Xbar

X-bar Theory X-bar Theory replaces our Phrase Structure Rules with the following schema: XP Æ (YP) X'

Specifier rule

X' Æ YP X' X' YP

{

Adjunct rule

X' Æ X (YP)

Complement rule

}

X-bar Theory, cont’d. Advantages of X-bar Theory: • Correctly represents constituents smaller than XP, bigger than X • Distinguishes syntactically among complements, specifiers, adjuncts • Makes cross-categorial generalizations

NP-Proform substitution Personal pronouns replace NP constituents: (1) a. b.

The tall man with a hat came. He came.

They cannot replace N alone: (2) a. The tall man with a hat came. b. * The tall he with a hat came. NP g (D) (AP+) N (PP+) NP g Prn

V'-Proform substitution The proform do so replaces a constituent smaller than VP, but larger than V. VP AP V often eat (3) a.

NP pie

I often eat pie, but Sue rarely does so.

b. * I often eat pie, but rarely do so cake.

V'-Proform substitution, cont’d. Do so replaces the V' category: VP V' V' AP V often eat (4) a. b.

NP pie

I often eat pie, but Sue rarely does so. I often eat pie, and Frank does so too.

c. * I often eat pie, and Frank does so cake.

Conjunction of X, XP Constituents of the same category can be conjoined by a conjunction: (5) a. VP: He cannot eat pie or sing. b. V: He cannot bake or eat pie Non-constituents cannot be conjoined: (6) a. * I saw the and fed cats. b. * I gave John and read a book Xn ‡ Xn Conj Xn VP VP

Conj

VP

eat pie

or

sing

Conjunction of V' V' categories can also be joined by conjunction: (7) She often eats pie and refuses cake. VP V' V' V' AP V often eats

V' NP

NP

Conj V pie and refuses cake

N'-Proform substitution Similarly, the proform one replaces a constituent smaller than NP, but larger than N. NP AP tall (8) a.

NP N N linguistics teachers

I’ve had tall linguistics teachers, but Sue has had short ones.

b. * I’ve had tall linguistics teachers, but Sue has had short math ones.

N'-Proform substitution One replaces the N' category: NP N' N' AP

NP

D N these tall linguistics teachers (9) a. I have tall linguistics teachers, but Sue has short ones. b. I have [NP these tall ling. teachers], and Sue has [NP those ones]. c.* I have [NP these tall ling. teachers], and Sue has [NP ones] too.

Conjunction of N' (10) We met some tall linguistics teachers and math students. NP N' N' N' AP NP

N' NP

N Conj N tall ling. teachers and math students

The A' category (11) She is oddly fearful of dogs. AP A' A' AP A oddly fearful

PP of dogs

The P' category (12) He was deeply in love. PP P' P' AP P deeply in

NP love

Complements, Adjuncts, Specifiers Specifier: daughter of XP, sister of X' NP specifiers include D and possessive NP. (13) a. the book of poetry b. Mary’s book of poetry c. * the Mary’s book of poetry NP N' NP N Mary’s book

PP of poetry

We will return to specifiers later.

Complements, Adjuncts, Specifiers Complement: daughter of X', sister of X The object of V is its complement. (14) criticize the book The complement of N or A has the same semantic relation to the root. (15) a. b.

criticism of the book critical of the book

Other Ns/As can also have a complement: (16) a. b.

the author of the book proud of the book

The object of P is its complement: (17) around the block

Complements, Adjuncts, Specifiers Adjunct: daughter of X', sister of X' Adjuncts for related V, A, N may have the same semantic relation to the root. (18) a. b. c.

intensely fear cats intensely fearful of cats intense fear of cats

Adjuncts can be adjoined to the left or right of the head. (19) a. I laughed [often]. b. I [often] laughed. c. I laughed [on Tuesday]. d. * I [on Tuesday] laughed.

Adjuncts, cont’d. Multiple adjuncts are adjoined to separate X-bar levels. (20)

NP N' N' AP

AP

N'

D N the recent electric storm Number of adjuncts = n Number of X'-level projections = n+1

Complements vs. Adjuncts Complements and adjuncts can both follow the head. Do so-replacement can omit an adjunct, but not a complement. (21) a.

I ate on Monday, but did not do so on Tuesday.

b. * I ate cheese, but did not do so pie. VP VP V' V' V' PP V ate on Monday

NP V ate cheese

Complements vs. Adjuncts, cont’d. One-replacement can also omit an adjunct, but not a complement. (21) a.

I like the book on the table, but not the one on the shelf.

b. * I like the top of Nose Hill, but not the one of Kilimanjaro. NP NP N' N' N' PP N book on the table

PP N top of Nose Hill