ter the va nity of it all ; a nd what doe s man get fro m it ? 11 Wh o knows what is good for ma n in his lifetim e, in those few days he lives so vainly, days tha t like a sh ado w he spends? Who can tell a man what will happen under the sun after his time?

11

T here fo re, fear God. If in a prov ince yo u see th e poor oppressed , right a nd justice viola ted, do not be surprised. Yo u will be to ld that officia ls are under the supe rv ision of superiors, who a re supervised iri turn ; •you will hear ta lk of 'the co mmo n good ' a nd ' th e service o f the king'. c

3:22 : 8:13 3b 8:9 : 14:2 P s 39:6: 90 : 10: 102: II: 109:2 3 W s 2:5

PAR T TW O

Mo ney" Ps 62:9 Si 14:3-9

Prologue"

He who loves money never has money enough, he who loves wealth never has enough p rofi t ;

7

t his, to o is van ity. P r 19:6

Where goods abou nd , parasites abound ;

S i 13:6

Pr 13:8

3b 1:21 1 T m 6:7

11

2:24 +

SI 14:3- 19 2:18-1 9 L k 12:20

4 :2 lb 3:1 I Ps 58:8

a nd wha t is the good of them to their ow ner? That he ca n feast h is eyes o n them. •T he la bo urer 's s leep is sweet, whether he has ea ten litt le or m uc h ; b ut the rich man 's weal th will not let him sleep at a ll. -There is a great inju stic e tha t I ob ser ve under the sun: ric hes stored a nd tu rn ing to loss for the ir o wner. O ne un lucky venture, a nd those riches are lost ; a so n is born to him, a nd he has noth ing to lea ve him . • N ak ed from his mother's womb he ca me, as na ked as he cam e he will de part aga in; nothin g to ta ke with h im after a ll his efforts.• T h is is a grievous wro ng, tha t as he ca me, so m ust he go; wh at profit ca n he sho w after to iling to ea rn the wind, 'as he spe nds th e res t o f his days in da rk ness, grief, worry, sickness a nd rese nt ment? ' T his, then, is my co nclusio n: the rig ht hap pin ess fo r ma n is to eat a nd dr ink a nd be content with a ll the wo rk he has to do und er the sun , during the few day s God has give n him to live, si nce this is the lot ass igned him . •A nd whenev er G od gives a man riches a nd pro perty, with the ab ility to enjoy them a nd to find content ment in his work, this is a gift from G od . • He will not need to brood, at least, over the durat io n of h is life so lo ng as G od kee ps h is hea rt occup ied wit h joy.

10

II

12

13 14 15

16

17

6

g

2: 15 Pc 13:7

1:9- 11 Jb 9:32

Man toils bu t to eat, yet his belly is never filled. W ha t advantage has the wise ma n over th e foo l? And what a bo ut th e pa u per who keeps u p appearances be fore his fellow mc n? « •Do a ppearances cou nt more than the co ndi tion of the belly? T h is, too, is va nity a nd chas ing of the wind . What has been a lready ha s a name ; an d wha t man is, is known ; he cannot

10

Si 27: 13

'"&I '"~ o

Better the end o f a matter than its begi nn ing, bett er pa tien ce than prid e. ~9 ~~

th e on e n o more th an the other. b • Even if the ma n ha d lived a thousand yea rs twice over, witho ut deriving p rofit from his esta te, do not both alike go to th e sa me pla ce?

Pr 14:13

w

1&

There is a n evil I obs erve under the sun, that weighs men down: 'sup pose a man has received from G od riches , property, hono urs- nothing a t a ll left him to wish for. Yet G od does not give him the chance to enjoy them, but so me str a nger enjo ys t hem . T her e is vanity here, and grievous suffering. •Or perha ps a man has had a hundred so ns a nd as many da ughters" a nd lived for ma ny years, and then derives no benefit from his esta te, not even a tom b to ca ll his own. W hy the n I say, bett er the untimely-born than he:

Pr 2 1:1 S14 1:12

Sanctions-

19

even his na me is wra pped in darkness . Never seeing th e sun, never knowing rest;

P r 27 :20

7 8

18

In darkness a rriving, in darkness depart ing ;

S1 4 1:4

4 5

Bett er a good name than costly oil, the day of death than the day o f birth. Better go to the ho use o f mou rni ng t han to t he house of feastin g ; for to this end all men co me, let the living take this to hea rt. Better sadness tha n lau ght er, a severe face confers so me benefit. T he hea rt of th e wise is in the hou se o f mourn ing, the hea rt of foo ls in the ho use o f ga iety. Better attend to a wise ma n's rep rimand tha n listen to a song sung by a fool. F o r like the crackl ing of t horn s under th e ca uld ro n is the la ught er of fool s: thi s is va n ity , to o. Fo r laughter ma kes a foo l of the wise ma n and merriment co rru pts the heart. "

Do not be hasty with yo ur resentmen t, fo r resentment is foun d in the hea rt of fools. • Do not ask why earli er days were bett er than these, for that is not a q uestio n prompted by wisdom . •W isdom is a prec io us legacy," a boo n for those o n wh om the su n shines . • Fo r as mon ey gives protection , so does wisdo m; a nd the goo d that kn owled ge imparts is th is: its possessor finds that wisdom keep s hi m sa fe. (m essen ger ) may be the Dries t who witnes ses t he di sc ha r gin g o f th e vow , b u t th e LX X rea din g (' G od ') sugges ts th at a ng el is th e ri gh t mean in g here, o ne o f t he a nge lic fu nc tion s being ( 0 give God a n ac count of m an ' s good works, Tb 12: 12 + ; Ac lOA . b . Text cor ru pt : we add ' c has ing of th e wind ' . c. Lit. 'T he p ro fit of the ea rt h is fo r al l, the kill J.: is served by t h e field', T hese ar e co m m on ex cuse s fo r corrupt ad min istrat ion . cf. I S H:12-14 : I K 2 1 (Naboth) . d. A satire no ! (as in Pr ) on t he wicked p lu to crat b ut on mo ney it self . ill or we ll acq u ired . il l o r we ll used. M on ey secures neither li fe nor happ iness. Thi s eva lua tio n prepa res th e gro und fo r th e gospe l teachin g o n det ach ment, Mt 6: 19 - 21. 2 4 . 2 5 ~ 3 4 . T he seq ue n ce o f ideas is as fo llow s: m o ney is ba dl y d istribut ed. 5:9, sq ua ndered . 5: 10. hard to come b y. 5:11, painful to lose, 5: 12- 16, Therefore , man m a y as well sp end it a s it co mes. 5: 17- 19. T hree exam ples of all t hi s: wealth that goes to a no t her. 6: 1-2 . t he r ich m an without a to m b. 6:3-6. po vert y a pin g p len ty. 6:7-11. Concl usio n: 6: 12. e . Th e trans la tion foll o ws the G re ek . 6 a. 'a hu nd red sons and as m a ny da ught er s ' cc r r. : '3 hu ndr ed (so ns ) a nd (l ivin g) ma ny years' H eb r. b . Lit. ' (why ch oose) on e ra ther th an th e o t her?' c . LiL ' wh o knows ho w to wa lk bef or e th e li vin g' .

7

a. A us tere st r ictu res o n ga ie ty.

b. "lau gh ter, m erri m en t' ca rr. He br . ' o p press io n. b r ibe' . c. T he Law had enunciated th e p ri ncip le of co llec tive retribution : fo r Isra el . p rosp er it y was co n t ingen t o n fide lit y , cf. Ot 7: 12f: 11:26-28 : 2R: I-6 8 : Lv 26, T he s ages ha d a p plied t his p r-incipl e to t he in d ivid ua l: G od re nd ers to eac h a s his wor ks d eser ve , P r 24: 12 : Ps 62 : 12 : Jb 34: 11. Fr o m thi s they in fer red tha t a man 's pr ese nt co nd it io n wa s p roportiona te to h is deserts , Wh en exp erie nce co n trad tc ted th is. their answe r was: th c nrosn cr i I }' of the wicked a nd the misf ortunes of t he virt uo us arc neit her o f th em las tin g , Thi s is Ihe thesis o f Ps 37 a nd of th e fr fend s of Jo b . O ohc leth refut es it. H e co u nte rs the co nven tio na l so lu t io n wi th sce p t icism . 7:9- 12. Lif e mu s t be tak e n as it ce r nes. wi thou t see k ing e xp la nations. 7: 13~ 1 5, If life a nd de a th are so capricio usly ord ained . 7: 15. t here is no p oint in m aki ng su pe r h u ma n ctfor ts. 7 : 1 6~ IS . Re p ut a tio n mea ns no thin g, 7: 1 9 ~ 22 . Th e wor ld o f t he senses is inexp licab le . Realit y is a fat ho m less m yst ery . 7:23 f (wi th a pa re nthes is d irected aga ins t wo me n. 7:25-28 ). F a te is b lind. pi tiless (no t s pa ri ng kin gs, H: 1-9) a nd e ven per verse . H: I O ~ 1 4. C o ncl us io n: H: 15. d . Lit , 'Wisd o m is goo d as (w it h?) an in her ita nce' .

Pr 22:24 1m 1: 19 Si 39:16,33f

II 7: 13 1: 15

8: 14: 9:2

ECCLESIASTES

987

9 86

Consider the wor k of God ; who can set straight what he has made crooked? g W hen times are prosperous, enjoy your happiness ; when times are bad, consider )1 this: the one is God 's doing, as is the ot her, in order that man may know nothing of his destiny.' -I n this fleeting life of mine I have seen so much: the )~ vir tuo us man perishing for all his virtue, for all his god lessness the godless living on. D o not be over-virtuous nor play too much the sage;

16 i7

12

13

14

15

why driv e yourself to o hard? D o not be wicked to excess, a nd do not be a fool; P r 10:27

9:16f Pr 21:22 1 K 8:46 J b 14:4 ·/ tJ n UP)

J b 28: / 2

Ps 64:o

Jg / 6

r 5:3-4; 7:

"J

23

s: 4 2: 14

why die before yo ur time ? -The best thin g is to ho ld the one and not let go the othe r, for both o f the se will happen to the God-fea ring man . " Wisdo m lend s more strength to the wise tha n ten rulers in a city . •T here is no virtuo us man o n earth who, doing good, is ever free of sin. • A nothe r th ing: pay no att ention to tellt ale s; yo u may hear th at yo ur serva nt ha s rev iled you ; ' you r own heart kn ows how o ften yo u have reviled others. I have pu t all th is to the test by wisd om, claiming to be wise; but wisd om has been beyo nd my reac h. • Reality lies beyond my grasp; a nd deep, so deep, who can discover it? Once a gain I was at pai ns to study wisd om a nd retribution , « to see wick edness as folly , a nd foo lishness as ma d ness. ·1 find woman mo re bitter than death ; she is a sna re, her hear t a net, her a rms a rc chains ;

17

is

16

:~ 17 19.20 lO. 2 1 21 22

3~

31 3~ 3~

He who is pleasin g to G od elu des her , but the sinner is her capti ve.

4

T his then you mu st kn ow , says Qoheleth, is the sum o f my investigatio n, pu tt ing 3.; thi s a nd that toget her. ·1 have made ot her resea rches too, witho ut result. 3~

T his, however, you must know: I find that G od made man sim ple; man's co m plex 3:~ problems a re of his own devising.

Rm 13: lf

On 4:32

Who is like the sage? Who else can solve a problem? Th e wisdo m of a man lends brig htness to his face; his face, once grim, is altered.

This 1 say:" Obey the com ma nd of the king, for the sake of the oa th of G od; /, do not ras hly transgress it ; do not be stubborn when the ca use is not a good one, since he acts as he thinks fit; -for the word of the king is paramount, a nd who dare say to him, 'W hy do that?'

5

6

On e man in a tho usa nd 1 may find , bu t never a woma n better tha n the rest."

8

1

33

ECCLESIASTES

heart s a re intent on doin g wron g. -The sinner who do es wrong a hundred time s survives even so. I know very well tha t happi ness is reser ved for those who fear God, because they fea r h im ; -that the re will be no hap piness for th e wicked ma n and that he will only eke out his day s like a shadow, beca use he does not fear God. But there is a van ity found on earth; the good, I mean , receive the treatment the wicked dese rve; an d the wicked the treatment the good deserve. This, too, I say, is van ity. Joy, then , is the o bject of my praise, since under the sun there is no ha ppiness for man except in eat ing , dr inking and pleasure. T his is his standby in his toil through the days of life God has given him under the su n. Love Wisdom ha ving been my ca reful study, I ca me to observe the business that goe s on here on earth . And certai nly the eyes of man never rest, day and night. And I loo k at a ll the work of God: plain ly no one can discover what the work is that goes on under the sun or explain why man should toil to seek yet never d iscover. Not even a sage can discover it, though he may claim to know. 9 Fo r I have reflected on all thi s an d com e to understand that the virtuous and the wise with all they do a re in the hand of G od. " Man do es no t know wha t love is, or ha te, " and both of these in his eyes -are vani ty." Just as one fate comes to al l, to virtu ou s as to wicked, to clean and un clean, to him who sacrifices a nd him who doe s not sacrifice, so it is with the good man and the sinner, with him who tak es an oath a nd hi m wh o shri nks from it. -This is the evil that inheres in all tha t is done unde r t he su n: that one fate comes to all ; further, that the hea rts of men shou ld be full of mal ice ; that they sho uld practise such extravagances towards the living in their lifetime a nd the dead the reafter." Fo r a nyone who is lin ked with all that live st ili has some ho pe,' a live dog being better than a dead lio n.• T he living know at least that they will die, the dead k now not h ing ; no mo re reward for them , their memory has passed out of mind . Their lo ves, their hat es, their jealousies, these all have perished, nor will the y ever again ta ke part in wha tever is done under the sun ."

Ws2 :1

Si 5:4

6:12 + 1'.'52:5 7:15: 9: 2 Ps 73 Jr 12:lf 2:24+

Si 40:5- 6 3:11 -;-

D t 33:3

Pr 16:1

1'.'57:16 Jb 9:22 ; 2 1. 26

rn

;:

3:19-21 Jb 2 1:21 1'.'52:4 Si 101:19

fo r what yo u do G od has a pproved beforehand.

Spend your life with th e wo ma n yo u love, through all the fleeting days of the life that God has given yo u under the sun; for this is th e lot assigned to you in life 2

4

c. Lit. 'may find n o thi n g after him ', O r po ssib ly und ersta nd ' find no created th ing reliable". Te xt cor r.

h. Lit. 'in all these '

8

7

a . 'This (I) say' ad ded .

of G o d ' rnuy be th e pr omi se given by G od to the ki ng, 2 S 7; Ps H~ . or else t h e oa th sworn \0 G od eit her by

the king or by his subje c ts. c . Probab le mea ni ng, H cbr. ob scure : lit. 'for the m iser y of m an is grea t o n hi m ' ,

9

10

II

cnv'.

f. ' to t hc God-fearing man' wit h G reek . 1!,.

8

H ol y Place; while those who had done good were f o rg ot ten in the

d . Lit. 'because they act ed th us' , T he who le verse is o bscu re and has been cor rec ted here fo llow ing the
9 a . Hcb r . repea ts 'all this'. 'I hav e co me to un derstand ' co r r. (Lit. 'my hear! saw') . 'all they do' lit. "t hei r work s', Iullowi ng Syr . h. He ex ncr lcnccs these e mot ions b ut fails to unde rstand them . Like dea th and dest iny lov e is bli nd and capriciou s. c . ' vanity' corr. : 'evervuu na' Hebr . d . Apparent ly refe rr-ing to cx travagu nt presents to the livin g and (by bultd ln e e lab orate to mbs) to the dea d . IIc br. li t. 'Mad ness is in their hearts while they live and afte rwards for the dead ', We insert 'tow ards the living ' be fore 'in th ei r lifeti me'. e. ' is li nked' ce re and versions: 'is chosen' k et ib , r. Sor ro w a t the deat h o f th ose o nce lo ved mo d erales the fo llow ing invitatio n to e njo y life , vv, 7 ~ 8 , d. 2:24 1-, by a recommendatio n to cons tancy, v. 9, unti l the final pani ng, v , 10.

Ul

lil

7:15: 8:14

2:24 + Jg 9:13

Go, ea t your bread with j oy a nd d rink yo u r wine with a glad hea rt ;

h. T he king wields a sacred authori ty. T he 'oat h

F or there is a ti me of j udgement for everyth ing ; and man runs gr ave risks, ' since he does not know wha t is going to happen ; and who can tell him when it will happen? • No man can master the wind so as to hold it back, nor co ntrol the day of death. There is no discharge in time of war; no more can wickedness set its author free . · AIl this I observe as I consider all that is done under t he sun, whe never man tyrannises over man to his hurt. And then I see the wicked brough t to burial a nd people come from the Temp le to hono ur them in the city for hav ing been t he men they were." Th is, too, is vanity. -S ince the sentence on wrong-doing is not carried o ut at once, me n's inmost

P5 115: 11

Wea r wh ite all the time, do not stint yo ur hea d of oil.

He who obey s the command will come to no harm, a nd the wise ma n knows there will be a time of ju dgement. 10: 14

9:9

Pr 5:15+

U

w

III ECCLE S I ASTES

9:10 SI14:16; 41:4

Lk 12:20

Pr 7:23 E st 6:3 Pe 2 1:22

7:19

Pr 1:5: 24:5

0 . 5:9

2: 14

Pe 13:16

F

Pe 14:17 Pe 19:10; 30:22

Si 11:5 Ps 7:15 Pe 26:27 Si 27:26-27

9 89

988

and in the efforts you exert under the sun. •Whatever work you propose to do , do it while you can, for there is neither achievement, nor planning, nor knowledge, nor wisdom in Sheol where you ar e going . Chance I see th is too under the su n: the race does not go to the swift, nor the battle to the strong ; ther e is no bread for the wise, wealth for the intelligent, nor favour for the learned ; all are subjec t to time and mischa nce.• Ma n does not know his hour; like fish caught in the treacherous net, like birds taken in the snare, so is ma n overtaken by misfort une suddenly falling on him . I observe another evil- under the sun, to me a grave one. -There was a small to wn, with only a few inhab itants; a mighty king marched against it, laid siege to it and built great siege-works round it. •But a poverty -str icken sage confronted him and by his wisdo m saved the town. No one remembered this poor man afterwards.• Now I say: wisdom is better than strength, but a poor ma n's wisdom is never valued an d his words a re disreg a rded. •The gentle words of the wise are heard above the shout s of a king of fools. Better wisdom than warlike wea pons, but one mistake' undoes a deal of good. 10 Dead flies spoil a bowl a of perfumed oil; a litt le folly is stro nger t han wisdom and honour. The wise man 's heart leads him ar ight, the fool's heart leads him astray. b A fool has only to walk alo ng the road and , havi ng no sense, he makes plain to all what a fool he is. With the anger of the ruler mounting against you , do not leave your post; composure avoids many a fault. •Th ere is an evil I observe under the sun, the type of misjudgement to which rulers are pro ne: -folly promoted to high dignities, rich men taki ng the lowest place. -Slaves I see on horseback , princes going on foot like slaves.

10

Is 32:6 8:7

Words from a wise ma n's mouth are pleasing, but a fool' s lips procure his own ruin. Of the words he speaks folly is the beginning, sheer mad ness the end . ·A fool is a great spender of words; man does not know the future; so who can tell him what is to happen after his time? Fools find hard work irksome ; he who does not know the way cannot go to town."

2 C h 22:4 Pe 31:4-7 Is 3:4

A bad outlook fo r you , country with a lad for king, and where princes f east in the morning. •Happy the country whose king is nob ly born , where princes eat at a respecta ble hour to keep themselves str ong, not to make themselves drunk. Owing to neglect the roo f-tree gives way ; for want of care the house lets in the rain.

Lk 12:2-3

Cast your bread on the water; at long last you will find it again." -Share with seven, yes with eight, for you never know what disaster may occur on ear th . •When clouds are full of ra in, they empty it out on the earth. Let the tree fall south or north, where the tree falls there it lies.

3

12

Keep watching the wind and you will never sow, stare at the clouds and you will never reap.

4

li

Ju st as you do not know the way of the wind or t he mysteries of a woman with child , no more can you know the work of God who is behind it all.

5

15

Ps 139:14-16 In 3:8

3:11 + 2 M 7:22

In the morning sow your seed, do not let your hands lie idle in the evening.

16 17

Fo r which will pro ve successful, this or that, you can not tell; and it may be that bo th will turn out well together.

18

1

O ld age" Light is sweet; at sight of the sun the eyes are glad .• However great the num ber of the years a man may live, let him enjoy them all, and yet reme mber that dark day s will be many . All that is to come is vanity.

2

5

6 7

11

12

the day when thos e who keep the house tremb le" and str ong men are bowed; when the women grind no longer at th e mill, because day " is darkening at the windo ws

li 15

16 17

18

~

&l

Cast worry from your heart, shield your flesh from pain. Yet youth , the age of dark hair, is vanity. 12 An d remember your creator in the days of you r youth , before evil days come and the years approach when you say, 'These give me no pleasure', -befo re sun and light and moon and sta rs grow da rk, and the cloud s retu rn after the rain ;

lit. A less co he re nt sec t io n th an those p receding: 11 a. Some t ak e th is to m ean ba it th ro wn in t he water Qoheleth her e asse m b les sa yin gs and illu str ations on th e by the fisherm an and recovered in t he fo rm of his subiect of c ha nce . Cha nce ign o res merits . 9: 11-12 . catch: o t her s inte rp re t 'bread ' as m erchand ise, shipped Ma ny th ings fa il or succeed for trivial ca uses. 9:13- a broad and bringing h om e a profit. T h is passage on 10:20 . Life is a game of cha nce: risk is a n esse n ua l part lak in g chances th ro ws li gh t o n t he att it ud e Qoheleth wishes to instil in to hi s di sci ple . He does n o t wish to of it . 11:1-6. h . 'evil' cor r., cr. 5:12 ; 6: 1; 9:3 . 'a (p iece of) wisdom' d isco ura ge h im for d isco u ragement's sake, b ut to rob him of his illusio ns a nd thus sa ve h im fr om error. Hebr. After all. risk s d o h ave to be taken . i . ' m istake' co rr.; 'si n ne r' H eb r. b. Lon g life was th e rew a rd p rom ised to th e Is10 a . 'a b ow l' Svr. b. Lit. 'The wise man' s heart is o n his right h an d . rae lit es in the di scou rses o f D t (5 :16 .33 ; 11:9 ,2 1; 22 :7. e tc .). and was th e grea tes t happiness th e sages the foo l' s on his left ' . c . The words 'w isdo m ' an d ' success' hav e been had to o ffer th e virtuou s . F or O o he teth , o ld age is no t happ iness but fear o f death , 11:8 . re gret s for yo ut h, int erch anged fo r the sa ke of th e se nse . d . Te xt of th is line doub tf u l ; we insert 't he way 11:8- 12:2 , th e slow ing -down o f life, 12:3·5 b , a wa iti ng le. 12:5c-7. for th e ir remediab ca nnot' , c . A maxim o n yo u th which Ooheleth em ends e. V. 19 re fers back to vv , 16-1 7. representin g the with s obe r advice . emp ty excu se o f the ca r o usin g p r inces, 12 a . Pic tu re of o ld age a nd its weakness . b. ' d ay' corr.; 't he wo men who lo o k o ut' Hebr. f. Also translated ' in sleep'.

&l l/l

But this you must know : for all these things God will bring you to judgement. 10

10

l/l

Ps 56:13

Rejoice in your youth, you who are young;' let your heart give you joy in you r young days. Fo llow the promptings of your heart and the desires of your eyes.

4

p/Ig~: g -But meals are ma de for lau ghter. Wine gives joy to life. Mo ney is the answer 19

to everything. e

Ex 22:27

11

2

Pe 10:32; 15:2

12:3

D o not curse the king, even in thought ;" do not curse the rich, even in your bedroom, for a bird of the air will carry the news ; indiscretion sprouts wings.

20

11

He who digs a pit may fall into it; a man saps a wall, the serpent bites him . He who quarries stones may be hurt by them ; he who chops wood ta kes a risk. If for want of sharpening the axe is blunt, you have to stri ke very hard, but the reward given by wisdom is success.' •If the sna ke bites before it is charmed, what is the use of the charmer?

E CC L ES I AS TE S

Jb 17:1 Ps 90:10

Ij 12=4

ECCLESIAS TES

99°

and the street doors are shut; when the sound of the mill is faint, when the voice of the bird is silenced,« and song notes a re stilled, when to go uphill is an ordeal and a walk is something to dread .

4

INTRODUCTION TO

Yet the almond tree is in flower, the grasshopper is heavy with food and the caper bush bears its fruit," Ps49:11

THE SONG OF SONGS

while man goes to his everlasting home. And the mourners are already walking to an d fro in the street before the silver cord has snap ped, or the golden lamp been broke n, or the pitcher shattered at the spr ing, or the pulley crac ked a t the well,

3:20-21 lPs 104:29 : 146:4 1:2

or before the dust returns to the earth as it once came from it, and the breath to God who gave it.' Vanity of vanities, Qohe leth says. All is vanity/

7

Epilogue"

5:6 Si 1:1J

Besides being a sage, Qohe leth also taught his knowledge to the people, having weighed, studied a nd a mended a great many proverbs. -Qo heleth tried to write in an attractive style and to set down truthful thoughts in a stra ightforwa rd man ner. The words of the sages are like goads, like pegs driven deep; a shepherd uses these for the good of his flocks." One last thing, my son, be warned that writing books involves endless hard work, and that much study wearies the body. To sum up the whole matter: fear God, a nd keep his commandments, since this is the whole duty of man . i For God will call all hidden deeds, good or bad, to judge ment. 0

12

c . 'the vo ice of the bird is silenced (ceases)' co rr.

but also his greatne ss. by sho wing that this wor ld is not worthy of him . It incit es the reader to d isinterested relig ion and to that kind o f prayer in which a creat ure. very mo ment that nature revi ves with the spring. 'is aware of its noth ingness . adores the mystery o f Go d. heavy with food', 'hears its rruu', corr. e r. Ps 39. c . T he ear thly part of man returns [0 earth. But g. Comme ndatory epil o gue : eu lo gy o f Oo he le th, since no thing o n this eart h can satisfy him . no t all of vv. s-tt, hardsh ips of writing book s. v. 12. ad vice for him o rigin ates from earth. and that whic h is of God . a Quie t mind . vv. 13-14. returns to God . h. Mea ning doub tful. text corr. C. The book ends as it began but has covered much i. Defective phrase ; we insert 'd uty' . grou nd in betwee n. It has taught man his wretchedness d. He re agai n. cf. 1:4f. ind ifferent nature forms the backcloth for hum an death . T he old man dies at the

9 10

II

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The Song of Songs, tha t is to say 'the greatest of a ll songs', is a series of love poems in whic h lover a nd loved are now united, now div ided , now scught, now fo und . The lover is ca lled 'king' , 1:4 and 12, and 'Solomon', 3:7 and 9; his belo ved is called 't he Shula mrni te', 7: I, which tit le, it is tho ught, is rela ted to the 'Shunammite' of David's time and Solomon's, I K 1:3; 2:21-22 . That Solomon was a writer of songs Hebrew tradition was aware, I K 5: 12: for this reason 'the greatest of all songs' was attributed to him (hence the title. 1:1); in the same way as Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and Wisdom were credited to Solomon in his capacity of sage. Th is titu lar attribution caused the Song to be placed among the Wisdom Books, after Ecclesiastes in the Greek Bible, between Ecclesiastes and Wisdom (two ' Solo rno nic' books) in the Vulgate . In the Hebrew Bible it is the first of the five megillo th, or ' ro lls', which were recited at the great feasts ; the Song was read at Passover. People have fou nd it surprising that a book that makes no mention of God and whose vocab ulary is so passionate should figure in the sacred canon. The do ubts in Jewish circles of the 1st century A.D . were, however, settled by an appeal to tradition . On these same grounds the Christian C hurch has always accepted the Song as pa rt of holy scr ipture . Of all the Old Testa ment books this has been most va riou sly interpreted. Only two of these interpretation s a re acc eptable. T he Je wish rabb is understood it allego rically ; the rela tio nship of lover a nd beloved is th at between God a nd Israe l, th e tr aditional prophetic marriage met aph or dating from Hosea. T he writers of the early Church, with the exception of T heo dore of Mop suestia, ado pted the same expla na tion, thou gh with th em the allegory beco mes one of Christ an d his C hurc h . T his allego rica l inte rpreta tio n is accepted, unde r va rio us form s, by the maj o rity o f Ca tholic co mmen tators to day. So me are co ntent with the gene ral theme , the elaboration bein g purely literary, o f God the bridegroom ofIs rael. Ot hers see in the seq uence of the So ng th e story of Israe l's cha nging sea sons of conversion, hope, d isillusio nment. T his last int er pretation is full y explained in the footnotes given here. Other scholars prefer the more obvious mea ning. For them the Song is a collec tion of hymns to true lo ve sanctified by union . And since God has given his blessing to ma rriage , the theme is of the religious and not merely of the phys ical or der. Other book s of the Old Testa ment touch upon th is same subject of human love, Prover bs a nd Eccle siasticu s fo r exa mple; the a pproach is th e sa me as th at of the So ng a nd, a t tim es, th e ver y ph rases. It is a noble the me an d the prophets rig htly saw in it an a pt image of G od 's lo ve for Is rael. T he topic is no t unworthy of a book that was to be received into the sacred canon a nd recog nised as inspired.

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