Turkey: A Religious Revival?

Turkey, Islam and the EU 1 Chapter 1: Introduction According to Elif Shafak, a prominent writer, says that Turkey is Statement of Problem Turkey's identity as a nation has been problematic. In effect there are two polarizing influences: Turkey's secularism that is the result of the nationalist movement that won it independence and Turkey's past and present as a 'predominantly Muslim country'1. Given Turkey's political scenario it seems that the two forces are always operating against each other. This paper explores the opposing forces, the effects they have produced on the general population and how they have shaped the politics of the nation. Keeping the present push and pull factors the paper also explores which of the two forces is most likely to wield a greater sphere of influence. Research Questions • What are the fundamentals of Turkey's identity as a nation? •

How developed is Turkey's economy and what benefits are to be derived if Turkey joins the EU?

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What is the role of the Kurdish minority in the country's affairs?

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What is the agenda of the present regime and what are the issues and controversies surrounding it?

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Is there a possibility of an Islamic revival?

Hypothesis This research paper examines the possibility of an Islamic revival in Turkey given its religious and political scenario. The researchers also examine the events that have led it to become the state that it now is, the forces that influence the behavior of its political actors and the deep division that seems to exist in its population. Though it is hard to say given the present circumstances; the fundamentals of Turkey's identity as a nation and its bid to join the EU, the researchers expect to find that an Islamic revival is likely to take place sooner or later. Our hypothesis is largely based on the fact that successive governments in Turkey have been proIslamic but have been banned as soon as they were elected. These moves have been repressive 1

Turkey and the EU: the Importance of Markets, Demet Yalcin Mousseau

Turkey, Islam and the EU 2 and banned parties have usually renamed themselves to emerge victorious later, proving that the repression has not worked. The researchers expect to find Islam as an irrepressible part of Turkey's identity. Rationale for the Study Turkey represents a front of the Eastern world that faces the West. The geopolitical situation of the country has made it possible for it to be influenced by forces in both continents. Turkey looks toward Europe because it is more developed and economically sound, yet it cannot ignore its Muslim roots because they are part of its identity. It seems the country is in search for an equilibrium position where both opposing influences exert just the right amount of force to balance each other out. Because the country represents a very rare case in time where religion is actively repressed in the name of nationalism it deserves to be studied. Rationale for the Time Frame Main focus has been laid upon the last year, which was Abdullah Gul came to power and the headscarf controversy was sparked. The researchers have however dug into the past because most issues that take place in the period under study are descended from earlier issues.

Turkey, Islam and the EU 3 Chapter 2: Review of Literature The article Q&A: Turkey's Presidency Battle2 analyses Abdullah Gul's rise to power, the controversies surrounding his election and the fears subsequently voiced by secularists. Abdullah Gul's nomination as the presidential candidate divided the parliament and led secularists to boycott the parliamentary vote. The secularists believed that Gul had a hidden Islamic agenda. Majority vote for the AKP (Justice and Development Party) proved that the public was convinced otherwise. The Turkish Army, which sees itself as a guardian of secular Turkey has ousted at least four governments but recent years have seen a decrease in the military's political powers. A military coup would be unacceptable to Turkey's population and would undermine its effort to join the EU. What seems to be a struggle between the Islamists and secularists is a more complicated reality. AKP leaders, who descent from the banned Welfare Party which saw Turkey as part of the Muslim world and opposed membership of the EU, have changed their agenda completely. The article 'Country profile: Turkey' 3examines the nation's politics, economy and leaders. The first part gives a brief history. The state was established in the 1920s by nationalist leader Kemal Ataturk. The strategic location of the country gives it importance in the European and Asian continents, a sphere of influence and control over entrance into the Black Sea. The country's economy saw years of difficulty that brought it close to collapse were it not for a tough recovery program with the IMF in 2002, after which the economy grew dramatically. Despite all the progress, foreign debt remains a burden. Turkey's military views itself as a 'guardian' of Turkey's secular system and has a history of political involvement. But since Turkey has set membership of the EU as a goal, military involvement has been reduced. In 2007, however the army threatened the 'Islamist' rooted administration that it would protect Turkey's secular system. Turkey also has disputes over Aegean and Cyprus with Greece. It became an EU candidate in 1999 and following that introduced human rights and economic reforms. Women's right activists say that the reforms lack commitment and were introduced for the sole purpose of acquiring EU membership. Following a period of 'intense bargaining' EU membership talks were initiated in 2005. Accession is supposed to take ten years and so far the process has not been smooth. Turkey 2

BBC News. (2007, August 28) Q&A: Turkey's Presidency Battle. http://news.bbc.co.uk

3

BBC News. (2007, December 04) Country profile: Turkey. http://news.bbc.co.uk

Turkey, Islam and the EU 4 recognized Cyprus as an EU member under heavy criticism. Turkey's Kurds also pose a problem because they frequently complain that basic human rights are denied to them. According to the article, the last few years have seen an upsurge in attacks by the Kurdish minority's nationalist group (PKK). The current President, Abdullah Gul started politics in a banned Islamist party and is the first Turkish head of state with a background in political Islam. Army officials and the opposition party, Republican People's Party did not attend his swearing-in ceremony. Mr Gul has served as a foreign minister under Recep Erdogan and cultivated his image as a modern politician who promoted Turkey's EU bid. The President can veto laws, appoint officials and name judges. The post was also held by Ataturk and so carries a 'moral weight'. In a referendum in 2007, voters decided that direct election of the President by the people was to be the norm. The country's premier is Recep Tayyip Erdogan who shares a similar history and similar controversies surround him. An article in the Turkish penal code makes it a crime to insult Turkish identity. The article 'Defending the Secular 'Faith'4 has been written by BBC's Eurasia editor, Stephanie Irvine. It examines why Turkey's army is so committed to protect secularism. Kemal Ataturk was a military general who made secularism fundamental to Turkey's national identity. He introduced a western dress code, alphabet and abolished the Ottoman Empire along with many other Islamic institutions. Since then, Turkey's ruling elite and military powers have seen it as their national duty to protect what Ataturk set up. The army has not been shy of seizing political power and in the past has participated in three direct coups against elected governments. Ten years ago Turkey elected its first pro-Islam government, the Welfare Party, which was forced out of office by the military and then banned by the courts. The article further says that despite pressure from the elite, Islamic parties seem to be popular with Turkey's population. The recent government also has Islamist leanings but has been 'tolerated' by the army. The ruling elite also has issues with the first lady wearing the Muslim headscarf. The article, 'Two Faces of Modern Turkey'5 examines the divide that runs straight through Turley's population. Prosperous cities are pious and cities where secularism is sacred are not developing like the other cities are. Kayseri is a city that is cited as an example. People have a 4

BBC News. (2007, April 28) Defending the Secular 'Faith'. http://news.bbc.co.uk

5

BBC News. (2007, July 19) Two Faces of Modern Turkey. http://news.bbc.co.uk

Turkey, Islam and the EU 5 hardworking lifestyle and run successful businesses that depend on trade with the West. Because people in Kayseri are religious, they are perceived by some to be a threat to Turkey's secular system. Kayseri residents laugh this off. The Islamic headscarf in Kayseri is a common sight and so are mosques. Girls say they wear the headscarf as an expression of their personal faith, but Turks in other areas are convinced that it is a symbol for political Islam. The interviewed girls say they don't think their headscarf is a threat to anyone. Abdullah Gul is local. Kayseri promotes itself as proof that people can still be Muslim and be secular and modern. But political power in the hands of religious conservatives actually worries some people across the country. Izmir is a city where locals pack nightclubs and bars and 'women wear miniskirts and low-cut tops without a second thought'. Izmir people also call themselves modern Muslims. Here, secularism is sacred. People believe that the secular system guarantees their freedom and the opposition Republican People's party is popular. The fear that Turkey might return to 'age of ignorance' is real for some people. The crisis of the Presidential elections was a result of the divide between Turkey's population. Because power has now shifted towards religious minded Turks, according to the article Turkey's democratic system is now being tested. This is a chronology of key events6 that the researchers studied to gain a better understanding of Turkey's history and the issues surrounding the state. Istanbul, formerly Constantinople has been the capital of Ottoman and Byzantine Empires. Turkey removed the clause in constitution that retained Islam as a state religion in 1928, making it a secular state. Ten years later Ataturk died. Ataturk was largely neutral during World War II, declaring war on Germany but never actually taking part in fighting. The first democratic elections were held in 1950 after which Turkey abandoned Ataturk's diplomatic neutrality and joined NATO. Just ten years after the countries first democratic elections and hardly thirty years of its existence, Turkey had its first military coup. In 1965, Suleyman Demirel became prime minister and held the post seven times. Turkey invaded Northern Cyprus but later withdrew owing to foreign pressure to recognize the Republic of Northern Cyprus. In the same year the Kurdistan Worker's Party launched a guerilla war in the southeast. Turkey allowed US led coalition to use its air bases to launch attacks against Iraq in 1990. In 1995, a Pro-Islam government won the elections but lacked support to form the government. Two opposition parties formed a coalition to form the government at this stage. Turkey also entered the EU customs union in 1995. In 1996 the 6

BBC News. (2008, February 09) Timeline: Turkey. http://news.bbc.co.uk

Turkey, Islam and the EU 6 opposition led coalition collapsed and for the first time since 1923, Turkey formed a pro-Islam government. The Welfare Party which formed the government at this stage was to be banned two years later. In 1999, PKK leader, Abdullah Ocalan was captured and subsequent years saw a decline in PKK activity. This year was also one in which two earthquakes hit the region. In 2001 Turkey had a diplomatic row with France, and the European Court of Human Rights found Turkey guilty of violating the rights of Greek Cypriots during its occupation of Northern Cyprus. The June of the same year another Islamic party was banned but members later formed another pro-Islam party under a different name. in 2002 Turkish men and women were given full equality with men, a gas pipeline with Greece was built, and the parliament approved reforms aimed at securing EU membership, leading to the abolition of the death sentence and lifting of bans on Kurdish education and broadcasting. In November of the same year, a reformation of the banned Welfare Party, the Justice and Development Party (AKP) won the elections. This time the party vowed to stick to secular principles of the constitution. Abdullah Gul was made Prime Minister. After a month, the AKP's leader, Erdogan, was made eligible to run for the parliament, following which Gul resigned and Erdogan was made the Prime Minister in 2003. During the span of the rest of the year Turkey experienced another earthquake, relaxed laws restricting freedom of speech and Kurdish language and reduced the role of the military in politics. The end of the year was marked by a series of bomb blasts that resulted in casualties. The following year was also marked by violence. By the end of the year however the EU decided to open talks in 2005 on Turkey's membership following a deal that Turkey recognize Cyprus as an EU member. In 2005 a new currency was introduced and in a move to meet EU requirements, restrictions on the media were relaxed. In the same year the parliament overturned a veto by the secularist President that eased restrictions of teaching the Quran. By the end of the year EU membership negotiations were finally launched after a period of intense bargaining. The year 2006 was a year of violence that saw an upsurge in the Kurdish separatist movement. The EU partially froze talks about membership because Turkey was unwilling to open up to Cypriot traffic. The year 2007 saw much political upheaval which resulted in Abdullah Gul becoming the President. Later that year a row with the US resulted in the US accusing Turkey of genocide, exactly like the European countries had done previously. In 2008 the issue of the headscarf ban at universities is brought up.

Turkey, Islam and the EU 7 The article under review is a background note on Turkey7 published on the US Department of State’s website. More than 70% of Turkey’s population lives in urban areas. Approximately 99% of the population is Muslim most of who are Sunni. Turkey also has a sizeable Kurdish population. Turkey was the result of the collapse of a six hundred year old empire and a three years long war of independence. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire is given to be a failure of the empire in following the technical innovation of the European countries which lie in close proximity with Turkey. In following years Turkey took part in World War I alongside Germany. It lost much of its territory and was left open to invasion after defeat. In such a critical time Kemal Ataturk led a war against invading forces, established the Republic of Turkey and abolished the Ottoman Empire which had become a bitter memory of defeat. The newfound Republic felt a natural urge to westernize as they saw one of the reasons of their defeat as lack of industrialization compared with other European nations. This later came to be the basis upon which the nation was built. The ideology is referred to Kemalism and according to the article Turkey became a member of the UN after World War II, it is also a NATO member and is a candidate for the European Union (EU). Turkey’s system of government is democratic, secular and parliamentary. The President’s power is not exactly defined and varies with the personality of the person holding the post. The current President has substantial power. The power for a reversal of a law that the parliament passes is limited. The judiciary is independent and wields considerable influence in terms of deciding which government stays or goes. In times of emergency some parts of the constitution have proved inflexible because they tend to be narrowly interpreted and are inviolable. Details of Turkey’s last election in 2007 are listed. Opposition parties led a Constitutional Court to amend some electoral procedures. In general the Justice and Development Party (AKP) won the majority. Mr Gul was elected Prime Minister in the third round of voting in the parliament. Details of Turkey’s economy are discussed next. It is a large, middle-income country with a few natural resources. The economy is undergoing a structural change from an agrarian and heavy-industry economy to a more diversified economy with a large services sector. Turkey's economy over the years is reported to have been a victim of weak policies which produced a severe banking and economic crisis in 2001, after which help from the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank was sought. According to this report and the BBC website the economy improved after this event. Then subsections are given to 7

US Department of State, Background Note: Turkey. www.state.gov

Turkey, Islam and the EU 8 discuss Turkey's EU accession, energy (oil, electricity etc), telecommunications, environment and transport. Then another section covers Turkey's foreign relations. According to the article which represents an American point of view, Turkey's primary political and economic interests lie with the West. The article 'Islamic Revival'8 examines the Islamic revival that is characterized by transnationalism and the realization that westernization is not the only way to improvement. It recognizes that the Oil Embargo of the 1970’s and the revolution in Iran led by Khomeini were important turning points for this movement. Researchers that have noted this trend are also mentioned. These include Gilles Kepel, Olivier Roy and noted by historians such as John Esposito and Ira Lapidus. The main crux of the movement is a ‘feeling of “growing universalistic Islamic identity. “The increased integration of world societies as a result of enhanced communications, media, travel, and migration makes meaningful the concept of a single Islam practiced everywhere in similar ways, and an Islam which transcends national and ethnic customs”.9 The article also states that the movement may be part of a historical cycle that is characterized by moments of religious laxity followed by periods of religious devotion. The article 'Kemalist Ideology'10 appears in Wikipedia by an anonymous author. It outlines Kemalism that is the basis for the Turkey as a nation. The philosophy centers on positivity, rationalism and enlightenment. Ataturk sought to create a democratic, modern, secular state. Three fundamentals are cited and explained; Republicanism, Populism and Secularism. Republicanism where the state is democratic, laws are created out of need and the individual has personal freedom. Populism which states that the people rule Turkey still remains more a goal than reality. And in secularism, Ataturk sought to completely remove religion from politics. The origin of the movement is recognized to be the bitterness between Turkey and the Arab world during WWI. In thus period the Turkish people felt that they were being used as a political tool.

8

Islamic Revival, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_revival

9

Lapidus, Ira Marvin, A History of Islamic Societies, Cambridge University Press; 2 edition (August 26, 2002)

10

Kemalism, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemalism

Turkey, Islam and the EU 9 The movement resulted in the famous abolition of the Ottoman Empire that had roots in Turkey. It is stated in the article: ‘The Kemalist principle of secularism is not against an enlightened Islam, but against an Islam which was opposed to modernization and democracy. The Islamists are opposing the secularism of Kemalism. Islamists claim that the removal of political Islam is the secularization of an Islamic society.’ The movement is strongly characterized by nationalism. The famous quote of Ataturk explains the idea: “Happy is he who calls himself a Turk.”11 And similar quotes are reproduced in the article that reaffirm the philosophy of an era where countries were rapidly claiming independence from imperialist powers and trying to transfer power from the ruling class to the people. The Kemalist movement is also characterized by a desire for economic development and scientific progress that are natural preliminaries for the modern society that Ataturk had dreamed of.

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Mustafa Kemal Ataturk

Turkey, Islam and the EU 10 Chapter 3: Research Methodology This paper is primarily an analysis of what the researchers have gathered from different books, papers and articles. The approach was analytical and an attempt has been made to fully comprehend the various push and pull factors that operate in the country. The readers are familiarized with the present situation and then detailed answers are given for questions exploring the dynamics of the country. It should be noted, however, that the research is largely theoretical in its orientation and nothing should be expected to be proved or disproved conclusively. What are the fundamentals of Turkey's identity as a nation? Turkey was once the center of the Ottoman Empire. In the distant past, the Western nations industrialized in contrast with the Muslim world. Turkey, which lay in close proximity to all the development was particularly influenced. It took part in World War I on the side of Germany. When Germany lost, Turkey was stripped of much of its territory and was left open to foreign invading forces. It was a critical situation when Kemal Ataturk led the nation to fight against all that threatened to put it to ruin. Foreign invaders were driven out and a nation was established. The Ottoman Empire had become obsolete in Ataturk's eyes and more so held memories of a bitter defeat at the hands of the Westerners. Ataturk therefore abolished the Empire, separated religion from politics and made Turkey secular and modern. To Ataturk12 religion represented a backward, retarding force as it had been seen by people during the Renaissance in Europe. Kemalism, what his philosophy is called, echoes of the same ideas that circulated in Europe once. It is important to remember that this is how the nation was built. Turks are serious about their nationalism. It is a criminal offence to insult Ataturk. So it is not surprising that Kemalism has become a deep rooted philosophy. Turkey's elite, its traditional ruling class especially believe in Ataturk's philosophy. It grants them a sort of freedom that they wouldn't have enjoyed had Ataturk's philosophy not been part of their nationalism. Secularism has become an inviolable tradition. But there is another face to Turkey. Religion plays an important part in other people's lives. Some students did not attend college in Turkey because of the (now abolished) headscarf

12

Literally, 'father of the Turks'

Turkey, Islam and the EU 11 ban. There are places in Turkey where 'locals pack the nightclubs'13 and there are cities where mosques abound and covered women are a common sight. But on the large people are hesitant to forgo the boundaries dictated by nationalism. It is needless to say that Turkey is a predominantly Muslim country. This also part of their identity and should not be undermined. But policy makers have a tendency to narrowly interpret the philosophy of Ataturk. Thus they produce a tug of war between the two fundamentals upon which Turkey rests making it inherently unstable. What is the agenda of the present regime and what are the issues and controversies surrounding it? According to the US Department of State, Turkey is country whose 'primary political, economic and security ties are with the West'14. Business men in Turkey depend on trade with the West. As is stated in the previous answer, accession to the EU is important for Turkey because it would produce positive effects on its economy. Therefore it comes as no surprise that the new elected government, which is already popular for its successful economic reforms, has made accession to the EU an important part of its agenda. Most Turkish people have no problems with this. Viewpoints presented on the BBC website show that the Justice and Development Party (AKP) is popular with the public because it has improved the standard of living of many Turks. Problems arise when the issue of Islam is brought up. As discussed above, a separation between religion and politics is vital to Turkey's nationalism. Therefore Turks who believe that the AKP has a hidden Islamist agenda are violently opposed to it. This includes the military which has been responsible for ousting three previous governments and the courts which have banned two Islamic parties in the past. To fully answer why the courts, the elite, the military and the secularists would think that the AKP harbors a hidden Islamist agenda it is important to trace the roots of the AKP and observe how the party's stance has changed over time. The AKP descends from a banned political party that had Islamist leanings, the Welfare Party. The Welfare Party was elected in 1996 and banned just two years after it was elected. The same party later emerged as the AKP. So to speak, all its members including Abdullah Gul (the current President) and Recep Erdogan (the Prime Minister) have a background in political Islam. This is enough for some Turks to harbor suspicions against the party. 13

14

'The Two Faces of Modern Turkey', BBC News, www.bbc.co.uk US Department of State, Background Note: Turkey. www.state.gov

Turkey, Islam and the EU 12 But Abdullah Gul, who founded the AKP, formed it on the idea that Islam should not be a driving force in politics. The party that viewed itself as part of the Muslim world transformed after it was banned and accession into the EU became one of their prominent agendas. Thus he completely changed his stance and consequently changed the stance of his party. The dominant agenda that now took hold was in accordance with Turkey's changing position; accession to the EU. Just days before, on the 31st of Mach 2008, the courts in Turkey stated that they could ban the AKP. They had a pages long list that proved the party had a hidden agenda. For some Turks, the headscarf has come to symbolize political Islam. So when the headscarf ban in universities was abolished, people protested. On part of the AKP the reform made sense; people should have the liberty to dress the way they want. Both because the present government has a past with political Islam and because it has famously put an end to the headscarf ban, the courts, the elite, the military and the secularists are suspicious. There are three wide groups in terms of the kind of response that the public has produced to the party. One group of people is unconvinced and refuses to trust the AKP with their country, the other group has supported the party for its economic reforms and a third party has supported it because of its Islamic leanings. But the fact is that the AKP has won a majority in the elections and that alone is indicative of the massive support that it has generated despite being elected and banned once before. The controversies and upheaval that the AKP has produced bring important points to light. First of all, the elite in Turkey, the courts and the military are staunchly secular. The democratic process in Turkey has produced results undesirable to them but nonetheless it is a reflection of what the general population believes in. Is there a possibility of an Islamic revival? First and foremost it should be clear that by the term 'Islamic revival' we do not mean the explosive revolution that took over Iran under Khomeini. Milder but still compelling forces operate in Turkey and the dynamics of the country is such that there is little possibility of a revolution. Any changes that will take place in the country are most likely to come through by a steady process of transformation.

Turkey, Islam and the EU 13 Because for the first time in Turkey's history as a nation, a pro-Islam President is in power and because he has managed to successfully abolish the ban on the headscarf, a transformation already seems underway. Whether the transformation can be called an Islamic revival or not is a debatable issue. A lot of what will happen in due course depends on the people of the nation and (increasingly not so) on the traditional ruling elite. Turkey's bid to join the EU has produced some equal and opposite effects. On one hand it offers Turkey acceptance into the 'modern, civilized'15 world to Turkey's secularists and on the other it ties up the hands of the military and the courts who want to protect the same secularism. Turkey's military which views itself as a guardian of secularism16 is responsible for ousting at least three popularly elected governments. Turkey's courts are responsible for banning two political parties on grounds of endangering secularism. Pressures from the EU however limit what these two actors can do in the political sphere. As a result we see the popularly elected AKP enjoying the freedom it now is. It is easy to say that the case would have been different were it not for pressure from the EU. On a more abstract plane the present government is a reflection of Turkey's people. The fact cannot be ignored that 99% of them are Muslims albeit 'modern Muslims'. A nation is built on its people and its history. Though the Ottoman Empire represents a period of backwardness for some Turks, they cannot simply tear out pages from their own history. The past has implications for the present and the future. The present government can be viewed as an expression of a Turkish identity that was repressed by its strictly secular elite. All in all, the researchers think a revival of religion (to some extent) is likely.

15

Words used by a protestor in a rally against the AKP, 'Agitation in Turkey evokes old tensions: Secularism vs. Islam', by Christopher Torchia, May 01, 2007, DAWN. 16

'Defending the Secular Faith' by Stephanie Irvine, BBC News, www.bbc.co.uk