Yakshagana And Modern Theatre

YAKSHAGANA AND ELEMENTS OF MODERN THEATRE SATHYA MANOHAR AND VANDANA SUPRIYA

Abstract: Yakhsagana, a four hundered year old operatic form of indian traditional theatre, from karnataka, rich in colour, vibrance, myth, rhythm and drama, as the name suggests is ’the dance of the celestials’, Its repetoire is made up of stories from the great epics of india the ramayana the mahabhatarata and the dashavatara. All elements of theartre, dance drama and music used in this form are not merely entertaining but also serve a higher purpose of community building, uplifting and spiritually elevating. We aim to study yakshagana in this social framework. We look at three theorists of mordern theatre, and find that charecteristics that they admire most in theatre have their roots in, and closely parallel some aspects of indian theatre.This paper is an attempt to observe these parallels in Yakhagana. 1. Motivation and Overview We started out by studying the spiritual significance of yakshagana, and its relevance in its social environment. We then stumbled upon the notion that some modern theorists have worked hard to incorporate certain principles in their ideal of theatre and that Yakshagana and other forms of indian theatre have had these elements in their structure for many hundreds of years. In chapter 1 we plan to outline the elements in Yakshagana stressing more on its purpose, origins and its social context rather than on the actual performance or its reportoire. In Chapter 2, we will sketch in simple terms the ideas that three great theorists of modern theatre (Brecht, Artaud and Grotowski), have tried to infuse into their representation of modern theatre. In Chapter 3, we aim to see aspects in Yakshagana that echo the ideas of these modern theorists. In Chapter 4 we conclude that Yakshagana as a form of theatre has had the elements that modern theorits admired for many hundereds of years before them. By studying Yakshagana in the light of these modern theories we hope to bring out the timelessness of the art and to explain to those unfamiliar to this art form the comparable elements in modern theatre. 2. Yakshagana: A brief introduction 2.1. Origins. The Bhagavad Gita explains that liberation or salvation may take the form of action, knowledge and devotion, giving the highest place to devotion. The vaishanvite Bhakthi movement is related directly to this devotional way to liberation . Vishnu’s manifestations as Rama and Krishna are the most popular and have inspired a vast treasury of mythical and puranic stories. These stories formed the primary impulse in the creation Date: February 2009. 1

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of drama and traditional theatre in india.. Yakshagana performances are based on stories from the great epics Ramayana and Mahahbarata, popular themes from the puranas dealing with the ten incarnations of Vishnu, the Dashavatara. Thats is why it is also called Dashavatara atta, or simply Bayalata (’opera in the feilds’). In north Karnataka it is Doddatta, in old Mysore it is Moodalapaya, and in the coastal districts it is called Yakshagana. I Yakshagana’s origins can be traced to the Sanskrit plays of the 4th century AD. In the rural parts of karnataka, Jakkini is a local diety. Dr Shivram Karanth says that the word Jakkini in Kannada means Yakshini. And this may be the reason for the form to be called Yakshagana. Shri K. S. Upadhyaya, suggests that Yakshagana is representative of the great cultural traditions of Karnataka, particularly in the areas from Udupi to Gokarna. He says that it draws its inspiration from pre-historic, ritualistic dances used in the worship of Naga, the snake god. The graceful and serpentine patterns that Yakshagana dancers make, apparently resemble the nagamandala. We will now breifly introduce the salient aspects of Yakshagana, including its music and its theme, and its space and content. 2.2. The stage as a performance space. In a typical stage performance, the stage is a simple mud platform lit by hand held burning torches, or petromax lamps. It is a nuetral space, easily manipulated by the actor capable of portraying a multiplicity of locales and simultainity of action. The stage is sanctified with water before a performance. Women were never allowed to enter the stage. The sanctity on stage would be lost then. Men dressed as women whenever neccessry and the women’s role was usually only to serve as a distraction and as a light change of interest from the heavy puranic themes. The audience is seated around the stage, that has no walls for props or decorations, except for the actors themselves. The actor is the focus. He stands on the bare stage and creates the vivid scenes with his dynamic presence. This very complex and multiple interaction between performance space, its environment, the spectators and performers is a fascinating aspect of Yakshagana performances. Today it has also moved to the proscenium stage and performed in the cities and overseas, for from the land of its origin. Lighting techniques have been modernised and in such situations the ethereal effect of the mud stage is lost. These new spaces change the aesthetics of reception of a performance and mar the intimate relationship between the actor and spectator, and reduce the dramatic impact. Indian traditional theatre was designed to be seen from all sides, just as sculpture on the temple walls can only be appreciated by making a parikrama (cicumambulation). The simple, mikeless, minimally lit stage possibly defined the costume and the elaborate movement. such that they may be seen from a distance. The dim light adding to the magical aura of the puranic charaters that were portrayed. 2.3. Costume and makeup and role type. In Yakshagana, the role type determines the costume make up, the headgear, the entrance and the exit. These elements are highly codifeied and considered sacred so much so that performers and their roles are sometimes passed from father to son. The characters are made to look larger than life since they have to be seen from a distance. Hence the costume is elaborate, with a layer of checquered fabric and and a skirt

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like frilly layer over that. The shirts vary in colour depending on the role, finishing with very large gilted gold ornaments made of wood. They wear elaborate head gear,(see appendix 1 for the various headgear) heavy make up exaggerating their eyes (sometimes drawn over the eyebrows), and wear bushy large moustaches. (see cover picture).Their gtittering costumes and elaborate head gear add to their larger than life portrayal of mythical characters. Their costumes and headgear become part of the actors persona rather than being an addtional decoration or prop. The scenic effect is enhanced only by the actors codified gait, acting, and symbolic hand gestures. The costume and the dramatic entry are important factors in establishing the role right at the onset. All objects used in the drama are considered objects of worship, and thus treated with reverence. All performances begin with a puja to Lord Ganesha, the remover of obstacles. Interestingly a puja is performed wit the headgear as a symbol of god. Also there is an elaborate ritual before the performer dons his headgear. Even after he puts on the headgear, he does not enter the character completely. Instead he keeps a distance and is fuly aware of his audience he will please. The actors keep the audience informed of their plans and some speeches are directly addressed to the audience. 2.4. The performer and the performance text. That brings us to the most important aspect of a yakshagana performance, the actor himself. Considering the fact that performances run through the night he must first of all be fit, disciplined and focussed. Second he must be a dancer, a singer, and an evocative narrator, who can throw his voice and reach the audience. Lastly he must be well versed in the study of puranas and their characters in the context of the story. As part of the training the performer learns the role, the dance, the music, and the epic stories, since its the dramatic text and the actor who carry the burden of describing the setting, in the absence of rehearsed speeches and dialogue. With a need for such all rounded involvement it is no surprise that artists were born into their roles. Apparently there were families designated with the performance of a certain role. Generations of performers learned to live and breathe the role that they would perform. And just as we venerate film heroes, Yakshagana artists were hero worshipped and people thronged to see the role of their favourite epic hero (such as Rama) performed by a particular artist. As for any work of art, to mark out the boundaries between the world of representation and the real world, requires a frame or a performance text. In Yakshagana the dramatic text is not merely words but incorporates gestures, movements, music etc. As part of the training, the Yakshagana performer learns role, and absorbs music, dance, and gestures along with the words in the text. 2.5. Time space and context. In the month of February when the harvest is done and the larder full, it is time for giving thanks and a time for Yakshagana too. This form was always presented as a ritual thanksgiving and as an offering to God, and sometimes as a vow and sacrifice too. It was part of a larger environment and community life outside the performance space, always celebrating the seasons, festivals, fairs and other community events, thereby embedded in a strong socio-cultural context.

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While it was entertaining it ws also a retelling of stories from the epics. A kind of discourse on morality, virtue, heroism and the inevitable triumph of good over evil. There were the heroes, the villains, demi-gods and kings, all in black and white, either good or evil. Fascinating stories were woven around these characters, with each character entering with a distinctively elaborate introduction. Yakshagana, in dealing with the myths and legends, mixed the affairs of gods and heroes by puting the action in double time order, both divine and human as well as mythical and historical. The pancha pandavas as heroes and their problems, were portrayed with Krishna at the helm of affairs. In performances, lapse of time was dealt with by using simple devices and conventions. The narrator, or the bhagavatha announced the time and space of action. Entry songs and the half curatin solves the problem of time and space in a metaphysical way. The half curtain is an important part of all traditional theatre and can be a subject for a doctoral thesis in its depth and variety. It is usually a six feet by eight feet piece of rectangular cloth, which in modern times also carries the name of the troupe. It is used in many ways. First it helps to create anticipation and expectancy as in the visual treat of veiwing a decorated diety in a temple, when revealed from behind a curtain, when the performer is revealed bit by bit. It is charged with religious spirit, and thus acquires the character of a symbol. Second it helps to connect different time and space sequences, including human and divine time. Yakshagana makes a most spectacular use of the half-curtain in manipulating a group entrance, as of the Pandava heroes, making a powerful visual impact upon the spectator. The half-curtain is held vertically about one foot above the ground. When the actordancers perform the first part of the introductory dance, they dramatically move the curtain forward. Finally the most important aspect of the curtain is that it serves to loosen the performance structure. Its usually held by two vidhuskas, or comedians, and their frequent informal entry and exit affects the performance structure in interesting ways. They perform out -of -frame activities and comic interludes which help loosen the structure of the play. 2.6. Music, moods(rasa) and movement and choreography. Shri Sarangadeva (13th century AD), in his Sangeetha Rathnakara, describes a metre called rahadi, similar to the ragale in Kannada. The blank verse of western wrtiting is similar to this metre. This metre lends itself well to bring out the veera rasa, (emotions of valour). Its structure lends itself to powerful delivery and easy assimilation of the text. These days in addition to this metre others like bhamini, vardhaakya, Kanda, vritta, dvipadi and shatpadi are used. Since the themes were of valour, victory, heroism and sacrifice, the veera rasa was the dominant sentiment. Thus movement and footwork were in keeping with this mood : fast paced, energetic with pirruoettes and jumps. A characteristic Yakshagana jump requires the actor to heave himself high up in the air both feet off the ground. The percussion instruments are the chande and the maddale. While the latter is similar to the mridanga, the former is not. Its sounds are very distinctive and characteristic of Yakshagana. This instrument lends itself very well to presentations of conflict, terror and war. Dance is

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central to the entire dramatic enactment. Though much of the act is spontaneous, there are elaborately choreographed passages of varying length , used to punctuate, highlight, or conclude a dramatic movement. Group choregraphy is used for enacting high points of action, specifically battle scenes. The story does not rush to a climax, instead it meanders along allowing the spectators to savour the sentiment(rasa) that the scene evokes. The lyrics in songs are inspired by the rich peotry of Kumara Vyasa, Kumara Valmiki and other 17th century poets. Devidaa, Parthi Subba, Venkata, and Rama Bhatta are some of the folk writers who have composed prasangas. The lyrics are set to ragas that are very typical and suited to the themes in Yakshagana. With this brief introduction to Yakshagana, we will now proceed to introduce modern theatre and its theorists. 3. Modern Theatre Theory We choose three of most perceptive and creative theatre theorists of western theatre and look at the elements that they admired most in theatre. Each of them have different approaches to the theatre experience. The first speaks of technique while the second looks to the spiritual aspects in the performance and the third emphasizes the excellence of the artist himself. 3.1. Bertolt Brecht (18981956). was a German poet, playwright, and a very renowned theatre director of the twentieth century. Some of his principles have been influenced by Chinese theatre. First, let us look at his most celebrated principle, the alienation effect (Verfremdungseffekt in German) which he uses in his ’epic theatre’. Here the audience is always aware that it is watching a play. Epic theatre was a reaction against other popular forms of theatre, particularly the naturalistic approach pioneered by Constantin Stanislavski. He wished to keep the audience from empathising deeply or engaging their rational faculties. He believed that this detachment was neccessary for catharsis. Brecht used comedy as a tool to alienate the audience. Actors are required to perform believably but not become the characters they portray. Actors frequently address the audience directly out of character (”breaking the fourth wall”) and play multiple roles. Brecht allowed his characters freedom, and tried to develop a style of acting wherein it was evident that the characters were choosing one action over another. This he called ”fixing the Not / But element.” Second, He believed that action of a play was a justification of the characters rather than a revelation of it. Basic characters do not unfold but are established at the onset. Third, he wanted his plays to be a potential for social movement through their didactic moralising. Fourth, the ”Relaxed Audience” is how Brecht referred to the audience he wished the epic theatre to attract. Brecht often spoke of what he termed a smokers theatre, where spectators would puff on cigars, and relax, whilst watching a performance. They are there to be entertained and interested in what they see and therefore are able to think. Fifth, he advised treating each element of a play independently, music, dance, story etc., and was heavily influenced by musicals and fairground performers, putting music and song in his plays.

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3.2. Antonin Artaud(1895-1948). Antoine Marie Joseph Artaud, better known as Antonin Artaud was a French playwright, poet, actor and theatre director. Artaud drew his inspiration from Balinese theatre, which he apparently never saw in its original environment. Much of the West’s fascination with rituals in theatre can be directly attributed to him. His principles are rooted in a fundamental revolt against an insincerity in literature, where the written word corresponds to an attitude or prejudice. His most cherished dream was to found a new kind of theatre in French which would be, not an artistic spectacle, but a communion between spectators and actors. He asks us, just as primitive men did, to look beyond the rituals and see the world as a result of mysterious and awesome forces. Thus it would be a theatre of magic, a mass participation in which the entire culture would find its vitality and its truest expression. Artaud’s greatest activity in the theater fell approximately between the years 1930 and 1935, when he proposed what he called the Theatre of cruelty. A true play, according to Artaud’s concept, will disturb the spectator’s tranquillity of mind and his senses, and it will liberate his subconscious. Aristotle apparently emphasized especially this ethical power of the theater, in his time. The purpose of a play, he believed was to reveal the presence of extraordinary forces in man. The actor becomes a kind of magician, a holy man, in a sense, because he calls to life themes that are not purely human. He sought through his art to go far beyond human understanding and in an attempt to reach a metaphysical truth. Toward the end of his career he was dissapointed that his conception of ritual had diluted to ’patterned actions worn smooth by repetitions’ and was devoid of emotion. His frustration is evident in this quote. ”The question we must now ask is whether in this slippery world which is committing suicide without noticing it, there can be found a nucleus of men capable of imposing this superior notion of theatre, men who will restore all of us to the natural and magical equivalent of the dogmas we no longer believe” (Artaud 1958). 3.3. Jerzy Grotowski (1933 -1999). was a Polish theatre director and innovator of experimental theater, and the ”theatre laboratory” and ”poor theatre” concepts. His theatre was famous for its numerous productions, significantly the ”Orpheus” by Jean Cocteau, ”Shakuntala” based on the text by Kalidasa. He was the only one who had visited india and has acknowledged using actor training methods used in the training of kathakali performers. Towards a Poor Theatre (1968) written by Grotowski, is an expression of his ideas. Here he says that theatre should not, because it could not, compete against the overwhelming spectacle of film and should instead focus on the very root of the act of theatre: actors in front of spectators. He maintained that the actor needs to call on every aspect of himself. His eyes, ears, heart and senses. Acting for him is a life’s work. He therefore created what was called the theatre laboratory, where actors were trained for mastery. He believed that by constant exposure to the role, the actor acquires technical mastery over his physical and psychic self and allow all barriers to drop, and thereby permit a role to ’penetrate’ him. ”Theatre - through the actor’s technique, his art in which the living organism strives for higher motives - provides an opportunity for what could be called integration, the

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discarding of masks, the revealing of the real substance: a totality of physical and mental reactions. This opportunity must be treated in a disciplined manner, with a full awareness of the responsibilities it involves. Here we can see the theatre’s therapeutic function for people in our present day civilization.” He talks of a very financially deprived Polish theatre, which he sought to make rich by his concept of ”holy actors”. To him the ”personal and scenic technique of the actor is in the core of theatre art” (Grotowski 1969). It is the actor, who, in the absence of gadgets and technology, through his committment and training makes an impact on the audience. He believed that actors offer their performance as a ceremony, to lay bare what lies in every man and that which is hidden in every day life. Grotowski carries his theory for enough as to make poverty an ideal; his actors had to give up everything except the their bodies as instruments and limitless time available to them . To him theatre was holy because its purpose was holy and has a clearly defined place in the community.

4. Yakshagana and Modern Theatre We will now go on to examine The traditional dance theatre form of Yakshagagna in the light of the ideas used by modern theorists. (1) Brechts description of the epic theatre closely and unmistakably resembles the Indian traditional theatre. In Yakshagana we find that all aspects of theatre are present: music, dance, drama, abhinaya, (all four forms of ahinaya, angika, vachika, aharya and sattvika abhinaya) and distinctively stylised footwork. Each of this has its own place in a performance structure and therefore a coordinated rehearsal is not needed when the actor is proficient in all aspects of theatre. Actors are introduced with distinct entries right at the onset of the play. Musical instruments, and the singer are all visible on stage as part of the performance. Their presence also helps to destroy the illusion of reality. (2) In Yakshagana the actor and the character are two poles of duality. This has been a subject of study, admiration and theoretical investigation. Brechts concept of ’alienation’ seems to relate to this duality. The actor dons his makeup and headgear and enters and exits in a stylised way. He plays the part of the character but stays away from the reality of it. He sings, dances, mimes and delivers dialogues, knowing well that he is performing the role of the character he is portraying. He sometimes talks to the audience telling them of the plans and the course the narrative would take. During a performance, It is common to see the artist seat himself on the stool on stage and relax, stretch a little, adjust his head gear, and seem very casual in a formal stage setting. He disengages himself and when he returns to the acting arena he engages in action again. This is an essential component of theatre that traditionally is performed for several hours through the night. It gives the actor and the audience a chance to be removed from the intensity of the performance. It is a de-linking of the actor- role relationship, that Brecht seeks to employ in his theatre.

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(3) The spectator as you will notice in any Yakshagana performance walks around, chats a little bit, spawls on the ground and takes a little nap and wakes up ready for his favourite act. He is not compelled to to applaud or focus or engage himself, instead it is a wholesome participaton in the event. It is a relaxed unfolding of action where good triumphs over evil. The events on stage carries the audience away from their daily problems, relaxes the mind and in turn helps to solve issues of the real world. All this is done in a seamlessly unpretentious way. This relates to the ’relaxed audience that Brecht admired. (4) The vidhushak or the kodangi in Yakshagana is also an important charater in the unfolding of the epic. He is not merely a buffoon. His role involves a keen sense of timing and a quick mind. It is he who holds the social fabric of the audience together. He keeps the audience distracted and at once aware of the distinction betwen stage and reality. Firstly, his comic intrerludes bring the spectator away from the reality of the stage. Second he serves as an agent for social change, with his sattirical monologues usually in the contemporary dialect, peppered with the latest jargon. This is the third of Brechts principles that we mentioned earlier, where Brecht saw theatre as a ’potential for social comment”. (5) Yakshgana is primarily a form of devotional theatre, and it arouses in the performer and in the spectator a sense of spiritual submission and peace. The actors play their part but are always aware that they are not ”its lords”. In fact they offer puja to Ganesha in all humulity, as also to the crown or headgear before each performance. It is the evidence of a humble submission to their art. This submission to an idea or act that is performed, is at the core of these performances, and at this core lies Artuad’s goals for his theatre. He wants his audience to have the same acute sharpness of feeling that primitive man experienced stripped of logic and cause and relationship. He wanted theatre to shift its focus from the ”human psyche to the cosmic form in the universe” Ironically what Artuad refers to as ’primitive’ is in the eastern philosophy (be it Zen, Hindu, Buddhist or Jain) admired as exalted capacity of the human mind to willingly submit itself to the awesome forces of the supreme. It is in allowing ourselves to soak in the rasa of the play and revisit another time and place that we are rejuvenated and ready for our daily existence. Artuad’s theory speaks to the spirit and it is indeed into that sprirtual world that Yakshagana takes us. (6) Yakshagana as with other forms of indian theatre is a way of life. Actors are born into theatre, and start training from a very young age. Training and experience were gained hand in hand on the various aspects of the theatre form. Formal teaching is limited to footwork and study of the specific entries for each character. All else is imbibed. This, Growtoski called role penetration and, was one of the key components of his theatre laboratory. Music, literature, makeup, and a thorough knowledge of the epics was considered a must. Before his first performance the actor is expected to have learned about 300 prasangas or acts. Grotowskis concept of poor theatre being enriched by the actors’ excellence is another aspect so evident in yakshagana performances. Here actors became famous for the roles they played

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and the richness they brought to their character, with no support from stage decor or props. They were revered and venerated for their ability to transport their audiences to a different time. Their costumes and their gait and gestures were the core of their imposing persona.

5. Conclusion We are poised at a time in the evolution of man, when we can choose to either be scientific, pragmatic and seek empirical eveidence to all our theories on the one hand, and on the other, relax let-go and allow ourselves to be carried away into a world, whose mystery is not yet evident to the comman man, but that which our ancestors realised and therefore created avenues for their expression. All forms of art have their roots in this realisation. We do not seek to promote Yakshagana. It has survived as an art form for over four centuries and will continue to influence and be influenced for centuries to come. As long as human beings seek salvation and a higher awakening our tradtional theatre forms will exist. As we have just seen modern man too yearns for elements in theatre that will connect him to a higher force. Hence our efforts towards Yakshagana, are not as a favour to the art form but as a favour to ourselves, towards absorbing as much as we can in our lifetime for our own sake. Our aim is more selfish than altruistic. In a fast paced world with globalising forces at work, our identity slowly melts away as we become global citizens. And as global citizens whether modern man or enlightened ancestors, we all seek salvation through art. On the one hand, It is interesting for our younger generation to understand the relevance of these theatrical elements in todays theatre too. While on the other it is important to savour our forms if only for a sense of identity and purpose. It brings to light the timelessness and open endedness of our traditional form. As social beings we must discover the joy in a collective sharing of stories and legends that are uniquely our own, and find new ways of framing and rescripting the underlying ritual. That said we would like to conclude with a quote by Peter Brook, ” Theatre is an instance of people getting together with a common or shared purpose. It is not dissimilar in srtucture to going to church.....(it) is not an isolated cultural structure but lies in the continuum of related human activity which includes some recognizable structure with people participating as ’doers’ and ’observers’”. Bibliography. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Performance Tradition: Aesthetics and Practice, by Suresh Awasthi Performance Tradition and Modern Theatre by Suresh Awasthi The Empty Space, Peter Brook, 1968. Dionysus in Paris, Wallace Fowlie, Meridian Books, Inc., New York, 1960 Yakshagana bayalatta...K S Upadhyaya, in Lesser known forms of performing arts in India, ed. Durgadass Mukhopadhyay. (6) The Dramatic Touch of Difference: Theatre, Own and Foreign, Edited by Erika Fischer-Lichte, Josephine Riley, Micheal Gisenwehrer.

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(7) Social reality in south asian Theatre - Ataur Rehman. Article abridged from seminar ”The idioms of South Asian Theatre”. (8) Indian Theatre - Traditions of Performance.