Using And Producing Multimedia Materials

Introduction

Using and producing multimedia materials

As one of a number of new learning technologies, multimedia is increasingly being used in traditional training and development events and also in open and flexible learning modules. With a move towards more flexible working practices, it is necessary to provide a more flexible approach to learning, training and development, particularly with regard to timing, location and the needs of the learner. Multimedia provides that flexibility. This article is intended to give educators and training and development specialists some understanding of what multimedia is and how those involved in the learning process can begin to develop their own multimedia materials.

Sue Browell

The author Sue Browell is Programme Director, Postgraduate Personnel/HRM Programmes, Newcastle Business School, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK. She can be contacted on 0191 227 4356; fax: 0191 227 3682; e-mail: [email protected].

What is multimedia ? In many respects, multimedia is not a new concept. In simple terms it describes the simultaneous use of two or more different forms of media, e.g. tape/slide[1]. Derived from open and distance learning institutions, it was originally used to describe course delivery in terms of text, television, radio, etc. Currently, the term is being used to describe the “integration of audio and video with computers, the computer controlling the way in which the different media are mixed together on a VDU or television screen”[1] or “workstations that support not just alphanumeric/graphic displays but also audiovisual material stored on CD-ROM or hard disk”[2]. Dahmer[3] defines multimedia as “something that combines the capabilities of technologies that used to be separate ... it can combine things like text, graphics, sounds and still or motion pictures in a smooth way to present training or information”; and “print, telecommunications, video and broadcasting, and computers have merged – and the result is what we now call multimedia”. Stubley[4] also describes multimedia as: “Graphics and sound, digital or analogue video, animations, hypermedia, interactivity, computer games, virtual reality, electronic books, CD-ROM, HDTV, telecommunications – and many others – have all been terms associated with the definition of ‘multimedia’ at one time or another.”

Abstract As one of a number of new learning technologies, multimedia is increasingly being used in traditional training and development events and also in open and flexible learning modules. With a move towards more flexible working practices, it is necessary to provide a more flexible approach to learning, training and development, particularly with regard to timing, location and the needs of the learner. Multimedia provides that flexibility. Gives educators, and training and development specialists some understanding of what multimedia is by providing a number of definitions and considering the benefits of using multimedia materials. Outlines developing and producing multimedia materials, together with some of the complex legal issues involved in production.

Industrial and Commercial Training Volume 28 · Number 7 · 1996 · pp. 9–15 © MCB University Press · ISSN 0019-7858

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Using and producing multimedia materials

Industrial and Commercial Training

Sue Browell

Volume 28 · Number 7 · 1996 · 9–15

Benefits of multimedia

Using multimedia materials

There are both advantages and disadvantages in using multimedia as a teaching and learning medium and it will not be appropriate for all situations. However, it is certainly beneficial if one is wanting to use a lot of visual material and/or create simulation. Littlefield[5] reports that Schank, author and director of the US government-sponsored Institute of the Learning Sciences, states that one of the major advantages of multimedia is that it can save time by offering realistic work situations in a condensed form, i.e. simulation. Being a simulation, it allows learners, whether they be students or employees, to “fail” in a safe environment and learn from their mistakes, which is preferable to making serious mistakes, in the workplace.

The National Council for Educational Technology[1] suggests a number of issues that should be considered and questions answered before using multimedia for the first time: • carefully identify curricular needs and priorities; • examine available materials; • calculate the cost of hardware, software, disks and other resources; • estimate costs in staff time for developing materials and staff development in use of materials; • will multimedia reinforce, replace, enhance or extend the teaching and learning process? • will students gain new skills, knowledge and/or experience from these materials? • is the multimedia material educationally valid and are the style and content compatible with students needs, interests and abilities? • does the multimedia material aid concept formation, reinforce skills and facilitate assessment? • does new technology demand changes in current teaching and learning styles and what support will students need from lecturers/trainers? • are the staff committed to the use of multimedia and determined to make it work ? • how can staff be motivated to take ownership of the multimedia initiative?

‘…Early research suggests that multimedia “enriches the learning experience and motivates students”…’

Early research suggests that multimedia “enriches the learning experience and motivates students”[1]. Potentially, therefore, it is a significant benefit. Laurillard[2] considers that multimedia, “has the capability, given its combined features, to support the learning process very well”, but this is only possible if the student is able to control the learning process for themselves rather than be actually driven by the program and technology. It is important, therefore, to take this into account in the design of materials so that the benefits can be maximized. Garai and Hill[6] have found from their research that multimedia allows learners to use their judgement and decision-making skills in realistic situations and observe the outcomes as a result of their actions. They also found that the interactivity provided by multimedia allows students to handle complex ideas and concepts and to explore and reflect on ideas and situations presented. Overall, they found that multimedia could potentially be used when learning and training was required in: product knowledge, product development, process skills, personal development, legislative issues, specialist needs, interpersonal skills and attitudinal change.

By considering the above points, risks are reduced and success in using multimedia materials in teaching and learning is probably much greater.

Resource implications Using multimedia materials is now much more affordable and available to all – educational institutions, businesses and the home user. Many computers now incorporate CDROM drives as “standard”. Multimedia products and materials can be obtained in four different ways: (1) Purchase off-the-shelf products. (2) Enter into a joint arrangement with an external producer. (3) Commission an external producer to create materials for exclusive use of the commissioner. (4) Produce materials in-house. 10

Using and producing multimedia materials

Industrial and Commercial Training

Sue Browell

Volume 28 · Number 7 · 1996 · 9–15

Several organizations produce off-the-shelf materials that can be incorporated into learning programmes. Well-known video producers such as Video Arts and other producers too are now adding to their portfolio by providing multimedia materials. New companies are also being established to provide materials. The Open Learning Foundation, dedicated to research and development into new teaching and learning methods, now has several multimedia programs available for use in higher education. Garai and Hill[6] suggest that there are four factors that will influence the purchase of multimedia material, other than the obvious one of cost: (1) Learning design – content and learning driven rather than media driven. (2) Purchasing versatility – ability to adapt material to in-house requirements. (3) Platform versatility – multimedia product compatible with a variety of systems and platforms. (4) User friendliness and attractiveness – adequate instructions and movement around the material.

to use their skills in multimedia production even though there are some quite significant differences between designing traditional instructional sessions and designing multimedia. Dahmer[3] suggests that three areas are critical in creating multimedia material and associated training: Design models Provide a structured method for ensuring a training need exists and can assist in developing a multimedia program that meets an identified need, e.g. instructional systems design. Evaluation should be built into the design process. Multimedia development roles The expertise required will depend on the characteristics required in the final program. If including original video footage then a director will be required. Graphics and text will only require a skilled author. To create high quality programs, seven roles need to be performed, although individuals may perform more than one role: (1) Project manager or producer to co-ordinate the project and other team members. Responsible for contracts, budgets, ensuring objectives of the project are met and quality. (2) Director to manage production, editing and post-production of video, audio and graphic material. (3) Subject matter expert who provides expertise regarding the content and ensures accuracy and appropriateness for the audience. (4) Author who uses an authoring system to incorporate all the elements of the production – video, audio, text, etc. (5) Programmer who is involved in more complex special functions and systems that cannot be accommodated by the authoring system or author. (6) Technical specialist who identifies, selects and integrates hardware and software in order to produce the program. (7) Instructional designer who provides instructional expertise in designing and developing programs using adult learning theories, instructional design and evaluation models.

In reviewing products, Garai and Hill[6] suggest that good quality multimedia products are characterized by the following: • clear training messages and learning points; • overall design; • ease of use and clear navigation; • short and easily assimilated modules; • relevant and appropriate use of media especially video; • high levels of interactivity; • platform versatility – ability to run on PCs with different specifications; • reputation of suppliers. Therefore, it is important that these factors are taken into account when either purchasing materials or producing one’s own.

Producing multimedia materials Authoring packages, scanners, cameras and other software and hardware are now more readily available and affordable, allowing for the production of one’s own multimedia resources. Those individuals with training design experience and, in particular, experience of developing and producing open learning materials such as those outlined by Lockwood[7] and Rowntree[8], will be able

Multimedia developmental phases For complex projects, there are eight distinct phases: 11

Using and producing multimedia materials

Industrial and Commercial Training

Sue Browell

Volume 28 · Number 7 · 1996 · 9–15

(1) Analysis and project planning – including needs analysis, objectives and specifications for resources and equipment. (2) Design and authoring – developing overall design, lessons, production sheets and creating materials and incorporating media. (3) Pre-production – developing specifications for all material. (4) Production – phase during which all material is produced. (5) Post-production – includes editing and special effects. (6) Mastering the final program on CDROM or another platform. (7) Integration and testing – debugging the system, testing the system to ensure it functions correctly. (8) Distribution of material to learners with supporting material.

• copyright costs for material used in production. Potentially, there can be significant costs involved in producing in-house materials particularly in relation to staff costs – academics/writers, producers, programmers, technicians, etc., and also equipment. However, the costs of production can be offset by a reduction in trainer costs associated with delivery, and travelling and accommodation costs associated with bringing employees together for training courses, potentially from all around the world.

Legal issues in producing multimedia materials Recently, it has been stated that, “Lawyers are flocking to multimedia like miners to a goldrush” indicative of the current situation regarding the legal aspects of multimedia[10]. While multimedia technology has enormous potential for learning, the battle between copyright owners and multimedia publishers threatens to prevent and restrict its very growth and development[11].

Sidor[9] provides a slightly shorter model of the major roles involved in the design and development process, outlining four important groupings: (1) Instructional designers – includes researchers, academics, trainers who decide on the objectives and the interactive exercises. (2) Content/functional experts – write text and tutorials. (3) Multimedia development team – includes manager, analysts, AV/video expert, programmer, etc. (4) Testing team – try out modules, refine, establish any problems, redesign sections/exercises as necessary.

‘…Intellectual property, copyright, clarifying author and owner all need to be considered…’

In several respects, many of the legal issues involved in multimedia production are similar to those involved in producing more traditional learning resources, in particular open/flexible learning materials. Intellectual property, copyright, clarifying author and owner all need to be considered. The difficulty is that multimedia, using the National Council for Educational Technology’s[1] definition quoted on p. 8, is comparatively new and no collective or universally acceptable legislation is in place. The many individual components of multimedia therefore all tend to be protected by various legislation. In the UK, the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 is an important act in protecting literary works (including computer programs), musical and artistic works, sound recordings, films, broadcasts, etc. from being copied without permission, and therefore is of significance to those involved in multimedia production. Internationally, the Berne Convention for the

Time and cost in developing multimedia materials varies considerably depending on the experience of those involved, available resources and complexity of the program. Development costs are summarized by Laurillard[2] under the following headings: • pedagogic design; • production design; • prototype production; • developmental testing; • revision of materials; • final production; • quality assurance procedures; • administrative support; • technical support; • travel associated with material collection and collaboration between individuals; • project management; 12

Using and producing multimedia materials

Industrial and Commercial Training

Sue Browell

Volume 28 · Number 7 · 1996 · 9–15

Protection of Literary and Artistic Works and the Universal Copyright Convention both provide reciprocal protection for their members regarding international copyright. As such, they have an important role to play in attempting to harmonize copyright law throughout the world, both now and in the future. EC directives and regulations are of importance in improving harmonization in copyright legislation within Europe. Stubley[4] believes that the lack of such harmonization is actually deterring some multimedia publishers from launching new products. The key legal issues involved in multimedia production are summarized by Brinson and Radcliffe[12] in the introduction to their book. Although aimed at an American audience, the principles are universally applicable: • contracting with employees, independent contractors and consultants for the creation of multimedia work; • avoiding infringement of others’ intellectual property rights; • obtaining licences to use content owned by others; • complying with union rules; • contracting for sale or distribution of multimedia work; • protecting intellectual property rights in multimedia work.

(2) Material still within copyright requires the permission of the owner before it can be used. This may incur fees[13]. (3) Multimedia productions and many individual components – music, sound effects, lyrics, complete songs, literature, illustrations, photographs, graphics, text, software, video, film and television clips – are protected by copyright and cannot be used without permission/payment of a fee. Failing to deal with ownership issues during production may result in not having full ownership of the final piece of work and/or legal implications[12]. The facts contained in written material are not copyright but the way they are “expressed” is covered by copyright. (4) Photographs from magazines, brochures, books, etc., once digitized, can be easily copied, distributed and altered. Many photographers are reluctant to release their photographs for inclusion in multimedia works because they are concerned that they may be digitized and redistributed to others without permission. Digital editing software can alter photographs to the point where it is almost impossible to prove that a derivative version came from the original photograph. (5) Sounds from a video or a TV programme generally may not be used in other commercial productions without prior permission[16]. (6) As well as seeking permission from copyright owners, other parties may be also involved, e.g. in a TV clip there is copyright in the novel, short story or play, copyright in the film, video or television series, there may also be union reuse fees and if a film, video or television clip contains music or choreography you may have to pay separately for those. Writers, directors and performers may also be involved in the copyright process. (7) There are copyright issues relating to computer authoring systems in multimedia productions. (8) Clip art and copyright-free materials are available through a number of companies removing the necessity to trace copyright owners, arrange copyright clearance and fees – a subscription/fee is paid directly to the supplying company for the material used. Such material can take the form of video clips, photographs, line art, sound

Knowledge of copyright law is extremely important for those involved in multimedia production because multimedia often involves a compilation of copyright images, copyright music, copyright speech and copyright text reproduced on a single digital disk capable of being distributed to thousands of end-users. In addition, the production of original multimedia material is protected by copyright and it must be determined who owns the copyright in new material[13]. Browell[14] outlined some of the copyright issues involved in multimedia production in a recent article, but the key issues are summarized below: (1) During the production planning period, time should be devoted to ensuring that copyright is cleared for materials intended to be used in the production, and cost implications of determining copyright clearance taken into account[15]. 13

Using and producing multimedia materials

Industrial and Commercial Training

Sue Browell

Volume 28 · Number 7 · 1996 · 9–15

effects, maps, music and text, all of which can be used in multimedia productions[4]. (9) If the multimedia work is to be reproduced (copied), modified, distributed or displayed then the copyright owner must be consulted as this affects their rights.

own learning; and also “flatter” organizations. Several job advertisements and features in the professional personnel press provide evidence of organizations becoming much more aware of the benefits of flexible learning provision and new learning technologies.

The legal issues involved in multimedia production are complex and potentially very costly if not correctly observed and implemented, supporting Tinsley’s[17] observation that:

‘…There is a need therefore for all those involved in the teaching and learning process to be aware of developments taking place with regard to new learning technologies…’

It was interesting to see how the legal profession regarded the multimedia challenge, and one could be forgiven for thinking that this could be one of the biggest earners for the legal profession this century.

There is a need therefore for all those involved in the teaching and learning process to be aware of developments taking place with regard to new learning technologies, to update themselves and take advantage of the benefits for both learner and provider/facilitator. The multimedia industry is a young industry and changes and developments are occurring continually. At present, legislative control remains far from clear but legal issues are changing rapidly in this area and will continue to evolve and develop as the multimedia industry itself evolves and develops. If involved in a shared/joint multimedia project then there ought to be an equal share of profits, shared ownership and joint licensing arrangements. However, if such a project involves people in different countries, then it is advisable to consult international intellectual property lawyers as the differences in laws between countries is horrendously complicated. Multimedia materials are only part of the overall learning, training and development scene and therefore should not really be considered in isolation. Indeed, it has been suggested that multimedia will be only ever be seen as a supplement to rather than a replacement for conventional forms of open learning[18]; but, nevertheless, the production of multimedia materials raises some interesting issues for all those involved. Further work is still required in the area of evaluating the appropriateness of learning technologies and outcomes, although there are some initial findings[19]. Finally, the question Rowntree[8] poses is applicable to open learning, traditional training and development delivery and multimedia production and summarizes many of the

Publishing and distribution The relationship between multimedia developers/producers and publishers is very changeable and is still continuing to evolve. Publishing and distribution is based on the traditions from the book publishing, television, film and software industries and, as multimedia is so relatively new, there is currently no universally agreed industry framework to use as a guide. At the end of 1993, the first US case relating directly to CD-ROM and online products occurred with ten freelance writers “suing both the companies who commissioned original work from them and the organisations making it electronically available, arguing that rights for print publishing are distinct from electronic publishing and should be rewarded separately”[4]. Therefore, if involved in producing original material for publication and distribution, it is important to consider these issues.

Conclusion The author’s own experience in education, and involvement with training and development specialists, indicates a move away from traditional formal training courses and delivery to a much more flexible mode of learning with an emphasis on facilitation, open learning and new learning technologies. Much of this is associated with changes in the organization – such as the flexible firm, the learning organization – requiring employees to be actively involved in and responsible for their 14

Using and producing multimedia materials

Industrial and Commercial Training

Sue Browell

Volume 28 · Number 7 · 1996 · 9–15

issues raised in this article and the use of new learning technologies in general:

10 Hoffis, S., “Introducing multimedia”, ITs News. Journal of the Library Association Information Technology Group, No. 30, 1994, pp. 9-15.

How can I combine media for maximum interest and effectiveness ?

11 Foremski, T., in Tinsley, J. (Ed.), “Copyright – or wrong?”, Professional Photographer, Vol. 34 No. 11, 1994, p. 24.

References 1 National Council for Educational Technology, “Management of IT and cross-curricular Issues”, Directory of Information, Vol. 3 Sec. 6.37, 1993.

12 Brinson, J.D. and Radcliffe, M.F., Multimedia Law Handbook – A Practical Guide for Developers and Publishers, Ladera Press, Menlo Park, CA, 1994.

2 Laurillard, D., Rethinking University Teaching: A Framework for the Effective Use of Educational Technology, Routledge, London, 1993.

13 Charlesworth, A., “Tooling up on the law. Multimedia”, Times Higher Education Supplement, Issue 5, 1994, pp. xiv.

3 Dahmer, B., “When technologies connect”, Training & Development (USA), Vol. 47 No. 1, 1993, pp. 46-55.

14 Browell, S., “Training and development specialists and the law”, Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 20 No. 2, 1996, pp. 25-32.

4 Stubley, P., “Multimedia publishing”, Information UK Outlooks, The British Library, Issue 6, 1994.

15 McCracken, R., “Electronic property maze. Multimedia”, Times Higher Education Supplement, Issue 4, 1994, p. iii.

5 Littlefield, D., “Using multimedia to help employees avoid errors”, People Management, Vol. 1 No. 13, 1995, p. 16.

16 Williams, G., “Sound legal advice”, Amiga World, Vol. 10 No. 8, 1994, pp. 31-3.

6 Garai, H. and Hill, D., “The potential for multimedia in training”, Open Learning Today, No. 29, 1996, pp. 4-6.

17 Tinsley, J., “Copyright – or wrong?”, Professional Photographer, Vol. 34 No. 11, 1994, p. 24.

7 Lockwood, F. (Ed.), Materials Production in Open and Distance Learning, Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd, London, 1994.

18 Littlefield, D., “Open learning by PC or paper?”, Personnel Management, Vol. 26 No. 9, 1994, pp. 55-8.

8 Rowntree, D., Teaching Through Self-Instruction. How to Develop Open Learning Materials, (revised ed.), Kogan Page, London, 1990.

19 Draper, S.W., Brown, M.I., Edgerton, E., Henderson, F.P., McAteer, E., Smith, E.D. and Watt, H.D., Observing and Measuring the Performance of Educational Technology, a report by the University of Glasgow’s Institutional Project in the Teaching and Learning Technology Programme – Teaching with Independent Learning Technologies, 1994.

9 Sidor, K., “New learning technologies: multimedia in management education”, presentation at the International Teachers Programme, INSEAD, France, 1994 (unpublished).

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