What Can Be Done To Solve Ethnic Tensions In Myanmar
This document was uploaded by user and they confirmed that they have the permission to share it. If you are author or own the copyright of this book, please report to us by using this DMCA report form. Report DMCA
Overview
Download & View What Can Be Done To Solve Ethnic Tensions In Myanmar as PDF for free.
More details
- Words: 1,699
- Pages: 4
What can be done to solve the ethnic tensions in Myanmar? Critique Paper on The Opening in Burma: The Democrats’ Opportunity, The Wages of Burman-ness, and Making Enemies: War and State Building in Burma By Jaemin Lee
Myanmar is a very unique country in that it had stayed in long periods of isolation until recently, and it has the longest history of civil war that continues to the present date. The reforms brought by Thein Sein in 2011 seemed to change the whole situation in Myanmar, but there is no doubt that the country still has a lot of problems to overcome. Some may argue that the British colonialism played the most important role in exerting adverse influences that eventually led to issues present in today’s Myanmar, but the papers written by Min Zin, Brian Joseph, Matthew J. Walton, and Mary Callahan suggest that a combination of factors including the government’s military approaches and the colonial experience contributed significantly in shaping today’s Myanmar. ‘The Opening in Burma: The Democrats’ Opportunity’ written by Min Zin and Brian Joseph describe the transitional phases Burma has gone through and the challenges it faces nowadays. Burma was seen as a country that seemed destined to remain poor and suppressed under the military regime until 2011 when Thein Sein called for political and economic reforms and allowed for returns of political prisoners, entered ceasefire negotiations with a number of ethnic minorities, and relaxed press censorship.1 Besides the implementation of policies that mainly dealt with the country’s internal problems, Thein Sein opened Myanmar’s door to the west to reduce its military and economic reliance on China. However, as characterized by Min Zin and Brian Joseph, despite these dramatic actions taken by the government, Myanmar has a lot of problems, most notably the ethnic tensions, to overcome.2 In his paper, “The Wages of Burman-ness.” The Ethnicity and Burman Privilege in Contemporary Myanmar’, Matthew J. Walton describes the privilege native Burmese people enjoy from and the problem associated with it. The author explains that as a result of the colonial policies that excluded Bamars from assuming administrative and military roles, the Burman identity that led to discrimination of other ethnic groups emerged. Walton mentions that the benefits Bamars enjoy from their ethnicity include the facts that they are not compelled to learn other ethnic groups’ cultures and languages, and that they are not subject to suspicion from the government.3 Walton concludes his paper by stating that Myanmar’s political leaders and the public’s ignorance of the Burmese-ness privilege are the main problems and suggests that the government open public discussion on the question of what it really is to be a part of ‘Myanmar’.4 Mary Callahan’s ‘Making Enemies: War and State Building in Burma’ describes the processes the military has gone through on its way to consolidating its position in Myanmar’s politics. After combining its units to fight against the Kuomintang army, the Burman military strengthened its position by assuming diplomatic roles in discussions with the United States and the Soviet Union.5 After General Ne Win gained control of the government, Burma’s military regime placed field officers in administrative departments and suppressed its citizens’ oppositions through military operations and imprisonment.6 Mary Callahan finishes her paper by saying that the military regime’s approaches in dealing with internal crises have eventually blocked other possible solutions to Myanmar’s problems and turned citizens obstacles to its consolidation. Although three articles each talks about different problems and phases Myanmar has gone through, what can be inferred from all of these is that the military has grown as a measure to deal with both internal and external threats such as the military operations of Kuomintang and the tensions between the civil side of the politics and the army but it has failed to consider in implementing solutions for a number of significant problems such as the ethnic tensions that still exist to present date. As mentioned above, whereas the Bamars enjoy their status as being the majority ethnic group, other ethnic groups continue to suffer from a number of disadvantages. For example, local Burmese do not have to adapt to new cultures nor do they have to learn other ethnic groups’ languages. On the other hand, because the government has outlawed ethnic languages and promoted teachings of Bamar history in educational institutions, the ethnic minorities have no choice, but to assimilate themselves to the Burmese culture. Furthermore, Burmese are not
required to prove their loyalty to the nation but people from other ethnic groups need to prove their loyalty because they are regarded as lacking ‘the true Burmese heritage’.7 Among ethnic minorities who have been suppressed since decades ago, the Rohingya people seem to have the direst situation as they do not possess the Burmese citizenship and they have been subject to severe prosecutions that continue to be present nowadays. Even though Aung San Suu Kyi has had her honorary Canadian citizenship stripped off and has been heavily criticized by the international community for her lack of involvement in ceasing the abuses of Rohingya group,8 the genocide still happens. Myanmar took a huge step forward in 2011 when it declared political and economic reform, but now it is the time for its Bamar citizens to grow awareness of the benefits they have had and the international community to impose economic sanctions on Myanmar to cease its ethnic cleansing of the Rohingyas. The public’s understanding of the minorities and incorporating them into ‘Burmans’ can be a measure that can solve, or at least lessen the severity of, ethnic tensions in Myanmar. People may be confused over two terms, ‘race’ and ‘ethnicity’. Much of racial discrimination comes from how a certain group of people has different physical characteristics that cannot be changed. Ethnicity, on the other hand, is a more fluid term in that it can be built over time and is therefore subject to changes.9 The task of reconciliation between the Bamars and other ethnic groups may be difficult because the local Burmese do not fully understand what it means to live as the non-Burmans who are suspected of insurgencies simply because of their ethnicity. However, there is definitely no doubt that people from ethnic minority groups have worked hard to adapt themselves to the culture of the majority. It is now the time for the Bamars to step up and put efforts into understanding the minorities. Imposing economic sanctions on Myanmar is one approach to deal with the Rohingya conflict. The military government’s violent suppressions of 8888 democracy uprising in 1988 and refusal to recognize the 1990 elections have caused the Western countries to impose sanctions in Burma and as a result, from the late 1980s to 2012, Myanmar had relied on China for economy and military. However, the situation nowadays is different to the situation 20 years ago; whereas Myanmar was willing to lean on China for support, Myanmar’s recent actions show that it is willing to open its economy to the West and to reduce its reliance on China. Since 2005 when Myanmar’s air force killed 5 Chinese citizens, the relationship between the two has become worse and in the 2010s, the Southeast Asian country has been actively engaging in economic activities with the world.10 Trade embargos or any other types of economic sanctions are not what Myanmar wants nowadays because it wants to expand its economy to the world. There have been economic sanctions on officials who have been actively taking their roles in the ethnic cleansing of the Rohingya group,11 but if the whole country is prohibited from trading with EU and the United States, for example, for the prosecution of the ethnic minority group, the government will definitely be more motivated to stop the Rohingya genocide to protect its economy and secure the public support. The military has declined in its influence recently, but its role is still present in the politics and how it has shaped Myanmar from the 1960s remain. Ethnic minority groups have never been welcomed since the colonial era, and their insurgencies and the military government’s violent suppression have made the situation of reconciliation worse. Armistices have been made between the ethnic groups and the government but they have proven to be short lasting, and the ethnic tensions continue to exist as demonstrated by the suppression of the Rohingya group and the privilege of the so-called ‘Burman-ness’. Whether the measures mentioned above are the answers or not remains unknown. However, one thing for sure is that the public and the international community should take actions to solve the current issues.
Bibliography 1-Zin, Min, and Brian Joseph. “The Democrats’ Opportunity.” Journal of Democracy, vol. 23, no. 4, 2012, pp. 104-105., doi:10.1353/jod.2012.0069. 2-Zin, Min, and Brian Joseph. “The Democrats’ Opportunity.” Journal of Democracy, vol. 23, no. 4, 2012, pp. 105-116., doi:10.1353/jod.2012.0069. 3-Walton, Matthew J. “The ‘Wages of Burman-Ness:’ Ethnicity and Burman Privilege in Contemporary Myanmar.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, vol. 43, no. 1, 2013, pp. 6, 10., doi:10.1080/00472336.2012.730892. 4-Walton, Matthew J. “The ‘Wages of Burman-Ness:’ Ethnicity and Burman Privilege in Contemporary Myanmar.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, vol. 43, no. 1, 2013, pp. 16-22., doi:10.1080/00472336.2012.730892. 5-Callahan, Mary Patricia. “Making Enemies: War and State Building in Burma.” Vol. 65, no. 01, 2003, pp. 176–179., doi:10.1017/s0021911806000568. 6-Callahan, Mary Patricia. “Making Enemies: War and State Building in Burma.” Vol. 65, no. 01, 2003, pp. 190–195., doi:10.1017/s0021911806000568. 7-alton, Matthew J. “The ‘Wages of Burman-Ness:’ Ethnicity and Burman Privilege in Contemporary Myanmar.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, vol. 43, no. 1, 2013, pp. 7., doi:10.1080/00472336.2012.730892. 8-“Canada MPs Vote to Strip Aung San Suu Kyi of Honorary Citizenship.” BBC News, BBC, 28 Sept. 2018, www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-45647073. Keaten, Jamey. “Mahathir Slams Myanmar's Suu Kyi for Handling of Rohingya.” New Jersey Herald, 13 Nov. 2018, www.njherald.com/article/20181113/AP/311139859 9-Walton, Matthew J. “The ‘Wages of Burman-Ness:’ Ethnicity and Burman Privilege in Contemporary Myanmar.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, vol. 43, no. 1, 2013, pp. 4, 14., doi:10.1080/00472336.2012.730892. 10-Jaishankar, Dhruva. “Myanmar Is Pivoting Away from China.” Foreign Policy, Foreign Policy, 15 June 2015, foreignpolicy.com/2015/06/15/myanmar-burma-is-pivoting-awayfrom-china-aung-san-suu-kyi-xi-jinping-india/. 11-Wong, Edward. “U.S. Imposes Sanctions on Myanmar Military Over Rohingya Atrocities.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 17 Aug. 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/08/17/us/politics/myanmar-sanctions-rohingya.html. Marks, Simon. “EU Weighs New Sanctions against Myanmar over Rohingya.” POLITICO, POLITICO, 10 Sept. 2018, www.politico.eu/article/eu-weighs-new-sanctions-againstmyanmar-over-rohingya/.
Myanmar is a very unique country in that it had stayed in long periods of isolation until recently, and it has the longest history of civil war that continues to the present date. The reforms brought by Thein Sein in 2011 seemed to change the whole situation in Myanmar, but there is no doubt that the country still has a lot of problems to overcome. Some may argue that the British colonialism played the most important role in exerting adverse influences that eventually led to issues present in today’s Myanmar, but the papers written by Min Zin, Brian Joseph, Matthew J. Walton, and Mary Callahan suggest that a combination of factors including the government’s military approaches and the colonial experience contributed significantly in shaping today’s Myanmar. ‘The Opening in Burma: The Democrats’ Opportunity’ written by Min Zin and Brian Joseph describe the transitional phases Burma has gone through and the challenges it faces nowadays. Burma was seen as a country that seemed destined to remain poor and suppressed under the military regime until 2011 when Thein Sein called for political and economic reforms and allowed for returns of political prisoners, entered ceasefire negotiations with a number of ethnic minorities, and relaxed press censorship.1 Besides the implementation of policies that mainly dealt with the country’s internal problems, Thein Sein opened Myanmar’s door to the west to reduce its military and economic reliance on China. However, as characterized by Min Zin and Brian Joseph, despite these dramatic actions taken by the government, Myanmar has a lot of problems, most notably the ethnic tensions, to overcome.2 In his paper, “The Wages of Burman-ness.” The Ethnicity and Burman Privilege in Contemporary Myanmar’, Matthew J. Walton describes the privilege native Burmese people enjoy from and the problem associated with it. The author explains that as a result of the colonial policies that excluded Bamars from assuming administrative and military roles, the Burman identity that led to discrimination of other ethnic groups emerged. Walton mentions that the benefits Bamars enjoy from their ethnicity include the facts that they are not compelled to learn other ethnic groups’ cultures and languages, and that they are not subject to suspicion from the government.3 Walton concludes his paper by stating that Myanmar’s political leaders and the public’s ignorance of the Burmese-ness privilege are the main problems and suggests that the government open public discussion on the question of what it really is to be a part of ‘Myanmar’.4 Mary Callahan’s ‘Making Enemies: War and State Building in Burma’ describes the processes the military has gone through on its way to consolidating its position in Myanmar’s politics. After combining its units to fight against the Kuomintang army, the Burman military strengthened its position by assuming diplomatic roles in discussions with the United States and the Soviet Union.5 After General Ne Win gained control of the government, Burma’s military regime placed field officers in administrative departments and suppressed its citizens’ oppositions through military operations and imprisonment.6 Mary Callahan finishes her paper by saying that the military regime’s approaches in dealing with internal crises have eventually blocked other possible solutions to Myanmar’s problems and turned citizens obstacles to its consolidation. Although three articles each talks about different problems and phases Myanmar has gone through, what can be inferred from all of these is that the military has grown as a measure to deal with both internal and external threats such as the military operations of Kuomintang and the tensions between the civil side of the politics and the army but it has failed to consider in implementing solutions for a number of significant problems such as the ethnic tensions that still exist to present date. As mentioned above, whereas the Bamars enjoy their status as being the majority ethnic group, other ethnic groups continue to suffer from a number of disadvantages. For example, local Burmese do not have to adapt to new cultures nor do they have to learn other ethnic groups’ languages. On the other hand, because the government has outlawed ethnic languages and promoted teachings of Bamar history in educational institutions, the ethnic minorities have no choice, but to assimilate themselves to the Burmese culture. Furthermore, Burmese are not
required to prove their loyalty to the nation but people from other ethnic groups need to prove their loyalty because they are regarded as lacking ‘the true Burmese heritage’.7 Among ethnic minorities who have been suppressed since decades ago, the Rohingya people seem to have the direst situation as they do not possess the Burmese citizenship and they have been subject to severe prosecutions that continue to be present nowadays. Even though Aung San Suu Kyi has had her honorary Canadian citizenship stripped off and has been heavily criticized by the international community for her lack of involvement in ceasing the abuses of Rohingya group,8 the genocide still happens. Myanmar took a huge step forward in 2011 when it declared political and economic reform, but now it is the time for its Bamar citizens to grow awareness of the benefits they have had and the international community to impose economic sanctions on Myanmar to cease its ethnic cleansing of the Rohingyas. The public’s understanding of the minorities and incorporating them into ‘Burmans’ can be a measure that can solve, or at least lessen the severity of, ethnic tensions in Myanmar. People may be confused over two terms, ‘race’ and ‘ethnicity’. Much of racial discrimination comes from how a certain group of people has different physical characteristics that cannot be changed. Ethnicity, on the other hand, is a more fluid term in that it can be built over time and is therefore subject to changes.9 The task of reconciliation between the Bamars and other ethnic groups may be difficult because the local Burmese do not fully understand what it means to live as the non-Burmans who are suspected of insurgencies simply because of their ethnicity. However, there is definitely no doubt that people from ethnic minority groups have worked hard to adapt themselves to the culture of the majority. It is now the time for the Bamars to step up and put efforts into understanding the minorities. Imposing economic sanctions on Myanmar is one approach to deal with the Rohingya conflict. The military government’s violent suppressions of 8888 democracy uprising in 1988 and refusal to recognize the 1990 elections have caused the Western countries to impose sanctions in Burma and as a result, from the late 1980s to 2012, Myanmar had relied on China for economy and military. However, the situation nowadays is different to the situation 20 years ago; whereas Myanmar was willing to lean on China for support, Myanmar’s recent actions show that it is willing to open its economy to the West and to reduce its reliance on China. Since 2005 when Myanmar’s air force killed 5 Chinese citizens, the relationship between the two has become worse and in the 2010s, the Southeast Asian country has been actively engaging in economic activities with the world.10 Trade embargos or any other types of economic sanctions are not what Myanmar wants nowadays because it wants to expand its economy to the world. There have been economic sanctions on officials who have been actively taking their roles in the ethnic cleansing of the Rohingya group,11 but if the whole country is prohibited from trading with EU and the United States, for example, for the prosecution of the ethnic minority group, the government will definitely be more motivated to stop the Rohingya genocide to protect its economy and secure the public support. The military has declined in its influence recently, but its role is still present in the politics and how it has shaped Myanmar from the 1960s remain. Ethnic minority groups have never been welcomed since the colonial era, and their insurgencies and the military government’s violent suppression have made the situation of reconciliation worse. Armistices have been made between the ethnic groups and the government but they have proven to be short lasting, and the ethnic tensions continue to exist as demonstrated by the suppression of the Rohingya group and the privilege of the so-called ‘Burman-ness’. Whether the measures mentioned above are the answers or not remains unknown. However, one thing for sure is that the public and the international community should take actions to solve the current issues.
Bibliography 1-Zin, Min, and Brian Joseph. “The Democrats’ Opportunity.” Journal of Democracy, vol. 23, no. 4, 2012, pp. 104-105., doi:10.1353/jod.2012.0069. 2-Zin, Min, and Brian Joseph. “The Democrats’ Opportunity.” Journal of Democracy, vol. 23, no. 4, 2012, pp. 105-116., doi:10.1353/jod.2012.0069. 3-Walton, Matthew J. “The ‘Wages of Burman-Ness:’ Ethnicity and Burman Privilege in Contemporary Myanmar.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, vol. 43, no. 1, 2013, pp. 6, 10., doi:10.1080/00472336.2012.730892. 4-Walton, Matthew J. “The ‘Wages of Burman-Ness:’ Ethnicity and Burman Privilege in Contemporary Myanmar.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, vol. 43, no. 1, 2013, pp. 16-22., doi:10.1080/00472336.2012.730892. 5-Callahan, Mary Patricia. “Making Enemies: War and State Building in Burma.” Vol. 65, no. 01, 2003, pp. 176–179., doi:10.1017/s0021911806000568. 6-Callahan, Mary Patricia. “Making Enemies: War and State Building in Burma.” Vol. 65, no. 01, 2003, pp. 190–195., doi:10.1017/s0021911806000568. 7-alton, Matthew J. “The ‘Wages of Burman-Ness:’ Ethnicity and Burman Privilege in Contemporary Myanmar.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, vol. 43, no. 1, 2013, pp. 7., doi:10.1080/00472336.2012.730892. 8-“Canada MPs Vote to Strip Aung San Suu Kyi of Honorary Citizenship.” BBC News, BBC, 28 Sept. 2018, www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-45647073. Keaten, Jamey. “Mahathir Slams Myanmar's Suu Kyi for Handling of Rohingya.” New Jersey Herald, 13 Nov. 2018, www.njherald.com/article/20181113/AP/311139859 9-Walton, Matthew J. “The ‘Wages of Burman-Ness:’ Ethnicity and Burman Privilege in Contemporary Myanmar.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, vol. 43, no. 1, 2013, pp. 4, 14., doi:10.1080/00472336.2012.730892. 10-Jaishankar, Dhruva. “Myanmar Is Pivoting Away from China.” Foreign Policy, Foreign Policy, 15 June 2015, foreignpolicy.com/2015/06/15/myanmar-burma-is-pivoting-awayfrom-china-aung-san-suu-kyi-xi-jinping-india/. 11-Wong, Edward. “U.S. Imposes Sanctions on Myanmar Military Over Rohingya Atrocities.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 17 Aug. 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/08/17/us/politics/myanmar-sanctions-rohingya.html. Marks, Simon. “EU Weighs New Sanctions against Myanmar over Rohingya.” POLITICO, POLITICO, 10 Sept. 2018, www.politico.eu/article/eu-weighs-new-sanctions-againstmyanmar-over-rohingya/.
Related Documents
What Can Be Done To Solve Ethnic Tensions In Myanmar
November 2019 6
What Is To Be Done
June 2020 5
What Can Be Protected
May 2020 12
Remediation_v1 To Be Done
November 2019 14
