(1) Cell Structure And Ion
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BIODIVERSITY AND CLASSIFICATION
Grading (Integrated Programme) 7 points = ≥ 80 6 points = 70-79 5 points = 60-69 4p points = 50-59 3 points = 40-49 2 points = 20-39 1 point = 0-19 Max. no. of points for 6 relevant subjects = 45 (including +3 for ISO and POD)
Grading (Integrated Programme) Term 1 Term 2 Term 3 15 % 20 % 15 %
WHY STUDY BIOLOGY?
Term 4 50 %
Common Test 1: Term 1, Week 6 - 8
BIOLOGY
EARTH’S BIODIVERSITY
1
HOW MANY SPECIES ARE THERE? About 1.5 million named species Estimated to have about 5 – 30 million species of organisms on Earth.
Diversity of Life
The Living Organism Living things have several characteristics which makes them different from non-living objects:
Nutrition Growth R Respiration i ti Excretion Movement (Locomotion) Ability to respond to a stimulus Reproduction Adaptability
KINGDOMS AND DOMAINS The three-domain system Bacteria
Archaea
Eukarya
The six-kingdom system Bacteria
Archaea
Protista
Plantae
Fungi
Animalia
Fungi
Animalia
The traditional five-kingdom system Monera
Protista
Plantae
2
Learning Outcomes
Topic 1:
Cell Structure and Organisation
Identify organelles of typical plant and animal cells from diagrams, photomicrographs and as seen under light microscope using prepared slides and fresh material treated with an appropriate temporary staining technique: chloroplasts, cell membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm, cell vacuoles and nucleus. Identify the following membrane systems and organelles from diagrams and electron micrographs: Endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi body and ribosomes. State the functions of the various membrane systems and organelles. Compare and contrast the structure of typical animal and plant cells. State, in simple terms, the relationship between cell function and cell structure for the following: Absorption – Root hair cells Conduction and support – Xylem Vessels Transport of oxygen – Red Blood Cells Differentiate cell, tissue, organ and organ system. *Use knowledge gained in new situations or to solve related problems.
A Brief History 1635 – 1703 Robert Hooke
Some Terms and Definitions A cell is a unit of life. It consists of protoplasm. Protoplasm: A mass of living matter in which endless chemical activities are carried out out.
Protoplasm of a cell comprise: o Nucleus, Cytoplasm and Cell surface membrane
Animal Cells
3
Structure of an Animal Cell
Structure of an Animal Cell
The Nucleus
The Nucleus
Found in the cytoplasm of the cell. Contains the organism’s genetic material in the form of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
Functions Controls all cellular activities e.g. the synthesis of proteins. Is involved in cell division.
Organisation of Genetic Material Chromatin Æ Chromosome In the human cell, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes (except sex cells/gametes).
DNA
Nucleolus – plays a role in formation of ribosomes in the cell.
Nucleus
Chromatin – contains hereditary material (DNA). During cell division, chromatin threads condense into chromosomes during cell division
The Nucleus Nuclear Envelope/membrane – separates the nucleus from the surrounding cytoplasm
Nucleus Chromosome
A Triple Helix Pte Ltd Presentation 2005
Chromatin
Nuclear Pore – allows some substances to pass through (e.g. RNA) but not others (e.g. DNA)
4
Nucleus
Structure of an Animal Cell
The Cytoplasm
Organelles
The region where most cell activities occur. Consists of o Cytosol (semi-fluid medium) surrounding the nucleus and organelles Organelles: Nucleus (not part of cytoplasm) Mitochondria Chloroplasts Vacuoles Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi Body/Apparatus Ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Comprise a network of membrane-enclosed spaces. Originates from outer membrane of the nucleus Two types of ER: Rough ER • Ribosomes attached to outer surface. *Site of synthesis of proteins.
Smooth ER • Lacks ribosomes. *Functions include synthesis of lipids and cholesterol and detoxification of drugs and poisons.
5
Smooth ER and Rough ER
Formation of ER vesicles
Golgi Body/Apparatus
Golgi Body/Apparatus
Comprise a stack of membrane-enclosed sacs and vesicles. Function Receives lipids and proteins made by the endoplasmic reticulum and modifies them chemically before repacking them into vesicles which are then transported to other parts of the cell.
Golgi Body
Golgi Body/Apparatus
6
Mitochondria (mitochondrion)
What are lysosomes?
A double-membraned organelle. Function Involved in the release of energy from sugar molecules during cellular respiration. Energy gy is released in the form of molecules called ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
Vacuoles
An Animal Cell
Fluid-filled sacs enclosed by a membrane (known as tonoplast in plants). Can be found in both plant and animal cells. Functions? vesicles
Animal Cell
Cell surface membrane or Plasma membrane Surrounds cytoplasm externally Partially permeable membrane. Functions Controls substances entering or leaving the cell. Transfer chemical messages from cell exterior to interior. Keeps the cell contains in place O2 H2O CO2
7
Plasma Membrane
The Plasma Membrane is a Phospholipid Bilayer
A FluidFluid-Mosaic Model
Plant Cells
Cell Wall Composed of mainly of cellulose Plasmodesmata present Functions Protects the cell from injury Helps the cell to maintain its shape Prevent the cell from absorbing too much water.
8
Chloroplast Contains chlorophyll Site of photosynthesis in plant cells.
Quiz
Mitochondria & Chloroplast The Endosymbiont Theory
Quiz
Comparison between plant and animal cells List the similarities and differences between plant and animal cells
9
Similarities
Differences
Both have A cell surface membrane Cytoplasm Nucleus
Animal
Plant
Cell wall
absent
present
Chl Chloroplasts l t
absent b t
presentt
Vacuoles
small and many
usually large and central
Mitochondria Endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes
Stores food as
glycogen granules starch granules
Specialised cells Cells may undergo differentiation to become specialised for a specific function. Th develop They d l distinct di ti t shapes h and d undergo d chemical changes in their cytoplasm.
Specialised cells (I) – Root hair cells
Specialised cells (I) – Root hair cells
Structural feature Adaptation of feature to function Root hair cell Æ Is an extension of a root epidermal cell
Is long and narrow. narrow
This increases surface area to volume ratio for efficient absorption of water and mineral salts from the soil
Root hair cell
Structural feature
Adaptation of feature to function
Root hair cell has numerous mitochondria
Provide ATP for active transport
Cell sap contains Cell sap is more sugars, amino acids concentrated than soil and salts. solution, thus facilitating entry of water via osmosis
10
Surface Area to Volume Ratio 1 cm
1 cm
1 cm
1 cm
1 cm
1 cm
Y
X
Shape
X
Y
(2 x 1 x 4) +
(1 x 4 x 4) +
(2 x 2 x 2) = 16
(1 x 1 x 2) = 18
Volume
(1 x 1 x 1) x 4 = 4
(1 x 1 x 1) x 4 = 4
Surface area to Volume ratio
16/4 = 4
18/4 = 4.5
Surface Area
Specialised cells (II) – Xylem vessels Structural feature Xylem Vessels
Specialised cells (I) – Root hair cells
Xylem vessels
Adaptation of feature to function
Composed of long allows a continuous cells joined end to flow of water up the end plant End walls between adjacent cells are broken down There is absence of protoplasm Æ mature vessels are non-living
Specialised cells (II) – Xylem vessels Structural feature Xylem Deposition of Vessels lignin g on the cell wall.
Xylem Vessels
Adaptation of feature to function To provide pp mechanical support to the plant and prevent collapse of the vessels
11
Specialised cells (III) – Red Blood Cells
Specialised cells– cells– Red Blood Cells Red Blood Cell
Structural feature
Adaptation of feature to function
Circular and biconcave in shape
This increases surface area to volume ratio for the diffusion of oxygen into and out of the cell at a higher rate.
Does not have a nucleus
Has a thin and elastic plasma membrane
Enables cytoplasm of red blood cells to contain more haemoglobin molecules to maximise oxygen carrying capacity Provides flexibility, allowing the cell to squeeze through narrow blood capillaries
Cells Æ A Tissue
Levels of organisation
muscle cell
muscle tissue made up of muscle cells
epithelial cell
epithelial cell
gland cell neurones
epithelium in the trachea (tissue) made up of epithelial cells ll andd gland l d cells ll
epithelium in the lungs (tissue) made up of epithelial i h li l cells ll
nervous tissue made up of neurones (nerve cells) connective tissue cell
intestinal epithelial cell intestinal epithelium (tissue) made up of intestinal epithelial cells
cartilage in the trachea (tissue) made up of connective tissue cells
connective tissue cell
connective tissue in the lungs made up of connective tissue cells
A group of cells work together to form a tissue.
Tissues Æ An Organ
Organs Æ An Organ System
muscle tissue epithelium (tissue) stomach
trachea
(organ)
stomach
(organ)
trachea
(organ)
(organ)
cartilage (tissue)
nervous tissue
respiratory system intestinal epithelium
epithelium (tissue)
(organ system)
(tissue)
digestive system lungs (organs)
intestine muscle tissue
(organ)
connective tissue
Different tissues combine to form an organ.
intestine
(organ system)
lungs (organs)
(organ)
Several organs work together to make up an organ system.
12
Organ Systems Æ An Organism digestive system
respiratory system
(organ system)
(organ system)
human (organism)
Various organ systems work together to make up an organism.
Additional Exploration Significant information: Why are most cells so small?
http://staff.jccc.net/pdecell/cells/basiccell.html #size
Other websites http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/
BIOBK/BioBookCELL2.html http://www.cellsalive.com
Enrichment
Enrichment
Prokaryotes versus Eukaryotes
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
13
Enrichment
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells Some basic differences Prokaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells
Bacteria No distinct nucleus
Protists, fungi Protists fungi, plants plants, animals Distinct nucleus
~1-10µm in size
~10-100µm in size
Absence of membranebound organelles
Presence of membranebound organelles
Websites to Explore Centre of the Cell http://www.centreofthecell.org/ The Virtual Cell http://www.ibiblio.org/virtualcell/tour/cell/cell.htm Videos Online Cellular Visions: The Inner Life of a Cell http://www.studiodaily.com/main/searchlist/6850. html Inside Cancer http://www.insidecancer.org/
14
Grading (Integrated Programme) 7 points = ≥ 80 6 points = 70-79 5 points = 60-69 4p points = 50-59 3 points = 40-49 2 points = 20-39 1 point = 0-19 Max. no. of points for 6 relevant subjects = 45 (including +3 for ISO and POD)
Grading (Integrated Programme) Term 1 Term 2 Term 3 15 % 20 % 15 %
WHY STUDY BIOLOGY?
Term 4 50 %
Common Test 1: Term 1, Week 6 - 8
BIOLOGY
EARTH’S BIODIVERSITY
1
HOW MANY SPECIES ARE THERE? About 1.5 million named species Estimated to have about 5 – 30 million species of organisms on Earth.
Diversity of Life
The Living Organism Living things have several characteristics which makes them different from non-living objects:
Nutrition Growth R Respiration i ti Excretion Movement (Locomotion) Ability to respond to a stimulus Reproduction Adaptability
KINGDOMS AND DOMAINS The three-domain system Bacteria
Archaea
Eukarya
The six-kingdom system Bacteria
Archaea
Protista
Plantae
Fungi
Animalia
Fungi
Animalia
The traditional five-kingdom system Monera
Protista
Plantae
2
Learning Outcomes
Topic 1:
Cell Structure and Organisation
Identify organelles of typical plant and animal cells from diagrams, photomicrographs and as seen under light microscope using prepared slides and fresh material treated with an appropriate temporary staining technique: chloroplasts, cell membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm, cell vacuoles and nucleus. Identify the following membrane systems and organelles from diagrams and electron micrographs: Endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi body and ribosomes. State the functions of the various membrane systems and organelles. Compare and contrast the structure of typical animal and plant cells. State, in simple terms, the relationship between cell function and cell structure for the following: Absorption – Root hair cells Conduction and support – Xylem Vessels Transport of oxygen – Red Blood Cells Differentiate cell, tissue, organ and organ system. *Use knowledge gained in new situations or to solve related problems.
A Brief History 1635 – 1703 Robert Hooke
Some Terms and Definitions A cell is a unit of life. It consists of protoplasm. Protoplasm: A mass of living matter in which endless chemical activities are carried out out.
Protoplasm of a cell comprise: o Nucleus, Cytoplasm and Cell surface membrane
Animal Cells
3
Structure of an Animal Cell
Structure of an Animal Cell
The Nucleus
The Nucleus
Found in the cytoplasm of the cell. Contains the organism’s genetic material in the form of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
Functions Controls all cellular activities e.g. the synthesis of proteins. Is involved in cell division.
Organisation of Genetic Material Chromatin Æ Chromosome In the human cell, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes (except sex cells/gametes).
DNA
Nucleolus – plays a role in formation of ribosomes in the cell.
Nucleus
Chromatin – contains hereditary material (DNA). During cell division, chromatin threads condense into chromosomes during cell division
The Nucleus Nuclear Envelope/membrane – separates the nucleus from the surrounding cytoplasm
Nucleus Chromosome
A Triple Helix Pte Ltd Presentation 2005
Chromatin
Nuclear Pore – allows some substances to pass through (e.g. RNA) but not others (e.g. DNA)
4
Nucleus
Structure of an Animal Cell
The Cytoplasm
Organelles
The region where most cell activities occur. Consists of o Cytosol (semi-fluid medium) surrounding the nucleus and organelles Organelles: Nucleus (not part of cytoplasm) Mitochondria Chloroplasts Vacuoles Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi Body/Apparatus Ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Comprise a network of membrane-enclosed spaces. Originates from outer membrane of the nucleus Two types of ER: Rough ER • Ribosomes attached to outer surface. *Site of synthesis of proteins.
Smooth ER • Lacks ribosomes. *Functions include synthesis of lipids and cholesterol and detoxification of drugs and poisons.
5
Smooth ER and Rough ER
Formation of ER vesicles
Golgi Body/Apparatus
Golgi Body/Apparatus
Comprise a stack of membrane-enclosed sacs and vesicles. Function Receives lipids and proteins made by the endoplasmic reticulum and modifies them chemically before repacking them into vesicles which are then transported to other parts of the cell.
Golgi Body
Golgi Body/Apparatus
6
Mitochondria (mitochondrion)
What are lysosomes?
A double-membraned organelle. Function Involved in the release of energy from sugar molecules during cellular respiration. Energy gy is released in the form of molecules called ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
Vacuoles
An Animal Cell
Fluid-filled sacs enclosed by a membrane (known as tonoplast in plants). Can be found in both plant and animal cells. Functions? vesicles
Animal Cell
Cell surface membrane or Plasma membrane Surrounds cytoplasm externally Partially permeable membrane. Functions Controls substances entering or leaving the cell. Transfer chemical messages from cell exterior to interior. Keeps the cell contains in place O2 H2O CO2
7
Plasma Membrane
The Plasma Membrane is a Phospholipid Bilayer
A FluidFluid-Mosaic Model
Plant Cells
Cell Wall Composed of mainly of cellulose Plasmodesmata present Functions Protects the cell from injury Helps the cell to maintain its shape Prevent the cell from absorbing too much water.
8
Chloroplast Contains chlorophyll Site of photosynthesis in plant cells.
Quiz
Mitochondria & Chloroplast The Endosymbiont Theory
Quiz
Comparison between plant and animal cells List the similarities and differences between plant and animal cells
9
Similarities
Differences
Both have A cell surface membrane Cytoplasm Nucleus
Animal
Plant
Cell wall
absent
present
Chl Chloroplasts l t
absent b t
presentt
Vacuoles
small and many
usually large and central
Mitochondria Endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes
Stores food as
glycogen granules starch granules
Specialised cells Cells may undergo differentiation to become specialised for a specific function. Th develop They d l distinct di ti t shapes h and d undergo d chemical changes in their cytoplasm.
Specialised cells (I) – Root hair cells
Specialised cells (I) – Root hair cells
Structural feature Adaptation of feature to function Root hair cell Æ Is an extension of a root epidermal cell
Is long and narrow. narrow
This increases surface area to volume ratio for efficient absorption of water and mineral salts from the soil
Root hair cell
Structural feature
Adaptation of feature to function
Root hair cell has numerous mitochondria
Provide ATP for active transport
Cell sap contains Cell sap is more sugars, amino acids concentrated than soil and salts. solution, thus facilitating entry of water via osmosis
10
Surface Area to Volume Ratio 1 cm
1 cm
1 cm
1 cm
1 cm
1 cm
Y
X
Shape
X
Y
(2 x 1 x 4) +
(1 x 4 x 4) +
(2 x 2 x 2) = 16
(1 x 1 x 2) = 18
Volume
(1 x 1 x 1) x 4 = 4
(1 x 1 x 1) x 4 = 4
Surface area to Volume ratio
16/4 = 4
18/4 = 4.5
Surface Area
Specialised cells (II) – Xylem vessels Structural feature Xylem Vessels
Specialised cells (I) – Root hair cells
Xylem vessels
Adaptation of feature to function
Composed of long allows a continuous cells joined end to flow of water up the end plant End walls between adjacent cells are broken down There is absence of protoplasm Æ mature vessels are non-living
Specialised cells (II) – Xylem vessels Structural feature Xylem Deposition of Vessels lignin g on the cell wall.
Xylem Vessels
Adaptation of feature to function To provide pp mechanical support to the plant and prevent collapse of the vessels
11
Specialised cells (III) – Red Blood Cells
Specialised cells– cells– Red Blood Cells Red Blood Cell
Structural feature
Adaptation of feature to function
Circular and biconcave in shape
This increases surface area to volume ratio for the diffusion of oxygen into and out of the cell at a higher rate.
Does not have a nucleus
Has a thin and elastic plasma membrane
Enables cytoplasm of red blood cells to contain more haemoglobin molecules to maximise oxygen carrying capacity Provides flexibility, allowing the cell to squeeze through narrow blood capillaries
Cells Æ A Tissue
Levels of organisation
muscle cell
muscle tissue made up of muscle cells
epithelial cell
epithelial cell
gland cell neurones
epithelium in the trachea (tissue) made up of epithelial cells ll andd gland l d cells ll
epithelium in the lungs (tissue) made up of epithelial i h li l cells ll
nervous tissue made up of neurones (nerve cells) connective tissue cell
intestinal epithelial cell intestinal epithelium (tissue) made up of intestinal epithelial cells
cartilage in the trachea (tissue) made up of connective tissue cells
connective tissue cell
connective tissue in the lungs made up of connective tissue cells
A group of cells work together to form a tissue.
Tissues Æ An Organ
Organs Æ An Organ System
muscle tissue epithelium (tissue) stomach
trachea
(organ)
stomach
(organ)
trachea
(organ)
(organ)
cartilage (tissue)
nervous tissue
respiratory system intestinal epithelium
epithelium (tissue)
(organ system)
(tissue)
digestive system lungs (organs)
intestine muscle tissue
(organ)
connective tissue
Different tissues combine to form an organ.
intestine
(organ system)
lungs (organs)
(organ)
Several organs work together to make up an organ system.
12
Organ Systems Æ An Organism digestive system
respiratory system
(organ system)
(organ system)
human (organism)
Various organ systems work together to make up an organism.
Additional Exploration Significant information: Why are most cells so small?
http://staff.jccc.net/pdecell/cells/basiccell.html #size
Other websites http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/
BIOBK/BioBookCELL2.html http://www.cellsalive.com
Enrichment
Enrichment
Prokaryotes versus Eukaryotes
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
13
Enrichment
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells Some basic differences Prokaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells
Bacteria No distinct nucleus
Protists, fungi Protists fungi, plants plants, animals Distinct nucleus
~1-10µm in size
~10-100µm in size
Absence of membranebound organelles
Presence of membranebound organelles
Websites to Explore Centre of the Cell http://www.centreofthecell.org/ The Virtual Cell http://www.ibiblio.org/virtualcell/tour/cell/cell.htm Videos Online Cellular Visions: The Inner Life of a Cell http://www.studiodaily.com/main/searchlist/6850. html Inside Cancer http://www.insidecancer.org/
14
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